CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Connectionism - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"92cefb77-6efc-4001-a0aa-739b0eaa06d1","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Connectionism","wgTitle":"Connectionism","wgCurRevisionId":1250383155,"wgRevisionId":1250383155,"wgArticleId":263636,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["CS1 Spanish-language sources (es)","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases","Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from February 2016","Articles with hAudio microformats","Spoken articles","Webarchive template wayback links","Articles with Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy links","Cognitive science","Computational neuroscience","Theory of mind","Learning", "Philosophy of artificial intelligence","Emergence"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Connectionism","wgRelevantArticleId":263636,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":40000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true, "wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q203790","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","ext.tmh.player.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media", "ext.tmh.player","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.tmh.player.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Artificial_neural_network.svg/1200px-Artificial_neural_network.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1071"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Artificial_neural_network.svg/800px-Artificial_neural_network.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="714"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Artificial_neural_network.svg/640px-Artificial_neural_network.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="571"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Connectionism - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connectionism"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Connectionism&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connectionism"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Connectionism rootpage-Connectionism skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Connectionism" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Connectionism" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Connectionism" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Connectionism" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Basic_principle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Basic_principle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Basic principle</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Basic_principle-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Basic principle subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Basic_principle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Activation_function" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Activation_function"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Activation function</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Activation_function-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Memory_and_learning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Memory_and_learning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Memory and learning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Memory_and_learning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biological_realism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biological_realism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Biological realism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biological_realism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Precursors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Precursors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Precursors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Precursors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_first_wave" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_first_wave"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>The first wave</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_first_wave-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_neural_network_winter" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_neural_network_winter"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>The neural network winter</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_neural_network_winter-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_second_wave" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_second_wave"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>The second wave</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_second_wave-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Connectionism_vs._computationalism_debate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Connectionism_vs._computationalism_debate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Connectionism vs. computationalism debate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Connectionism_vs._computationalism_debate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Symbolism_vs._connectionism_debate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Symbolism_vs._connectionism_debate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Symbolism vs. connectionism debate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Symbolism_vs._connectionism_debate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Connectionism</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 22 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-22" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">22 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="اتصالية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="اتصالية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connexionisme" title="Connexionisme – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Connexionisme" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konnektionismus" title="Konnektionismus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Konnektionismus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conexionismo" title="Conexionismo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Conexionismo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86%D8%AF%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C_(%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AE%D8%AA%DB%8C)" title="پیوندگرایی (شناختی) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پیوندگرایی (شناختی)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connexionnisme" title="Connexionnisme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Connexionnisme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%97%B0%EA%B2%B0%EC%A3%BC%EC%9D%98" title="연결주의 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="연결주의" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koneksionisme" title="Koneksionisme – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Koneksionisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connessionismo" title="Connessionismo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Connessionismo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%A7%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%96%D7%9D" title="קונקציוניזם – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קונקציוניזם" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koneksionisme" title="Koneksionisme – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Koneksionisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connectionisme" title="Connectionisme – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Connectionisme" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B3%E3%83%8D%E3%82%AF%E3%82%B7%E3%83%A7%E3%83%8B%E3%82%BA%E3%83%A0" title="コネクショニズム – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="コネクショニズム" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koneksjonizm" title="Koneksjonizm – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Koneksjonizm" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conexionismo" title="Conexionismo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Conexionismo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Коннекционизм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Коннекционизм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Конекционизам – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Конекционизам" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konnektionismi" title="Konnektionismi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Konnektionismi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%C4%9Flant%C4%B1sall%C4%B1k" title="Bağlantısallık – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Bağlantısallık" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%86%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Конекціонізм – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Конекціонізм" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%81%AF%E7%B5%90%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="聯結主義 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="聯結主義" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%81%94%E7%BB%93%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="联结主义 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="联结主义" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q203790#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Connectionism" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Connectionism" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Connectionism"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Connectionism&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Connectionism&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Connectionism"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Connectionism&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Connectionism&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Connectionism" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Connectionism" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Connectionism&oldid=1250383155" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Connectionism&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Connectionism&id=1250383155&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FConnectionism"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FConnectionism"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Connectionism&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Connectionism&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q203790" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-spoken-icon" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:En-Connectionism.ogg" title="Listen to this article"><img alt="Listen to this article" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/20px-Sound-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/30px-Sound-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/40px-Sound-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="96" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Cognitive science approach</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Artificial_neural_network.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Artificial_neural_network.svg/220px-Artificial_neural_network.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Artificial_neural_network.svg/330px-Artificial_neural_network.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Artificial_neural_network.svg/440px-Artificial_neural_network.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="560" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>A 'second wave' connectionist (ANN) model with a hidden layer</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Connectionism</b> is the name of an approach to the study of human mental processes and cognition that utilizes mathematical models known as connectionist networks or artificial neural networks.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Connectionism has had many "waves" since its beginnings. </p><p>The first wave appeared 1943 with <a href="/wiki/Warren_Sturgis_McCulloch" title="Warren Sturgis McCulloch">Warren Sturgis McCulloch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Pitts" title="Walter Pitts">Walter Pitts</a> both focusing on comprehending neural circuitry through a formal and mathematical approach,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Frank_Rosenblatt" title="Frank Rosenblatt">Frank Rosenblatt</a> who published the 1958 paper "The Perceptron: A Probabilistic Model For Information Storage and Organization in the Brain" in <i>Psychological Review</i>, while working at the Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory.<sup id="cite_ref-2019TheCuriousCaseOfConnectionism_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2019TheCuriousCaseOfConnectionism-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first wave ended with the 1969 book about the limitations of the original perceptron idea, written by <a href="/wiki/Marvin_Minsky" title="Marvin Minsky">Marvin Minsky</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seymour_Papert" title="Seymour Papert">Seymour Papert</a>, which contributed to discouraging major funding agencies in the US from investing in connectionist research.<sup id="cite_ref-2006_Margaret_Boden_book_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2006_Margaret_Boden_book-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With a few noteworthy deviations, most connectionist research entered a period of inactivity until the mid-1980s. The term <i>connectionist model</i> was reintroduced in a 1982 paper in the journal <i>Cognitive Science</i> by Jerome Feldman and Dana Ballard. </p><p>The second wave blossomed in the late 1980s, following a 1987 book about Parallel Distributed Processing by <a href="/wiki/James_L._McClelland" class="mw-redirect" title="James L. McClelland">James L. McClelland</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_E._Rumelhart" class="mw-redirect" title="David E. Rumelhart">David E. Rumelhart</a> et al., which introduced a couple of improvements to the simple perceptron idea, such as intermediate processors (now known as "<a href="/wiki/Hidden_layers" class="mw-redirect" title="Hidden layers">hidden layers</a>") alongside input and output units, and used a <a href="/wiki/Sigmoid_function" title="Sigmoid function">sigmoid</a> <a href="/wiki/Activation_function" title="Activation function">activation function</a> instead of the old "all-or-nothing" function. Their work built upon that of <a href="/wiki/John_Hopfield" title="John Hopfield">John Hopfield</a>, who was a key figure investigating the mathematical characteristics of sigmoid activation functions.<sup id="cite_ref-2019TheCuriousCaseOfConnectionism_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2019TheCuriousCaseOfConnectionism-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From the late 1980s to the mid-1990s, connectionism took on an almost revolutionary tone when Schneider,<sup id="cite_ref-1987_Paradigm_Shift_in_Psychology_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1987_Paradigm_Shift_in_Psychology-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Terence_Horgan" title="Terence Horgan">Terence Horgan</a> and Tienson posed the question of whether connectionism represented a <a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">fundamental shift</a> in psychology and so-called "good old-fashioned AI," or <a href="/wiki/GOFAI" title="GOFAI">GOFAI</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2019TheCuriousCaseOfConnectionism_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2019TheCuriousCaseOfConnectionism-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some advantages of the second wave connectionist approach included its applicability to a broad array of functions, structural approximation to biological neurons, low requirements for innate structure, and capacity for <a href="/wiki/Graceful_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Graceful degradation">graceful degradation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its disadvantages included the difficulty in deciphering how ANNs process information or account for the compositionality of mental representations, and a resultant difficulty explaining phenomena at a higher level.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The current (third) wave has been marked by advances in <a href="/wiki/Deep_learning" title="Deep learning">deep learning</a>, which have made possible the creation of <a href="/wiki/Large_language_model" title="Large language model">large language models</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2019TheCuriousCaseOfConnectionism_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2019TheCuriousCaseOfConnectionism-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The success of deep-learning networks in the past decade has greatly increased the popularity of this approach, but the complexity and scale of such networks has brought with them increased <a href="/wiki/Explainable_artificial_intelligence" title="Explainable artificial intelligence">interpretability problems</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Basic_principle">Basic principle</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Connectionism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Basic principle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The central connectionist principle is that mental phenomena can be described by interconnected networks of simple and often uniform units. The form of the connections and the units can vary from model to model. For example, units in the network could represent <a href="/wiki/Neurons" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurons">neurons</a> and the connections could represent <a href="/wiki/Synapses" class="mw-redirect" title="Synapses">synapses</a>, as in the <a href="/wiki/Human_brain" title="Human brain">human brain</a>. This principle has been seen as an alternative to GOFAI and the classical <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_mind" title="Theory of mind">theories of mind</a> based on symbolic computation, but the extent to which the two approaches are compatible has been the subject of much debate since their inception.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Activation_function">Activation function</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Connectionism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Activation function"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Activation_function" title="Activation function">Activation function</a></div> <p>Internal states of any network change over time due to neurons sending a signal to a succeeding layer of neurons in the case of a feedforward network, or to a previous layer in the case of a recurrent network. Discovery of non-linear activation functions has enabled the second wave of connectionism. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Memory_and_learning">Memory and learning</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Connectionism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Memory and learning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Artificial_neural_networks" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial neural networks">Artificial neural networks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deep_learning" title="Deep learning">Deep learning</a></div> <p>Neural networks follow two basic principles: </p> <ol><li>Any mental state can be described as a <i>n</i>-dimensional <a href="/wiki/Vector_(mathematics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector (mathematics)">vector</a> of numeric activation values over neural units in a network.</li> <li>Memory and learning are created by modifying the 'weights' of the connections between neural units, generally represented as an <i>n</i>×<i>m</i> <a href="/wiki/Matrix_(mathematics)" title="Matrix (mathematics)">matrix</a>. The weights are adjusted according to some <a href="/wiki/Learning_rule" title="Learning rule">learning rule</a> or algorithm, such as <a href="/wiki/Hebbian_theory" title="Hebbian theory">Hebbian learning</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>Most of the variety among the models comes from: </p> <ul><li><i>Interpretation of units</i>: Units can be interpreted as neurons or groups of neurons.</li> <li><i>Definition of activation</i>: Activation can be defined in a variety of ways. For example, in a <a href="/wiki/Boltzmann_machine" title="Boltzmann machine">Boltzmann machine</a>, the activation is interpreted as the probability of generating an action potential spike, and is determined via a <a href="/wiki/Logistic_function" title="Logistic function">logistic function</a> on the sum of the inputs to a unit.</li> <li><i>Learning algorithm</i>: Different networks modify their connections differently. In general, any mathematically defined change in connection weights over time is referred to as the "learning algorithm".</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biological_realism">Biological realism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Connectionism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Biological realism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Connectionist work in general does not need to be biologically realistic.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-OIR_1_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OIR_1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-AA_1_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AA_1-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One area where connectionist models are thought to be biologically implausible is with respect to error-propagation networks that are needed to support learning,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but error propagation can explain some of the biologically-generated electrical activity seen at the scalp in <a href="/wiki/Event-related_potential" title="Event-related potential">event-related potentials</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/N400_(neuroscience)" title="N400 (neuroscience)">N400</a> and <a href="/wiki/P600_(neuroscience)" title="P600 (neuroscience)">P600</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and this provides some biological support for one of the key assumptions of connectionist learning procedures. Many recurrent connectionist models also incorporate <a href="/wiki/Dynamical_systems_theory" title="Dynamical systems theory">dynamical systems theory</a>. Many researchers, such as the connectionist <a href="/wiki/Paul_Smolensky" title="Paul Smolensky">Paul Smolensky</a>, have argued that connectionist models will evolve toward fully <a href="/wiki/Continuous_function" title="Continuous function">continuous</a>, high-dimensional, <a href="/wiki/Non-linear" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-linear">non-linear</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamic systems">dynamic systems</a> approaches. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Precursors">Precursors</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Connectionism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Precursors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Precursors of the connectionist principles can be traced to early work in <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, such as that of <a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Psychological theories based on knowledge about the human brain were fashionable in the late 19th century. As early as 1869, the neurologist <a href="/wiki/John_Hughlings_Jackson" title="John Hughlings Jackson">John Hughlings Jackson</a> argued for multi-level, distributed systems. Following from this lead, <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Herbert Spencer</a>'s <i>Principles of Psychology</i>, 3rd edition (1872), and <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a>'s <i>Project for a Scientific Psychology</i> (composed 1895) propounded connectionist or proto-connectionist theories. These tended to be speculative theories. But by the early 20th century, <a href="/wiki/Edward_Thorndike" title="Edward Thorndike">Edward Thorndike</a> was writing about <a href="/wiki/Human_learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Human learning">human learning</a> that posited a connectionist type network.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hopfield networks had precursors in the <a href="/wiki/Ising_model" title="Ising model">Ising model</a> due to <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Lenz" title="Wilhelm Lenz">Wilhelm Lenz</a> (1920) and <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Ising" title="Ernst Ising">Ernst Ising</a> (1925), though the Ising model conceived by them did not involve time. <a href="/wiki/Monte_Carlo_method" title="Monte Carlo method">Monte Carlo</a> simulations of Ising model required the advent of computers in the 1950s.<sup id="cite_ref-brush67_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brush67-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_first_wave">The first wave</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Connectionism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: The first wave"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first wave begun in 1943 with <a href="/wiki/Warren_Sturgis_McCulloch" title="Warren Sturgis McCulloch">Warren Sturgis McCulloch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Pitts" title="Walter Pitts">Walter Pitts</a> both focusing on comprehending neural circuitry through a formal and mathematical approach. McCulloch and Pitts showed how neural systems could implement <a href="/wiki/First-order_logic" title="First-order logic">first-order logic</a>: Their classic paper "A Logical Calculus of Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity" (1943) is important in this development here. They were influenced by the work of <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Rashevsky" title="Nicolas Rashevsky">Nicolas Rashevsky</a> in the 1930s and symbolic logic in the style of <i><a href="/wiki/Principia_Mathematica" title="Principia Mathematica">Principia Mathematica</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2019TheCuriousCaseOfConnectionism_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2019TheCuriousCaseOfConnectionism-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Donald_O._Hebb" title="Donald O. Hebb">Hebb</a> contributed greatly to speculations about neural functioning, and proposed a learning principle, <a href="/wiki/Hebbian_learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Hebbian learning">Hebbian learning</a>. <a href="/wiki/Karl_Lashley" title="Karl Lashley">Lashley</a> argued for distributed representations as a result of his failure to find anything like a localized <a href="/wiki/Engram_(neuropsychology)" title="Engram (neuropsychology)">engram</a> in years of <a href="/wiki/Lesion" title="Lesion">lesion</a> experiments. <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Friedrich Hayek</a> independently conceived the model, first in a brief unpublished manuscript in 1920,<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> then expanded into a book in 1952.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Perceptron machines were proposed and built by <a href="/wiki/Frank_Rosenblatt" title="Frank Rosenblatt">Frank Rosenblatt</a>, who published the 1958 paper “The Perceptron: A Probabilistic Model For Information Storage and Organization in the Brain” in <i>Psychological Review</i>, while working at the Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory. He cited Hebb, Hayek, Uttley, and <a href="/wiki/W._Ross_Ashby" title="W. Ross Ashby">Ashby</a> as main influences. </p><p>Another form of connectionist model was the <a href="/wiki/Stratificational_linguistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Stratificational linguistics">relational network</a> framework developed by the <a href="/wiki/Linguist" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguist">linguist</a> <a href="/wiki/Sydney_Lamb" title="Sydney Lamb">Sydney Lamb</a> in the 1960s. </p><p>The research group led by Widrow empirically searched for methods to train two-layered <a href="/wiki/ADALINE" title="ADALINE">ADALINE</a> networks (MADALINE), with limited success.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A method to train multilayered perceptrons with arbitrary levels of trainable weights was published by <a href="/wiki/Alexey_Grigorevich_Ivakhnenko" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexey Grigorevich Ivakhnenko">Alexey Grigorevich Ivakhnenko</a> and Valentin Lapa in 1965, called the <a href="/wiki/Group_method_of_data_handling" title="Group method of data handling">Group Method of Data Handling</a>. This method employs incremental layer by layer training based on <a href="/wiki/Regression_analysis" title="Regression analysis">regression analysis</a>, where useless units in hidden layers are pruned with the help of a validation set.<sup id="cite_ref-ivak1967_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ivak1967-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-DLhistory_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DLhistory-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ivak1965_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ivak1965-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first multilayered perceptrons trained by <a href="/wiki/Stochastic_gradient_descent" title="Stochastic gradient descent">stochastic gradient descent</a><sup id="cite_ref-robbins1951_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-robbins1951-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was published in 1967 by <a href="/wiki/Shun%27ichi_Amari" title="Shun'ichi Amari">Shun'ichi Amari</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Amari1967_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Amari1967-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In computer experiments conducted by Amari's student Saito, a five layer MLP with two modifiable layers learned useful <a href="/wiki/Knowledge_representation" class="mw-redirect" title="Knowledge representation">internal representations</a> to classify non-linearily separable pattern classes.<sup id="cite_ref-DLhistory_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DLhistory-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1972, <a href="/wiki/Shun%27ichi_Amari" title="Shun'ichi Amari">Shun'ichi Amari</a> produced an early example of <a href="/wiki/Self-organizing_network" title="Self-organizing network">self-organizing network</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_neural_network_winter">The neural network winter</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Connectionism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: The neural network winter"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There was some conflict among artificial intelligence researchers as to what neural networks are useful for. Around late 1960s, there was a widespread lull in research and publications on neural networks, "the neural network winter", which lasted through the 1970s, during which the field of artificial intelligence turned towards symbolic methods. The publication of <i><a href="/wiki/Perceptrons_(book)" title="Perceptrons (book)">Perceptrons</a></i> (1969) is typically regarded as a catalyst of this event.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_second_wave">The second wave</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Connectionism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: The second wave"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The second wave begun in the early 1980s. Some key publications included (<a href="/wiki/John_Hopfield" title="John Hopfield">John Hopfield</a>, 1982)<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which popularized <a href="/wiki/Hopfield_network" title="Hopfield network">Hopfield networks</a>, the 1986 paper that popularized backpropagation,<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the 1987 two-volume book about the <i>Parallel Distributed Processing</i> (PDP) by <a href="/wiki/James_L._McClelland" class="mw-redirect" title="James L. McClelland">James L. McClelland</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_E._Rumelhart" class="mw-redirect" title="David E. Rumelhart">David E. Rumelhart</a> et al., which has introduced a couple of improvements to the simple perceptron idea, such as intermediate processors (known as "<a href="/wiki/Hidden_layers" class="mw-redirect" title="Hidden layers">hidden layers</a>" now) alongside input and output units and using <a href="/wiki/Sigmoid_function" title="Sigmoid function">sigmoid</a> <a href="/wiki/Activation_function" title="Activation function">activation function</a> instead of the old 'all-or-nothing' function. </p><p>Hopfield approached the field from the perspective of statistical mechanics, providing some early forms of mathematical rigor that increased the perceived respectability of the field.<sup id="cite_ref-2019TheCuriousCaseOfConnectionism_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2019TheCuriousCaseOfConnectionism-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another important series of publications proved that neural networks are <a href="/wiki/Universal_approximation_theorem" title="Universal approximation theorem">universal function approximators</a>, which also provided some mathematical respectability.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some early popular demonstration projects appeared during this time. <a href="/wiki/NETtalk_(artificial_neural_network)" title="NETtalk (artificial neural network)">NETtalk</a> (1987) learned to pronounce written English. It achieved popular success, appearing on the <a href="/wiki/Today_(American_TV_program)" title="Today (American TV program)"><i>Today</i> show</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/TD-Gammon" title="TD-Gammon">TD-Gammon</a> (1992) reached top human level in <a href="/wiki/Backgammon" title="Backgammon">backgammon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Connectionism_vs._computationalism_debate">Connectionism vs. computationalism debate</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Connectionism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Connectionism vs. computationalism debate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As connectionism became increasingly popular in the late 1980s, some researchers (including <a href="/wiki/Jerry_Fodor" title="Jerry Fodor">Jerry Fodor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Steven_Pinker" title="Steven Pinker">Steven Pinker</a> and others) reacted against it. They argued that connectionism, as then developing, threatened to obliterate what they saw as the progress being made in the fields of cognitive science and psychology by the classical approach of <a href="/wiki/Computationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Computationalism">computationalism</a>. Computationalism is a specific form of cognitivism that argues that mental activity is <a href="/wiki/Computing" title="Computing">computational</a>, that is, that the mind operates by performing purely formal operations on symbols, like a <a href="/wiki/Turing_machine" title="Turing machine">Turing machine</a>. Some researchers argued that the trend in connectionism represented a reversion toward <a href="/wiki/Associationism" title="Associationism">associationism</a> and the abandonment of the idea of a <a href="/wiki/Language_of_thought" class="mw-redirect" title="Language of thought">language of thought</a>, something they saw as mistaken. In contrast, those very tendencies made connectionism attractive for other researchers. </p><p>Connectionism and computationalism need not be at odds, but the debate in the late 1980s and early 1990s led to opposition between the two approaches. Throughout the debate, some researchers have argued that connectionism and computationalism are fully compatible, though full consensus on this issue has not been reached. Differences between the two approaches include the following: </p> <ul><li>Computationalists posit symbolic models that are structurally similar to underlying brain structure, whereas connectionists engage in "low-level" modeling, trying to ensure that their models resemble neurological structures.</li> <li>Computationalists in general focus on the structure of explicit symbols (<a href="/wiki/Mental_models" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental models">mental models</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Syntactical" class="mw-redirect" title="Syntactical">syntactical</a> rules for their internal manipulation, whereas connectionists focus on learning from environmental stimuli and storing this information in a form of connections between neurons.</li> <li>Computationalists believe that internal mental activity consists of manipulation of explicit symbols, whereas connectionists believe that the manipulation of explicit symbols provides a poor model of mental activity.</li> <li>Computationalists often posit <a href="/wiki/Domain_specificity" title="Domain specificity">domain specific</a> symbolic sub-systems designed to support learning in specific areas of cognition (e.g., language, intentionality, number), whereas connectionists posit one or a small set of very general learning-mechanisms.</li></ul> <p>Despite these differences, some theorists have proposed that the connectionist architecture is simply the manner in which organic brains happen to implement the symbol-manipulation system. This is logically possible, as it is well known that connectionist models can implement symbol-manipulation systems of the kind used in computationalist models,<sup id="cite_ref-:3_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as indeed they must be able if they are to explain the human ability to perform symbol-manipulation tasks. Several cognitive models combining both symbol-manipulative and connectionist architectures have been proposed. Among them are <a href="/wiki/Paul_Smolensky" title="Paul Smolensky">Paul Smolensky</a>'s Integrated Connectionist/Symbolic Cognitive Architecture (ICS).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Ron_Sun" title="Ron Sun">Ron Sun</a>'s <a href="/wiki/CLARION_(cognitive_architecture)" title="CLARION (cognitive architecture)">CLARION (cognitive architecture)</a>. But the debate rests on whether this symbol manipulation forms the foundation of cognition in general, so this is not a potential vindication of computationalism. Nonetheless, computational descriptions may be helpful high-level descriptions of cognition of logic, for example. </p><p>The debate was largely centred on logical arguments about whether connectionist networks could produce the syntactic structure observed in this sort of reasoning. This was later achieved although using fast-variable binding abilities outside of those standardly assumed in connectionist models.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Part of the appeal of computational descriptions is that they are relatively easy to interpret, and thus may be seen as contributing to our understanding of particular mental processes, whereas connectionist models are in general more opaque, to the extent that they may be describable only in very general terms (such as specifying the learning algorithm, the number of units, etc.), or in unhelpfully low-level terms. In this sense, connectionist models may instantiate, and thereby provide evidence for, a broad theory of cognition (i.e., connectionism), without representing a helpful theory of the particular process that is being modelled. In this sense, the debate might be considered as to some extent reflecting a mere difference in the level of analysis in which particular theories are framed. Some researchers suggest that the analysis gap is the consequence of connectionist mechanisms giving rise to <a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">emergent phenomena</a> that may be describable in computational terms.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 2000s, the popularity of <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_Model#Dynamical_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive Model">dynamical systems</a> in <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">philosophy of mind</a> have added a new perspective on the debate;<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> some authors<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too vague attribution or weasel words. (February 2016)">which?</span></a></i>]</sup> now argue that any split between connectionism and computationalism is more conclusively characterized as a split between computationalism and <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_Model#Dynamical_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive Model">dynamical systems</a>. </p><p>In 2014, <a href="/wiki/Alex_Graves_(computer_scientist)" title="Alex Graves (computer scientist)">Alex Graves</a> and others from <a href="/wiki/DeepMind" class="mw-redirect" title="DeepMind">DeepMind</a> published a series of papers describing a novel Deep Neural Network structure called the <a href="/wiki/Neural_Turing_Machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Neural Turing Machine">Neural Turing Machine</a><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> able to read symbols on a tape and store symbols in memory. Relational Networks, another Deep Network module published by DeepMind, are able to create object-like representations and manipulate them to answer complex questions. Relational Networks and Neural Turing Machines are further evidence that connectionism and computationalism need not be at odds. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Symbolism_vs._connectionism_debate">Symbolism vs. connectionism debate</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Connectionism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Symbolism vs. connectionism debate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Smolensky's Subsymbolic Paradigm<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> has to meet the Fodor-Pylyshyn challenge<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> formulated by classical symbol theory for a convincing theory of cognition in modern connectionism. In order to be an adequate alternative theory of cognition, Smolensky's Subsymbolic Paradigm would have to explain the existence of systematicity or systematic relations in language cognition without the assumption that cognitive processes are causally sensitive to the classical constituent structure of mental representations. The subsymbolic paradigm, or connectionism in general, would thus have to explain the existence of systematicity and compositionality without relying on the mere implementation of a classical cognitive architecture. This challenge implies a dilemma: If the Subsymbolic Paradigm could contribute nothing to the systematicity and compositionality of mental representations, it would be insufficient as a basis for an alternative theory of cognition. However, if the Subsymbolic Paradigm's contribution to systematicity requires mental processes grounded in the classical constituent structure of mental representations, the theory of cognition it develops would be, at best, an implementation architecture of the classical model of symbol theory and thus not a genuine alternative (connectionist) theory of cognition.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The classical model of symbolism is characterized by (1) a combinatorial syntax and semantics of mental representations and (2) mental operations as structure-sensitive processes, based on the fundamental principle of syntactic and semantic constituent structure of mental representations as used in Fodor's "Language of Thought (LOT)".<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This can be used to explain the following closely related properties of human cognition, namely its (1) productivity, (2) systematicity, (3) compositionality, and (4) inferential coherence.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This challenge has been met in modern connectionism, for example, not only by Smolensky's "Integrated Connectionist/Symbolic (ICS) Cognitive Architecture",<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but also by Werning and Maye's "Oscillatory Networks".<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An overview of this is given for example by Bechtel & Abrahamsen,<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Marcus<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Maurer.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Connectionism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Associationism" title="Associationism">Associationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catastrophic_interference" title="Catastrophic interference">Catastrophic interference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calculus_of_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Calculus of relations">Calculus of relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybernetics" title="Cybernetics">Cybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_learning" title="Deep learning">Deep learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminative materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feature_integration_theory" title="Feature integration theory">Feature integration theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_algorithm" title="Genetic algorithm">Genetic algorithm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harmonic_grammar" title="Harmonic grammar">Harmonic grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_learning" title="Machine learning">Machine learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandemonium_architecture" title="Pandemonium architecture">Pandemonium architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-organizing_map" title="Self-organizing map">Self-organizing map</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Connectionism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/connectionism-cognition/#:~:text=Connectionism%20is%20an%20approach%20to,%2C%20neuron%2Dlike%20processing%20units.">"Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy"</a>. <i>iep.utm.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-08-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=iep.utm.edu&rft.atitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiep.utm.edu%2Fconnectionism-cognition%2F%23%3A~%3Atext%3DConnectionism%2520is%2520an%2520approach%2520to%2C%252C%2520neuron%252Dlike%2520processing%2520units.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConnectionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCullochPitts1943" class="citation journal cs1">McCulloch, Warren S.; Pitts, Walter (1943-12-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02478259">"A logical calculus of the ideas immanent in nervous activity"</a>. <i>The Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics</i>. <b>5</b> (4): 115–133. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02478259">10.1007/BF02478259</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1522-9602">1522-9602</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Bulletin+of+Mathematical+Biophysics&rft.atitle=A+logical+calculus+of+the+ideas+immanent+in+nervous+activity&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=115-133&rft.date=1943-12-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF02478259&rft.issn=1522-9602&rft.aulast=McCulloch&rft.aufirst=Warren+S.&rft.au=Pitts%2C+Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%2FBF02478259&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConnectionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2019TheCuriousCaseOfConnectionism-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-2019TheCuriousCaseOfConnectionism_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-2019TheCuriousCaseOfConnectionism_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-2019TheCuriousCaseOfConnectionism_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-2019TheCuriousCaseOfConnectionism_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-2019TheCuriousCaseOfConnectionism_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-2019TheCuriousCaseOfConnectionism_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerkeley2019" class="citation journal cs1">Berkeley, Istvan S. N. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fopphil-2019-0018">"The Curious Case of Connectionism"</a>. <i>Open Philosophy</i>. <b>2019</b> (2): 190–205. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fopphil-2019-0018">10.1515/opphil-2019-0018</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:201061823">201061823</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Open+Philosophy&rft.atitle=The+Curious+Case+of+Connectionism&rft.volume=2019&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=190-205&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fopphil-2019-0018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A201061823%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Berkeley&rft.aufirst=Istvan+S.+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1515%252Fopphil-2019-0018&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConnectionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2006_Margaret_Boden_book-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2006_Margaret_Boden_book_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoden2006" class="citation book cs1">Boden, Margaret (2006). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mindasmachinehis0002bode/page/n5/mode/thumb"><i>Mind as Machine: A History of Cognitive Science</i></a></span>. Oxford: Oxford U.P. p. 914. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-63268-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-63268-3"><bdi>978-0-262-63268-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mind+as+Machine%3A+A+History+of+Cognitive+Science&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=914&rft.pub=Oxford+U.P&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-262-63268-3&rft.aulast=Boden&rft.aufirst=Margaret&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmindasmachinehis0002bode%2Fpage%2Fn5%2Fmode%2Fthumb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConnectionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-1987_Paradigm_Shift_in_Psychology-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1987_Paradigm_Shift_in_Psychology_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchneider1987" class="citation journal cs1">Schneider, Walter (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fopphil-2019-0018">"Connectionism: Is it a Paradigm Shift for Psychology?"</a>. <i>Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers</i>. <b>19</b>: 73–83. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fopphil-2019-0018">10.1515/opphil-2019-0018</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:201061823">201061823</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Behavior+Research+Methods%2C+Instruments%2C+%26+Computers&rft.atitle=Connectionism%3A+Is+it+a+Paradigm+Shift+for+Psychology%3F&rft.volume=19&rft.pages=73-83&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fopphil-2019-0018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A201061823%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Schneider&rft.aufirst=Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1515%252Fopphil-2019-0018&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConnectionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:2_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarcus2001" class="citation book cs1">Marcus, Gary F. (2001). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/algebraicmindint00marc_403"><i>The Algebraic Mind: Integrating Connectionism and Cognitive Science (Learning, Development, and Conceptual Change)</i></a></span>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/algebraicmindint00marc_403/page/n43">27</a>–28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-63268-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-63268-3"><bdi>978-0-262-63268-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Algebraic+Mind%3A+Integrating+Connectionism+and+Cognitive+Science+%28Learning%2C+Development%2C+and+Conceptual+Change%29&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pages=27-28&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-262-63268-3&rft.aulast=Marcus&rft.aufirst=Gary+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Falgebraicmindint00marc_403&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConnectionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:1_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmolensky1999" class="citation journal cs1">Smolensky, Paul (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1207%2Fs15516709cog2304_9">"Grammar-based Connectionist Approaches to Language"</a>. <i>Cognitive Science</i>. <b>23</b> (4): 589–613. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1207%2Fs15516709cog2304_9">10.1207/s15516709cog2304_9</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cognitive+Science&rft.atitle=Grammar-based+Connectionist+Approaches+to+Language&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=589-613&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1207%2Fs15516709cog2304_9&rft.aulast=Smolensky&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1207%252Fs15516709cog2304_9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConnectionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarson2018" class="citation book cs1">Garson, James (27 November 2018). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2018/entries/connectionism/"><i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i></a>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University – via Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2018-11-27&rft.aulast=Garson&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Ffall2018%2Fentries%2Fconnectionism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConnectionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNovoAlsinaMarbánBerciano2017" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Novo, María-Luisa; Alsina, Ángel; Marbán, José-María; Berciano, Ainhoa (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3916%2Fc52-2017-03">"Connective Intelligence for Childhood Mathematics Education"</a>. <i>Comunicar</i> (in Spanish). <b>25</b> (52): 29–39. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3916%2Fc52-2017-03">10.3916/c52-2017-03</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10272%2F14085">10272/14085</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1134-3478">1134-3478</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comunicar&rft.atitle=Connective+Intelligence+for+Childhood+Mathematics+Education&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=52&rft.pages=29-39&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10272%2F14085&rft.issn=1134-3478&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3916%2Fc52-2017-03&rft.aulast=Novo&rft.aufirst=Mar%C3%ADa-Luisa&rft.au=Alsina%2C+%C3%81ngel&rft.au=Marb%C3%A1n%2C+Jos%C3%A9-Mar%C3%ADa&rft.au=Berciano%2C+Ainhoa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3916%252Fc52-2017-03&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConnectionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encephalos.gr/48-1-01e.htm">"Encephalos Journal"</a>. <i>www.encephalos.gr</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-02-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.encephalos.gr&rft.atitle=Encephalos+Journal&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.encephalos.gr%2F48-1-01e.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConnectionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson2016" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, Elizabeth A. (2016-02-04). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=s-OCCwAAQBAJ&q=%22accurate%22&pg=PT18"><i>Neural Geographies: Feminism and the Microstructure of Cognition</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-95876-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-95876-5"><bdi>978-1-317-95876-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neural+Geographies%3A+Feminism+and+the+Microstructure+of+Cognition&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016-02-04&rft.isbn=978-1-317-95876-5&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Ds-OCCwAAQBAJ%26q%3D%2522accurate%2522%26pg%3DPT18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConnectionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-OIR_1-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-OIR_1_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDi_Paolo,_E.A2003" class="citation journal cs1">Di Paolo, E.A (1 January 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://users.sussex.ac.uk/~ezequiel/dp-erasmus.pdf">"Organismically-inspired robotics: homeostatic adaptation and teleology beyond the closed sensorimotor loop"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Dynamical Systems Approach to Embodiment and Sociality, Advanced Knowledge International</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Sussex" title="University of Sussex">University of Sussex</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15349751">15349751</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 December</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dynamical+Systems+Approach+to+Embodiment+and+Sociality%2C+Advanced+Knowledge+International&rft.atitle=Organismically-inspired+robotics%3A+homeostatic+adaptation+and+teleology+beyond+the+closed+sensorimotor+loop&rft.date=2003-01-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A15349751%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Di+Paolo%2C+E.A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fusers.sussex.ac.uk%2F~ezequiel%2Fdp-erasmus.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConnectionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZorziTestolinStoianov2013" class="citation journal cs1">Zorzi, Marco; Testolin, Alberto; Stoianov, Ivilin P. (2013-08-20). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3747356">"Modeling language and cognition with deep unsupervised learning: a tutorial overview"</a>. <i>Frontiers in Psychology</i>. <b>4</b>: 515. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2013.00515">10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00515</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1664-1078">1664-1078</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3747356">3747356</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23970869">23970869</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Psychology&rft.atitle=Modeling+language+and+cognition+with+deep+unsupervised+learning%3A+a+tutorial+overview&rft.volume=4&rft.pages=515&rft.date=2013-08-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3747356%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1664-1078&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23970869&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2013.00515&rft.aulast=Zorzi&rft.aufirst=Marco&rft.au=Testolin%2C+Alberto&rft.au=Stoianov%2C+Ivilin+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3747356&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConnectionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AA_1-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AA_1_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTieszen,_R.2011" class="citation journal cs1">Tieszen, R. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarworks.sjsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=1015&context=comparativephilosophy">"Analytic and Continental Philosophy, Science, and Global Philosophy"</a>. <i>Comparative Philosophy</i>. <b>2</b> (2): 4–22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 December</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comparative+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Analytic+and+Continental+Philosophy%2C+Science%2C+and+Global+Philosophy&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=4-22&rft.date=2011&rft.au=Tieszen%2C+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarworks.sjsu.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Freferer%3D%26httpsredir%3D1%26article%3D1015%26context%3Dcomparativephilosophy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConnectionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrowne1997" class="citation book cs1">Browne, A. (1997-01-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uV9TZzOITMwC&q=%22biological%20plausibility%22&pg=PA17"><i>Neural Network Perspectives on Cognition and Adaptive Robotics</i></a>. CRC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7503-0455-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7503-0455-9"><bdi>978-0-7503-0455-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neural+Network+Perspectives+on+Cognition+and+Adaptive+Robotics&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=1997-01-01&rft.isbn=978-0-7503-0455-9&rft.aulast=Browne&rft.aufirst=A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuV9TZzOITMwC%26q%3D%2522biological%2520plausibility%2522%26pg%3DPA17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConnectionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPfeiferSchreterFogelman-SouliéSteels1989" class="citation book cs1">Pfeifer, R.; Schreter, Z.; Fogelman-Soulié, F.; Steels, L. (1989-08-23). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7pPv0STSos8C&q=%22biological+realism%22&pg=PA63"><i>Connectionism in Perspective</i></a>. Elsevier. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-444-59876-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-444-59876-9"><bdi>978-0-444-59876-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Connectionism+in+Perspective&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=1989-08-23&rft.isbn=978-0-444-59876-9&rft.aulast=Pfeifer&rft.aufirst=R.&rft.au=Schreter%2C+Z.&rft.au=Fogelman-Souli%C3%A9%2C+F.&rft.au=Steels%2C+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7pPv0STSos8C%26q%3D%2522biological%2Brealism%2522%26pg%3DPA63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConnectionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrick1989" class="citation journal cs1">Crick, Francis (January 1989). "The recent excitement about neural networks". <i>Nature</i>. <b>337</b> (6203): 129–132. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1989Natur.337..129C">1989Natur.337..129C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F337129a0">10.1038/337129a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1476-4687">1476-4687</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2911347">2911347</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5892527">5892527</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=The+recent+excitement+about+neural+networks&rft.volume=337&rft.issue=6203&rft.pages=129-132&rft.date=1989-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A5892527%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1989Natur.337..129C&rft.issn=1476-4687&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F337129a0&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F2911347&rft.aulast=Crick&rft.aufirst=Francis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConnectionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:4_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRumelhartHintonWilliams1986" class="citation journal cs1">Rumelhart, David E.; Hinton, Geoffrey E.; Williams, Ronald J. (October 1986). "Learning representations by back-propagating errors". <i>Nature</i>. <b>323</b> (6088): 533–536. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1986Natur.323..533R">1986Natur.323..533R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F323533a0">10.1038/323533a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1476-4687">1476-4687</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:205001834">205001834</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Learning+representations+by+back-propagating+errors&rft.volume=323&rft.issue=6088&rft.pages=533-536&rft.date=1986-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F323533a0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A205001834%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1476-4687&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1986Natur.323..533R&rft.aulast=Rumelhart&rft.aufirst=David+E.&rft.au=Hinton%2C+Geoffrey+E.&rft.au=Williams%2C+Ronald+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConnectionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFitzChang2019" class="citation journal cs1">Fitz, Hartmut; Chang, Franklin (2019-06-01). "Language ERPs reflect learning through prediction error propagation". <i>Cognitive Psychology</i>. <b>111</b>: 15–52. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cogpsych.2019.03.002">10.1016/j.cogpsych.2019.03.002</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/21.11116%2F0000-0003-474F-6">21.11116/0000-0003-474F-6</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0010-0285">0010-0285</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30921626">30921626</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:85501792">85501792</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cognitive+Psychology&rft.atitle=Language+ERPs+reflect+learning+through+prediction+error+propagation&rft.volume=111&rft.pages=15-52&rft.date=2019-06-01&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F21.11116%2F0000-0003-474F-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A85501792%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cogpsych.2019.03.002&rft.issn=0010-0285&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30921626&rft.aulast=Fitz&rft.aufirst=Hartmut&rft.au=Chang%2C+Franklin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConnectionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndersonRosenfeld1989" class="citation book cs1">Anderson, James A.; Rosenfeld, Edward (1989). "Chapter 1: (1890) William James <i>Psychology (Brief Course)</i>". <i>Neurocomputing: Foundations of Research</i>. A Bradford Book. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-51048-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-51048-6"><bdi>978-0-262-51048-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+1%3A+%281890%29+William+James+Psychology+%28Brief+Course%29&rft.btitle=Neurocomputing%3A+Foundations+of+Research&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=A+Bradford+Book&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-262-51048-6&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=James+A.&rft.au=Rosenfeld%2C+Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConnectionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Thorndike" title="Edward Thorndike">Edward Thorndike</a> (1931) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015010306069"><i>Human Learning</i></a>, page 122</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-brush67-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-brush67_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrush1967" class="citation journal cs1">Brush, Stephen G. (1967). "History of the Lenz-Ising Model". <i>Reviews of Modern Physics</i>. <b>39</b> (4): 883–893. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1967RvMP...39..883B">1967RvMP...39..883B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FRevModPhys.39.883">10.1103/RevModPhys.39.883</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reviews+of+Modern+Physics&rft.atitle=History+of+the+Lenz-Ising+Model&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=883-893&rft.date=1967&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FRevModPhys.39.883&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1967RvMP...39..883B&rft.aulast=Brush&rft.aufirst=Stephen+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConnectionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCullochPitts1943" class="citation journal cs1">McCulloch, Warren S.; Pitts, Walter (1943-12-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02478259">"A logical calculus of the ideas immanent in nervous activity"</a>. <i>The Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics</i>. <b>5</b> (4): 115–133. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02478259">10.1007/BF02478259</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1522-9602">1522-9602</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Bulletin+of+Mathematical+Biophysics&rft.atitle=A+logical+calculus+of+the+ideas+immanent+in+nervous+activity&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=115-133&rft.date=1943-12-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF02478259&rft.issn=1522-9602&rft.aulast=McCulloch&rft.aufirst=Warren+S.&rft.au=Pitts%2C+Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%2FBF02478259&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConnectionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hayek, Friedrich A. [1920] 1991. Beiträge zur Theorie der Entwicklung des Bewusstseins [Contributions to a theory of how consciousness develops]. Manuscript, translated by Grete Heinz.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaldwell2004" class="citation journal cs1">Caldwell, Bruce (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10818-004-5505-9">"Some Reflections on F.A. Hayek's The Sensory Order"</a>. <i>Journal of Bioeconomics</i>. <b>6</b> (3): 239–254. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10818-004-5505-9">10.1007/s10818-004-5505-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1387-6996">1387-6996</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144437624">144437624</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Bioeconomics&rft.atitle=Some+Reflections+on+F.A.+Hayek%27s+The+Sensory+Order&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=239-254&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144437624%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1387-6996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10818-004-5505-9&rft.aulast=Caldwell&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1007%2Fs10818-004-5505-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConnectionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHayek2012" class="citation book cs1">Hayek, F. A. (2012-09-15). <i>The Sensory Order: An Inquiry into the Foundations of Theoretical Psychology</i> (1st ed.). The University of Chicago Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sensory+Order%3A+An+Inquiry+into+the+Foundations+of+Theoretical+Psychology&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=The+University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2012-09-15&rft.aulast=Hayek&rft.aufirst=F.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConnectionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">pp 124-129, Olazaran Rodriguez, Jose Miguel. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221111165150/https://era.ed.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/1842/20075/Olazaran-RodriguezJM_1991redux.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">A historical sociology of neural network research</a></i>. PhD Dissertation. University of Edinburgh, 1991.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Widrow, B. (1962) <i>Generalization and information storage in networks of ADALINE "neurons"</i>. In M. C. Yovits, G. T. Jacobi, & G. D. Goldstein (Ed.), Self-Organizing Svstems-1962 (pp. 435-461). Washington, DC: Spartan Books.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ivak1967-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ivak1967_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIvakhnenkoGrigorʹevich_Lapa1967" class="citation book cs1">Ivakhnenko, A. G.; Grigorʹevich Lapa, Valentin (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rGFgAAAAMAAJ"><i>Cybernetics and forecasting techniques</i></a>. American Elsevier Pub. Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cybernetics+and+forecasting+techniques&rft.pub=American+Elsevier+Pub.+Co.&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Ivakhnenko&rft.aufirst=A.+G.&rft.au=Grigor%CA%B9evich+Lapa%2C+Valentin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrGFgAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConnectionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DLhistory-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DLhistory_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DLhistory_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmidhuber2022" class="citation arxiv cs1"><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Schmidhuber" title="Jürgen Schmidhuber">Schmidhuber, Jürgen</a> (2022). "Annotated History of Modern AI and Deep Learning". <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2212.11279">2212.11279</a></span> [<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/archive/cs.NE">cs.NE</a>].</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=preprint&rft.jtitle=arXiv&rft.atitle=Annotated+History+of+Modern+AI+and+Deep+Learning&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F2212.11279&rft.aulast=Schmidhuber&rft.aufirst=J%C3%BCrgen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConnectionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ivak1965-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ivak1965_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIvakhnenko1973" class="citation book cs1">Ivakhnenko, A. G. (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FhwVNQAACAAJ"><i>Cybernetic Predicting Devices</i></a>. CCM Information Corporation.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cybernetic+Predicting+Devices&rft.pub=CCM+Information+Corporation&rft.date=1973&rft.aulast=Ivakhnenko&rft.aufirst=A.+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFhwVNQAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConnectionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-robbins1951-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-robbins1951_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobbinsMonro1951" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Robbins" title="Herbert Robbins">Robbins, H.</a>; Monro, S. (1951). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1214%2Faoms%2F1177729586">"A Stochastic Approximation Method"</a>. <i>The Annals of Mathematical Statistics</i>. <b>22</b> (3): 400. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1214%2Faoms%2F1177729586">10.1214/aoms/1177729586</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Annals+of+Mathematical+Statistics&rft.atitle=A+Stochastic+Approximation+Method&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=400&rft.date=1951&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1214%2Faoms%2F1177729586&rft.aulast=Robbins&rft.aufirst=H.&rft.au=Monro%2C+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1214%252Faoms%252F1177729586&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConnectionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Amari1967-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Amari1967_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmari1967" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Shun%27ichi_Amari" title="Shun'ichi Amari">Amari, Shun'ichi</a> (1967). "A theory of adaptive pattern classifier". <i>IEEE Transactions</i>. <b>EC</b> (16): 279–307.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Transactions&rft.atitle=A+theory+of+adaptive+pattern+classifier&rft.volume=EC&rft.issue=16&rft.pages=279-307&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Amari&rft.aufirst=Shun%27ichi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConnectionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmari1972" class="citation journal cs1">Amari, S.-I. (November 1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1672070">"Learning Patterns and Pattern Sequences by Self-Organizing Nets of Threshold Elements"</a>. <i>IEEE Transactions on Computers</i>. <b>C-21</b> (11): 1197–1206. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FT-C.1972.223477">10.1109/T-C.1972.223477</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0018-9340">0018-9340</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Transactions+on+Computers&rft.atitle=Learning+Patterns+and+Pattern+Sequences+by+Self-Organizing+Nets+of+Threshold+Elements&rft.volume=C-21&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=1197-1206&rft.date=1972-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FT-C.1972.223477&rft.issn=0018-9340&rft.aulast=Amari&rft.aufirst=S.-I.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fdocument%2F1672070&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConnectionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlazaran1993" class="citation cs2">Olazaran, Mikel (1993-01-01), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0065245808604088">"A Sociological History of the Neural Network Controversy"</a>, in Yovits, Marshall C. (ed.), <i>Advances in Computers Volume 37</i>, vol. 37, Elsevier, pp. 335–425, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0065-2458%2808%2960408-8">10.1016/S0065-2458(08)60408-8</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-012137-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-012137-3"><bdi>978-0-12-012137-3</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-08-07</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+Sociological+History+of+the+Neural+Network+Controversy&rft.btitle=Advances+in+Computers+Volume+37&rft.pages=335-425&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=1993-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0065-2458%2808%2960408-8&rft.isbn=978-0-12-012137-3&rft.aulast=Olazaran&rft.aufirst=Mikel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS0065245808604088&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConnectionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlazaran1996" class="citation journal cs1">Olazaran, Mikel (August 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/030631296026003005">"A Sociological Study of the Official History of the Perceptrons Controversy"</a>. <i>Social Studies of Science</i>. <b>26</b> (3): 611–659. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F030631296026003005">10.1177/030631296026003005</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0306-3127">0306-3127</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Studies+of+Science&rft.atitle=A+Sociological+Study+of+the+Official+History+of+the+Perceptrons+Controversy&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=611-659&rft.date=1996-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F030631296026003005&rft.issn=0306-3127&rft.aulast=Olazaran&rft.aufirst=Mikel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sagepub.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1177%2F030631296026003005&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConnectionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHopfield1982" class="citation journal cs1">Hopfield, J J (April 1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC346238">"Neural networks and physical systems with emergent collective computational abilities"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>79</b> (8): 2554–2558. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1982PNAS...79.2554H">1982PNAS...79.2554H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.79.8.2554">10.1073/pnas.79.8.2554</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424">0027-8424</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC346238">346238</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6953413">6953413</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Neural+networks+and+physical+systems+with+emergent+collective+computational+abilities.&rft.volume=79&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=2554-2558&rft.date=1982-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC346238%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1982PNAS...79.2554H&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F6953413&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.79.8.2554&rft.issn=0027-8424&rft.aulast=Hopfield&rft.aufirst=J+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC346238&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConnectionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRumelhartHintonWilliams1986" class="citation journal cs1">Rumelhart, David E.; Hinton, Geoffrey E.; Williams, Ronald J. (October 1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/323533a0">"Learning representations by back-propagating errors"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>323</b> (6088): 533–536. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1986Natur.323..533R">1986Natur.323..533R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F323533a0">10.1038/323533a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1476-4687">1476-4687</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Learning+representations+by+back-propagating+errors&rft.volume=323&rft.issue=6088&rft.pages=533-536&rft.date=1986-10&rft.issn=1476-4687&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F323533a0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1986Natur.323..533R&rft.aulast=Rumelhart&rft.aufirst=David+E.&rft.au=Hinton%2C+Geoffrey+E.&rft.au=Williams%2C+Ronald+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2F323533a0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConnectionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCybenko1989" class="citation journal cs1">Cybenko, G. (1989-12-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02551274">"Approximation by superpositions of a sigmoidal function"</a>. <i>Mathematics of Control, Signals and Systems</i>. <b>2</b> (4): 303–314. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1989MCSS....2..303C">1989MCSS....2..303C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02551274">10.1007/BF02551274</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1435-568X">1435-568X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mathematics+of+Control%2C+Signals+and+Systems&rft.atitle=Approximation+by+superpositions+of+a+sigmoidal+function&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=303-314&rft.date=1989-12-01&rft.issn=1435-568X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF02551274&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1989MCSS....2..303C&rft.aulast=Cybenko&rft.aufirst=G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%2FBF02551274&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConnectionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:02-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:02_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSejnowski2018" class="citation book cs1">Sejnowski, Terrence J. (2018). <i>The deep learning revolution</i>. Cambridge, Massachusetts London, England: The MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-03803-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-03803-4"><bdi>978-0-262-03803-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+deep+learning+revolution&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts+London%2C+England&rft.pub=The+MIT+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-262-03803-4&rft.aulast=Sejnowski&rft.aufirst=Terrence+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConnectionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSammutWebb2010" class="citation cs2">Sammut, Claude; Webb, Geoffrey I., eds. (2010), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-30164-8_813">"TD-Gammon"</a>, <i>Encyclopedia of Machine Learning</i>, Boston, MA: Springer US, pp. 955–956, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-0-387-30164-8_813">10.1007/978-0-387-30164-8_813</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-30164-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-30164-8"><bdi>978-0-387-30164-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-12-25</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=TD-Gammon&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Machine+Learning&rft.place=Boston%2C+MA&rft.pages=955-956&rft.pub=Springer+US&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-0-387-30164-8_813&rft.isbn=978-0-387-30164-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%2F978-0-387-30164-8_813&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConnectionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChang2002" class="citation journal cs1">Chang, Franklin (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1207%2Fs15516709cog2605_3">"Symbolically speaking: a connectionist model of sentence production"</a>. <i>Cognitive Science</i>. <b>26</b> (5): 609–651. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1207%2Fs15516709cog2605_3">10.1207/s15516709cog2605_3</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1551-6709">1551-6709</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cognitive+Science&rft.atitle=Symbolically+speaking%3A+a+connectionist+model+of+sentence+production&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=609-651&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1207%2Fs15516709cog2605_3&rft.issn=1551-6709&rft.aulast=Chang&rft.aufirst=Franklin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1207%252Fs15516709cog2605_3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConnectionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmolensky1990" class="citation journal cs1">Smolensky, Paul (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lscp.net/persons/dupoux/teaching/AT1_2012/papers/Smolensky_1990_TensorProductVariableBinding.AI.pdf">"Tensor Product Variable Binding and the Representation of Symbolic Structures in Connectionist Systems"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Artificial Intelligence</i>. <b>46</b> (1–2): 159–216. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0004-3702%2890%2990007-M">10.1016/0004-3702(90)90007-M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Artificial+Intelligence&rft.atitle=Tensor+Product+Variable+Binding+and+the+Representation+of+Symbolic+Structures+in+Connectionist+Systems&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=159-216&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0004-3702%2890%2990007-M&rft.aulast=Smolensky&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lscp.net%2Fpersons%2Fdupoux%2Fteaching%2FAT1_2012%2Fpapers%2FSmolensky_1990_TensorProductVariableBinding.AI.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConnectionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShastriAjjanagadde1993" class="citation journal cs1">Shastri, Lokendra; Ajjanagadde, Venkat (September 1993). "From simple associations to systematic reasoning: A connectionist representation of rules, variables and dynamic bindings using temporal synchrony". <i>Behavioral and Brain Sciences</i>. <b>16</b> (3): 417–451. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0140525X00030910">10.1017/S0140525X00030910</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1469-1825">1469-1825</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14973656">14973656</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Behavioral+and+Brain+Sciences&rft.atitle=From+simple+associations+to+systematic+reasoning%3A+A+connectionist+representation+of+rules%2C+variables+and+dynamic+bindings+using+temporal+synchrony&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=417-451&rft.date=1993-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A14973656%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1469-1825&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0140525X00030910&rft.aulast=Shastri&rft.aufirst=Lokendra&rft.au=Ajjanagadde%2C+Venkat&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConnectionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEllis1998" class="citation journal cs1">Ellis, Nick C. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-personal.umich.edu/~ncellis/NickEllis/Publications_files/Emergentism.pdf">"Emergentism, Connectionism and Language Learning"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Language Learning</i>. <b>48</b> (4): 631–664. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F0023-8333.00063">10.1111/0023-8333.00063</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language+Learning&rft.atitle=Emergentism%2C+Connectionism+and+Language+Learning&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=631-664&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F0023-8333.00063&rft.aulast=Ellis&rft.aufirst=Nick+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-personal.umich.edu%2F~ncellis%2FNickEllis%2FPublications_files%2FEmergentism.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConnectionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Gelder1998" class="citation cs2">Van Gelder, Tim (1998), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/S0140525X98271731">"The dynamical hypothesis in cognitive science"</a>, <i>Behavioral and Brain Sciences</i>, <b>21</b> (5): 615–28, discussion 629–65, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0140525X98001733">10.1017/S0140525X98001733</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10097022">10097022</a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 May</span> 2022</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Behavioral+and+Brain+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+dynamical+hypothesis+in+cognitive+science&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=615-28%2C+discussion+629-65&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0140525X98001733&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10097022&rft.aulast=Van+Gelder&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fservices%2Faop-cambridge-core%2Fcontent%2Fview%2FS0140525X98271731&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConnectionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeer2000" class="citation journal cs1">Beer, Randall D. (March 2000). "Dynamical approaches to cognitive science". <i>Trends in Cognitive Sciences</i>. <b>4</b> (3): 91–99. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs1364-6613%2899%2901440-0">10.1016/s1364-6613(99)01440-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1364-6613">1364-6613</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10689343">10689343</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16515284">16515284</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Cognitive+Sciences&rft.atitle=Dynamical+approaches+to+cognitive+science&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=91-99&rft.date=2000-03&rft.issn=1364-6613&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A16515284%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10689343&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fs1364-6613%2899%2901440-0&rft.aulast=Beer&rft.aufirst=Randall+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConnectionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraves2014" class="citation arxiv cs1">Graves, Alex (2014). "Neural Turing Machines". <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1410.5401">1410.5401</a></span> [<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/archive/cs.NE">cs.NE</a>].</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=preprint&rft.jtitle=arXiv&rft.atitle=Neural+Turing+Machines&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1410.5401&rft.aulast=Graves&rft.aufirst=Alex&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConnectionism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">P. Smolensky: On the proper treatment of connectionism. In: Behavioral and Brain Sciences. Band 11, 1988, S. 1-74.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">P. Smolensky: The constituent structure of connectionist mental states: a reply to Fodor and Pylyshyn. In: T. Horgan, J. Tienson (Hrsg.): Spindel Conference 1987: Connectionism and the Philosophy of Mind. The Southern Journal of Philosophy. Special Issue on Connectionism and the Foundations of Cognitive Science. Supplement. Band 26, 1988, S. 137-161.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J.A. Fodor, Z.W. Pylyshyn: Connectionism and cognitive architecture: a critical analysis. Cognition. Band 28, 1988, S. 12-13, 33-50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J.A. Fodor, B. McLaughlin: Connectionism and the problem of systematicity: why Smolensky's solution doesn't work. Cognition. Band 35, 1990, S. 183-184.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">B. McLaughlin: The connectionism/classicism battle to win souls. Philosophical Studies, Band 71, 1993, S. 171-172.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">B. McLaughlin: Can an ICS architecture meet the systematicity and productivity challenges? In: P. Calvo, J. Symons (Hrsg.): The Architecture of Cognition. Rethinking Fodor and Pylyshyn's Systematicity Challenge. MIT Press, Cambridge/MA, London, 2014, S. 31-76.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J.A. Fodor, B. McLaughlin: Connectionism and the problem of systematicity: Why Smolensky's solution doesn't work. Cognition. Band 35, 1990, S. 183-184.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J.A. Fodor: The language of thought. Harvester Press, Sussex, 1976, ISBN 0-85527-309-7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J.A. Fodor: LOT 2: The language of thought revisited. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 2008, ISBN 0-19-954877-3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J.A. Fodor, Z.W. Pylyshyn (1988), S. 33-48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">P. Smolenky: Reply: Constituent structure and explanation in an integrated connectionist / symbolic cognitive architecture. In: C. MacDonald, G. MacDonald (Hrsg.): Connectionism: Debates on psychological explanation. Blackwell Publishers. Oxford/UK, Cambridge/MA. Vol. 2, 1995, S. 224, 236-239, 242-244, 250-252, 282.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">P. Smolensky, G. Legendre: The Harmonic Mind: From Neural Computation to Optimality-Theoretic Grammar. Vol. 1: Cognitive Architecture. A Bradford Book, The MIT Press, Cambridge, London, 2006a, ISBN 0-262-19526-7, S. 65-67, 69-71, 74-75, 154-155, 159-202, 209-210, 235-267, 271-342, 513.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M. Werning: Neuronal synchronization, covariation, and compositional representation. In: M. Werning, E. Machery, G. Schurz (Hrsg.): The compositionality of meaning and content. Vol. II: Applications to linguistics, psychology and neuroscience. Ontos Verlag, 2005, S. 283-312.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M. Werning: Non-symbolic compositional representation and its neuronal foundation: towards an emulative semantics. In: M. Werning, W. Hinzen, E. Machery (Hrsg.): The Oxford Handbook of Compositionality. Oxford University Press, 2012, S. 633-654.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A. Maye und M. Werning: Neuronal synchronization: from dynamics feature binding to compositional representations. Chaos and Complexity Letters, Band 2, S. 315-325.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bechtel, W., Abrahamsen, A.A. <i>Connectionism and the Mind: Parallel Processing, Dynamics, and Evolution in Networks.</i> 2nd Edition. Blackwell Publishers, Oxford. 2002</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">G.F. Marcus: The algebraic mind. Integrating connectionism and cognitive science. Bradford Book, The MIT Press, Cambridge, 2001, ISBN 0-262-13379-2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H. Maurer: Cognitive science: Integrative synchronization mechanisms in cognitive neuroarchitectures of the modern connectionism. CRC Press, Boca Raton/FL, 2021, ISBN 978-1-351-04352-6. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1201/9781351043526">https://doi.org/10.1201/9781351043526</a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Connectionism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Feldman, Jerome and Ballard, Dana. Connectionist models and their properties(1982). Cognitive Science. V6, Iissue 3 , pp205-254.</li> <li>Rumelhart, D.E., J.L. McClelland and the PDP Research Group (1986). <i>Parallel Distributed Processing: Explorations in the Microstructure of Cognition. Volume 1: Foundations</i>, Cambridge, Massachusetts: <a href="/wiki/MIT_Press" title="MIT Press">MIT Press</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-68053-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-68053-0">978-0-262-68053-0</a></li> <li>McClelland, J.L., D.E. Rumelhart and the PDP Research Group (1986). <i>Parallel Distributed Processing: Explorations in the Microstructure of Cognition. Volume 2: Psychological and Biological Models</i>, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-63110-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-63110-5">978-0-262-63110-5</a></li> <li>Pinker, Steven and Mehler, Jacques (1988). <i>Connections and Symbols</i>, Cambridge MA: MIT Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-66064-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-66064-8">978-0-262-66064-8</a></li> <li>Jeffrey L. Elman, Elizabeth A. Bates, Mark H. Johnson, Annette Karmiloff-Smith, Domenico Parisi, Kim Plunkett (1996). <i>Rethinking Innateness: A connectionist perspective on development</i>, Cambridge MA: MIT Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-55030-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-55030-7">978-0-262-55030-7</a></li> <li>Marcus, Gary F. (2001). <i>The Algebraic Mind: Integrating Connectionism and Cognitive Science (Learning, Development, and Conceptual Change)</i>, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-63268-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-63268-3">978-0-262-63268-3</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_A._Medler1998" class="citation journal cs1">David A. Medler (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.blutner.de/NeuralNets/Texts/Medler.pdf">"A Brief History of Connectionism"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Neural Computing Surveys</i>. <b>1</b>: 61–101.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Neural+Computing+Surveys&rft.atitle=A+Brief+History+of+Connectionism&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=61-101&rft.date=1998&rft.au=David+A.+Medler&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.blutner.de%2FNeuralNets%2FTexts%2FMedler.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConnectionism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Maurer, Harald (2021). <i>Cognitive Science: Integrative Synchronization Mechanisms in Cognitive Neuroarchitectures of the Modern Connectionism</i>, Boca Raton/FL: CRC Press, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1201/9781351043526">https://doi.org/10.1201/9781351043526</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-351-04352-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-351-04352-6">978-1-351-04352-6</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Connectionism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235611614">.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);margin:0.5em 0;padding:0.2em;line-height:1.5em;font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-header{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-listen-to{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-files{text-align:center;margin-top:10px;margin-bottom:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-icon{float:left;margin-left:5px;margin-top:10px}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-disclaimer{margin-left:60px;margin-top:10px;font-size:95%;line-height:1.4em}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-footer{margin-top:10px;text-align:center}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia{width:20em;float:right;clear:right;margin-left:1em}}</style><div class="spoken-wikipedia noprint haudio"><div class="spoken-wikipedia-header"><span class="spoken-wikipedia-listen-to">Listen to this article</span> (<span class="duration"><span class="min">19</span> minutes</span>)</div><div class="spoken-wikipedia-files"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="200" style="width:200px;" data-durationhint="1160" data-mwtitle="En-Connectionism.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/En-Connectionism.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/13/En-Connectionism.ogg/En-Connectionism.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></span><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </div><div class="spoken-wikipedia-icon"><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="Spoken Wikipedia"><img alt="Spoken Wikipedia icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/45px-Sound-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/68px-Sound-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/90px-Sound-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="96" /></span></span></div><div class="spoken-wikipedia-disclaimer"><a href="/wiki/File:En-Connectionism.ogg" title="File:En-Connectionism.ogg">This audio file</a> was created from a revision of this article dated 26 November 2011<span style="display:none"> (<span class="bday dtstart published updated itvstart">2011-11-26</span>)</span>, and does not reflect subsequent edits.</div><div class="spoken-wikipedia-footer">(<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Media_help" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Media help">Audio help</a> · <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Spoken_articles" title="Wikipedia:Spoken articles">More spoken articles</a>)</div></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philosophy.uwaterloo.ca/MindDict/connectionism.html">Dictionary of Philosophy of Mind entry on connectionism</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarson" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Garson" title="James Garson">Garson, James</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/connectionism/">"Connectionism"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Connectionism&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.aulast=Garson&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fconnectionism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConnectionism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://srsc.ulb.ac.be/pdp/iac/IAC.html">A demonstration of Interactive Activation and Competition Networks</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150703142148/http://srsc.ulb.ac.be/pdp/iac/IAC.html">Archived</a> 2015-07-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/connect">"Connectionism"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Connectionism&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fconnect&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConnectionism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sapienlabs.org/the-crisis-of-computational-neuroscience/">Critique of connectionism</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Subfields_of_and_cyberneticians_involved_in_cybernetics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Cybernetics" title="Template:Cybernetics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cybernetics" title="Template talk:Cybernetics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cybernetics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cybernetics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Subfields_of_and_cyberneticians_involved_in_cybernetics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Subfields of and cyberneticians involved in <a href="/wiki/Cybernetics" title="Cybernetics">cybernetics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Subfields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biocybernetics" title="Biocybernetics">Biological cybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomedical_cybernetics" title="Biomedical cybernetics">Biomedical cybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biorobotics" title="Biorobotics">Biorobotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosemiotics" title="Biosemiotics">Biosemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface" title="Brain–computer interface">Neurocybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catastrophe_theory" title="Catastrophe theory">Catastrophe theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_neuroscience" title="Computational neuroscience">Computational neuroscience</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Connectionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Control_theory" title="Control theory">Control theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversation_theory" title="Conversation theory">Conversation theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybernetics_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Cybernetics in the Soviet Union">Cybernetics in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decision_theory" title="Decision theory">Decision theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">Emergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_cybernetics" title="Engineering cybernetics">Engineering cybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">Homeostasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_theory" title="Information theory">Information theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management_cybernetics" title="Management cybernetics">Management cybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_cybernetics" title="Medical cybernetics">Medical cybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-order_cybernetics" title="Second-order cybernetics">Second-order cybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybersemiotics" class="mw-redirect" title="Cybersemiotics">Cybersemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociocybernetics" title="Sociocybernetics">Sociocybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synergetics_(Haken)" title="Synergetics (Haken)">Synergetics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cyberneticist" title="Cyberneticist">Cyberneticians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Lerner" title="Alexander Lerner">Alexander Lerner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexey_Lyapunov" title="Alexey Lyapunov">Alexey Lyapunov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Radcliffe-Brown" title="Alfred Radcliffe-Brown">Alfred Radcliffe-Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allenna_Leonard" title="Allenna Leonard">Allenna Leonard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Wilden" title="Anthony Wilden">Anthony Wilden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buckminster_Fuller" title="Buckminster Fuller">Buckminster Fuller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fran%C3%A7ois_(systems_scientist)" title="Charles François (systems scientist)">Charles François</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genevieve_Bell" title="Genevieve Bell">Genevieve Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Boden" title="Margaret Boden">Margaret Boden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Bernard" title="Claude Bernard">Claude Bernard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cliff_Joslyn" title="Cliff Joslyn">Cliff Joslyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_von_Holst" title="Erich von Holst">Erich von Holst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_von_Glasersfeld" title="Ernst von Glasersfeld">Ernst von Glasersfeld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Heylighen" title="Francis Heylighen">Francis Heylighen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Varela" title="Francisco Varela">Francisco Varela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederic_Vester" title="Frederic Vester">Frederic Vester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Vickers" title="Geoffrey Vickers">Charles Geoffrey Vickers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Pask" title="Gordon Pask">Gordon Pask</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordon_S._Brown" title="Gordon S. Brown">Gordon S. Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregory_Bateson" title="Gregory Bateson">Gregory Bateson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinz_von_Foerster" title="Heinz von Foerster">Heinz von Foerster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humberto_Maturana" title="Humberto Maturana">Humberto Maturana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I._A._Richards" title="I. A. Richards">I. A. Richards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igor_Aleksander" title="Igor Aleksander">Igor Aleksander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacque_Fresco" title="Jacque Fresco">Jacque Fresco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jakob_Johann_von_Uexk%C3%BCll" title="Jakob Johann von Uexküll">Jakob von Uexküll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jason_Jixuan_Hu" title="Jason Jixuan Hu">Jason Jixuan Hu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jay_Wright_Forrester" title="Jay Wright Forrester">Jay Wright Forrester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jennifer_Wilby" title="Jennifer Wilby">Jennifer Wilby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_N._Warfield" title="John N. Warfield">John N. Warfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kevin_Warwick" title="Kevin Warwick">Kevin Warwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Bertalanffy" title="Ludwig von Bertalanffy">Ludwig von Bertalanffy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maleyka_Abbaszadeh" title="Maleyka Abbaszadeh">Maleyka Abbaszadeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manfred_Clynes" title="Manfred Clynes">Manfred Clynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Mead" title="Margaret Mead">Margaret Mead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marian_Mazur" title="Marian Mazur">Marian Mazur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N._Katherine_Hayles" title="N. Katherine Hayles">N. Katherine Hayles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natalia_Bekhtereva" title="Natalia Bekhtereva">Natalia Bekhtereva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Niklas Luhmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norbert_Wiener" title="Norbert Wiener">Norbert Wiener</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petro_Grigorenko" title="Petro Grigorenko">Pyotr Grigorenko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qian_Xuesen" title="Qian Xuesen">Qian Xuesen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ranulph_Glanville" title="Ranulph Glanville">Ranulph Glanville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Trappl" title="Robert Trappl">Robert Trappl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_P._Kurdyumov" class="mw-redirect" title="Sergei P. Kurdyumov">Sergei P. Kurdyumov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stafford_Beer" title="Stafford Beer">Anthony Stafford Beer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuart_Kauffman" title="Stuart Kauffman">Stuart Kauffman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuart_Umpleby" title="Stuart Umpleby">Stuart Umpleby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talcott_Parsons" title="Talcott Parsons">Talcott Parsons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulla_Mitzdorf" title="Ulla Mitzdorf">Ulla Mitzdorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valentin_Turchin" title="Valentin Turchin">Valentin Turchin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valentino_Braitenberg" title="Valentino Braitenberg">Valentin Braitenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._Ross_Ashby" title="W. Ross Ashby">William Ross Ashby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Bradford_Cannon" title="Walter Bradford Cannon">Walter Bradford Cannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Pitts" title="Walter Pitts">Walter Pitts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_Sturgis_McCulloch" title="Warren Sturgis McCulloch">Warren McCulloch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Grey_Walter" title="William Grey Walter">William Grey Walter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Evolutionary_psychology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Template:Evolutionary psychology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Template talk:Evolutionary psychology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Evolutionary psychology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Evolutionary_psychology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary psychology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="History of evolutionary psychology">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">Evolutionary thought</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_foundations_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="Theoretical foundations of evolutionary psychology">Theoretical foundations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptationism" title="Adaptationism">Adaptationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_revolution" title="Cognitive revolution">Cognitive revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(psychology)" title="Cognitivism (psychology)">Cognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene-centered_view_of_evolution" title="Gene-centered view of evolution">Gene selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">Modern synthesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="Criticism of evolutionary psychology">Criticism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Evolutionary<br />processes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_adaptation" title="Psychological adaptation">Adaptations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altruism_(biology)" title="Altruism (biology)">Altruism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cheating_(biology)" title="Cheating (biology)">Cheating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamiltonian_spite" title="Hamiltonian spite">Hamiltonian spite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_altruism_in_humans" title="Reciprocal altruism in humans">Reciprocal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baldwin_effect" title="Baldwin effect">Baldwin effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spandrel_(biology)" title="Spandrel (biology)">By-products</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionarily_stable_strategy" title="Evolutionarily stable strategy">Evolutionarily stable strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exaptation" title="Exaptation">Exaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">Fitness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inclusive_fitness_in_humans" title="Inclusive fitness in humans">Inclusive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">Kin selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_mismatch" title="Evolutionary mismatch">Mismatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_investment" title="Parental investment">Parental investment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parent%E2%80%93offspring_conflict" title="Parent–offspring conflict">Parent–offspring conflict</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_humans" title="Sexual selection in humans">Sexual selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Costly_signaling_theory_in_evolutionary_psychology" title="Costly signaling theory in evolutionary psychology">Costly signaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_intrasexual_competition" title="Male intrasexual competition">Male</a>/<a href="/wiki/Female_intrasexual_competition" title="Female intrasexual competition">female intrasexual competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_choice" title="Mate choice">Mate choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">Sexual dimorphism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_selection" title="Social selection">Social selection</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cognition" title="Evolution of cognition">Cognition</a> /<br /><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_emotion" title="Evolution of emotion">Emotion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_(psychology)" title="Affect (psychology)">Affect</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_display" title="Affect display">Display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Display_rules" title="Display rules">Display rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facial_expression" title="Facial expression">Facial expression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Behavioral modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_module" title="Cognitive module">Cognitive module</a>/<a href="/wiki/Modularity_of_mind" title="Modularity of mind">modularity of mind</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automatic_and_controlled_processes" title="Automatic and controlled processes">Automatic and controlled processes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_theory_of_mind" title="Computational theory of mind">Computational theory of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domain-general_learning" title="Domain-general learning">Domain generality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domain_specificity" title="Domain specificity">Domain specificity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_process_theory" title="Dual process theory">Dual process theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_tradeoff_hypothesis" title="Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis">Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_brain" title="Evolution of the brain">Evolution of the brain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_nervous_systems" title="Evolution of nervous systems">Evolution of nervous systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response" title="Fight-or-flight response">Fight-or-flight response</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arachnophobia" title="Arachnophobia">Arachnophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_falling" title="Fear of falling">Basophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ophidiophobia" title="Ophidiophobia">Ophidiophobia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_biology" title="Folk biology">Folk biology</a>/<a href="/wiki/Folk_taxonomy" title="Folk taxonomy">taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_psychology" title="Folk psychology">Folk psychology</a>/<a href="/wiki/Theory_of_mind" title="Theory of mind">theory of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_human_intelligence" title="Evolution of human intelligence">Intelligence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flynn_effect" title="Flynn effect">Flynn effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wason_selection_task" title="Wason selection task">Wason selection task</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_control" title="Motor control">Motor control</a>/<a href="/wiki/Motor_skill" title="Motor skill">skill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_multitasking" title="Human multitasking">Multitasking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_sleep" title="Neuroscience of sleep">Sleep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Visual perception</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision_in_primates" title="Evolution of color vision in primates">Color vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_eye" title="Evolution of the eye">Eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_physics" title="Naïve physics">Naïve physics</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_and_culture" title="Evolutionary psychology and culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_aesthetics" title="Evolutionary aesthetics">Aesthetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Darwinian_literary_studies" title="Darwinian literary studies">Literary criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_musicology" title="Evolutionary musicology">Musicology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_anthropology" title="Evolutionary anthropology">Anthropology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_linguistics" title="Evolutionary linguistics">Language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_language" title="Evolutionary psychology of language">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_speech" title="Origin of speech">Speech</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">Morality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_foundations_theory" title="Moral foundations theory">Moral foundations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_religion" title="Evolutionary psychology of religion">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary origin of religions">Origin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_universal" title="Cultural universal">Universals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_psychology" title="Evolutionary developmental psychology">Development</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_theory" title="Attachment theory">Attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_bonding" title="Human bonding">Bonding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affectional_bond" title="Affectional bond">Affectional</a>/<a href="/wiki/Maternal_bond" title="Maternal bond">maternal</a>/<a href="/wiki/Paternal_bond" title="Paternal bond">paternal bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_deprivation" title="Maternal deprivation">Caregiver deprivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_in_children" title="Attachment in children">Childhood attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinderella_effect" title="Cinderella effect">Cinderella effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_development" title="Cognitive development">Cognitive development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_educational_psychology" title="Evolutionary educational psychology">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">Language acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_development" title="Personality development">Personality development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialization" title="Socialization">Socialization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Human factors</a> /<br /><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychiatry" title="Evolutionary psychiatry">Mental health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_ergonomics" title="Cognitive ergonomics">Cognitive ergonomics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer-mediated_communication" title="Computer-mediated communication">Computer-mediated communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_psychology" title="Engineering psychology">Engineering psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">Human–computer interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_naturalness_theory" title="Media naturalness theory">Media naturalness theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroergonomics" title="Neuroergonomics">Neuroergonomics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_approaches_to_depression" title="Evolutionary approaches to depression">Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_media_use_and_mental_health" title="Digital media use and mental health">Digital media use and mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accident-proneness" title="Accident-proneness">Hypophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imprinted_brain_hypothesis" title="Imprinted brain hypothesis">Imprinted brain hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind-blindness" title="Mind-blindness">Mind-blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_effects_of_Internet_use" title="Psychological effects of Internet use">Psychological effects of Internet use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rank_theory_of_depression" title="Rank theory of depression">Rank theory of depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_schizophrenia" title="Evolution of schizophrenia">Schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screen_time" title="Screen time">Screen time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smartphones_and_pedestrian_safety" title="Smartphones and pedestrian safety">Smartphones and pedestrian safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_aspects_of_television" title="Social aspects of television">Social aspects of television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Societal_impacts_of_cars" title="Societal impacts of cars">Societal impacts of cars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distracted_driving" title="Distracted driving">Distracted driving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93crime_hypothesis" title="Lead–crime hypothesis">Lead–crime hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_phones_and_driving_safety" title="Mobile phones and driving safety">Mobile phones and driving safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texting_while_driving" title="Texting while driving">Texting while driving</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sexology" title="Sexology">Sex</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexual_activity" title="Human sexual activity">Activity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_in_adults" title="Attachment in adults">Adult attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_disparity_in_sexual_relationships" title="Age disparity in sexual relationships">Age disparity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_arousal" title="Sexual arousal">Arousal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concealed_ovulation" title="Concealed ovulation">Concealed ovulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coolidge_effect" title="Coolidge effect">Coolidge effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_desire" title="Sexual desire">Desire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_fantasy" title="Sexual fantasy">Fantasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_hormones_on_sexual_motivation" title="Effects of hormones on sexual motivation">Hormonal motivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_jealousy" title="Sexual jealousy">Jealousy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_guarding_in_humans" title="Mate guarding in humans">Mate guarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_preferences" title="Mating preferences">Mating preferences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_mating_strategies" title="Human mating strategies">Mating strategies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biology_and_sexual_orientation" title="Biology and sexual orientation">Orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovulatory_shift_hypothesis" title="Ovulatory shift hypothesis">Ovulatory shift hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pair_bond" title="Pair bond">Pair bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_attractiveness" title="Physical attractiveness">Physical</a>/<a href="/wiki/Sexual_attraction" title="Sexual attraction">Sexual attraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">Sexuality</a>/<a href="/wiki/Human_male_sexuality" title="Human male sexuality">male</a>/<a href="/wiki/Human_female_sexuality" title="Human female sexuality">female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexy_son_hypothesis" title="Sexy son hypothesis">Sexy son hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westermarck_effect" title="Westermarck effect">Westermarck effect</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_psychology" title="Sex differences in psychology">Sex differences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aggression" title="Aggression">Aggression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_and_gender_differences_in_autism" title="Sex and gender differences in autism">Autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_cognition" title="Sex differences in cognition">Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_crime" title="Sex differences in crime">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_division_of_labour" title="Sexual division of labour">Division of labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_emotional_intelligence" title="Sex differences in emotional intelligence">Emotional intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empathising%E2%80%93systemising_theory" title="Empathising–systemising theory">Empathising–systemising theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">Gender role</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_intelligence" title="Sex differences in intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_memory" title="Sex differences in memory">Memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_disorders_and_gender" title="Mental disorders and gender">Mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_narcissism" title="Sex differences in narcissism">Narcissism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_sex_differences" title="Neuroscience of sex differences">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_schizophrenia" title="Sex differences in schizophrenia">Schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_abuse" title="Substance abuse">Substance abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_differences_in_suicide" title="Gender differences in suicide">Suicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variability_hypothesis" title="Variability hypothesis">Variability hypothesis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Related subjects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academic disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_economics" title="Behavioral economics">Behavioral</a>/<a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">evolutionary economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_epigenetics" title="Behavioral epigenetics">Behavioral epigenetics</a>/<a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affective_neuroscience" title="Affective neuroscience">Affective</a>/<a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">behavioral</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">cognitive</a>/<a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_neuroscience" title="Evolutionary neuroscience">evolutionary neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biocultural_anthropology" title="Biocultural anthropology">Biocultural anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_psychiatry" title="Biological psychiatry">Biological psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">Cognitive psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_psychology" title="Cross-cultural psychology">Cross-cultural psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">Ethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_psychology" title="Functional psychology">Functional psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_evolution" title="Cultural evolution">Cultural evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_ape_language" title="Great ape language">Great ape language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93animal_communication" title="Human–animal communication">Human–animal communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_heritability_problem" title="Missing heritability problem">Missing heritability problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primate_cognition" title="Primate cognition">Primate cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_of_selection" title="Unit of selection">Unit of selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">Coevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_group_selection" title="Cultural group selection">Cultural group selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_inheritance_theory" title="Dual inheritance theory">Dual inheritance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisher%27s_principle" title="Fisher's principle">Fisher's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_selection" title="Group selection">Group selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hologenome_theory_of_evolution" title="Hologenome theory of evolution">Hologenome theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punctuated_equilibrium" title="Punctuated equilibrium">Punctuated equilibrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recent_human_evolution" title="Recent human evolution">Recent human evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_complex" title="Species complex">Species complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance" title="Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance">Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trivers%E2%80%93Willard_hypothesis" title="Trivers–Willard hypothesis">Trivers–Willard hypothesis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theoretical positions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_selection_theory" title="Cultural selection theory">Cultural selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a>/<a href="/wiki/Indeterminism" title="Indeterminism">indeterminism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_determinism" title="Biological determinism">Biological determinism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Connectionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_determinism" title="Cultural determinism">Cultural determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_determinism" title="Environmental determinism">Environmental determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_versus_nurture" title="Nature versus nurture">Nature versus nurture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_nativism" title="Psychological nativism">Psychological nativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinism" title="Social determinism">Social determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_social_science_model" title="Standard social science model">Standard social science model</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memetics" title="Memetics">Memetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multilineal_evolution" title="Multilineal evolution">Multilineal evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Darwinism" title="Neo-Darwinism">Neo-Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoevolutionism" title="Neoevolutionism">Neoevolutionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociocultural_evolution" title="Sociocultural evolution">Sociocultural evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unilineal_evolution" title="Unilineal evolution">Unilineal evolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_evolutionary_psychologists" title="List of evolutionary psychologists">Evolutionary psychologists</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Category:Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary psychology</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Portal:Psychology" title="Portal:Psychology">Psychology portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Portal:Evolutionary_biology" title="Portal:Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology portal</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q203790#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4265446-4">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh88001138">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12109918b">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12109918b">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007531894405171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Connectionism&oldid=1250383155">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Connectionism&oldid=1250383155</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cognitive_science" title="Category:Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Computational_neuroscience" title="Category:Computational neuroscience">Computational neuroscience</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Theory_of_mind" title="Category:Theory of mind">Theory of mind</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Learning" title="Category:Learning">Learning</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Category:Philosophy of artificial intelligence">Philosophy of artificial intelligence</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Emergence" title="Category:Emergence">Emergence</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Spanish-language_sources_(es)" title="Category:CS1 Spanish-language sources (es)">CS1 Spanish-language sources (es)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_specifically_marked_weasel-worded_phrases" title="Category:All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases">All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_specifically_marked_weasel-worded_phrases_from_February_2016" title="Category:Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from February 2016">Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from February 2016</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_hAudio_microformats" title="Category:Articles with hAudio microformats">Articles with hAudio microformats</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Spoken_articles" title="Category:Spoken articles">Spoken articles</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy_links" title="Category:Articles with Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy links">Articles with Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy links</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 10 October 2024, at 03:03<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Connectionism&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-v45bm","wgBackendResponseTime":126,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"0.842","walltime":"1.110","ppvisitednodes":{"value":5124,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":176243,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":2542,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":16,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":6,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":220431,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 943.635 1 -total"," 44.55% 420.407 1 Template:Reflist"," 14.84% 140.036 27 Template:Cite_journal"," 14.30% 134.917 2 Template:Cite_web"," 13.71% 129.388 4 Template:Navbox"," 11.08% 104.534 1 Template:Cybernetics"," 10.40% 98.146 1 Template:Short_description"," 6.57% 61.956 11 Template:Cite_book"," 6.56% 61.943 1 Template:Spoken_Wikipedia"," 5.74% 54.118 2 Template:Pagetype"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.510","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":6003181,"limit":52428800}},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.eqiad.main-5dc468848-vtnml","timestamp":"20241122140738","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Connectionism","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Connectionism","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q203790","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q203790","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2003-07-09T00:43:31Z","dateModified":"2024-10-10T03:03:31Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/e\/e4\/Artificial_neural_network.svg","headline":"approach in cognitive science that hopes to explain mental phenomena using artificial neural networks"}</script> </body> </html>