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vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Attachment_classification_in_children:_the_Strange_Situation_Protocol"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Attachment classification in children: the Strange Situation Protocol</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Attachment_classification_in_children:_the_Strange_Situation_Protocol-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Attachment_patterns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Attachment_patterns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Attachment patterns</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Attachment_patterns-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Attachment patterns subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Attachment_patterns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Secure_attachment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secure_attachment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Secure attachment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secure_attachment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anxious-resistant_insecure_attachment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anxious-resistant_insecure_attachment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Anxious-resistant insecure attachment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anxious-resistant_insecure_attachment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anxious-avoidant_insecure_attachment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anxious-avoidant_insecure_attachment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Anxious-avoidant insecure attachment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anxious-avoidant_insecure_attachment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disorganized/disoriented_attachment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disorganized/disoriented_attachment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Disorganized/disoriented attachment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disorganized/disoriented_attachment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_patterns_and_the_dynamic-maturational_model" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_patterns_and_the_dynamic-maturational_model"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Later patterns and the dynamic-maturational model</span> </div> </a> <ul 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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Discrete_or_continuous_attachment_measurement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Discrete or continuous attachment measurement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Discrete_or_continuous_attachment_measurement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li 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searchaux" style="display:none">Biological instinct</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MaternalBond.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/MaternalBond.jpg/210px-MaternalBond.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/MaternalBond.jpg/315px-MaternalBond.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/MaternalBond.jpg/420px-MaternalBond.jpg 2x" data-file-width="424" data-file-height="286" /></a><figcaption>Mother and child</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Attachment in children</b> is "a biological instinct in which proximity to an attachment figure is sought when the child senses or perceives threat or discomfort. Attachment behaviour anticipates a response by the attachment figure which will remove threat or discomfort".<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tronick_et_al._3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tronick_et_al.-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Attachment also describes the function of availability, which is the degree to which the authoritative figure is responsive to the child's needs and shares communication with them. Childhood attachment can define characteristics that will shape the child's sense of self, their forms of emotion-regulation, and how they carry out relationships with others.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Attachment is found in all mammals to some degree, especially primates. </p><p>Attachment theory has led to a new understanding of child development. Children develop different patterns of attachment based on experiences and interactions with their caregivers at a young age. Four different attachment classifications have been identified in children: <a href="/wiki/Secure_attachment" title="Secure attachment">secure attachment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anxious-ambivalent_attachment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anxious-ambivalent attachment">anxious-ambivalent attachment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anxious-avoidant_attachment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anxious-avoidant attachment">anxious-avoidant attachment</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Disorganized_attachment" class="mw-redirect" title="Disorganized attachment">disorganized attachment</a>. Attachment theory has become the dominant theory used today in the study of infant and toddler behavior and in the fields of infant mental health, treatment of children, and related fields. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Attachment_theory_and_children">Attachment theory and children</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Attachment_in_children&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Attachment theory and children"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Attachment_theory" title="Attachment theory">Attachment theory</a></div> <p>Attachment theory (developed by the <a href="/wiki/Psychoanalysis" title="Psychoanalysis">psychoanalyst</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Bowlby" title="John Bowlby">Bowlby</a> 1969, 1973, 1980) is rooted in the ethological notion that a newborn child is biologically programmed to seek proximity with caregivers, and this proximity-seeking behavior is naturally selected.<sup id="cite_ref-Bowlby,_J._1969_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bowlby,_J._1969-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bowlby,_J._1973_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bowlby,_J._1973-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bowlby,_J._1980_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bowlby,_J._1980-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through repeated attempts to seek physical and emotional closeness with a caregiver and the responses the child gets, the child develops an internal working model (IWM) that reflects the response of the caregiver to the child. According to Bowlby, attachment provides a secure base from which the child can explore the environment, a haven of safety to which the child can return when he or she is afraid or fearful. Bowlby's colleague <a href="/wiki/Mary_Ainsworth" title="Mary Ainsworth">Mary Ainsworth</a> identified that an important factor which determines whether a child will have a secure or insecure attachment is the degree of sensitivity shown by their caregiver: </p><p>The sensitive caregiver responds socially to attempts to initiate social interaction, playfully to his attempts to initiate play. She picks him up when he seems to wish it, and puts him down when he wants to explore. When he is distressed, she knows what kinds and degree of soothing he requires to comfort him – and she knows that sometimes a few words or a distraction will be all that is needed. On the other hand, the mother who responds inappropriately tries to socialize with the baby when he is hungry, play with him when he is tired, or feed him when he is trying to initiate social interaction.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, it should be recognized that "even sensitive caregivers get it right only about 50 percent of the time. Their communications are either out of synch, or mismatched. There are times when parents feel tired or distracted. The telephone rings or there is breakfast to prepare. In other words, attuned interactions rupture quite frequently. But the hallmark of a sensitive caregiver is that the ruptures are managed and repaired."<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Attachment_classification_in_children:_the_Strange_Situation_Protocol">Attachment classification in children: the Strange Situation Protocol</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Attachment_in_children&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Attachment classification in children: the Strange Situation Protocol"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Attachment_measures" title="Attachment measures">Attachment measures</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blake_Infant_Joy_Copy_AA_25.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Blake_Infant_Joy_Copy_AA_25.jpg/200px-Blake_Infant_Joy_Copy_AA_25.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="316" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Blake_Infant_Joy_Copy_AA_25.jpg/300px-Blake_Infant_Joy_Copy_AA_25.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Blake_Infant_Joy_Copy_AA_25.jpg/400px-Blake_Infant_Joy_Copy_AA_25.jpg 2x" data-file-width="573" data-file-height="906" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/William_Blake" title="William Blake">William Blake</a>'s poem "<a href="/wiki/Infant_Joy" title="Infant Joy">Infant Joy</a>" explores how to name a child and feel emotionally attached to it. This copy, Copy AA, printed and painted in 1826, is currently held by the <a href="/wiki/Fitzwilliam_Museum" title="Fitzwilliam Museum">Fitzwilliam Museum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </figcaption></figure> <p>The most common and empirically supported method for assessing attachment in infants (12 months – 20 months) is the <a href="/wiki/Strange_Situation" class="mw-redirect" title="Strange Situation">Strange Situation</a> Protocol, developed by <a href="/wiki/Mary_Ainsworth" title="Mary Ainsworth">Mary Ainsworth</a> as a result of her careful in-depth observations of infants with their mothers in Uganda(see below).<sup id="cite_ref-Ainsworth,_M.D.S,_Blehar,_M._C.,_Waters,_E.,_&_Wall,_S._11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ainsworth,_M.D.S,_Blehar,_M._C.,_Waters,_E.,_&_Wall,_S.-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Strange Situation Protocol is a research, not a diagnostic, tool and the resulting attachment classifications are not 'clinical diagnoses.' While the procedure may be used to supplement clinical impressions, the resulting classifications should not be confused with the clinically diagnosed '<a href="/wiki/Reactive_Attachment_Disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Reactive Attachment Disorder">Reactive Attachment Disorder</a> (RAD).' The clinical concept of RAD differs in a number of fundamental ways from the theory and research driven attachment classifications based on the Strange Situation Procedure. The idea that insecure attachments are synonymous with RAD is, in fact, not accurate and leads to ambiguity when formally discussing attachment theory as it has evolved in the research literature. This is not to suggest that the concept of RAD is without merit, but rather that the clinical and research conceptualizations of insecure attachment and <a href="/wiki/Attachment_disorder" title="Attachment disorder">attachment disorder</a> are not synonymous. </p><p>The 'Strange Situation' is a laboratory procedure used to assess infant patterns of attachment to their caregiver. In the procedure, the mother and infant are placed in an unfamiliar playroom equipped with toys while a researcher observes/records the procedure through a one-way mirror. The procedure consists of eight sequential episodes in which the child experiences both separation from and reunion with the mother as well as the presence of an unfamiliar stranger.<sup id="cite_ref-Ainsworth,_M.D.S,_Blehar,_M._C.,_Waters,_E.,_&_Wall,_S._11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ainsworth,_M.D.S,_Blehar,_M._C.,_Waters,_E.,_&_Wall,_S.-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The protocol is conducted in the following format unless modifications are otherwise noted by a particular researcher: </p> <ul><li>Episode 1: Mother (or other familiar caregiver), Baby, Experimenter (30 seconds)</li> <li>Episode 2: Mother, Baby (3 mins)</li> <li>Episode 3: Mother, Baby, Stranger (3 mins or less)</li> <li>Episode 4: Stranger, Baby (3 mins)</li> <li>Episode 5: Mother, Baby (3 mins)</li> <li>Episode 6: Baby Alone (3 mins or less)</li> <li>Episode 7: Stranger, Baby (3 mins or less)</li> <li>Episode 8: Mother, Baby (3 mins)</li></ul> <p>Mainly on the basis of their reunion behaviours (although other behaviours are taken into account) in the Strange Situation Paradigm (Ainsworth et al., 1978; see below), infants can be categorized into three 'organized' attachment categories: Secure (Group B); Avoidant (Group A); and Anxious/Resistant (Group C). There are subclassifications for each group (see below). A fourth category, termed Disorganized (D), can also be assigned to an infant assessed in the Strange Situation although a primary 'organized' classification is always given for an infant judged to be disorganized. Each of these groups reflects a different kind of attachment relationship with the mother. A child may have a different type of attachment to each parent as well as to unrelated caregivers. Attachment style is thus not so much a part of the child's thinking, but is characteristic of a specific relationship. However, after about age five the child exhibits one primary consistent pattern of attachment in relationships.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The pattern the child develops after age five demonstrates the specific parenting styles used during the developmental stages within the child. These attachment patterns are associated with behavioural patterns and can help further predict a child's future personality.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Attachment_patterns">Attachment patterns</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Attachment_in_children&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Attachment patterns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>"The strength of a child's attachment behaviour in a given circumstance does not indicate the 'strength' of the attachment bond. Some insecure children will routinely display very pronounced attachment behaviours, while many secure children find that there is no great need to engage in either intense or frequent shows of attachment behaviour".<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Secure_attachment">Secure attachment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Attachment_in_children&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Secure attachment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Secure_attachment" title="Secure attachment">Secure attachment</a></div> <p>A toddler who is securely attached to its parent (or other familiar caregiver) will explore freely while the caregiver is present, typically engages with strangers, is often visibly upset when the caregiver departs, and is generally happy to see the caregiver return. The extent of exploration and of distress are affected by the child's temperamental make-up and by situational factors as well as by attachment status, however. A child's attachment is largely influenced by their primary caregiver's sensitivity to their needs. Parents who consistently (or almost always) respond to their child's needs will create securely attached children. Such children are certain that their parents will be responsive to their needs and communications.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the traditional Ainsworth et al. (1978) coding of the Strange Situation, secure infants are denoted as "Group B" infants and they are further subclassified as B1, B2, B3, and B4.<sup id="cite_ref-Ainsworth,_M.D.S,_Blehar,_M._C.,_Waters,_E.,_&_Wall,_S._11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ainsworth,_M.D.S,_Blehar,_M._C.,_Waters,_E.,_&_Wall,_S.-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although these subgroupings refer to different stylistic responses to the comings and goings of the caregiver, they were not given specific labels by Ainsworth and colleagues, although their descriptive behaviours led others (including students of Ainsworth) to devise a relatively 'loose' terminology for these subgroups. B1's have been referred to as 'secure-reserved', B2's as 'secure-inhibited', B3's as 'secure-balanced,' and B4's as 'secure-reactive.' In academic publications however, the classification of infants (if subgroups are denoted) is typically simply "B1" or "B2" although more theoretical and review-oriented papers surrounding attachment theory may use the above terminology. </p><p>Securely attached children are best able to explore when they have the knowledge of a secure base to return to in times of need. When assistance is given, this bolsters the sense of security and also, assuming the parent's assistance is helpful, educates the child in how to cope with the same problem in the future. Therefore, secure attachment can be seen as the most adaptive attachment style. According to some psychological researchers, a child becomes securely attached when the parent is available and able to meet the needs of the child in a responsive and appropriate manner. At infancy and early childhood, if parents are caring and attentive towards their children, those children will be more prone to secure attachment.<sup id="cite_ref-Aronoff,_J._2012_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aronoff,_J._2012-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anxious-resistant_insecure_attachment">Anxious-resistant insecure attachment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Attachment_in_children&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Anxious-resistant insecure attachment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Anxious-ambivalent_attachment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anxious-ambivalent attachment">Anxious-ambivalent attachment</a></div> <p>Anxious-resistant insecure attachment is also called <b>ambivalent attachment</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ainsworth,_M.D.S,_Blehar,_M._C.,_Waters,_E.,_&_Wall,_S._11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ainsworth,_M.D.S,_Blehar,_M._C.,_Waters,_E.,_&_Wall,_S.-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In general, a child with an anxious-resistant attachment style will typically explore little (in the Strange Situation) and is often wary of strangers, even when the caregiver is present. When the caregiver departs, the child is often highly distressed. The child is generally ambivalent when they return.<sup id="cite_ref-Ainsworth,_M.D.S,_Blehar,_M._C.,_Waters,_E.,_&_Wall,_S._11-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ainsworth,_M.D.S,_Blehar,_M._C.,_Waters,_E.,_&_Wall,_S.-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Anxious-Ambivalent/Resistant strategy is a response to unpredictably responsive caregiving, and that the displays of anger or helplessness towards the caregiver on reunion can be regarded as a conditional strategy for maintaining the availability of the caregiver by preemptively taking control of the interaction.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The C1 subtype is coded when: </p><p><i>"...resistant behavior is particularly conspicuous. The mixture of seeking and yet resisting contact and interaction has an unmistakably angry quality and indeed an angry tone may characterize behavior in the preseparation episodes..."</i><sup id="cite_ref-Ainsworth,_M.D.S,_Blehar,_M._C.,_Waters,_E.,_&_Wall,_S._11-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ainsworth,_M.D.S,_Blehar,_M._C.,_Waters,_E.,_&_Wall,_S.-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The C2 subtype is coded when: </p><p><i>"Perhaps the most conspicuous characteristic of C2 infants is their passivity. Their exploratory behavior is limited throughout the SS and their interactive behaviors are relatively lacking in active initiation. Nevertheless, in the reunion episodes they obviously want proximity to and contact with their mothers, even though they tend to use signalling rather than active approach, and protest against being put down rather than actively resisting release...In general the C2 baby is not as conspicuously angry as the C1 baby."</i><sup id="cite_ref-Ainsworth,_M.D.S,_Blehar,_M._C.,_Waters,_E.,_&_Wall,_S._11-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ainsworth,_M.D.S,_Blehar,_M._C.,_Waters,_E.,_&_Wall,_S.-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anxious-avoidant_insecure_attachment">Anxious-avoidant insecure attachment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Attachment_in_children&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Anxious-avoidant insecure attachment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Anxious-avoidant_attachment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anxious-avoidant attachment">Anxious-avoidant attachment</a></div> <p>A child with the anxious-avoidant insecure attachment style will avoid or ignore the caregiver – showing little emotion when the caregiver departs or returns. The child will not explore very much regardless of who is there. Infants classified as anxious-avoidant (A) represented a puzzle in the early 1970s. They did not exhibit distress on separation, and either ignored the caregiver on their return (A1 subtype) or showed some tendency to approach together with some tendency to ignore or turn away from the caregiver (A2 subtype). Ainsworth and Bell theorised that the apparently unruffled behaviour of the avoidant infants is in fact as a mask for distress, a hypothesis later evidenced through studies of the heart-rate of avoidant infants.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Infants are depicted as anxious-avoidant insecure when there is: </p><p><i>"...conspicuous avoidance of the mother in the reunion episodes which is likely to consist of ignoring her altogether, although there may be some pointed looking away, turning away, or moving away...If there is a greeting when the mother enters, it tends to be a mere look or a smile...Either the baby does not approach his mother upon reunion, or they approach in 'abortive' fashions with the baby going past the mother, or it tends to only occur after much coaxing...If picked up, the baby shows little or no contact-maintaining behavior; he tends not to cuddle in; he looks away and he may squirm to get down."</i><sup id="cite_ref-Ainsworth,_M.D.S,_Blehar,_M._C.,_Waters,_E.,_&_Wall,_S._11-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ainsworth,_M.D.S,_Blehar,_M._C.,_Waters,_E.,_&_Wall,_S.-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ainsworth's narrative records showed that infants avoided the caregiver in the stressful Strange Situation Procedure when they had a history of experiencing rebuff of attachment behaviour. The child's needs are frequently not met and the child comes to believe that communication of needs has no influence on the caregiver. Ainsworth's student <a href="/wiki/Mary_Main" title="Mary Main">Mary Main</a> theorised that avoidant behaviour in the Strange Situational Procedure should be regarded as 'a conditional strategy, which paradoxically permits whatever proximity is possible under conditions of maternal rejection' by de-emphasising attachment needs.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Main proposed that avoidance has two functions for an infant whose caregiver is consistently unresponsive to their needs. Firstly, avoidant behaviour allows the infant to maintain a conditional proximity with the caregiver: close enough to maintain protection, but distant enough to avoid rebuff. Secondly, the cognitive processes organising avoidant behaviour could help direct attention away from the unfulfilled desire for closeness with the caregiver – avoiding a situation in which the child is overwhelmed with emotion ('disorganised distress'), and therefore unable to maintain control of themselves and achieve even conditional proximity.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disorganized/disoriented_attachment"><span id="Disorganized.2Fdisoriented_attachment"></span>Disorganized/disoriented attachment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Attachment_in_children&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Disorganized/disoriented attachment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Disorganized_attachment" class="mw-redirect" title="Disorganized attachment">Disorganized attachment</a></div> <p>Ainsworth herself was the first to find difficulties in fitting all infant behaviour into the three classifications used in her Baltimore study. Ainsworth and colleagues sometimes observed 'tense movements such as hunching the shoulders, putting the hands behind the neck and tensely cocking the head, and so on. It was our clear impression that such tension movements signified stress, both because they tended to occur chiefly in the separation episodes and because they tended to be prodromal to crying. Indeed, our hypothesis is that they occur when a child is attempting to control crying, for they tend to vanish if and when crying breaks through'.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such observations also appeared in the doctoral theses of Ainsworth's students. Crittenden, for example, noted that one abused infant in her doctoral sample was classed as secure (B) by her undergraduate coders because her strange situation behaviour was "without either avoidance or ambivalence, she did show stress-related stereotypic headcocking throughout the strange situation. This pervasive behaviour, however, was the only clue to the extent of her stress".<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Drawing on records of behaviours discrepant with the A, B, and C classifications, a fourth classification was added by Ainsworth's colleague <a href="/wiki/Mary_Main" title="Mary Main">Mary Main</a> and Judith Solomon.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the Strange Situation, the attachment system is expected to be activated by the departure and return of the caregiver. If the behaviour of the infant does not appear to the observer to be coordinated in a smooth way across episodes to achieve either proximity or some relative proximity with the caregiver, then it is considered 'disorganised' as it indicates a disruption or flooding of the attachment system (e.g. by fear). Infant behaviours in the Strange Situation Protocol coded as disorganised/disoriented include overt displays of fear; contradictory behaviours or affects occurring simultaneously or sequentially; stereotypic, asymmetric, misdirected or jerky movements; or freezing and apparent dissociation. Lyons-Ruth has urged, however, that it should be wider 'recognized that 52% of disorganized infants continue to approach the caregiver, seek comfort, and cease their distress without clear ambivalent or avoidant behavior.'<sup id="cite_ref-lyonsruth_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lyonsruth-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is 'rapidly growing interest in disorganized attachment' from clinicians and policy-makers as well as researchers.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yet the Disorganized/disoriented attachment (D) classification has been criticised by some for being too encompassing.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1990, Ainsworth put in print her blessing for the new 'D' classification, though she urged that the addition be regarded as 'open-ended, in the sense that subcategories may be distinguished', as she worried that the D classification might be too encompassing and might treat too many different forms of behaviour as if they were the same thing.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indeed, the D classification puts together infants who use a somewhat disrupted secure (B) strategy with those who seem hopeless and show little attachment behaviour; it also puts together infants who run to hide when they see their caregiver in the same classification as those who show an avoidant (A) strategy on the first reunion and then an ambivalent-resistant (C) strategy on the second reunion. Perhaps responding to such concerns, George and Solomon have divided among indices of Disorganized/disoriented attachment (D) in the Strange Situation, treating some of the behaviours as a 'strategy of desperation' and others as evidence that the attachment system has been flooded (e.g. by fear, or anger).<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Crittenden also argues that some behaviour classified as Disorganized/disoriented can be regarded as more 'emergency' versions of the avoidant and/or ambivalent/resistant strategies, and function to maintain the protective availability of the caregiver to some degree. Sroufe et al. have agreed that 'even disorganised attachment behaviour (simultaneous approach-avoidance; freezing, etc.) enables a degree of proximity in the face of a frightening or unfathomable parent'.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, 'the presumption that many indices of "disorganisation" are aspects of organised patterns does not preclude acceptance of the notion of disorganisation, especially in cases where the complexity and dangerousness of the threat are beyond children's capacity for response'.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, 'Children placed in care, especially more than once, often have intrusions. In videos of the Strange Situation Procedure, they tend to occur when a rejected/neglected child approaches the stranger in an intrusion of desire for comfort, then loses muscular control and falls to the floor, overwhelmed by the intruding fear of the unknown, potentially dangerous, strange person'.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Main and Hesse<sup id="cite_ref-MaineHesse_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MaineHesse-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> found that most of the mothers of these children had suffered major losses or other trauma shortly before or after the birth of the infant and had reacted by becoming severely depressed.<sup id="cite_ref-Parkes_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Parkes-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In fact, 56% of mothers who had lost a parent by death before they completed high school subsequently had children with disorganized attachments.<sup id="cite_ref-MaineHesse_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MaineHesse-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Subsequently, studies, whilst emphasising the potential importance of unresolved loss, have qualified these findings.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, Solomon and George found that unresolved loss in the mother tended to be associated with disorganised attachment in their infant primarily when they had also experienced an unresolved trauma in their life prior to the loss.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_patterns_and_the_dynamic-maturational_model">Later patterns and the dynamic-maturational model</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Attachment_in_children&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Later patterns and the dynamic-maturational model"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Studies of older children have identified further attachment classifications. Main and Cassidy observed that disorganized behaviour in infancy can develop into a child using caregiving-controlling or punitive behaviour in order to manage a helpless or dangerously unpredictable caregiver. In these cases, the child's behaviour is organised, but the behaviour is treated by researchers as a form of 'disorganization' (D) since the hierarchy in the family is no longer organised according to parenting authority.<sup id="cite_ref-Main,_M.,_&_Cassidy,_J._38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Main,_M.,_&_Cassidy,_J.-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Patricia_McKinsey_Crittenden" title="Patricia McKinsey Crittenden">Patricia McKinsey Crittenden</a> has elaborated classifications of further forms of avoidant and ambivalent attachment behaviour. These include the caregiving and punitive behaviours also identified by Main and Cassidy (termed A3 and C3 respectively), but also other patterns such as compulsive compliance with the wishes of a threatening parent (A4).<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Crittenden's ideas developed from Bowlby's proposal that 'given certain adverse circumstances during childhood, the selective exclusion of information of certain sorts may be adaptive. Yet, when during adolescence and adult the situation changes, the persistent exclusion of the same forms of information may become maladaptive'.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Crittenden proposed that the basic components of human experience of danger are two kinds of information:<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>'Affective information' – the emotions provoked by the potential for danger, such as anger or fear. Crittenden terms this 'affective information'. In childhood this information would include emotions provoked by the unexplained absence of an attachment figure. Where an infant is faced with insensitive or rejecting parenting, one strategy for maintaining the availability of their attachment figure is to try to exclude from consciousness or from expressed behaviour any emotional information that might result in rejection.</li> <li>Causal or other sequentially ordered knowledge about the potential for safety or danger. In childhood this would include knowledge regarding the behaviours that indicate an attachment figure's availability as a secure haven. If knowledge regarding the behaviours that indicate an attachment figure's availability as a secure haven is subject to segregation, then the infant can try to keep the attention of their caregiver through clingy or aggressive behaviour, or alternating combinations of the two. Such behaviour may increase the availability of an attachment figure who otherwise displays inconsistent or misleading responses to the infant's attachment behaviours, suggesting the unreliability of protection and safety.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>Crittenden proposes that both kinds of information can be split off from consciousness or behavioural expression as a 'strategy' to maintain the availability of an attachment figure: 'Type A strategies were hypothesized to be based on reducing perception of threat to reduce the disposition to respond. Type C was hypothesized to be based on heightening perception of threat to increase the disposition to respond'<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Type A strategies split off emotional information about feeling threatened and type C strategies split off temporally-sequenced knowledge about how and why the attachment figure is available. By contrast, type B strategies effectively use both kinds of information without much distortion.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example: a toddler may have come to depend upon a type C strategy of tantrums in working to maintain the availability of an attachment figure whose inconsistent availability has led the child to distrust or distort causal information about their apparent behaviour. This may lead their attachment figure to get a clearer grasp on their needs and the appropriate response to their attachment behaviours. Experiencing more reliable and predictable information about the availability of their attachment figure, the toddler then no longer needs to use coercive behaviours with the goal of maintaining their caregiver's availability and can develop a secure attachment to their caregiver since they trust that their needs and communications will be heeded. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Significance_of_patterns">Significance of patterns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Attachment_in_children&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Significance of patterns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Research based on data from longitudinal studies, such as the <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Child_Health_and_Human_Development" class="mw-redirect" title="National Institute of Child Health and Human Development">National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care</a> and the Minnesota Study of Risk and Adaption from Birth to Adulthood, and from cross-sectional studies, consistently shows associations between early attachment classifications and peer relationships as to both quantity and quality. Lyons-Ruth, for example, found that 'for each additional withdrawing behavior displayed by mothers in relation to their infant's attachment cues in the Strange Situation Procedure, the likelihood of clinical referral by service providers was increased by 50%.'<sup id="cite_ref-lyonsruth_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lyonsruth-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Secure children have more positive and fewer negative peer reactions and establish more and better friendships. Insecure-ambivalent children have a tendency to anxiously but unsuccessfully seek positive peer interaction whereas insecure-avoidant children appear aggressive and hostile and may actively repudiate positive peer interaction. On only a few measures is there any strong direct association between early experience and a comprehensive measure of social functioning in early adulthood but early experience significantly predicts early childhood representations of relationships, which in turn predicts later self and relationship representations and social behaviour. </p><p>Studies have suggested that infants with a high-risk for Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) may express attachment security differently from infants with a low-risk for ASD.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Behavioural problems and social competence in insecure children increase or decline with deterioration or improvement in quality of parenting and the degree of risk in the family environment.<sup id="cite_ref-bercasapp_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bercasapp-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism_of_the_Strange_Situation_Protocol">Criticism of the Strange Situation Protocol</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Attachment_in_children&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Criticism of the Strange Situation Protocol"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Michael_Rutter" title="Michael Rutter">Michael Rutter</a> describes the procedure in the following terms:<sup id="cite_ref-Rutter,_M._47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rutter,_M.-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Father_with_child.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Father_with_child.jpg/190px-Father_with_child.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Father_with_child.jpg/285px-Father_with_child.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Father_with_child.jpg/380px-Father_with_child.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1757" data-file-height="1718" /></a><figcaption>Father and child</figcaption></figure> <blockquote> <p>"It is by no means free of limitations (see Lamb, Thompson, Gardener, Charnov & Estes, 1984).<sup id="cite_ref-Lamb_et_al.,_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lamb_et_al.,-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To begin with, it is very dependent on brief separations and reunions having the same meaning for all children. This may be a major constraint when applying the procedure in cultures, such as that in Japan (see Miyake et al., 1985), where infants are rarely separated from their mothers in ordinary circumstances.<sup id="cite_ref-Miyake_et_al.,_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miyake_et_al.,-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, because older children have a cognitive capacity to maintain relationships when the older person is not present, separation may not provide the same stress for them. Modified procedures based on the Strange Situation have been developed for older preschool children (see Belsky et al., 1994; Greenberg et al., 1990) but it is much more dubious whether the same approach can be used in middle childhood.<sup id="cite_ref-Belsky_et_al.,_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Belsky_et_al.,-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Greenberg_et_al.,_1990._51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Greenberg_et_al.,_1990.-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, despite its manifest strengths, the procedure is based on just 20 minutes of behaviour. It can be scarcely expected to tap all the relevant qualities of a child's attachment relationships. Q-sort procedures based on much longer naturalistic observations in the home, and interviews with the mothers have developed in order to extend the data base (see Vaughn & Waters, 1990).<sup id="cite_ref-Vaughn_et_al.,_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vaughn_et_al.,-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A further constraint is that the coding procedure results in discrete categories rather than continuously distributed dimensions. Not only is this likely to provide boundary problems, but also it is not at all obvious that discrete categories best represent the concepts that are inherent in attachment security. It seems much more likely that infants vary in their degree of security and there is need for a measurement systems that can quantify individual variation". </p> </blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ecological_validity_and_universality_of_Strange_Situation_attachment_classification_distributions">Ecological validity and universality of Strange Situation attachment classification distributions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Attachment_in_children&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Ecological validity and universality of Strange Situation attachment classification distributions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With respect to the ecological validity of the Strange Situation, a meta-analysis of 2,000 infant-parent dyads, including several from studies with non-Western language and/or cultural bases found the global distribution of attachment categorizations to be A (21%), B (65%), and C (14%).<sup id="cite_ref-Van_IJzendoorn,_M._H._&_Kroonenberg,_P.M._53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Van_IJzendoorn,_M._H._&_Kroonenberg,_P.M.-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This global distribution was generally consistent with Ainsworth et al.'s (1978) original attachment classification distributions. </p><p>However, controversy has been raised over a few cultural differences in these rates of 'global' attachment classification distributions. In particular, two studies diverged from the global distributions of attachment classifications noted above. One study was conducted in North Germany in which more avoidant (A) infants were found than global norms would suggest, and the other in Sapporo, Japan, where more resistant (C) infants were found.<sup id="cite_ref-Grossmann_K.E.,_et_al._54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grossmann_K.E.,_et_al.-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Takahashi,_K._55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Takahashi,_K.-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of these two studies, the Japanese findings have sparked the most controversy as to the meaning of individual differences in attachment behaviour as originally identified by Ainsworth et al. (1978). </p><p>In a recent study conducted in Sapporo, Behrens et al. (2007) found attachment distributions consistent with global norms using the six-year Main & Cassidy scoring system for attachment classification.<sup id="cite_ref-Main,_M.,_&_Cassidy,_J._38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Main,_M.,_&_Cassidy,_J.-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Behrens,_K._Y.,_Main,_M.,_&_Hesse,_E._56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Behrens,_K._Y.,_Main,_M.,_&_Hesse,_E.-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to these findings supporting the global distributions of attachment classifications in Sapporo, Behrens et al. also discuss the Japanese concept of <a href="/wiki/Amae" class="mw-redirect" title="Amae">amae</a> and its relevance to questions concerning whether the insecure-resistant (C) style of interaction may be engendered in Japanese infants as a result of the cultural practice of <a href="/wiki/Amae" class="mw-redirect" title="Amae">amae</a>. </p><p>A separate study was conducted in Korea, to help determine if mother-infant attachment relationships are universal or culture-specific. The results of the study of infant-mother attachment were compared to a national sample and showed that the four attachment patterns, secure, avoidance, ambivalent, and disorganized, exist in Korea as well as other varying cultures.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Marinus_van_IJzendoorn" title="Marinus van IJzendoorn">Van IJzendoorn</a> and Kroonenberg conducted a meta-analysis of various countries, including Japan, Israel, Germany, China, the UK and the USA using the Strange Situation. The research showed that though there were cultural differences, the four basic patterns, secure, avoidance, ambivalent, and disorganized can be found in every culture in which studies have been undertaken, even where communal sleeping arrangements are the norm. Selection of the secure pattern is found in the majority of children across cultures studied. This follows logically from the fact that attachment theory provides for infants to adapt to changes in the environment, selecting optimal behavioural strategies.<sup id="cite_ref-ijzsag_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ijzsag-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> How attachment is expressed shows cultural variations which need to be ascertained before studies can be undertaken.<sup id="cite_ref-ijzsag_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ijzsag-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Discrete_or_continuous_attachment_measurement">Discrete or continuous attachment measurement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Attachment_in_children&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Discrete or continuous attachment measurement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Regarding the issue of whether the breadth of infant attachment functioning can be captured by a categorical classification scheme, continuous measures of attachment security have been developed which have demonstrated adequate psychometric properties. These have been used either individually or in conjunction with discrete attachment classifications in many published reports.<sup id="cite_ref-Richters,_J._E.,_Waters,_E.,_&_Vaughn,_B._E._59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richters,_J._E.,_Waters,_E.,_&_Vaughn,_B._E.-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Van_IJzendoorn,_M_._H.,_&_Kroonenberg,_P._M._60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Van_IJzendoorn,_M_._H.,_&_Kroonenberg,_P._M.-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The original Richter's et al. (1998) scale is strongly related to secure versus insecure classifications, correctly predicting about 90% of cases.<sup id="cite_ref-Van_IJzendoorn,_M_._H.,_&_Kroonenberg,_P._M._60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Van_IJzendoorn,_M_._H.,_&_Kroonenberg,_P._M.-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Readers further interested in the categorical versus continuous nature of attachment classifications (and the debate surrounding this issue) should consult a paper by Fraley and Spieker and the rejoinders in the same issue by many prominent attachment researchers including J. Cassidy, A. Sroufe, E. Waters & T. Beauchaine, and M. Cummings.<sup id="cite_ref-Fraley,_C._R._&_Spieker,_S._J._61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fraley,_C._R._&_Spieker,_S._J.-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Attachment_in_children&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affectional_bond" title="Affectional bond">Affectional bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attachment-based_therapy_(children)" class="mw-redirect" title="Attachment-based therapy (children)">Attachment-based therapy (children)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_in_adults" title="Attachment in adults">Attachment in adults</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavior_analysis_of_child_development" title="Behavior analysis of child development">Behavior analysis of child development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_psychotherapy" title="Child psychotherapy">Child psychotherapy</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Connected_Baby" title="The Connected Baby">The Connected Baby (documentary film)</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_bonding" title="Human bonding">Human bonding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_deprivation" title="Maternal deprivation">Maternal deprivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object_relations_theory" title="Object relations theory">Object relations theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bowlby" title="John Bowlby">John Bowlby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erik_Erikson" title="Erik Erikson">Erik Erikson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome_Kagan" title="Jerome Kagan">Jerome Kagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanie_Klein" title="Melanie Klein">Melanie Klein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget">Jean Piaget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Winnicott" title="Donald Winnicott">Donald Winnicott</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Attachment_in_children&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Prior & Glaser (2006) Understanding Attachment and Attachment Disorders, London: JKP, p.17</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBowlby1960" class="citation journal cs1">Bowlby, J. (1960). "Separation Anxiety". <i>Int J Psychoanal</i>. <b>41</b>: <span class="nowrap">89–</span>113. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13803480">13803480</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Int+J+Psychoanal&rft.atitle=Separation+Anxiety&rft.volume=41&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E89-%3C%2Fspan%3E113&rft.date=1960&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F13803480&rft.aulast=Bowlby&rft.aufirst=J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAttachment+in+children" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tronick_et_al.-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Tronick_et_al._3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tronick, Morelli, & Ivey, 1992, p.568. "Until recently, scientific accounts ... of the infant's early social experiences converged on the view that the infant progresses from a primary relationship with one individual... to relationships with a growing number of people... This is an epigenetic, hierarchical view of social development. We have labeled this dominant view the continuous care and contact model (CCC...). The CCC model developed from the writings of <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Spitz" title="René Spitz">Spitz</a>..., <a href="/wiki/John_Bowlby" title="John Bowlby">Bowlby</a>..., and Provence and Lipton... on institutionalized children and is represented in the psychological views of Bowlby...[and others]. Common to the different conceptual frameworks is the belief that parenting practices and the infant's capacity for social engagement are biologically based and conform to a prototypical form. Supporters of the CCC model generally recognize that the infant and caregiver are able to adjust to a range of conditions, but they consider the adjustments observed to reflect biological variation. However, more extreme views (e.g., maternal bonding) consider certain variants as nonadaptive and as compromising the child's psychological development. Bowlby's concept of monotropism is an exemplar of the CCC perspective..." (Tronick, Morelli, & Ivey, 1992, p. 568).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kayastha, P. (2010). Security of attachment in children and adolescents. Bangalore: Elsevier B.V.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bowlby,_J._1969-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bowlby,_J._1969_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss: Vol. I: Attachment. New York: Basic Books.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bowlby,_J._1973-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bowlby,_J._1973_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and loss: Vol. II: Separation: Anxiety and anger. New York: Basic Books.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bowlby,_J._1980-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bowlby,_J._1980_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bowlby, J. (1980). Attachment and loss: Vol. III: Loss. New York: Basic Books.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1969) Ainsworth maternal scales. Available at <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.psychology.sunysb.edu/attachment/measures/content/ainsworth_scales.html">http://www.psychology.sunysb.edu/attachment/measures/content/ainsworth_scales.html</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHowe2011" class="citation book cs1">Howe, David (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Q6wcBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA70"><i>Attachment Across the Lifecourse: A Brief Introduction</i></a>. 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"Cross-cultural patterns of attachment: A meta-analysis of the strange-situation". <i>Child Dev</i>. <b>59</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">147–</span>156. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1130396">10.2307/1130396</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1887%2F11634">1887/11634</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1130396">1130396</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Child+Dev&rft.atitle=Cross-cultural+patterns+of+attachment%3A+A+meta-analysis+of+the+strange-situation&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E147-%3C%2Fspan%3E156&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1887%2F11634&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1130396%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1130396&rft.aulast=Van+IJzendoorn&rft.aufirst=M.H.&rft.au=Kroonenberg%2C+P.M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAttachment+in+children" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grossmann_K.E.,_et_al.-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Grossmann_K.E.,_et_al._54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrossmannGrossmannHuberWartner1981" class="citation journal cs1">Grossmann, K.; Grossmann, K.E.; Huber, F.; Wartner, U. 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R.; Spieker, S. J. (2003). "Are Infant Attachment Patterns Continuously or Categorically Distributed? A Taxometric Analysis of Strange Situation Behavior". <i>Dev Psychol</i>. <b>39</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">387–</span>404. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0012-1649.39.3.387">10.1037/0012-1649.39.3.387</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12760508">12760508</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dev+Psychol&rft.atitle=Are+Infant+Attachment+Patterns+Continuously+or+Categorically+Distributed%3F+A+Taxometric+Analysis+of+Strange+Situation+Behavior&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E387-%3C%2Fspan%3E404&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0012-1649.39.3.387&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12760508&rft.aulast=Fraley&rft.aufirst=C.+R.&rft.au=Spieker%2C+S.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAttachment+in+children" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Recommended_reading">Recommended reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Attachment_in_children&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Recommended reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Cassidy, J., & Shaver, P., (Eds). (1999) <i>Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research, and Clinical Applications</i>. Guilford Press, NY.</li> <li>Greenberg, MT, Cicchetti, D., & Cummings, EM., (Eds) (1990) <i>Attachment in the Preschool Years: Theory, Research and Intervention</i> University of Chicago, Chicago.</li> <li>Greenspan, S. (1993) <i>Infancy and Early Childhood</i>. Madison, CT: International Universities Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8236-2633-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8236-2633-4">0-8236-2633-4</a>.</li> <li>Holmes, J. (1993) <i>John Bowlby and Attachment Theory</i>. Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-07730-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-07730-3">0-415-07730-3</a>.</li> <li>Holmes, J. (2001) <i>The Search for the Secure Base: Attachment Theory and Psychotherapy</i>. London: Brunner-Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58391-152-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-58391-152-9">1-58391-152-9</a>.</li> <li>Karen R (1998) <i>Becoming Attached: First Relationships and How They Shape Our Capacity to Love</i>. Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-511501-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-511501-5">0-19-511501-5</a>.</li> <li>Zeanah, C., (1993) <i>Handbook of Infant Mental Health.</i> Guilford, NY.</li> <li>Parkes, CM, Stevenson-Hinde, J., Marris, P., (Eds.) (1991) <i>Attachment Across The Life Cycle</i> Routledge. NY. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-05651-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-05651-9">0-415-05651-9</a></li> <li>Siegler R., DeLoache, J. & Eisenberg, N. (2003) <i>How Children develop</i>. New York: Worth. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57259-249-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-57259-249-4">1-57259-249-4</a>.</li> <li>Bausch, Karl Heinz (2002) <i>Treating Attachment Disorders</i> NY: Guilford Press.</li> <li>Mercer, J. <i>Understanding Attachment,</i> Praeger 2005.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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.mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Attachment_theory82" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Attachment_theory" title="Template:Attachment theory"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Attachment_theory" title="Template talk:Attachment theory"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a 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href="/wiki/Attachment_measures" title="Attachment measures">Attachment measures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_theory" title="Attachment theory">Attachment theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic-maturational_model_of_attachment_and_adaptation" title="Dynamic-maturational model of attachment and adaptation">Dynamic-maturational model of attachment and adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fathers_as_attachment_figures" title="Fathers as attachment figures">Fathers as attachment figures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_bonding" title="Human bonding">Human bonding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_deprivation" title="Maternal deprivation">Maternal deprivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object_relations_theory" title="Object relations theory">Object relations theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactive_attachment_disorder" title="Reactive attachment disorder">Reactive attachment disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notable theorists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Ainsworth" title="Mary Ainsworth">Mary Ainsworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_E._Blatz" title="William E. Blatz">William E. Blatz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bowlby" title="John Bowlby">John Bowlby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_McKinsey_Crittenden" title="Patricia McKinsey Crittenden">Patricia McKinsey Crittenden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erik_Erikson" title="Erik Erikson">Erik Erikson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Harlow" title="Harry Harlow">Harry Harlow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome_Kagan" title="Jerome Kagan">Jerome Kagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanie_Klein" title="Melanie Klein">Melanie Klein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Lorenz" title="Konrad Lorenz">Konrad Lorenz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Main" title="Mary Main">Mary Main</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Spitz" title="René Spitz">René Spitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolaas_Tinbergen" title="Nikolaas Tinbergen">Nikolaas Tinbergen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Controversy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_parenting" title="Attachment parenting">Attachment parenting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holding_therapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Holding therapy">Holding therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candace_Newmaker" title="Candace Newmaker">Candace Newmaker</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Clinical applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attachment-based_therapy" title="Attachment-based therapy">Attachment-based therapy (children)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attachment-based_psychotherapy" title="Attachment-based psychotherapy">Attachment-based psychotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dyadic_developmental_psychotherapy" title="Dyadic developmental psychotherapy">Dyadic developmental psychotherapy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_attachment_theory" title="History of attachment theory">History of attachment theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Development_of_the_human_body82" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Human_development" title="Template:Human development"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Human_development" title="Template talk:Human development"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Human_development" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Human development"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Development_of_the_human_body82" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_human_body" title="Development of the human body">Development of the human body</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Before birth</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prenatal_development" title="Prenatal development">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygote" title="Zygote">Zygote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryo" title="Embryo">Embryo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fetus" title="Fetus">Fetus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gestational_age_(obstetrics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gestational age (obstetrics)">Gestational age</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Birth and after</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Childbirth" title="Childbirth">Birth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_development" title="Child development">Child development</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Child_development_stages" title="Child development stages">Stages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_childhood_development" title="Early childhood development">Early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puberty" title="Puberty">Puberty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adult_development" title="Adult development">Adult development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ageing" title="Ageing">Ageing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senescence" title="Senescence">Senescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death" title="Death">Death</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Phases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Early years <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Infant" title="Infant">Infant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toddler" title="Toddler">Toddler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_childhood" title="Early childhood">Early childhood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childhood" class="mw-redirect" title="Childhood">Childhood</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Child" title="Child">Child</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youth" title="Youth">Youth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Preadolescence" title="Preadolescence">Preadolescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolescence" title="Adolescence">Adolescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emerging_adulthood_and_early_adulthood" title="Emerging adulthood and early adulthood">Emerging adulthood</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adult" title="Adult">Adulthood</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Young_adult" title="Young adult">Young adult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_age" title="Middle age">Middle adult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_age" title="Old age">Elder adult</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dying" title="Dying">Dying</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social and legal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minor_(law)" title="Minor (law)">Minor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_majority" title="Age of majority">Age of majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Evolutionary_psychology1033" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Template:Evolutionary psychology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Template talk:Evolutionary psychology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Evolutionary psychology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Evolutionary_psychology1033" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary psychology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="History of evolutionary psychology">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">Evolutionary thought</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_foundations_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="Theoretical foundations of evolutionary psychology">Theoretical foundations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptationism" title="Adaptationism">Adaptationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_revolution" title="Cognitive revolution">Cognitive revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(psychology)" title="Cognitivism (psychology)">Cognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene-centered_view_of_evolution" title="Gene-centered view of evolution">Gene selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">Modern synthesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="Criticism of evolutionary psychology">Criticism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Evolutionary<br />processes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_adaptation" title="Psychological adaptation">Adaptations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altruism_(biology)" title="Altruism (biology)">Altruism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cheating_(biology)" title="Cheating (biology)">Cheating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamiltonian_spite" title="Hamiltonian spite">Hamiltonian spite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_altruism_in_humans" title="Reciprocal altruism in humans">Reciprocal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baldwin_effect" title="Baldwin effect">Baldwin effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spandrel_(biology)" title="Spandrel (biology)">By-products</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionarily_stable_strategy" title="Evolutionarily stable strategy">Evolutionarily stable strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exaptation" title="Exaptation">Exaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">Fitness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inclusive_fitness_in_humans" title="Inclusive fitness in humans">Inclusive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">Kin selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_mismatch" title="Evolutionary mismatch">Mismatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_investment" title="Parental investment">Parental investment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parent%E2%80%93offspring_conflict" title="Parent–offspring conflict">Parent–offspring conflict</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_humans" title="Sexual selection in humans">Sexual selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Costly_signaling_theory_in_evolutionary_psychology" title="Costly signaling theory in evolutionary psychology">Costly signaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_intrasexual_competition" title="Male intrasexual competition">Male</a>/<a href="/wiki/Female_intrasexual_competition" title="Female intrasexual competition">female intrasexual competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_choice" title="Mate choice">Mate choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">Sexual dimorphism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_selection" title="Social selection">Social selection</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cognition" title="Evolution of cognition">Cognition</a> /<br /><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_emotion" title="Evolution of emotion">Emotion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_(psychology)" title="Affect (psychology)">Affect</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_display" title="Affect display">Display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Display_rules" title="Display rules">Display rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facial_expression" title="Facial expression">Facial expression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Behavioral modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_module" title="Cognitive module">Cognitive module</a>/<a href="/wiki/Modularity_of_mind" title="Modularity of mind">modularity of mind</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automatic_and_controlled_processes" title="Automatic and controlled processes">Automatic and controlled processes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_theory_of_mind" title="Computational theory of mind">Computational theory of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domain-general_learning" title="Domain-general learning">Domain generality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domain_specificity" title="Domain specificity">Domain specificity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_process_theory" title="Dual process theory">Dual process theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_tradeoff_hypothesis" title="Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis">Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_brain" title="Evolution of the brain">Evolution of the brain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_nervous_systems" title="Evolution of nervous systems">Evolution of nervous systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response" title="Fight-or-flight response">Fight-or-flight response</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arachnophobia" title="Arachnophobia">Arachnophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_falling" title="Fear of falling">Basophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ophidiophobia" title="Ophidiophobia">Ophidiophobia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_biology" title="Folk biology">Folk biology</a>/<a href="/wiki/Folk_taxonomy" title="Folk taxonomy">taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_psychology" title="Folk psychology">Folk psychology</a>/<a href="/wiki/Theory_of_mind" title="Theory of mind">theory of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_human_intelligence" title="Evolution of human intelligence">Intelligence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flynn_effect" title="Flynn effect">Flynn effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wason_selection_task" title="Wason selection task">Wason selection task</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_control" title="Motor control">Motor control</a>/<a href="/wiki/Motor_skill" title="Motor skill">skill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_multitasking" title="Human multitasking">Multitasking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_sleep" title="Neuroscience of sleep">Sleep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Visual perception</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision_in_primates" title="Evolution of color vision in primates">Color vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_eye" title="Evolution of the eye">Eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_physics" title="Naïve physics">Naïve physics</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_and_culture" title="Evolutionary psychology and culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_aesthetics" title="Evolutionary aesthetics">Aesthetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Darwinian_literary_studies" title="Darwinian literary studies">Literary criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_musicology" title="Evolutionary musicology">Musicology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_anthropology" title="Evolutionary anthropology">Anthropology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_linguistics" title="Evolutionary linguistics">Language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_language" title="Evolutionary psychology of language">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_speech" title="Origin of speech">Speech</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">Morality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_foundations_theory" title="Moral foundations theory">Moral foundations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_religion" title="Evolutionary psychology of religion">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary origin of religions">Origin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_universal" title="Cultural universal">Universals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_psychology" title="Evolutionary developmental psychology">Development</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_theory" title="Attachment theory">Attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_bonding" title="Human bonding">Bonding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affectional_bond" title="Affectional bond">Affectional</a>/<a href="/wiki/Maternal_bond" title="Maternal bond">maternal</a>/<a href="/wiki/Paternal_bond" title="Paternal bond">paternal bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_deprivation" title="Maternal deprivation">Caregiver deprivation</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Childhood attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinderella_effect" title="Cinderella effect">Cinderella effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_development" title="Cognitive development">Cognitive development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_educational_psychology" title="Evolutionary educational psychology">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">Language acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_development" title="Personality development">Personality development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialization" title="Socialization">Socialization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Human factors</a> /<br /><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychiatry" title="Evolutionary psychiatry">Mental health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_ergonomics" title="Cognitive ergonomics">Cognitive ergonomics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer-mediated_communication" title="Computer-mediated communication">Computer-mediated communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_psychology" title="Engineering psychology">Engineering psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">Human–computer interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_naturalness_theory" title="Media naturalness theory">Media naturalness theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroergonomics" title="Neuroergonomics">Neuroergonomics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_approaches_to_depression" title="Evolutionary approaches to depression">Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_media_use_and_mental_health" title="Digital media use and mental health">Digital media use and mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accident-proneness" title="Accident-proneness">Hypophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imprinted_brain_hypothesis" title="Imprinted brain hypothesis">Imprinted brain hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind-blindness" title="Mind-blindness">Mind-blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_effects_of_Internet_use" title="Psychological effects of Internet use">Psychological effects of Internet use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rank_theory_of_depression" title="Rank theory of depression">Rank theory of depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_schizophrenia" title="Evolution of schizophrenia">Schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screen_time" title="Screen time">Screen time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smartphones_and_pedestrian_safety" title="Smartphones and pedestrian safety">Smartphones and pedestrian safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_aspects_of_television" title="Social aspects of television">Social aspects of television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Societal_effects_of_cars" title="Societal effects of cars">Societal effects of cars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distracted_driving" title="Distracted driving">Distracted driving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93crime_hypothesis" title="Lead–crime hypothesis">Lead–crime hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_phones_and_driving_safety" title="Mobile phones and driving safety">Mobile phones and driving safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texting_while_driving" title="Texting while driving">Texting while driving</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sexology" title="Sexology">Sex</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexual_activity" title="Human sexual activity">Activity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_in_adults" title="Attachment in adults">Adult attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_disparity_in_sexual_relationships" title="Age disparity in sexual relationships">Age disparity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_arousal" title="Sexual arousal">Arousal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concealed_ovulation" title="Concealed ovulation">Concealed ovulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coolidge_effect" title="Coolidge effect">Coolidge effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_desire" title="Sexual desire">Desire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_fantasy" title="Sexual fantasy">Fantasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_hormones_on_sexual_motivation" title="Effects of hormones on sexual motivation">Hormonal motivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_jealousy" title="Sexual jealousy">Jealousy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_guarding_in_humans" title="Mate guarding in humans">Mate guarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_preferences" title="Mating preferences">Mating preferences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_mating_strategies" title="Human mating strategies">Mating strategies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biology_and_sexual_orientation" title="Biology and sexual orientation">Orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovulatory_shift_hypothesis" title="Ovulatory shift hypothesis">Ovulatory shift hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pair_bond" title="Pair bond">Pair bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_attractiveness" title="Physical attractiveness">Physical</a>/<a href="/wiki/Sexual_attraction" title="Sexual attraction">Sexual attraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">Sexuality</a>/<a href="/wiki/Human_male_sexuality" title="Human male sexuality">male</a>/<a href="/wiki/Human_female_sexuality" title="Human female sexuality">female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexy_son_hypothesis" title="Sexy son hypothesis">Sexy son hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westermarck_effect" title="Westermarck effect">Westermarck effect</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_psychology" title="Sex differences in psychology">Sex differences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aggression" title="Aggression">Aggression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_and_gender_differences_in_autism" title="Sex and gender differences in autism">Autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_cognition" title="Sex differences in cognition">Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_crime" title="Sex differences in crime">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_division_of_labour" title="Sexual division of labour">Division of labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_emotional_intelligence" title="Sex differences in emotional intelligence">Emotional intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empathising%E2%80%93systemising_theory" title="Empathising–systemising theory">Empathising–systemising theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">Gender role</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_intelligence" title="Sex differences in intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_memory" title="Sex differences in memory">Memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_disorders_and_gender" title="Mental disorders and gender">Mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_narcissism" title="Sex differences in narcissism">Narcissism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_sex_differences" title="Neuroscience of sex differences">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_schizophrenia" title="Sex differences in schizophrenia">Schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_abuse" title="Substance abuse">Substance abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_differences_in_suicide" title="Gender differences in suicide">Suicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variability_hypothesis" title="Variability hypothesis">Variability hypothesis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Related subjects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academic disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_economics" title="Behavioral economics">Behavioral</a>/<a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">evolutionary economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_epigenetics" title="Behavioral epigenetics">Behavioral epigenetics</a>/<a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affective_neuroscience" title="Affective neuroscience">Affective</a>/<a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">behavioral</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">cognitive</a>/<a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_neuroscience" title="Evolutionary neuroscience">evolutionary neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biocultural_anthropology" title="Biocultural anthropology">Biocultural anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_psychiatry" title="Biological psychiatry">Biological psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">Cognitive psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_psychology" title="Cross-cultural psychology">Cross-cultural psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">Ethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_psychology" title="Functional psychology">Functional psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_evolution" title="Cultural evolution">Cultural evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_ape_language" title="Great ape language">Great ape language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93animal_communication" title="Human–animal communication">Human–animal communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_heritability_problem" title="Missing heritability problem">Missing heritability problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primate_cognition" title="Primate cognition">Primate cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_of_selection" title="Unit of selection">Unit of selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">Coevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_group_selection" title="Cultural group selection">Cultural group selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_inheritance_theory" title="Dual inheritance theory">Dual inheritance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisher%27s_principle" title="Fisher's principle">Fisher's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_selection" title="Group selection">Group selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hologenome_theory_of_evolution" title="Hologenome theory of evolution">Hologenome theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punctuated_equilibrium" title="Punctuated equilibrium">Punctuated equilibrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recent_human_evolution" title="Recent human evolution">Recent human evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_complex" title="Species complex">Species complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance" title="Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance">Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trivers%E2%80%93Willard_hypothesis" title="Trivers–Willard hypothesis">Trivers–Willard hypothesis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theoretical positions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_selection_theory" title="Cultural selection theory">Cultural selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a>/<a href="/wiki/Indeterminism" title="Indeterminism">indeterminism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_determinism" title="Biological determinism">Biological determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connectionism" title="Connectionism">Connectionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_determinism" title="Cultural determinism">Cultural determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_determinism" title="Environmental determinism">Environmental determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_versus_nurture" title="Nature versus nurture">Nature versus nurture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_nativism" title="Psychological nativism">Psychological nativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinism" title="Social determinism">Social determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_social_science_model" title="Standard social science model">Standard social science model</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memetics" title="Memetics">Memetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multilineal_evolution" title="Multilineal evolution">Multilineal evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Darwinism" title="Neo-Darwinism">Neo-Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoevolutionism" 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