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href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" 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div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Technology_during_World_War_II" title="Technology during World War II">Technology during World War II</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies of World War II</a> cooperated extensively in the development and manufacture of new and existing technologies to support military operations and intelligence gathering during the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a>. There are various ways in which the allies cooperated, including the American <a href="/wiki/Lend-Lease" title="Lend-Lease">Lend-Lease</a> scheme and hybrid weapons such as the <a href="/wiki/Sherman_Firefly" title="Sherman Firefly">Sherman Firefly</a> as well as the British <a href="/wiki/Tube_Alloys" title="Tube Alloys">Tube Alloys</a> nuclear weapons research project which was absorbed into the American-led <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a>. Several technologies invented in Britain proved critical to the military and were widely manufactured by the Allies during the Second World War.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tizard_Mission">Tizard Mission</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Allied_technological_cooperation_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Tizard Mission"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tizard_Mission" title="Tizard Mission">Tizard Mission</a></div> <p>The origin of the cooperation stemmed from a 1940 visit by the <a href="/wiki/Aeronautical_Research_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="Aeronautical Research Committee">Aeronautical Research Committee</a> chairman <a href="/wiki/Henry_Tizard" title="Henry Tizard">Henry Tizard</a>, during which Tizard arranged to transfer UK military technology to the US in the event that <a href="/wiki/Operation_Sea_Lion" title="Operation Sea Lion">Hitler's planned invasion of the UK</a> should succeed. Tizard led a British technical mission, known as the <a href="/wiki/Tizard_Mission" title="Tizard Mission">Tizard Mission</a>, containing details and examples of British technological developments in fields such as <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jet_engine" title="Jet engine">jet propulsion</a> and also the <a href="/wiki/Tube_Alloys" title="Tube Alloys">early British research</a> into the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic bomb">atomic bomb</a>. One of the devices brought to the US by the mission, the <a href="/wiki/Cavity_magnetron" title="Cavity magnetron">cavity magnetron</a>, was later described as "the most valuable cargo ever brought to our shores".<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Small_arms">Small arms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Allied_technological_cooperation_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Small arms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Small_arms" class="mw-redirect" title="Small arms">Small arms</a> began to be shared after the fall of France, most of the 'sharing' being one sided as America was not yet directly involved in the conflict and thus all the movement was from the United States to the United Kingdom. In the months following <a href="/wiki/Operation_Dynamo" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Dynamo">Operation Dynamo</a>, as British manufacturers progressed in building replacements for the <a href="/wiki/Materiel" title="Materiel">materiel</a> lost by the <a href="/wiki/British_Army" title="British Army">British Army</a> in France, the British government looked overseas for additional sources of equipment to assist in overcoming shortages and prepare for future offensives. The most extreme example of the shortages were found in the quickly improvised Local Defence Volunteers, later renamed the <a href="/wiki/British_Home_Guard" class="mw-redirect" title="British Home Guard">Home Guard</a>, who were forced to train with broom handles and makeshift pikes using lengths of piping and old bayonets until weapons could be supplied. </p><p>In addition to those produced in Britain, small arms and ammunition were obtained from <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth countries</a> and also purchased from U.S. manufacturers until they were supplied under <a href="/wiki/Lend-Lease" title="Lend-Lease">Lend-Lease</a> beginning in 1941. The weapons obtained from the United States included the <a href="/wiki/Thompson_submachine_gun" title="Thompson submachine gun">Tommy gun</a>, <a href="/wiki/M1911_Colt_pistol" class="mw-redirect" title="M1911 Colt pistol">M1911A1 pistol</a> and the <a href="/wiki/M1917_revolver" class="mw-redirect" title="M1917 revolver">M1917 revolver</a> produced by Colt and Smith & Wesson, all primarily produced in <a href="/wiki/.45_ACP" title=".45 ACP">.45 ACP</a>. The Home Guard received the <a href="/wiki/M1919_Browning_machine_gun" title="M1919 Browning machine gun">Browning .30 machine gun</a>, the <a href="/wiki/M1918_Browning_Automatic_Rifle" class="mw-redirect" title="M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle">M1918 .30 BAR</a> and the <a href="/wiki/M1917_Enfield_rifle" class="mw-redirect" title="M1917 Enfield rifle">P17 .30 Enfield rifle</a>. M1917 Enfield rifles chambered for <a href="/wiki/.303_British" title=".303 British">.303 British</a> were also provided by the U.S. while all .30-caliber U.S. rifles, BARs and machine guns were chambered for <a href="/wiki/.30-06_Springfield" title=".30-06 Springfield">.30-06 Springfield</a> </p><p>Later, the <a href="/wiki/M1919_Browning_machine_gun" title="M1919 Browning machine gun">M1919 .30 machine gun</a> and the <a href="/wiki/M2_Browning_machine_gun" class="mw-redirect" title="M2 Browning machine gun">M2HB .50 machine gun</a> chambered in <a href="/wiki/.50_BMG" title=".50 BMG">.50 BMG</a> were provided by the U.S. for infantry and anti-aircraft use. Browning AN2 light machine guns in .303 British caliber were already in standard use on British aircraft beginning in the late 1930s. </p><p>Britain supplied small arms to the USSR, and the <a href="/wiki/Sten" title="Sten">9mm Sten submachine gun</a> was supplied to Soviet partisan troops<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Artillery">Artillery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Allied_technological_cooperation_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Artillery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The British made use of many American towed artillery pieces during the war, such as the <a href="/wiki/M101_howitzer" title="M101 howitzer">M2 105 mm howitzers</a>, <a href="/wiki/M116_howitzer" title="M116 howitzer">M1A1 75 mm pack howitzers</a>, <a href="/wiki/155_mm_Long_Tom" class="mw-redirect" title="155 mm Long Tom">155 mm guns (Long Toms)</a>. These weapons were supplied under lend-lease or bought outright. <a href="/wiki/Tank" title="Tank">Tank</a>/<a href="/wiki/Tank_destroyer" title="Tank destroyer">tank destroyer</a> guns used by the British included the <a href="/wiki/37_mm_gun_M3" title="37 mm gun M3">37 mm M5/M6 gun</a> (<a href="/wiki/Stuart_tank" class="mw-redirect" title="Stuart tank">General Stuart</a> and <a href="/wiki/M3_Lee" title="M3 Lee">General Grant/Lee</a> tanks), <a href="/wiki/75_mm_gun_(US)#M2_2" class="mw-redirect" title="75 mm gun (US)">75 mm M2 gun</a> (<a href="/wiki/M3_Lee" title="M3 Lee">General Grant/Lee</a>), <a href="/wiki/75_mm_gun_(US)#M3_2" class="mw-redirect" title="75 mm gun (US)">75 mm M3 gun</a> (General Grant/Lee and <a href="/wiki/M4_Sherman" title="M4 Sherman">General Sherman</a>), <a href="/wiki/76_mm_gun_M1" title="76 mm gun M1">76 mm gun M1</a> (General Sherman) and <a href="/wiki/3-inch_gun_M5#Self-propelled_mounts" title="3-inch gun M5">3-inch gun M7</a> (<a href="/wiki/M10_tank_destroyer" title="M10 tank destroyer">3-inch GMC M10</a>). </p><p>The Americans in turn used a British artillery piece, the <a href="/wiki/Ordnance_QF_6_pounder" class="mw-redirect" title="Ordnance QF 6 pounder">Ordnance QF 6-pounder 7 cwt</a> anti-tank gun. The US realized at the start of the war that their own <a href="/wiki/37mm_gun_M3" class="mw-redirect" title="37mm gun M3">37 mm gun M3</a> would soon be obsolete and thus they produced a license built version of the QF 6-pounder under the designation 57 mm gun M1. </p><p>Both 76 mm and 75 mm guns were mounted on tanks sent to the Soviets by the US, while the British tanks sent were armed with both the <a href="/wiki/Ordnance_QF_2_pounder" class="mw-redirect" title="Ordnance QF 2 pounder">Ordnance QF 2-pounder</a> and the Ordnance QF 6-pounder. </p><p>Another technology taken to the US, by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Tizard" title="Henry Tizard">Henry Tizard</a>, for further development and mass production, was the (radio-frequency) <a href="/wiki/Proximity_fuse" class="mw-redirect" title="Proximity fuse">proximity fuse</a>. It was five times as effective as <a href="/wiki/Contact_fuze" title="Contact fuze">contact</a> or <a href="/wiki/Time_bomb" title="Time bomb">timed fuzes</a> and was devastating in naval use against Japanese aircraft and so effective against German ground troops that General <a href="/wiki/George_S._Patton" title="George S. Patton">George S. Patton</a> said it "won the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bulge" title="Battle of the Bulge">Battle of the Bulge</a> for us."<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tanks_and_other_vehicles">Tanks and other vehicles</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Allied_technological_cooperation_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Tanks and other vehicles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Lend-Lease_Sherman_tanks" title="Lend-Lease Sherman tanks">Lend-Lease Sherman tanks</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/M4_Sherman" title="M4 Sherman">medium tank M4</a> was used in all theatres of the Second World War. It had a versatile reliable design and was easy to produce, thus huge numbers were made and provided to both Britain and the USSR by the United States under Lend-Lease. Despite official opinions, the medium tank M4 was well liked by some Soviet tankers, while others called it the best tank for peacetime service.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> When Britain received the tank, it was given the designation Sherman, as part of the UK practice of naming its US-built tanks after <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a> generals. Both the British and the Soviets re-armed their M4s with their own tank guns. The Soviets re-armed a small number with the standard <a href="/wiki/F-34_tank_gun" class="mw-redirect" title="F-34 tank gun">76 mm F-34 tank gun</a> but so much 75 mm ammunition was supplied by the US that the conversions were not widespread. Unfortunately, the fairly short-barreled 75mm gun most Shermans came equipped with did not offer very good armor penetration even with specialty ammunition, especially against the then-new <a href="/wiki/Panther_Tank" class="mw-redirect" title="Panther Tank">Panther</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tiger_I" title="Tiger I">Tiger</a>. However, the British 76.2mm (3-inch) <a href="/wiki/Ordnance_QF_17_pounder" class="mw-redirect" title="Ordnance QF 17 pounder">Ordnance QF 17-pounder</a>, one of the best anti-tank guns of the period could be fitted in the Sherman's turret with modifications to the gun, a new gun mantlet and welding a bustle to the turret rear; this modification was known as the <a href="/wiki/Sherman_Firefly" title="Sherman Firefly">Firefly</a>. The combination of British and American weaponry proved desirable, although despite the United States building a few 17-pounder Fireflies from new, it never went into mass production and did not see action. The US had its own <a href="/wiki/76_mm_gun_M1" title="76 mm gun M1">76 mm</a> calibre long-barrel gun for the Sherman. While it wasn't as good as the 17-pounder, it still had a much better chance of successfully engaging German heavy tanks especially at close range, offered consistent kill-power against more equally-matched opponents at all ranges, and didn't require major modification to fit like the 17-pounder did. The Firefly thus remained a British variant of the Sherman. The <a href="/wiki/M10_tank_destroyer" title="M10 tank destroyer">M10 tank destroyer</a> was also up-gunned with the 17-pounder, creating the <a href="/wiki/17pdr_SP_Achilles" title="17pdr SP Achilles">M10C tank destroyer</a>, sometimes known as "Achilles". This was used in accordance with British tactical doctrine for tank destroyers, in that they were considered self-propelled anti-tank guns rather than aggressive 'tank hunters'. Used in this fashion, it proved an effective weapon. </p><p>The British also used the Sherman hull for two other <a href="/wiki/Hobart%27s_Funnies" title="Hobart's Funnies">Sherman variants</a> known as the <a href="/wiki/Sherman_Crab" class="mw-redirect" title="Sherman Crab">Crab</a>, a mine flailing tank, and the <a href="/wiki/DD_Sherman" class="mw-redirect" title="DD Sherman">DD Sherman</a>, the 'DD' (Duplex Drive<i>)</i> The DD was an <a href="/wiki/Amphibious_vehicle" title="Amphibious vehicle">amphibious</a> tank. A flotation screen gave buoyancy and two propellers powered by the tank's engine gave propulsion in the water. On reaching land the screens could be dropped and the tank could fight in the normal manner. The DD, another key example of combining technologies, was used by both British and American forces during <a href="/wiki/Operation_Overlord" title="Operation Overlord">Operation Overlord</a>. The DD had impressed US General <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> during demonstrations and was readily accepted by the Americans. The Americans did not accept the <a href="/wiki/Sherman_Crab" class="mw-redirect" title="Sherman Crab">Sherman Crab</a>, which could have assisted <a href="/wiki/Combat_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Combat engineering">combat engineers</a> with clearing mines under fire, protected by armour. <a href="/wiki/Armoured_recovery_vehicle" title="Armoured recovery vehicle">Armoured recovery vehicles</a> (ARVs) were also converted from Shermans by the British as well as the specialist <a href="/wiki/BARV" class="mw-redirect" title="BARV">BARV</a> (Beach Armoured Recovery Vehicle) designed to push-off landing craft and salvage vehicles which would otherwise have been lost. </p><p>The British supplied tanks to the USSR in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Matilda_II" title="Matilda II">Matilda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Valentine_tank" title="Valentine tank">Valentine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Churchill_tank" title="Churchill tank">Churchill</a> infantry tanks. Soviet tank soldiers liked the Valentine for its reliability, cross country performance and low silhouette. The Soviet's opinion of the Matilda and Churchill was less favourable as a result of their weak 40-mm guns (without HE shells) and inability to operate in harsh <i><a href="/wiki/Rasputitsa" title="Rasputitsa">rasputitsa</a></i>, winter and offroad conditions.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Deliveries of <a href="/wiki/M3_Half-track" class="mw-redirect" title="M3 Half-track">M3 Half-tracks</a> from the US to the Soviet Union were a significant benefit to mechanized Red Army units. Soviet industry produced few armoured personnel carriers, so Lend-Lease American vehicles were in great demand for fast movement of troops in front-line conditions. While M3s had only limited protection, common trucks had no protection at all. In addition, a large part of the Red Army truck fleet was American Studebakers, which were highly regarded by Soviet drivers. After the war, Soviet designers paid a lot of attention to create their own 6x6 army truck and the Studebaker was the template for this development. </p><p>In 1942, a <a href="/wiki/T-34" title="T-34">T-34</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Kliment_Voroshilov_tank" title="Kliment Voroshilov tank">KV-1</a> tank were sent by the Soviet Union to the US where they were evaluated at the <a href="/wiki/Aberdeen_Proving_Ground" title="Aberdeen Proving Ground">Aberdeen Proving Ground</a>. Another T-34 was sent to the British.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aircraft">Aircraft</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Allied_technological_cooperation_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Aircraft"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Royal_Air_Force-_2nd_Tactical_Air_Force,_1943-1945._CL571.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Royal_Air_Force-_2nd_Tactical_Air_Force%2C_1943-1945._CL571.jpg/220px-Royal_Air_Force-_2nd_Tactical_Air_Force%2C_1943-1945._CL571.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Royal_Air_Force-_2nd_Tactical_Air_Force%2C_1943-1945._CL571.jpg/330px-Royal_Air_Force-_2nd_Tactical_Air_Force%2C_1943-1945._CL571.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Royal_Air_Force-_2nd_Tactical_Air_Force%2C_1943-1945._CL571.jpg/440px-Royal_Air_Force-_2nd_Tactical_Air_Force%2C_1943-1945._CL571.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="623" /></a><figcaption>RAF Mustang III being serviced in France, 1944</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bell_P-39N_Airacobra,_Russia_-_Air_Force_AN2263404.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Bell_P-39N_Airacobra%2C_Russia_-_Air_Force_AN2263404.jpg/220px-Bell_P-39N_Airacobra%2C_Russia_-_Air_Force_AN2263404.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Bell_P-39N_Airacobra%2C_Russia_-_Air_Force_AN2263404.jpg/330px-Bell_P-39N_Airacobra%2C_Russia_-_Air_Force_AN2263404.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Bell_P-39N_Airacobra%2C_Russia_-_Air_Force_AN2263404.jpg/440px-Bell_P-39N_Airacobra%2C_Russia_-_Air_Force_AN2263404.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="683" /></a><figcaption>A former Soviet P-39 in a museum display</figcaption></figure> <p>Britain supplied <a href="/wiki/Hawker_Hurricane" title="Hawker Hurricane">Hawker Hurricanes</a> to the Soviet Union early in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Patriotic_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Patriotic War">Great Patriotic War</a> to help equip the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Air_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Air Force">Soviet Air Force</a> against the then technologically superior <a href="/wiki/Luftwaffe" title="Luftwaffe">Luftwaffe</a>. British RAF engineer <a href="/wiki/Frank_Whittle" title="Frank Whittle">Frank Whittle</a> travelled to the US in 1942 to help <a href="/wiki/General_Electric" title="General Electric">General Electric</a> start jet engine production. </p><p>The American <a href="/wiki/P-51_Mustang" class="mw-redirect" title="P-51 Mustang">P-51 Mustang</a> was originally designed to a British specification for use by the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Air_Force" title="Royal Air Force">Royal Air Force</a> and entered service with them in 1942, and later versions were built with a <a href="/wiki/Rolls-Royce_Merlin" title="Rolls-Royce Merlin">Rolls-Royce Merlin</a> aero-engine. This engine was being produced in the United States by <a href="/wiki/Packard_Motor_Car_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Packard Motor Car Company">Packard</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Packard_V-1650" class="mw-redirect" title="Packard V-1650">Packard Merlin</a>. In addition to the British making use of American planes the US also made use of some <a href="/wiki/Supermarine_Spitfires" class="mw-redirect" title="Supermarine Spitfires">Supermarine Spitfires</a> both in escorting USAAF 8th Air Force bombers in Europe as well as being the primary fighter of the 12th Air Force in North Africa. In addition <a href="/wiki/Bristol_Beaufighter" title="Bristol Beaufighter">Bristol Beaufighter</a> served as night fighters in the Mediterranean, and two squadrons of <a href="/wiki/De_Havilland_Mosquito" title="De Havilland Mosquito">de Havilland Mosquito</a> equipped the 8th Air Force as its primary photo reconnaissance and chaff deployment aircraft. </p><p>The United States supplied several aircraft types to both the Royal Navy and RAF - all three of the U.S. Navy's primary fighters during the war years, the <a href="/wiki/F4F_Wildcat#Royal_Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="F4F Wildcat">Wildcat</a>, <a href="/wiki/F4U_Corsair#Royal_Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="F4U Corsair">Corsair</a> (with the RN assisting the Americans with <a href="/wiki/F4U_Corsair#Enhancement_for_carrier_suitability" class="mw-redirect" title="F4U Corsair">preparing the Corsair for U.S. naval carrier service by 1944</a>), and <a href="/wiki/F6F_Hellcat#British_use" class="mw-redirect" title="F6F Hellcat">Hellcat</a> also served with the RN's <a href="/wiki/Fleet_Air_Arm" title="Fleet Air Arm">Fleet Air Arm</a>, with the Royal Air Force using a wide range of <a href="/wiki/USAAF" class="mw-redirect" title="USAAF">USAAF</a> types. A wide range of American aircraft designs also went to the Soviet Union's <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Air_Forces#Innovation_and_Lend-lease" title="Soviet Air Forces">VVS air arm</a> through Lend-Lease, primarily fighters like the <a href="/wiki/Bell_P-39_Airacobra#Soviet_Union" title="Bell P-39 Airacobra">P-39</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bell_P-63_Kingcobra#Soviet_Union" title="Bell P-63 Kingcobra">P-63</a> used for aerial combat, along with attack and medium bombers like the <a href="/wiki/Douglas_A-20_Havoc#Soviet_Union" title="Douglas A-20 Havoc">A-20</a> and the <a href="/wiki/North_American_B-25_Mitchell#Soviet_Air_Force" title="North American B-25 Mitchell">B-25</a> being among the more prominent types, both bombers being well suited to the type of lower-altitude strike missions the Soviets had as a top priority. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Radar">Radar</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Allied_technological_cooperation_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Radar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Radar_in_World_War_II" title="Radar in World War II">Radar in World War II</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_radar" title="History of radar">History of radar</a></div> <p>The British demonstrated the <a href="/wiki/Cavity_magnetron" title="Cavity magnetron">cavity magnetron</a> to the Americans at RCA, Bell Labs. It was 100 times as powerful than anything they had seen and enabled the development of airborne <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hind_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hind-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nuclear_weapons">Nuclear weapons</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Allied_technological_cooperation_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Nuclear weapons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/British_contribution_to_the_Manhattan_Project" title="British contribution to the Manhattan Project">British contribution to the Manhattan Project</a></div> <p>In 1942, the British nuclear weapons research had fallen behind US and unable to match US resources, the United Kingdom agreed to merging their work with the American efforts. Around 20 British scientists and technical staff to America, along with their work, which had been carried out under the <a href="/wiki/Codename" class="mw-redirect" title="Codename">codename</a> '<a href="/wiki/Tube_Alloys" title="Tube Alloys">Tube Alloys</a>'. The scientists joined the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> at <a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos,_New_Mexico" title="Los Alamos, New Mexico">Los Alamos</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Mexico" title="New Mexico">New Mexico</a>, where their work on uranium enrichment was instrumental in jump-starting the project. In addition Britain, was vital in sourcing raw materials for the project, both as the only source in the world of Nickel Powder required to build gaseous diffusers and providing Uranium both from its mine in British Congo as well as contracting a secondary supply from Sweden.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Code-breaking_technology">Code-breaking technology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Allied_technological_cooperation_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Code-breaking technology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Bombe" title="Bombe">Bombe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ultra_(cryptography)" title="Ultra (cryptography)">Ultra (cryptography)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bletchley_Park" title="Bletchley Park">Bletchley Park</a></div> <p>Considerable information was transmitted from the UK to the US during and after WWII relating to code-breaking methods, the codes themselves, cryptoanalyst visits, mechanical and digital devices for speeding code-breaking, etc. When the Atlantic convoys of war material from the US to the UK came under serious threat from U-boats, considerable encouragement and practical help was given by the US to accelerate the development of code-breaking machines. Subsequent co-operation led to significant success in Australia and the far East for breaking encrypted Japanese messages. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_technologies">Other technologies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Allied_technological_cooperation_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Other technologies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Other technologies developed by the British and shared with the Americans and other Allies include <a href="/wiki/ASDIC" class="mw-redirect" title="ASDIC">ASDIC</a> (sonar), the <a href="/wiki/Bailey_bridge" title="Bailey bridge">Bailey bridge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gyro_gunsight" title="Gyro gunsight">gyro gunsight</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jet_engine" title="Jet engine">jet engine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liberty_ship" title="Liberty ship">Liberty ship</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine">RDX</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rhino_tank" title="Rhino tank">Rhino tank</a>, <a href="/wiki/Torpex" title="Torpex">Torpex</a>, <a href="/wiki/Traveling-wave_tube" title="Traveling-wave tube">traveling-wave tube</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proximity_fuze" title="Proximity fuze">proximity fuze</a>. </p><p>Technologies developed by the Americans and shared with the British and Allies include the <a href="/wiki/Bazooka" title="Bazooka">bazooka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Landing_Vehicle_Tracked" title="Landing Vehicle Tracked">LVT</a>, <a href="/wiki/DUKW" title="DUKW">DUKW</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mark_24_mine" title="Mark 24 mine">Fido</a> (acoustic torpedo). Canada and the U.S. independently developed and shared the <a href="/wiki/Walkie-talkie" title="Walkie-talkie">walkie-talkie</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Allied_technological_cooperation_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Tizard_Mission" title="Tizard Mission">Tizard Mission</a> was the foundation for cooperation in scientific research at institutions within and across the United States, United Kingdom and Canada.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many Norwegian scientists and technologists took part in British scientific research during the period when Germany occupied Norway between 1940 and 1945. This resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Norwegian_Defence_Research_Establishment" title="Norwegian Defence Research Establishment">Norwegian Defence Research Establishment</a>, formed in 1946. </p><p>After the war ended, the US ended all nuclear co-operation with Britain. However, the demonstration of <a href="/wiki/British_hydrogen_bomb_programme" title="British hydrogen bomb programme">British Hydrogen bomb</a>, and the launch of <a href="/wiki/Sputnik_1" title="Sputnik 1">Sputnik 1</a> by the Soviet Union, both in 1957, resulted in the US resuming the wartime co-operation and led to a <a href="/wiki/1958_US-UK_Mutual_Defence_Agreement" class="mw-redirect" title="1958 US-UK Mutual Defence Agreement">Mutual Defence Agreement</a> between the two nations in 1958. Under this agreement, American technology was adapted for <a href="/wiki/British_nuclear_weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="British nuclear weapons">British nuclear weapons</a> and various fissile materials were exchanged to resolve each other's specific shortages.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cooperation between <a href="/wiki/British_intelligence_agencies" title="British intelligence agencies">British intelligence agencies</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Intelligence_Community" title="United States Intelligence Community">United States Intelligence Community</a> in the post-war period became the cornerstone of Western intelligence gathering and the "<a href="/wiki/Special_Relationship" title="Special Relationship">Special Relationship</a>" between the United Kingdom and the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-timecoldwar_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-timecoldwar-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many <a href="/wiki/List_of_military_inventions" title="List of military inventions">military inventions</a> during the war found civilian uses. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Allied_technological_cooperation_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Purchasing_Commission" title="British Purchasing Commission">British Purchasing Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_electronic_warfare_equipment" title="List of World War II electronic warfare equipment">List of World War II electronic warfare equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operations_research" title="Operations research">Operations research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_Laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation Laboratory">Radiation Laboratory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_Research_Establishment" title="Telecommunications Research Establishment">Telecommunications Research Establishment</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Allied_technological_cooperation_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRoberts2004" class="citation web cs1">Roberts, Eric (16 March 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cs.stanford.edu/people/eroberts/courses/ww2/">"British Technology and the Second World War"</a>. Stanford University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 April</span> 2015</span>. <q>British science and technology was instrumental in winning the Second World War. This course looks at several different technological innovations undertaken in Britain in the context of the wartime period: the breaking of the German Enigma code at Bletchley Park (which Winston Churchill credited with having won the Battle of the Atlantic), the development of radar, the advances in wartime medicine and pharmacology (most notably, the first practical uses of penicillin), and the participation by British scientists in the Manhattan Project.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=British+Technology+and+the+Second+World+War&rft.pub=Stanford+University&rft.date=2004-03-16&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcs.stanford.edu%2Fpeople%2Feroberts%2Fcourses%2Fww2%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAllied+technological+cooperation+during+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul Kennedy, <i>Engineers of Victory: The Problem Solvers Who Turned The Tide in the Second World War</i> (2013)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James W. Brennan, "The Proximity Fuze: Whose Brainchild?," <i>U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings</i> (1968) 94#9 pp 72–78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James Phinney Baxter III (Official Historian of the Office of Scientific Research and Development), <i>Scientists Against Time</i> (Boston: Little, Brown, and Co., 1946), page 142.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Baldwin, Ralph B. <i>The Deadly Fuze: Secret Weapon of World War II,</i> pp. 4-6, 11, 50, 279, Presidio Press, San Rafael, California, 1980. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89141-087-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89141-087-4">978-0-89141-087-4</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Boris Kavalerchik, Voenno-Istoricheskiy Arkhiv, issue No. 1, 2006</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/magnetron">"From World War II Radar to Microwave Popcorn, the Cavity Magnetron Was There - IEEE Spectrum"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/IEEE" class="mw-redirect" title="IEEE">IEEE</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-01-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=IEEE&rft.atitle=From+World+War+II+Radar+to+Microwave+Popcorn%2C+the+Cavity+Magnetron+Was+There+-+IEEE+Spectrum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspectrum.ieee.org%2Fmagnetron&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAllied+technological+cooperation+during+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hind-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hind_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAngela_Hind2007" class="citation news cs1">Angela Hind (February 5, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/6331897.stm">"Briefcase 'that changed the world'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>BBC News</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-08-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Briefcase+%27that+changed+the+world%27&rft.date=2007-02-05&rft.au=Angela+Hind&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F1%2Fhi%2Fsci%2Ftech%2F6331897.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAllied+technological+cooperation+during+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarford2017" class="citation news cs1">Harford, Tim (9 October 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-41188464">"How the search for a 'death ray' led to radar"</a>. 50 Things That Made the Modern Economy. BBC World Service<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 October</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=How+the+search+for+a+%27death+ray%27+led+to+radar&rft.date=2017-10-09&rft.aulast=Harford&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fbusiness-41188464&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAllied+technological+cooperation+during+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeptimus_H._Paul2000" class="citation book cs1">Septimus H. Paul (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fSZpgW-N628C&pg=PA1"><i>Nuclear Rivals: Anglo-American Atomic Relations, 1941–1952</i></a>. Ohio State U.P. pp. 1–7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780814208526" title="Special:BookSources/9780814208526"><bdi>9780814208526</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nuclear+Rivals%3A+Anglo-American+Atomic+Relations%2C+1941%E2%80%931952&rft.pages=1-7&rft.pub=Ohio+State+U.P.&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9780814208526&rft.au=Septimus+H.+Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfSZpgW-N628C%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAllied+technological+cooperation+during+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee2022" class="citation journal cs1">Lee, Sabine (2022-01-02). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09592296.2022.2041805">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Crucial? Helpful? Practically Nil?" Reality and Perception of Britain's Contribution to the Development of Nuclear Weapons during the Second World War"</a>. <i>Diplomacy & Statecraft</i>. <b>33</b> (1): 19–40. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09592296.2022.2041805">10.1080/09592296.2022.2041805</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0959-2296">0959-2296</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:247253473">247253473</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Diplomacy+%26+Statecraft&rft.atitle=%22Crucial%3F+Helpful%3F+Practically+Nil%3F%22+Reality+and+Perception+of+Britain%27s+Contribution+to+the+Development+of+Nuclear+Weapons+during+the+Second+World+War&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=19-40&rft.date=2022-01-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A247253473%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0959-2296&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09592296.2022.2041805&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Sabine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F09592296.2022.2041805&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAllied+technological+cooperation+during+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGowing1964" class="citation book cs1">Gowing, Margaret (1964). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6CJDAAAAIAAJ"><i>Britain and Atomic Energy, 1939-1945</i></a>. United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority. St Martin's Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Britain+and+Atomic+Energy%2C+1939-1945&rft.pub=St+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Gowing&rft.aufirst=Margaret&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6CJDAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAllied+technological+cooperation+during+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></span>; see book review by <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson1965" class="citation journal cs1">Anderson, Oscar E. (1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/349949">"Britain and Atomic Energy, 1939-1945. Margaret Gowing"</a>. <i>Isis</i>. <b>56</b> (1): 111–113. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F349949">10.1086/349949</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-1753">0021-1753</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Isis&rft.atitle=Britain+and+Atomic+Energy%2C+1939-1945.+Margaret+Gowing&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=111-113&rft.date=1965&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F349949&rft.issn=0021-1753&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Oscar+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.journals.uchicago.edu%2Fdoi%2F10.1086%2F349949&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAllied+technological+cooperation+during+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.mit.edu/2015/how-tizard-mission-paved-way-for-MIT-research-1123">"How the Tizard Mission paved the way for research at MIT"</a>. <i>MIT News | Massachusetts Institute of Technology</i>. 23 November 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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