CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Egypt–Mesopotamia relations - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"6e4346b0-343f-4382-8454-a4967045b6f8","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Egypt–Mesopotamia_relations","wgTitle":"Egypt–Mesopotamia relations","wgCurRevisionId":1271404097,"wgRevisionId":1271404097,"wgArticleId":60383627,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list","Articles with short description","Short description matches Wikidata","Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images","Articles containing Ancient Egyptian-language text","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from May 2022","Ancient international relations","Egypt–Iraq relations","Foreign contacts of ancient Egypt","History of Mesopotamia","Uruk period"], "wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Egypt–Mesopotamia_relations","wgRelevantArticleId":60383627,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":50000,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q65061872","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":[ "brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","mediawiki.page.gallery.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc", "skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cmediawiki.page.gallery.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.17"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Mesopotamia-Egypt_trade_routes.jpg/1200px-Mesopotamia-Egypt_trade_routes.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="806"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Mesopotamia-Egypt_trade_routes.jpg/800px-Mesopotamia-Egypt_trade_routes.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="537"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Mesopotamia-Egypt_trade_routes.jpg/640px-Mesopotamia-Egypt_trade_routes.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="430"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Egypt–Mesopotamia relations - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Egypt–Mesopotamia_relations rootpage-Egypt–Mesopotamia_relations skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" title="Main menu" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="n-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages"><span>Special pages</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Influences_on_Egyptian_trade_and_art_(3500–3200_BCE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influences_on_Egyptian_trade_and_art_(3500–3200_BCE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Influences on Egyptian trade and art (3500–3200 BCE)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Influences_on_Egyptian_trade_and_art_(3500–3200_BCE)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Influences on Egyptian trade and art (3500–3200 BCE) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Influences_on_Egyptian_trade_and_art_(3500–3200_BCE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Designs_and_objects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Designs_and_objects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Designs and objects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Designs_and_objects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mesopotamian-style_pottery_in_Egypt_(3500_BCE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mesopotamian-style_pottery_in_Egypt_(3500_BCE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>Mesopotamian-style pottery in Egypt (3500 BCE)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mesopotamian-style_pottery_in_Egypt_(3500_BCE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adoption_of_Mesopotamian-style_maceheads" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adoption_of_Mesopotamian-style_maceheads"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.2</span> <span>Adoption of Mesopotamian-style maceheads</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adoption_of_Mesopotamian-style_maceheads-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cylinder_seals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cylinder_seals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.3</span> <span>Cylinder seals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cylinder_seals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_objects_and_designs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_objects_and_designs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.4</span> <span>Other objects and designs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_objects_and_designs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Temples_and_pyramids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Temples_and_pyramids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Temples and pyramids</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Temples_and_pyramids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transmission" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transmission"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Transmission</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transmission-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Importance_of_local_Egyptian_developments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Importance_of_local_Egyptian_developments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.1</span> <span>Importance of local Egyptian developments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Importance_of_local_Egyptian_developments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development_of_writing_(3500–3200_BCE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development_of_writing_(3500–3200_BCE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Development of writing (3500–3200 BCE)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development_of_writing_(3500–3200_BCE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Egyptian_influence_on_Mesopotamian_art" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Egyptian_influence_on_Mesopotamian_art"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Egyptian influence on Mesopotamian art</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Egyptian_influence_on_Mesopotamian_art-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_periods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_periods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Later periods</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Later_periods-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Later periods subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Later_periods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Trade_of_Indus_goods_through_Mesopotamia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trade_of_Indus_goods_through_Mesopotamia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Trade of Indus goods through Mesopotamia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trade_of_Indus_goods_through_Mesopotamia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Etched_carnelian_beads" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Etched_carnelian_beads"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.1</span> <span>Etched carnelian beads</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Etched_carnelian_beads-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hyksos_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hyksos_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Hyksos period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hyksos_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neo-Assyrian_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neo-Assyrian_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Neo-Assyrian Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neo-Assyrian_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Achaemenid_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Achaemenid_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Achaemenid Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Achaemenid_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Egypt–Mesopotamia relations</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 5 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-5" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">5 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%86_%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%A9_%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86" title="العلاقات بين مصر القديمة وبلاد الرافدين – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="العلاقات بين مصر القديمة وبلاد الرافدين" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relacions_Egipte-Mesopot%C3%A0mia" title="Relacions Egipte-Mesopotàmia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Relacions Egipte-Mesopotàmia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relaciones_Egipto-Mesopotamia" title="Relaciones Egipto-Mesopotamia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Relaciones Egipto-Mesopotamia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B7_%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D9%88_%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D9%87%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86" title="روابط مصر و بین‌النهرین – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="روابط مصر و بین‌النهرین" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubungan_Mesir_dengan_Mesopotamia" title="Hubungan Mesir dengan Mesopotamia – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Hubungan Mesir dengan Mesopotamia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q65061872#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations&oldid=1271404097" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations&id=1271404097&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FEgypt%25E2%2580%2593Mesopotamia_relations"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FEgypt%25E2%2580%2593Mesopotamia_relations"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q65061872" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Middle Eastern international relations</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mesopotamia-Egypt_trade_routes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A map of the Ancient Near East, showing a connection between Egypt and Mesopotamia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Mesopotamia-Egypt_trade_routes.jpg/220px-Mesopotamia-Egypt_trade_routes.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Mesopotamia-Egypt_trade_routes.jpg/330px-Mesopotamia-Egypt_trade_routes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Mesopotamia-Egypt_trade_routes.jpg/440px-Mesopotamia-Egypt_trade_routes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1364" data-file-height="916" /></a><figcaption>Possible Mesopotamia–Egypt trade routes from the 4th millennium BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-Redford_22_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Redford_22-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MKH427_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MKH427-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Egypt–Mesopotamia relations</b> were the relations between the civilizations of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>. They seem to have developed from the 4th millennium BCE, starting in the <a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a> for Mesopotamia (circa 4000–3100 BCE) and the half a millennium younger <a href="/wiki/Gerzean_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Gerzean culture">Gerzean culture</a> of <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Egypt" title="Prehistoric Egypt">Prehistoric Egypt</a> (circa 3500–3200 BCE), and constituted a largely one way body of influences from Mesopotamia into Egypt.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaw,_Ian_1995_p._109_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaw,_Ian_1995_p._109-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mitchell_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mitchell-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Prior to a specific Mesopotamian influence there had already been a longstanding influence from <a href="/wiki/Western_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Asia">West Asia</a> into Egypt, <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> and even into some parts of the <a href="/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sahel" title="Sahel">Sahel</a> in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a> which from circa 9000 BCE diffused advanced agricultural practices and technology, gene-flow, certain animals and crops and the likely spread of <a href="/wiki/Proto-Afroasiatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Afroasiatic">Proto-Afroasiatic</a> language into the region, with Semitic languages being introduced via the Arabian Peninsula and Levant into the Horn of Africa and North Africa respectively after 1000 BCE. </p><p>Mesopotamian influences can be seen in the visual arts of Egypt, in architecture, in technology, weaponry, in imported products, religious imagery, in agriculture and livestock, in genetic input, and also in the likely transfer of <a href="/wiki/Writing" title="Writing">writing</a> from Mesopotamia to Egypt<sup id="cite_ref-Mitchell_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mitchell-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and generated "deep-seated" parallels in the early stages of both cultures.<sup id="cite_ref-MKH427_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MKH427-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Influences_on_Egyptian_trade_and_art_(3500–3200_BCE)"><span id="Influences_on_Egyptian_trade_and_art_.283500.E2.80.933200_BCE.29"></span>Influences on Egyptian trade and art (3500–3200 BCE)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Influences on Egyptian trade and art (3500–3200 BCE)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Gerzeh_culture" title="Gerzeh culture">Gerzeh culture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:332px;max-width:332px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Mesopotamian king on Egyptian prehistoric knife<br /><small>(3300–3200 BCE)</small></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:101px;max-width:101px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:156px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gebel_el-Arak_knife_(front_and_back).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Gebel_el-Arak_knife_%28front_and_back%29.jpg/99px-Gebel_el-Arak_knife_%28front_and_back%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="99" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Gebel_el-Arak_knife_%28front_and_back%29.jpg/149px-Gebel_el-Arak_knife_%28front_and_back%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Gebel_el-Arak_knife_%28front_and_back%29.jpg/198px-Gebel_el-Arak_knife_%28front_and_back%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2558" data-file-height="4057" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Egyptian pre-historic <a href="/wiki/Gebel_el-Arak_Knife" title="Gebel el-Arak Knife">Gebel el-Arak Knife</a>. Dated 3300–3200 BCE, <a href="/wiki/Abydos,_Egypt" title="Abydos, Egypt">Abydos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>. <a href="/wiki/Louvre_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Louvre Museum">Louvre Museum</a><sup id="cite_ref-Site_officiel_du_musée_du_Louvre_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Site_officiel_du_musée_du_Louvre-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:227px;max-width:227px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:156px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_ivory_handle_(front_top_part_detail).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_ivory_handle_%28front_top_part_detail%29.jpg/225px-Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_ivory_handle_%28front_top_part_detail%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="225" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_ivory_handle_%28front_top_part_detail%29.jpg/338px-Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_ivory_handle_%28front_top_part_detail%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_ivory_handle_%28front_top_part_detail%29.jpg/450px-Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_ivory_handle_%28front_top_part_detail%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1582" data-file-height="1100" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Mesopotamian king as <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Animals" title="Master of Animals">Master of Animals</a> on the top of the handle. This work of art both shows the influence of Mesopotamia on <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> at an early date, in an example of ancient Egypt–Mesopotamia relations, and the state of Mesopotamian royal iconography during the <a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Site_officiel_du_musée_du_Louvre_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Site_officiel_du_musée_du_Louvre-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MKH_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MKH-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div></div></div></div> <p>There was generally a high-level of trade between <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a> throughout the <a href="/wiki/Pre-dynastic_period_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-dynastic period of Egypt">Pre-dynastic period of Egypt</a>, during the <a href="/wiki/Naqada_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Naqada II">Naqada II</a> (3600–3350 BCE) and <a href="/wiki/Naqada_III" title="Naqada III">Naqada III</a> (3350–2950 BCE) phases.<sup id="cite_ref-MKH_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MKH-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These were contemporary with the <a href="/wiki/Late_Uruk" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Uruk">Late Uruk</a> (3600–3100 BCE) and <a href="/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr" title="Jemdet Nasr">Jemdet Nasr</a> (3100–2900 BCE) periods in <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-MKH_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MKH-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The main period of cultural influence, particularly consisting in the transfer of Mesopotamian imagery, symbols and technology to Egypt, is considered to have lasted about 250 years, during the <a href="/wiki/Naqada_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Naqada II">Naqada II</a> to <a href="/wiki/Dynasty_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynasty I">Dynasty I</a> periods.<sup id="cite_ref-Eisenbrauns_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eisenbrauns-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Designs_and_objects">Designs and objects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Designs and objects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Distinctly foreign objects and art forms entered Egypt during this period, indicating contacts with several parts of <a href="/wiki/Western_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Asia">Western Asia</a>. The designs that were emulated by Egyptian artists are numerous: the <a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> "priest-king" with his tunic and brimmed hat in the posture of the <a href="/wiki/Master_of_animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Master of animals">Master of animals</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Serpopard" title="Serpopard">serpopards</a>, winged <a href="/wiki/Griffins" class="mw-redirect" title="Griffins">griffins</a>, snakes around rosettes, boats with high prows, all characteristic of long established Mesopotamian art of the <a href="/wiki/Late_Uruk" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Uruk">Late Uruk</a> (Uruk IV, c. 3350–3200 BCE) period.<sup id="cite_ref-SANE14_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SANE14-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The same "Priest-King" is visible in several older Mesopotamian works of art of the end of the Uruk period, such as the <a href="/wiki/Blau_Monuments" title="Blau Monuments">Blau Monuments</a>, cylinder seals and statues.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Objects such as the <a href="/wiki/Gebel_el-Arak_Knife" title="Gebel el-Arak Knife">Gebel el-Arak knife</a> handle, which has patently Mesopotamian relief carvings on it, have been found in Egypt,<sup id="cite_ref-Shaw,_Ian_1995_p._109_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaw,_Ian_1995_p._109-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the silver which appears in this period can only have been obtained from <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Redford_16_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Redford_16-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mesopotamian-style_pottery_in_Egypt_(3500_BCE)"><span id="Mesopotamian-style_pottery_in_Egypt_.283500_BCE.29"></span>Mesopotamian-style pottery in Egypt (3500 BCE)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Mesopotamian-style pottery in Egypt (3500 BCE)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Evolution_of_Egyptian_prehistoric_pottery_styles,_from_Naqada_I_to_Naqada_II_and_Naqada_III,_with_Mesopotamian-style_Naqada_II_straight-spouted_jar,_circa_3500_BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Evolution_of_Egyptian_prehistoric_pottery_styles%2C_from_Naqada_I_to_Naqada_II_and_Naqada_III%2C_with_Mesopotamian-style_Naqada_II_straight-spouted_jar%2C_circa_3500_BCE.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Evolution_of_Egyptian_prehistoric_pottery_styles%2C_from_Naqada_I_to_Naqada_II_and_Naqada_III%2C_with_Mesopotamian-style_Naqada_II_straight-spouted_jar%2C_circa_3500_BCE.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Evolution_of_Egyptian_prehistoric_pottery_styles%2C_from_Naqada_I_to_Naqada_II_and_Naqada_III%2C_with_Mesopotamian-style_Naqada_II_straight-spouted_jar%2C_circa_3500_BCE.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6434" data-file-height="3921" /></a><figcaption>Evolution of Egyptian prehistoric pottery styles, from Naqada I to Naqada II and Naqada III, with Mesopotamian-style Naqada II straight-spouted jars circa 3500 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-ET166_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ET166-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Red-slipped spouted pottery items dating to around 3500 BCE (<a href="/wiki/Naqada_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Naqada II">Naqada II</a> C/D), which were probably used for pouring water, beer or wine, suggest that Egypt was in contact with and being influenced by Mesopotamia around that time.<sup id="cite_ref-ET166_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ET166-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This type of pottery was manufactured in Egypt, with Egyptian clay, but its shape, particularly the spout, is certainly Mesopotamian in origin.<sup id="cite_ref-ET166_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ET166-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such vessels were new and rare in pre-Dynastic Egypt, but had been commonly manufactured in the Mesopotamian cities of <a href="/wiki/Nippur" title="Nippur">Nippur</a> and <a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> for centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-ET166_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ET166-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This indicated that Egyptians were familiar with Mesopotamian types of pottery.<sup id="cite_ref-ET166_13-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ET166-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The discovery of these vessels initially encouraged the development of the <a href="/wiki/Dynastic_race_theory" title="Dynastic race theory">dynastic race theory</a>, according to which Mesopotamians would have established the first Pharaonic line, but is now considered by many scholars to be simply indicative of cultural influence and borrowings circa 3500 BCE, although there is an established gene flow from Mesopotamia and West Asia into Egypt .<sup id="cite_ref-ET166_13-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ET166-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Spouted jars of Mesopotamian design start to appear in Egypt in the <a href="/wiki/Naqada_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Naqada II">Naqada II</a> period.<sup id="cite_ref-MKH_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MKH-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Various Uruk pottery vases and containers have been found in Egypt in Naqada contexts, confirming that Mesopotamian finished goods were imported into Egypt, although the past contents of the jars have not been determined yet.<sup id="cite_ref-CP_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CP-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scientific analysis of ancient wine jars in Abydos has shown there was some high-volume wine trade with the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> and Mesopotamia during this period.<sup id="cite_ref-CS_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CS-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Adoption_of_Mesopotamian-style_maceheads">Adoption of Mesopotamian-style maceheads</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Adoption of Mesopotamian-style maceheads"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:184px;max-width:184px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:136px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Egyptian_disk_macehead_4000-3400_BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Egyptian_disk_macehead_4000-3400_BCE.jpg/182px-Egyptian_disk_macehead_4000-3400_BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="182" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Egyptian_disk_macehead_4000-3400_BCE.jpg/273px-Egyptian_disk_macehead_4000-3400_BCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Egyptian_disk_macehead_4000-3400_BCE.jpg/364px-Egyptian_disk_macehead_4000-3400_BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1152" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Egyptian disk-shaped <a href="/wiki/Macehead" class="mw-redirect" title="Macehead">macehead</a> 4000–3400 BCE</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:104px;max-width:104px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:136px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Egg-Shaped_Mace_Head_3500-3300_BCE_Naqada_II.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Egg-Shaped_Mace_Head_3500-3300_BCE_Naqada_II.jpg/102px-Egg-Shaped_Mace_Head_3500-3300_BCE_Naqada_II.jpg" decoding="async" width="102" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Egg-Shaped_Mace_Head_3500-3300_BCE_Naqada_II.jpg/153px-Egg-Shaped_Mace_Head_3500-3300_BCE_Naqada_II.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Egg-Shaped_Mace_Head_3500-3300_BCE_Naqada_II.jpg/204px-Egg-Shaped_Mace_Head_3500-3300_BCE_Naqada_II.jpg 2x" data-file-width="839" data-file-height="1115" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Egyptian macehead, 3500–3300 BCE</div></div></div></div></div> <p>Egyptians used traditional disk-shaped <a href="/wiki/Macehead" class="mw-redirect" title="Macehead">maceheads</a> during the early phase of <a href="/wiki/Naqada_culture" title="Naqada culture">Naqada culture</a>, circa 4000–3400 BCE. At the end of the period, the disk-shaped macehead was replaced by the militarily superior Mesopotamian-style pear-shaped macehead as seen on the <a href="/wiki/Narmer_Palette" title="Narmer Palette">Narmer Palette</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-MI_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MI-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Mesopotamian macehead was much heavier with a wider impact surface, and was capable of giving much more damaging blows than the original Egyptian disk-shaped macehead.<sup id="cite_ref-MI_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MI-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cylinder_seals">Cylinder seals</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Cylinder seals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:153px;max-width:153px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:147px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Jemdet_Nasr_style_Mesopotamian_cylinder_seal_from_Grave_7304_Cemetery_7000_at_Naqada.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Jemdet_Nasr_style_Mesopotamian_cylinder_seal_from_Grave_7304_Cemetery_7000_at_Naqada.jpg/151px-Jemdet_Nasr_style_Mesopotamian_cylinder_seal_from_Grave_7304_Cemetery_7000_at_Naqada.jpg" decoding="async" width="151" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Jemdet_Nasr_style_Mesopotamian_cylinder_seal_from_Grave_7304_Cemetery_7000_at_Naqada.jpg/227px-Jemdet_Nasr_style_Mesopotamian_cylinder_seal_from_Grave_7304_Cemetery_7000_at_Naqada.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Jemdet_Nasr_style_Mesopotamian_cylinder_seal_from_Grave_7304_Cemetery_7000_at_Naqada.jpg/302px-Jemdet_Nasr_style_Mesopotamian_cylinder_seal_from_Grave_7304_Cemetery_7000_at_Naqada.jpg 2x" data-file-width="836" data-file-height="816" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr_period" title="Jemdet Nasr period">Jemdet Nasr</a>-style cylinder seal, <a href="/wiki/Naqada" title="Naqada">Naqada</a> tomb, <a href="/wiki/Naqada_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Naqada II">Naqada II</a> period.<sup id="cite_ref-HK239_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HK239-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:135px;max-width:135px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:147px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Egyptian_-_Cylinder_Seal_-_Walters_42168_-_Side_B.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Egyptian_-_Cylinder_Seal_-_Walters_42168_-_Side_B.jpg/133px-Egyptian_-_Cylinder_Seal_-_Walters_42168_-_Side_B.jpg" decoding="async" width="133" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Egyptian_-_Cylinder_Seal_-_Walters_42168_-_Side_B.jpg/200px-Egyptian_-_Cylinder_Seal_-_Walters_42168_-_Side_B.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Egyptian_-_Cylinder_Seal_-_Walters_42168_-_Side_B.jpg/266px-Egyptian_-_Cylinder_Seal_-_Walters_42168_-_Side_B.jpg 2x" data-file-width="807" data-file-height="900" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Archaic Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Cylinder_Seal" class="mw-redirect" title="Cylinder Seal">cylinder Seal</a>, 3100–2900 BCE</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:290px;max-width:290px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:133px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cylinder_seal_First_or_Second_Dynasty_3100-2686_BC_The_text_contains_a_personal_name_compounded_with_the_name_of_the_goddess_Neith._The_inscription_ends_with_a_hieroglyph_of_a_seated_figure_at_a_table_of_offerings.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Cylinder_seal_First_or_Second_Dynasty_3100-2686_BC_The_text_contains_a_personal_name_compounded_with_the_name_of_the_goddess_Neith._The_inscription_ends_with_a_hieroglyph_of_a_seated_figure_at_a_table_of_offerings.jpg/288px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="288" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Cylinder_seal_First_or_Second_Dynasty_3100-2686_BC_The_text_contains_a_personal_name_compounded_with_the_name_of_the_goddess_Neith._The_inscription_ends_with_a_hieroglyph_of_a_seated_figure_at_a_table_of_offerings.jpg/432px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Cylinder_seal_First_or_Second_Dynasty_3100-2686_BC_The_text_contains_a_personal_name_compounded_with_the_name_of_the_goddess_Neith._The_inscription_ends_with_a_hieroglyph_of_a_seated_figure_at_a_table_of_offerings.jpg/576px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="588" data-file-height="273" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Egyptian cylinder seal First or Second Dynasty, 3100–2686 BCE</div></div></div></div></div> <p>It is generally thought that <a href="/wiki/Cylinder_seals" class="mw-redirect" title="Cylinder seals">cylinder seals</a> were introduced from Mesopotamia to Egypt during the <a href="/wiki/Naqada_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Naqada II">Naqada II</a> period.<sup id="cite_ref-HK239_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HK239-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cylinder seals, some coming from Mesopotamia and also <a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Iran">Ancient Iran</a>, and some made locally in Egypt copying earlier Mesopotamian and Elamite designs in a stylized manner, have been discovered in the tombs of <a href="/wiki/Upper_Egypt" title="Upper Egypt">Upper Egypt</a> dating to Naqada II and III, particularly in <a href="/wiki/Hierakonpolis" title="Hierakonpolis">Hierakonpolis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-MKH_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MKH-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Eisenbrauns_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eisenbrauns-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mesopotamian cylinder seals have been found in the <a href="/wiki/Gerzean_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Gerzean period">Gerzean</a> context of Naqada II, in <a href="/wiki/Naqada" title="Naqada">Naqada</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hu,_Egypt" title="Hu, Egypt">Hiw</a>, attesting to the expansion of the Mesopotamian <a href="/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr" title="Jemdet Nasr">Jemdet Nasr</a> culture as far as Egypt at the end of the 4th millennium BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-HK239_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HK239-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Egypt, cylinder seals suddenly appear without any local antecedents from around Naqada II c-d (3500–3300 BCE).<sup id="cite_ref-EH_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EH-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The designs are similar to and clearly inspired by those of Mesopotamia, where they were invented during the early 4th millennium BCE, during the <a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a>, as an evolutionary step from various <a href="/wiki/Accounting_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Accounting systems">accounting systems</a> and seals going back as early as the early 7th millennium BCE in Mesopotamia.<sup id="cite_ref-EH_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EH-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest Egyptian cylinder seals are clearly similar to earlier and contemporary <a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> seals down to Naqada II-d (circa 3300 BCE), and may even have been manufactured by Mesopotamian craftsmen and subsequently sold to the Egyptians, but they start to diverge from circa 3300 BCE to become more Egyptian in character.<sup id="cite_ref-EH_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EH-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cylinder seals were made in Egypt as late as the <a href="/wiki/Second_Intermediate_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Intermediate Period">Second Intermediate Period</a>, but they were essentially replaced by <a href="/wiki/Scarab_(artifact)" title="Scarab (artifact)">scarabs</a> from the time of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-HK239_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HK239-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_objects_and_designs">Other objects and designs</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Other objects and designs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Lapis_lazuli" title="Lapis lazuli">Lapis lazuli</a> was imported in great quantity by Egypt, and already used in many tombs of the <a href="/wiki/Naqada_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Naqada II">Naqada II</a> period. Lapis lazuli probably originated in what is today northern <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, as no other sources are known, and had to be transported across the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_plateau" title="Iranian plateau">Iranian plateau</a> to <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> as part of the established Mesopotamian trade network with South and Central Asia, and from there sold on to Egypt by the Mesopotamians.<sup id="cite_ref-NHD_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NHD-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CP_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CP-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition, Egyptian objects were created which clearly mimic Mesopotamian forms, although not slavishly.<sup id="cite_ref-Redford_18_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Redford_18-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cylinder seals appear in Egypt, as well as recessed paneling architecture, the Egyptian reliefs on cosmetic palettes are clearly made in the same style as the earlier and contemporary Mesopotamian <a href="/wiki/Uruk_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Uruk culture">Uruk culture</a>, and the ceremonial mace heads which turn up from the late <a href="/wiki/Gerzean" class="mw-redirect" title="Gerzean">Gerzean</a> and early <a href="/wiki/Semainean" class="mw-redirect" title="Semainean">Semainean</a> are crafted in the Mesopotamian "pear-shaped" style, instead of the Egyptian native style.<sup id="cite_ref-Redford_17_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Redford_17-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first man/animal composite creatures in Egypt were directly copied from earlier Mesopotamian designs.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is also considered as certain that the Egyptians adopted from Mesopotamia the practice of marking the sealing of jars with engraved cylinder seals for informational purposes.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Temples_and_pyramids">Temples and pyramids</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Temples and pyramids"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Recessed niches and false doors</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:175px;max-width:175px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:137px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wall_plaque_showing_libation_scene_from_Ur,_Iraq,_2500_BCE._British_Museum_(libation_detail).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Wall plaque showing libation scene from Ur, Iraq, 2500 BCE. British Museum (libation detail).jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Wall_plaque_showing_libation_scene_from_Ur%2C_Iraq%2C_2500_BCE._British_Museum_%28libation_detail%29.jpg/173px-Wall_plaque_showing_libation_scene_from_Ur%2C_Iraq%2C_2500_BCE._British_Museum_%28libation_detail%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="173" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Wall_plaque_showing_libation_scene_from_Ur%2C_Iraq%2C_2500_BCE._British_Museum_%28libation_detail%29.jpg/260px-Wall_plaque_showing_libation_scene_from_Ur%2C_Iraq%2C_2500_BCE._British_Museum_%28libation_detail%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Wall_plaque_showing_libation_scene_from_Ur%2C_Iraq%2C_2500_BCE._British_Museum_%28libation_detail%29.jpg/346px-Wall_plaque_showing_libation_scene_from_Ur%2C_Iraq%2C_2500_BCE._British_Museum_%28libation_detail%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1533" data-file-height="1219" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Naked devotee offering libations to a temple of <a href="/wiki/Inanna" title="Inanna">Inanna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ur" title="Ur">Ur</a>, c. 2500 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:105px;max-width:105px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:137px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tomb_Chapel_of_Raemkai,_False_Door_on_West_Wall_ca._2446%E2%80%932389_BC_Old_Kingdom.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Tomb_Chapel_of_Raemkai%2C_False_Door_on_West_Wall_ca._2446%E2%80%932389_BC_Old_Kingdom.jpg/103px-Tomb_Chapel_of_Raemkai%2C_False_Door_on_West_Wall_ca._2446%E2%80%932389_BC_Old_Kingdom.jpg" decoding="async" width="103" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Tomb_Chapel_of_Raemkai%2C_False_Door_on_West_Wall_ca._2446%E2%80%932389_BC_Old_Kingdom.jpg/155px-Tomb_Chapel_of_Raemkai%2C_False_Door_on_West_Wall_ca._2446%E2%80%932389_BC_Old_Kingdom.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Tomb_Chapel_of_Raemkai%2C_False_Door_on_West_Wall_ca._2446%E2%80%932389_BC_Old_Kingdom.jpg/206px-Tomb_Chapel_of_Raemkai%2C_False_Door_on_West_Wall_ca._2446%E2%80%932389_BC_Old_Kingdom.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2958" data-file-height="3936" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Tomb chapel false door, circa 2450 BCE, Egypt.</div></div></div></div></div> <p>Egyptian architecture also was influenced, as it adopted various elements of earlier <a href="/wiki/Ziggurat" title="Ziggurat">Mesopotamian temple</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Civic_architecture&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Civic architecture (page does not exist)">civic architecture</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-John_Wiley_&_Sons_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-John_Wiley_&_Sons-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Recessed niches in particular, which are characteristic of Mesopotamian temple architecture, were adopted for the design of <a href="/wiki/False_door" title="False door">false doors</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Mastaba" title="Mastaba">tombs</a> of the <a href="/wiki/First_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="First Dynasty of Egypt">First Dynasty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Second Dynasty of Egypt">Second Dynasty</a>, from the time of the <a href="/wiki/Naqada_III" title="Naqada III">Naqada III</a> period (circa 3000 BCE).<sup id="cite_ref-John_Wiley_&_Sons_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-John_Wiley_&_Sons-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is unknown if the transfer of this design was the result of Mesopotamian builders and architects in Egypt, or if temple designs on imported Mesopotamian seals may have been a sufficient source of inspiration for Egyptian architects to manage themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-John_Wiley_&_Sons_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-John_Wiley_&_Sons-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The design of the <a href="/wiki/Ziggurat" title="Ziggurat">ziggurat</a>, which appeared in Mesopotamia in the late 5th millennium BCE, was clearly a precursor to and an influence on the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_pyramids" title="Egyptian pyramids">Egyptian pyramids</a>, especially the stepped designs of the oldest pyramids (<a href="/wiki/Step_pyramid" title="Step pyramid">step pyramid</a>), the earliest of which (<a href="/wiki/Pyramid_of_Zoser" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyramid of Zoser">Pyramid of Zoser</a> at <a href="/wiki/Saqqara" title="Saqqara">Saqqara</a>) dates to circa 2600 BCE, well over two thousand years younger than Mesopotamian ziggurats/step pyramids.<sup id="cite_ref-CCH_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CCH-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This again strongly suggests early cultural and technological influence on Egypt by Mesopotamia.<sup id="cite_ref-CCH_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CCH-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tnone center"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:492px;max-width:492px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Ziggurats and Egyptian pyramids</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:272px;max-width:272px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:160px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg/270px-White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg" decoding="async" width="270" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg/405px-White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg/540px-White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1952" data-file-height="1158" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">The original Mesopotamian Anu <a href="/wiki/Ziggurat" title="Ziggurat">ziggurat</a> dates to around 4000 BCE</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:216px;max-width:216px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:160px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Saqqarah_Djeser_06.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Saqqarah_Djeser_06.jpg/214px-Saqqarah_Djeser_06.jpg" decoding="async" width="214" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Saqqarah_Djeser_06.jpg/321px-Saqqarah_Djeser_06.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Saqqarah_Djeser_06.jpg/428px-Saqqarah_Djeser_06.jpg 2x" data-file-width="819" data-file-height="614" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">The <a href="/wiki/Pyramid_of_Djoser" title="Pyramid of Djoser">Pyramid of Djoser</a>, the first Egyptian pyramid, dates circa 2670–2650 BCE</div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">The original pyramidal structure, the Mesopotamian "Anu <a href="/wiki/Ziggurat" title="Ziggurat">Ziggurat</a>" dates to around 4000 BCE, and the White Temple was built on top of it circa 3500 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The design of the ziggurat was probably a precursor to that of the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_pyramids" title="Egyptian pyramids">Egyptian pyramids</a>, the earliest of which dates to circa 2600 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-CCH_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CCH-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transmission">Transmission</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Transmission"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:332px;max-width:332px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Serpopard design in Mesopotamia and Egypt</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:244px;max-width:244px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:121px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Uruk3000BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Uruk3000BCE.jpg/242px-Uruk3000BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="242" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Uruk3000BCE.jpg/363px-Uruk3000BCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Uruk3000BCE.jpg/484px-Uruk3000BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1650" data-file-height="826" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> <a href="/wiki/Cylinder_seal" title="Cylinder seal">cylinder seal</a> with serpopard design. The <a href="/wiki/Serpopard" title="Serpopard">serpopard</a> design of Egyptian palettes was adopted from Mesopotamian serpopard designs.<sup id="cite_ref-SANE14_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SANE14-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:84px;max-width:84px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:121px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Narmer_Palette_serpopard_side.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Narmer_Palette_serpopard_side.jpg/82px-Narmer_Palette_serpopard_side.jpg" decoding="async" width="82" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Narmer_Palette_serpopard_side.jpg/123px-Narmer_Palette_serpopard_side.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Narmer_Palette_serpopard_side.jpg/164px-Narmer_Palette_serpopard_side.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1155" data-file-height="1705" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Narmer_Palette" title="Narmer Palette">Narmer Palette</a> with serpopard design.</div></div></div></div></div> <p>The route of this trade is difficult to determine, but direct Egyptian contact with <a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a> in the Levant does not predate the early dynastic era, so it is usually assumed to have been by sea trade.<sup id="cite_ref-Redford_22_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Redford_22-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the time when the <a href="/wiki/Dynastic_race_theory" title="Dynastic race theory">dynastic race theory</a> was still popular, it was proposed that Mesopotamian sailors circumnavigated <a href="/wiki/Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabia">Arabia</a>, but a <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</a> route, probably by middlemen through the Canaanite port of <a href="/wiki/Byblos" title="Byblos">Byblos</a>, is also likely, as evidenced by the presence of Canaanite <a href="/wiki/Byblos" title="Byblos">Byblian</a> objects in Egypt.<sup id="cite_ref-Redford_22_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Redford_22-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Glyptic_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Glyptic art">Glyptic art</a> also seems to have played a key role, through the circulation of decorated cylinder seals across the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>, a common <a href="/wiki/Hinterland" title="Hinterland">hinterland</a> of both empires, particularly Mesopotamia.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The intensity of the exchanges suggest however that the contacts between Egypt and Mesopotamia were often direct, rather than merely through middlemen or through trade.<sup id="cite_ref-MKH427_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MKH427-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Uruk had known colonial outposts of as far as <a href="/wiki/Habuba_Kabira" title="Habuba Kabira">Habuba Kabira</a>, in modern <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, insuring their presence in the Levant.<sup id="cite_ref-ANE17_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ANE17-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Numerous Uruk cylinder seals have also been uncovered there.<sup id="cite_ref-ANE17_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ANE17-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There have been suggestions that Uruk may have had a colonial outpost and a form of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/colonial" class="extiw" title="wikt:colonial">colonial</a> presence in northern Egypt.<sup id="cite_ref-ANE17_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ANE17-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The site of <a href="/wiki/Buto" title="Buto">Buto</a> in particular was suggested, but it has been rejected as a possible candidate.<sup id="cite_ref-John_Wiley_&_Sons_26-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-John_Wiley_&_Sons-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The fact that so many Gerzean sites are at the mouths of <a href="/wiki/Wadi" title="Wadi">wadis</a> which lead to the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a> may indicate some amount of trade via the Red Sea (though <a href="/wiki/Byblos" title="Byblos">Byblian</a> trade potentially could have crossed the Sinai and then be taken to the Red Sea).<sup id="cite_ref-Redford_20_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Redford_20-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, it is considered unlikely that something as complicated as recessed panel architecture could have worked its way into Egypt by proxy, and a possibly significant contingent of Mesopotamian migrants or settlers is often suspected.<sup id="cite_ref-Redford_22_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Redford_22-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These early contacts probably acted as a sort of catalyst for the development of Egyptian culture, particularly in respect to the inception of writing, the codification of royal and vernacular imagery and architectural innovations.<sup id="cite_ref-MKH427_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MKH427-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional" style="max-width: 972px;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Narmer_Palette.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Egyptian palettes, such as the Narmer Palette (3200–3000 BCE), borrow elements of Mesopotamian iconography, in particular the sauropod design of Uruk.[33]"><img alt="Egyptian palettes, such as the Narmer Palette (3200–3000 BCE), borrow elements of Mesopotamian iconography, in particular the sauropod design of Uruk.[33]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Narmer_Palette.jpg/200px-Narmer_Palette.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Narmer_Palette.jpg/300px-Narmer_Palette.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Narmer_Palette.jpg/400px-Narmer_Palette.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2566" data-file-height="1808" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Egyptian palettes, such as the <a href="/wiki/Narmer_Palette" title="Narmer Palette">Narmer Palette</a> (3200–3000 BCE), borrow elements of Mesopotamian iconography, in particular the <a href="/wiki/File:Uruk3000BCE.jpg" title="File:Uruk3000BCE.jpg">sauropod design</a> of <a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:String_of_beads_MET_99.4.54.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Beads of lapis lazuli and travertine, circa 3650–3100 BCE. Naqada II–Naqada III."><img alt="Beads of lapis lazuli and travertine, circa 3650–3100 BCE. Naqada II–Naqada III." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/String_of_beads_MET_99.4.54.jpg/200px-String_of_beads_MET_99.4.54.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/String_of_beads_MET_99.4.54.jpg/300px-String_of_beads_MET_99.4.54.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/String_of_beads_MET_99.4.54.jpg/400px-String_of_beads_MET_99.4.54.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1141" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Beads of lapis lazuli and travertine, circa 3650–3100 BCE. Naqada II–Naqada III.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Egypt_Lapis_lazuli_woman_(detail).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Egyptian statuette, 3300–3000 BCE. The lapis lazuli material is thought to have been imported through Mesopotamia from Afghanistan. Ashmolean.[20][14]"><img alt="Egyptian statuette, 3300–3000 BCE. The lapis lazuli material is thought to have been imported through Mesopotamia from Afghanistan. Ashmolean.[20][14]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Egypt_Lapis_lazuli_woman_%28detail%29.jpg/101px-Egypt_Lapis_lazuli_woman_%28detail%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="101" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Egypt_Lapis_lazuli_woman_%28detail%29.jpg/151px-Egypt_Lapis_lazuli_woman_%28detail%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Egypt_Lapis_lazuli_woman_%28detail%29.jpg/202px-Egypt_Lapis_lazuli_woman_%28detail%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="646" data-file-height="1280" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Egyptian statuette, 3300–3000 BCE. The <a href="/wiki/Lapis_lazuli" title="Lapis lazuli">lapis lazuli</a> material is thought to have been imported through Mesopotamia from <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ashmolean" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashmolean">Ashmolean</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NHD_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NHD-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CP_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CP-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Egyptian_necklace_and_piece_of_jewelry_with_lapis_lazuri_imported_from_Afghanistan,_possibly_by_Mesopotamian_traders,_Naqada_II_circa_3500_BCE,_British_Museum_EA57765_EA57586.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Egyptian necklace and pendant, using lapis lazuli imported from Afghanistan, possibly by Mesopotamian traders, Naqada II circa 3500 BCE, British Museum EA57765 EA57586.[34][35][36]"><img alt="Egyptian necklace and pendant, using lapis lazuli imported from Afghanistan, possibly by Mesopotamian traders, Naqada II circa 3500 BCE, British Museum EA57765 EA57586.[34][35][36]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Egyptian_necklace_and_piece_of_jewelry_with_lapis_lazuri_imported_from_Afghanistan%2C_possibly_by_Mesopotamian_traders%2C_Naqada_II_circa_3500_BCE%2C_British_Museum_EA57765_EA57586.jpg/133px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="133" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Egyptian_necklace_and_piece_of_jewelry_with_lapis_lazuri_imported_from_Afghanistan%2C_possibly_by_Mesopotamian_traders%2C_Naqada_II_circa_3500_BCE%2C_British_Museum_EA57765_EA57586.jpg/200px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Egyptian_necklace_and_piece_of_jewelry_with_lapis_lazuri_imported_from_Afghanistan%2C_possibly_by_Mesopotamian_traders%2C_Naqada_II_circa_3500_BCE%2C_British_Museum_EA57765_EA57586.jpg/266px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="4896" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Egyptian necklace and pendant, using lapis lazuli imported from Afghanistan, possibly by Mesopotamian traders, <a href="/wiki/Naqada_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Naqada II">Naqada II</a> circa 3500 BCE, British Museum EA57765 EA57586.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Importance_of_local_Egyptian_developments">Importance of local Egyptian developments</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Importance of local Egyptian developments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Naqada_III_Egyptian_Cosmetic_Palette,_end_of_4th_millenium,_found_in_Ascalon,_Louvre_Museum_AO_5359.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Naqada_III_Egyptian_Cosmetic_Palette%2C_end_of_4th_millenium%2C_found_in_Ascalon%2C_Louvre_Museum_AO_5359.jpg/220px-Naqada_III_Egyptian_Cosmetic_Palette%2C_end_of_4th_millenium%2C_found_in_Ascalon%2C_Louvre_Museum_AO_5359.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Naqada_III_Egyptian_Cosmetic_Palette%2C_end_of_4th_millenium%2C_found_in_Ascalon%2C_Louvre_Museum_AO_5359.jpg/330px-Naqada_III_Egyptian_Cosmetic_Palette%2C_end_of_4th_millenium%2C_found_in_Ascalon%2C_Louvre_Museum_AO_5359.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Naqada_III_Egyptian_Cosmetic_Palette%2C_end_of_4th_millenium%2C_found_in_Ascalon%2C_Louvre_Museum_AO_5359.jpg/440px-Naqada_III_Egyptian_Cosmetic_Palette%2C_end_of_4th_millenium%2C_found_in_Ascalon%2C_Louvre_Museum_AO_5359.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2252" data-file-height="1461" /></a><figcaption>A rare <a href="/wiki/Naqada_III" title="Naqada III">Naqada III</a> Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Cosmetic_palette" title="Cosmetic palette">Cosmetic palette</a> found beyond Egypt, in <a href="/wiki/Ashkelon" title="Ashkelon">Ashkelon</a> or <a href="/wiki/Gaza_City" title="Gaza City">Gaza</a>, end of 4th millennium, Louvre Museum AO 5359.<sup id="cite_ref-PDM_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PDM-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>While there is clear evidence the <a href="/wiki/Naqada_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Naqada II">Naqada II</a> culture borrowed abundantly from Mesopotamia, there is also a commonly held view that many of the achievements of the later <a href="/wiki/First_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="First Dynasty of Egypt">First Dynasty</a> were also the result of a long period of indigenous cultural and political development.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such developments are much older than the Naqada II period,<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Naqada II period had a large degree of continuity with the Naqada I period,<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the changes which did happen during the Naqada periods happened over significant amounts of time.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although there are many examples of Mesopotamian influence in Egypt in the 4th millennium BCE, the reverse is not true, and there are no traces of Egyptian influence in Mesopotamia at any time, clearly indicating a one way flow of ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only very few Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Naqada_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Naqada period">Naqada period</a> object have been found beyond Egypt, and generally in its vicinity, such as a rare <a href="/wiki/Naqada_III" title="Naqada III">Naqada III</a> Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Cosmetic_palette" title="Cosmetic palette">cosmetic palette</a> in the shape of a fish, of the end of 4th millennium BCE, found in <a href="/wiki/Ashkelon" title="Ashkelon">Ashkelon</a> or <a href="/wiki/Gaza_City" title="Gaza City">Gaza</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early Egyptologists such as <a href="/wiki/Flinders_Petrie" title="Flinders Petrie">Flinders Petrie</a> were proponents of the <a href="/wiki/Dynastic_race_theory" title="Dynastic race theory">Dynastic race theory</a> which hypothesised that the first Egyptian chieftains and rulers were themselves of Mesopotamian origin,<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but this view has been abandoned among modern scholars.<sup id="cite_ref-Early_dynastic_Egypt_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Early_dynastic_Egypt-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The current position of modern scholarship is that the Egyptian civilization was an indigenous Nile Valley development and that the archaeological evidence "strongly supports an <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">African</a> origin"<sup id="cite_ref-:0_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of the ancient Egyptians.<sup id="cite_ref-Early_dynastic_Egypt_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Early_dynastic_Egypt-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sonia_R._Zakrzewski_2003_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sonia_R._Zakrzewski_2003-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development_of_writing_(3500–3200_BCE)"><span id="Development_of_writing_.283500.E2.80.933200_BCE.29"></span>Development of writing (3500–3200 BCE)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Development of writing (3500–3200 BCE)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_writing" title="History of writing">History of writing</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Development_of_writing.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Development_of_writing.jpg/370px-Development_of_writing.jpg" decoding="async" width="370" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Development_of_writing.jpg/555px-Development_of_writing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Development_of_writing.jpg/740px-Development_of_writing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>Standard reconstruction of the <a href="/wiki/Development_of_writing" class="mw-redirect" title="Development of writing">development of writing</a>, with position of cuneiform.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Times_Atlas_of_World_History_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Times_Atlas_of_World_History-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is a possibility that the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Egyptian script</a> was invented independently from the <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesopotamian script">Mesopotamian script</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>It is generally thought that <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Egyptian hieroglyphs</a> "came into existence a century or so after <a href="/wiki/Sumerian_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Sumerian script">Sumerian script</a>, and were probably invented under the influence of the latter",<sup id="cite_ref-b1_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-b1-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that it is "probable that the general idea of expressing words of a language in writing was brought to Egypt from Sumerian <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The two writing systems are in fact quite similar in their initial stages, relying heavily on pictographic forms and then evolving a parallel system for the expression of phonetic sounds.<sup id="cite_ref-MKH427_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MKH427-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Standard reconstructions of the <a href="/wiki/Development_of_writing" class="mw-redirect" title="Development of writing">development of writing</a> generally place the development of the Sumerian <a href="/wiki/Proto-cuneiform" title="Proto-cuneiform">proto-cuneiform</a> script before the development of Egyptian hieroglyphs, with the strong suggestion the former influenced the latter.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Times_Atlas_of_World_History_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Times_Atlas_of_World_History-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is however a lack of direct evidence that Mesopotamian writing influenced Egyptian form, and "no definitive determination has been made as to the origin of hieroglyphics in ancient Egypt".<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some scholars point out that "a very credible argument can also be made for the independent development of writing in Egypt..."<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the 1990s, the discovery of glyphs on clay tags at <a href="/wiki/Abydos,_Egypt" title="Abydos, Egypt">Abydos</a>, dated to between 3400 and 3200 BCE, may challenge the classical notion according to which the Mesopotamian symbol system predates the Egyptian one,<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although perhaps tellingly, Egyptian writing does make a 'sudden' appearance at that time with no antecedents or precursors, while on the contrary Mesopotamia already had a long evolutionary history of sign usage in tokens dating back to circa 8000 BCE, followed by Proto-Cuneiform.<sup id="cite_ref-Mitchell1999_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mitchell1999-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CS_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CS-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pittman proposes that the Abydos clay tags are almost identical to contemporary clay tags from <a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Egyptian scholar Gamal Mokhtar argued that the inventory of hieroglyphic symbols derived from "fauna and flora used in the signs [which] are essentially African" and in "regards to writing, we have seen that a purely Nilotic, hence African origin not only is not excluded, but probably reflects the reality" although he acknowledged the geographical location of Egypt made it a receptacle for many influences.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Frank_Yurco" class="mw-redirect" title="Frank Yurco">Frank Yurco</a>, "Egyptian writing arose in Naqadan <a href="/wiki/Upper_Egypt" title="Upper Egypt">Upper Egypt</a> and <a href="/wiki/A-Group_culture" title="A-Group culture">A-Group Nubia</a>, and not in the Delta cultures, where the direct <a href="/wiki/Western_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Asia">Western Asian</a> contact was made, further vitiates the Mesopotamian-influence argument".<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional" style="max-width: 965px;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P1150884_Louvre_Uruk_III_tablette_%C3%A9criture_pr%C3%A9cun%C3%A9iforme_AO19936_rwk.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Tablet with Mesopotamian proto-cuneiform pictographic characters (end of 4th millennium BCE), Uruk III."><img alt="Tablet with Mesopotamian proto-cuneiform pictographic characters (end of 4th millennium BCE), Uruk III." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/P1150884_Louvre_Uruk_III_tablette_%C3%A9criture_pr%C3%A9cun%C3%A9iforme_AO19936_rwk.jpg/150px-P1150884_Louvre_Uruk_III_tablette_%C3%A9criture_pr%C3%A9cun%C3%A9iforme_AO19936_rwk.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/P1150884_Louvre_Uruk_III_tablette_%C3%A9criture_pr%C3%A9cun%C3%A9iforme_AO19936_rwk.jpg/225px-P1150884_Louvre_Uruk_III_tablette_%C3%A9criture_pr%C3%A9cun%C3%A9iforme_AO19936_rwk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/P1150884_Louvre_Uruk_III_tablette_%C3%A9criture_pr%C3%A9cun%C3%A9iforme_AO19936_rwk.jpg/300px-P1150884_Louvre_Uruk_III_tablette_%C3%A9criture_pr%C3%A9cun%C3%A9iforme_AO19936_rwk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1349" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Tablet with Mesopotamian <a href="/wiki/Proto-cuneiform" title="Proto-cuneiform">proto-cuneiform</a> pictographic characters (end of 4th millennium BCE), <a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk III</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Limestone_pendant_plaque,_maybe_Uruk,_c._3000_BC.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Mesopotamian pierced label, with symbol "EN" meaning "Master", the reverse of the plaque has the symbol for Goddess Inanna. Uruk circa 3000 BCE. Louvre Museum AO 7702"><img alt="Mesopotamian pierced label, with symbol "EN" meaning "Master", the reverse of the plaque has the symbol for Goddess Inanna. Uruk circa 3000 BCE. Louvre Museum AO 7702" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Limestone_pendant_plaque%2C_maybe_Uruk%2C_c._3000_BC.jpg/132px-Limestone_pendant_plaque%2C_maybe_Uruk%2C_c._3000_BC.jpg" decoding="async" width="132" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Limestone_pendant_plaque%2C_maybe_Uruk%2C_c._3000_BC.jpg/198px-Limestone_pendant_plaque%2C_maybe_Uruk%2C_c._3000_BC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Limestone_pendant_plaque%2C_maybe_Uruk%2C_c._3000_BC.jpg/264px-Limestone_pendant_plaque%2C_maybe_Uruk%2C_c._3000_BC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1592" data-file-height="1812" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Mesopotamian pierced label, with symbol "EN" meaning "Master", the reverse of the plaque has the symbol for Goddess <a href="/wiki/Inanna" title="Inanna">Inanna</a>. Uruk circa 3000 BCE. Louvre Museum AO 7702</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Design_of_the_Abydos_token_glyphs_dated_to_3400-3200_BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Designs on some of the labels or token from Abydos, Egypt, carbon-dated to circa 3400–3200 BCE.[15][62] They are virtually identical with contemporary clay tags from Uruk, Mesopotamia.[66]"><img alt="Designs on some of the labels or token from Abydos, Egypt, carbon-dated to circa 3400–3200 BCE.[15][62] They are virtually identical with contemporary clay tags from Uruk, Mesopotamia.[66]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Design_of_the_Abydos_token_glyphs_dated_to_3400-3200_BCE.jpg/150px-Design_of_the_Abydos_token_glyphs_dated_to_3400-3200_BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="56" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Design_of_the_Abydos_token_glyphs_dated_to_3400-3200_BCE.jpg/225px-Design_of_the_Abydos_token_glyphs_dated_to_3400-3200_BCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Design_of_the_Abydos_token_glyphs_dated_to_3400-3200_BCE.jpg/300px-Design_of_the_Abydos_token_glyphs_dated_to_3400-3200_BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1408" data-file-height="528" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Designs on some of the labels or token from <a href="/wiki/Abydos,_Egypt" title="Abydos, Egypt">Abydos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, carbon-dated to circa 3400–3200 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-CS_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CS-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mitchell1999_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mitchell1999-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are virtually identical with contemporary clay tags from <a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Labels_from_the_tomb_of_Menes.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Labels with some of the earliest Egyptian hieroglyphs from the tomb of Egyptian king Menes (3200–3000 BCE)"><img alt="Labels with some of the earliest Egyptian hieroglyphs from the tomb of Egyptian king Menes (3200–3000 BCE)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Labels_from_the_tomb_of_Menes.jpg/121px-Labels_from_the_tomb_of_Menes.jpg" decoding="async" width="121" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Labels_from_the_tomb_of_Menes.jpg/181px-Labels_from_the_tomb_of_Menes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Labels_from_the_tomb_of_Menes.jpg/241px-Labels_from_the_tomb_of_Menes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1224" data-file-height="1520" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Labels with some of the earliest <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Egyptian hieroglyphs</a> from the tomb of Egyptian king <a href="/wiki/Menes" title="Menes">Menes</a> (3200–3000 BCE)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ebony_plaque_of_Menes_in_his_tomb_of_Abydos_(photograph).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ivory plaque of Menes (3200–3000 BCE)"><img alt="Ivory plaque of Menes (3200–3000 BCE)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Ebony_plaque_of_Menes_in_his_tomb_of_Abydos_%28photograph%29.jpg/150px-Ebony_plaque_of_Menes_in_his_tomb_of_Abydos_%28photograph%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Ebony_plaque_of_Menes_in_his_tomb_of_Abydos_%28photograph%29.jpg/225px-Ebony_plaque_of_Menes_in_his_tomb_of_Abydos_%28photograph%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Ebony_plaque_of_Menes_in_his_tomb_of_Abydos_%28photograph%29.jpg/300px-Ebony_plaque_of_Menes_in_his_tomb_of_Abydos_%28photograph%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1172" data-file-height="876" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Ivory plaque of Menes (3200–3000 BCE)</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Egyptian_influence_on_Mesopotamian_art">Egyptian influence on Mesopotamian art</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Egyptian influence on Mesopotamian art"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:342px;max-width:342px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Hegemonistic kingship</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:166px;max-width:166px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:161px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:EB1911_Egypt_-_Early_Art_-_King_Narmer,_Slate_Palette.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/EB1911_Egypt_-_Early_Art_-_King_Narmer%2C_Slate_Palette.jpg/164px-EB1911_Egypt_-_Early_Art_-_King_Narmer%2C_Slate_Palette.jpg" decoding="async" width="164" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/EB1911_Egypt_-_Early_Art_-_King_Narmer%2C_Slate_Palette.jpg/246px-EB1911_Egypt_-_Early_Art_-_King_Narmer%2C_Slate_Palette.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/EB1911_Egypt_-_Early_Art_-_King_Narmer%2C_Slate_Palette.jpg/328px-EB1911_Egypt_-_Early_Art_-_King_Narmer%2C_Slate_Palette.jpg 2x" data-file-width="724" data-file-height="713" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Narmer_Palette" title="Narmer Palette">Narmer Palette</a> (circa 3000 BCE). The Egyptian symbol of the king smiting his enemies with a mace was adopted centuries later by the dynasts of Mesopotamia.<sup id="cite_ref-MKH428_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MKH428-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:172px;max-width:172px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:161px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stele_of_Vultures_detail_01_reverse.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Stele_of_Vultures_detail_01_reverse.jpg/170px-Stele_of_Vultures_detail_01_reverse.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Stele_of_Vultures_detail_01_reverse.jpg/255px-Stele_of_Vultures_detail_01_reverse.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Stele_of_Vultures_detail_01_reverse.jpg/340px-Stele_of_Vultures_detail_01_reverse.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1897" data-file-height="1804" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Bare-chested <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumerian</a> king <a href="/wiki/Eannatum" title="Eannatum">Eannatum</a> smiting an enemy with a mace. The dynastic bird also shares the same position. <a href="/wiki/Stele_of_the_Vultures" title="Stele of the Vultures">Stele of the Vultures</a> (circa 2500–2400 BCE).<sup id="cite_ref-MKH428_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MKH428-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div></div></div></div> <p>After this early period of exchange, and the direct introduction of Mesopotamian components into Egyptian culture, Egypt soon started to assert its own style from the <a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Egypt)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)">Early Dynastic Period</a> (3150–2686 BCE), the <a href="/wiki/Narmer_palette" class="mw-redirect" title="Narmer palette">Narmer palette</a> being seen as a turning point.<sup id="cite_ref-CAEA428_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CAEA428-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Egypt seems to have provided some artistic feedback to Mesopotamia at the time of the <a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic Period of Mesopotamia</a> (2900–2334 BCE).<sup id="cite_ref-MKH428_67-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MKH428-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is especially the case with royal iconography: the figure of the king smiting his enemies with a mace, and the depiction of dead enemies being eaten by birds of prey appeared in Egypt from the time of the <a href="/wiki/Narmer_palette" class="mw-redirect" title="Narmer palette">Narmer palette</a>, and were then adopted centuries later (possibly from Egypt) by Mesopotamian rulers <a href="/wiki/Eannatum" title="Eannatum">Eannatum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sargon_of_Akkad" title="Sargon of Akkad">Sargon of Akkad</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-MKH428_67-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MKH428-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This depiction appears to be part of an artistic system to promote "hegemonistic kingship".<sup id="cite_ref-MKH428_67-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MKH428-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another example is the usage of decorated mace heads as a symbol of kingship.<sup id="cite_ref-MKH428_67-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MKH428-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is also a possibility that the depictions of the Mesopotamian king with a muscular, naked, upper body fighting his enemies in a quadrangular posture, as seen in the <a href="/wiki/Stele_of_Naram-Sin" class="mw-redirect" title="Stele of Naram-Sin">Stele of Naram-Sin</a> or statues of <a href="/wiki/Gudea" title="Gudea">Gudea</a> (all circa 2000 BCE) were derived from Egyptian sculpture, which by that time had already been through its Golden Age during the <a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Kingdom">Old Kingdom</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-MKH430_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MKH430-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Later_periods">Later periods</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Later periods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trade_of_Indus_goods_through_Mesopotamia">Trade of Indus goods through Mesopotamia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Trade of Indus goods through Mesopotamia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:242px;max-width:242px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:127px;max-width:127px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:149px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Etched_carnelian_beads_after_Mackay.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Etched_carnelian_beads_after_Mackay.jpg/125px-Etched_carnelian_beads_after_Mackay.jpg" decoding="async" width="125" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Etched_carnelian_beads_after_Mackay.jpg/188px-Etched_carnelian_beads_after_Mackay.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Etched_carnelian_beads_after_Mackay.jpg/250px-Etched_carnelian_beads_after_Mackay.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1203" data-file-height="1442" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilization">Indus Valley civilization</a> <a href="/wiki/Etched_carnelian_beads" title="Etched carnelian beads">etched carnelian beads</a>.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:111px;max-width:111px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:149px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Indus_carnelian_bead_UC30334_Egypt_Middle_Kingdom_London,_Petrie_Museum_of_Egyptian_Archaeology_(detail).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Indus_carnelian_bead_UC30334_Egypt_Middle_Kingdom_London%2C_Petrie_Museum_of_Egyptian_Archaeology_%28detail%29.jpg/109px-Indus_carnelian_bead_UC30334_Egypt_Middle_Kingdom_London%2C_Petrie_Museum_of_Egyptian_Archaeology_%28detail%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="109" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Indus_carnelian_bead_UC30334_Egypt_Middle_Kingdom_London%2C_Petrie_Museum_of_Egyptian_Archaeology_%28detail%29.jpg/164px-Indus_carnelian_bead_UC30334_Egypt_Middle_Kingdom_London%2C_Petrie_Museum_of_Egyptian_Archaeology_%28detail%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Indus_carnelian_bead_UC30334_Egypt_Middle_Kingdom_London%2C_Petrie_Museum_of_Egyptian_Archaeology_%28detail%29.jpg/218px-Indus_carnelian_bead_UC30334_Egypt_Middle_Kingdom_London%2C_Petrie_Museum_of_Egyptian_Archaeology_%28detail%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="293" data-file-height="402" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Bead excavated in Egypt, circa 1800 BCE.</div></div></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Etched_carnelian_beads">Etched carnelian beads</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Etched carnelian beads"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Etched_carnelian_beads" title="Etched carnelian beads">Etched carnelian beads</a></div> <p>Rare <a href="/wiki/Etched_carnelian_bead" class="mw-redirect" title="Etched carnelian bead">etched carnelian bead</a> have been found in Egypt, which are thought to have been imported from the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilization">Indus Valley civilization</a> via Mesopotamian states of <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Akkad_(city)" title="Akkad (city)">Akkad</a> and <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a>. This is related to the flourishing of the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilization">Indus Valley civilization</a>, and the development of <a href="/wiki/Indus-Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus-Mesopotamia relations">Indus-Mesopotamia relations</a> from 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE. Examples of etched carnelian beads found in Egypt typically date to the Late <a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1800 BCE</span>). They were found in tombs and represented luxury items, often as the centerpiece of jewelry.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hyksos_period">Hyksos period</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Hyksos period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader"><i>West Asiatic procession to Egypt (c.1900 BCE)</i></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:290px;max-width:290px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:43px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Procession_of_the_Aamu,_Tomb_of_Khnumhotep_II_(composite).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Procession_of_the_Aamu%2C_Tomb_of_Khnumhotep_II_%28composite%29.jpg/288px-Procession_of_the_Aamu%2C_Tomb_of_Khnumhotep_II_%28composite%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="288" height="44" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Procession_of_the_Aamu%2C_Tomb_of_Khnumhotep_II_%28composite%29.jpg/432px-Procession_of_the_Aamu%2C_Tomb_of_Khnumhotep_II_%28composite%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Procession_of_the_Aamu%2C_Tomb_of_Khnumhotep_II_%28composite%29.jpg/576px-Procession_of_the_Aamu%2C_Tomb_of_Khnumhotep_II_%28composite%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5440" data-file-height="823" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:290px;max-width:290px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:41px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Drawing_of_the_procession_of_the_Aamu_group_tomb_of_Khnumhotep_II_at_Beni_Hassan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Drawing_of_the_procession_of_the_Aamu_group_tomb_of_Khnumhotep_II_at_Beni_Hassan.jpg/288px-Drawing_of_the_procession_of_the_Aamu_group_tomb_of_Khnumhotep_II_at_Beni_Hassan.jpg" decoding="async" width="288" height="42" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Drawing_of_the_procession_of_the_Aamu_group_tomb_of_Khnumhotep_II_at_Beni_Hassan.jpg/432px-Drawing_of_the_procession_of_the_Aamu_group_tomb_of_Khnumhotep_II_at_Beni_Hassan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Drawing_of_the_procession_of_the_Aamu_group_tomb_of_Khnumhotep_II_at_Beni_Hassan.jpg/576px-Drawing_of_the_procession_of_the_Aamu_group_tomb_of_Khnumhotep_II_at_Beni_Hassan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1978" data-file-height="288" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">A group of West Asiatic foreigners labelled as <i><a href="/wiki/Aamu" title="Aamu">Aamu</a></i> (<span title="Ancient Egyptian-language text"><i lang="egy">ꜥꜣmw</i></span>), including the leading man with a <a href="/wiki/Nubian_ibex" title="Nubian ibex">Nubian ibex</a> labelled as <i><a href="/wiki/File:Painting_of_foreign_delegation_in_the_tomb_of_Khnumhotep_II_circa_1900_BCE_(_Hyksos_detail).jpg" title="File:Painting of foreign delegation in the tomb of Khnumhotep II circa 1900 BCE ( Hyksos detail).jpg">Abisha</a> the <a href="/wiki/Hyksos" title="Hyksos">Hyksos</a></i> (<big><b>𓋾𓈎𓈉</b></big> ḥḳꜣ-ḫꜣsw, <i>Heqa-kasut</i> for "Hyksos"). Tomb of <a href="/wiki/12th_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="12th dynasty">12th-dynasty</a> official <a href="/wiki/Khnumhotep_II" title="Khnumhotep II">Khnumhotep II</a>, at <a href="/wiki/Beni_Hasan" title="Beni Hasan">Beni Hasan</a> (circa 1900 BCE).<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bard_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bard-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div></div></div> <p>Egypt records various exchanges with Semitic West Asian foreigners from around 1900 BCE, as in the paintings of the tomb of <a href="/wiki/Khnumhotep_II" title="Khnumhotep II">Khnumhotep II</a> at <a href="/wiki/Beni_Hassan" class="mw-redirect" title="Beni Hassan">Beni Hassan</a>. </p><p>From circa 1650 BCE, the <a href="/wiki/Hyksos" title="Hyksos">Hyksos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Semitic-speaking_peoples" title="Ancient Semitic-speaking peoples">Semitic</a> foreigners of Canaanite <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levantine</a> origin, established the <a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt</a> (1650–1550 BCE) based at the city of <a href="/wiki/Avaris" title="Avaris">Avaris</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Nile_delta" class="mw-redirect" title="Nile delta">Nile delta</a>, from where they ruled the northern part of the country.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bard_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bard-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Khyan" title="Khyan">Khyan</a>, one of the <a href="/wiki/Hyksos" title="Hyksos">Hyksos</a> rulers, is known for his wide-ranging contacts, as objects in his name have been found at <a href="/wiki/Knossos" title="Knossos">Knossos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hattusha" class="mw-redirect" title="Hattusha">Hattusha</a> indicating diplomatic contacts with the <a href="/wiki/Minoans" class="mw-redirect" title="Minoans">Minoans</a> of <a href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hurrians" title="Hurrians">Hurrians</a> of <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>, and a sphinx with his name was bought on the art market at <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> and might demonstrate diplomatic contacts with the Mesopotamian states of <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a>, possibly with the first <a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassites</a> ruler <a href="/wiki/Gandash" class="mw-redirect" title="Gandash">Gandash</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Exchanges would again flourish between the two cultures from the period of the <a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom of Egypt</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1550</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1069 BCE</span>) and the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian Empire</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1392</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1025 BCE</span>) this time an exchange between two mature and well-established civilizations. These exchanges also included tributes of gold paid to <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> kings during the 16th and 15th centuries BCE, in an attempt to ellicit their support in Egypt's conflict with the <a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hurrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Hurrian">Hurrian</a>-<a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a> empires.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Assyria eventually annexed much of the territory of the former, and completely destroyed the latter, and the growing power of Assyria may have been a factor in Egypt withdrawing from their Levantine colonies, which were subsequently annexed by the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian Empire</a> which came to dominate Western Asia and the East Mediterranean. In the 11th century BCE the Assyrian king <a href="/wiki/Ashur-bel-kala" title="Ashur-bel-kala">Ashur-bel-kala</a> is known to have received a tribute of exotic animals and plants from Egypt for his Zoological and Botanical gardens in <a href="/wiki/Assur" title="Assur">Assur</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neo-Assyrian_Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Neo-Assyrian Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Egypto-Assyrian_cylinder_seal.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Egypto-Assyrian_cylinder_seal.jpg/220px-Egypto-Assyrian_cylinder_seal.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="98" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Egypto-Assyrian_cylinder_seal.jpg/330px-Egypto-Assyrian_cylinder_seal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Egypto-Assyrian_cylinder_seal.jpg/440px-Egypto-Assyrian_cylinder_seal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1484" data-file-height="658" /></a><figcaption>Egypto-Assyrian cylinder seal, combining the <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_cuneiform" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian cuneiform">Assyrian cuneiform</a> script with Egyptian deities.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_conquest_of_Egypt" title="Assyrian conquest of Egypt">Assyrian conquest of Egypt</a></div> <p>In the last phase of historic exchanges during the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a> (935 BC-605 BCE), the <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_conquest_of_Egypt" title="Assyrian conquest of Egypt">Assyrian conquest of Egypt</a> occurred, and Assyrian rule and influence lasted till 655 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> after Assyria had invaded and conquered Egypt with remarkable speed, defeating and driving out the <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubian</a> <a href="/wiki/Kushite_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Kushite Empire">Kushite Empire</a>, the 25th Dynasty of Egypt, which had provoked Assyria by repeatedly but unsuccessfully attempting to gain an influence in the Southern Levant and Northern Arabian Peninsula by instigating and supporting rebellions by Israelites, Judeans, Moabites, Edomites, Phoenicians and Arabs against Assyrian rule during the reigns of <a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_IV" title="Shalmaneser IV">Shalmaneser IV</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sargon_II" title="Sargon II">Sargon II</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sennacherib" title="Sennacherib">Sennacherib</a>. </p><p>The Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt">26th Dynasty</a> had been installed in 663 BCE as native puppet rulers by the Assyrians after the destruction and deportation of the foreign Nubians of the 25th Dynasty by king <a href="/wiki/Esarhaddon" title="Esarhaddon">Esarhaddon</a> and then came under the dominion of his successors <a href="/wiki/Ashurbanipal" title="Ashurbanipal">Ashurbanipal</a>. However, during the fall of the Neo Assyrian Empire between 612 and 599 BCE, Egypt attempted to aid its former masters probably due to the fear that without a strong Assyrian buffer they too would be overrun, having already been raided by marauding <a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythians</a>. As a result, Egypt came into conflict with Assyria's fellow Mesopotamian state of <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a>, which along with the <a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Medes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persians" title="Persians">Persians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chaldeans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cimmerians" title="Cimmerians">Cimmerians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythians</a>, amongst others, were fighting to throw off Assyrian rule, and Pharaoh <a href="/wiki/Necho_II" title="Necho II">Necho II</a> fought alongside the last Assyrian emperor <a href="/wiki/Ashur-uballit_II" title="Ashur-uballit II">Ashur-uballit II</a> (612-c.605 BCE) against <a href="/wiki/Nabopolassar" title="Nabopolassar">Nabopolassar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyaxares" title="Cyaxares">Cyaxares</a> and their allies for a time. After the Assyrian Empire fell, Egypt engaged in a number of conflicts with Babylonia during the late 7th and early 6th century BCE in the Levant, before being driven from the region by <a href="/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_II" title="Nebuchadnezzar II">Nebuchadnezzar II</a> of Babylonia. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Achaemenid_Empire">Achaemenid Empire</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Achaemenid Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a>, though Iranic and not Mesopotamian, was heavily influenced by Mesopotamia in its art, architecture, written script and civil administration, the Persians having previously been subjects of Assyria for centuries, <a href="/wiki/First_Achaemenid_conquest_of_Egypt" title="First Achaemenid conquest of Egypt">invaded Egypt</a> and established satrapies, founding the Achaemenid <a href="/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt</a> (525–404 BCE) and <a href="/wiki/Thirty-first_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt">Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt</a> (343–332 BCE). </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional" style="max-width: 972px;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:National_Meusem_Darafsh_6_(42).JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Egyptian statue of Darius I"><img alt="Egyptian statue of Darius I" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/National_Meusem_Darafsh_6_%2842%29.JPG/132px-National_Meusem_Darafsh_6_%2842%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="132" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/National_Meusem_Darafsh_6_%2842%29.JPG/199px-National_Meusem_Darafsh_6_%2842%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/National_Meusem_Darafsh_6_%2842%29.JPG/265px-National_Meusem_Darafsh_6_%2842%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="4928" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Egyptian statue of <a href="/wiki/Darius_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Darius I">Darius I</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flickr_-_isawnyu_-_Hibis,_Temple_Decorations_(III).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Darius as Pharaoh of Egypt at the Temple of Hibis"><img alt="Darius as Pharaoh of Egypt at the Temple of Hibis" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flickr_-_isawnyu_-_Hibis%2C_Temple_Decorations_%28III%29.jpg/150px-Flickr_-_isawnyu_-_Hibis%2C_Temple_Decorations_%28III%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flickr_-_isawnyu_-_Hibis%2C_Temple_Decorations_%28III%29.jpg/225px-Flickr_-_isawnyu_-_Hibis%2C_Temple_Decorations_%28III%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flickr_-_isawnyu_-_Hibis%2C_Temple_Decorations_%28III%29.jpg/300px-Flickr_-_isawnyu_-_Hibis%2C_Temple_Decorations_%28III%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="1280" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Darius as <a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">Pharaoh</a> of Egypt at the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Hibis" title="Temple of Hibis">Temple of Hibis</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Jar_with_the_name_of_Xerxes_the_Great_MET_hb14_2_8.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jar of Xerxes I, with his name in hieroglyphs and cuneiform"><img alt="Jar of Xerxes I, with his name in hieroglyphs and cuneiform" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Jar_with_the_name_of_Xerxes_the_Great_MET_hb14_2_8.jpg/179px-Jar_with_the_name_of_Xerxes_the_Great_MET_hb14_2_8.jpg" decoding="async" width="179" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Jar_with_the_name_of_Xerxes_the_Great_MET_hb14_2_8.jpg/268px-Jar_with_the_name_of_Xerxes_the_Great_MET_hb14_2_8.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Jar_with_the_name_of_Xerxes_the_Great_MET_hb14_2_8.jpg/357px-Jar_with_the_name_of_Xerxes_the_Great_MET_hb14_2_8.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="672" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Jar of <a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I" title="Xerxes I">Xerxes I</a>, with his name in hieroglyphs and cuneiform</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indus%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus–Mesopotamia relations">Indus–Mesopotamia relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeogenetics_of_the_Near_East" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeogenetics of the Near East">Archaeogenetics of the Near East</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Redford_22-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Redford_22_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Redford_22_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Redford_22_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Redford_22_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Redford, Donald B. <i>Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times.</i> (Princeton: University Press, 1992), p. 22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MKH427-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MKH427_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MKH427_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MKH427_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MKH427_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MKH427_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHartwig2014" class="citation book cs1">Hartwig, Melinda K. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z0NwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA427"><i>A Companion to Ancient Egyptian Art</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 427. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781444333503" title="Special:BookSources/9781444333503"><bdi>9781444333503</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Ancient+Egyptian+Art&rft.pages=427&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781444333503&rft.aulast=Hartwig&rft.aufirst=Melinda+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz0NwDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA427&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shaw,_Ian_1995_p._109-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Shaw,_Ian_1995_p._109_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaw,_Ian_1995_p._109_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Shaw, Ian. & Nicholson, Paul, <i>The Dictionary of Ancient Egypt,</i> (London: British Museum Press, 1995), p. 109.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mitchell-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mitchell_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mitchell_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitchell" class="citation web cs1">Mitchell, Larkin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.archaeology.org/9903/newsbriefs/egypt.html">"Earliest Egyptian Glyphs"</a>. <i>Archaeology</i>. Archaeological Institute of America<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 February</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Archaeology&rft.atitle=Earliest+Egyptian+Glyphs&rft.aulast=Mitchell&rft.aufirst=Larkin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.archaeology.org%2F9903%2Fnewsbriefs%2Fegypt.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Site_officiel_du_musée_du_Louvre-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Site_officiel_du_musée_du_Louvre_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Site_officiel_du_musée_du_Louvre_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cartelfr.louvre.fr/cartelfr/visite?srv=car_not_frame&idNotice=668">"Site officiel du musée du Louvre"</a>. <i>cartelfr.louvre.fr</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cartelfr.louvre.fr&rft.atitle=Site+officiel+du+mus%C3%A9e+du+Louvre&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcartelfr.louvre.fr%2Fcartelfr%2Fvisite%3Fsrv%3Dcar_not_frame%26idNotice%3D668&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCooper1996" class="citation book cs1">Cooper, Jerrol S. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3hc1Yp0VcjoC&pg=PA10"><i>The Study of the Ancient Near East in the Twenty-first Century: The William Foxwell Albright Centennial Conference</i></a>. Eisenbrauns. pp. <span class="nowrap">10–</span>14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780931464966" title="Special:BookSources/9780931464966"><bdi>9780931464966</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Study+of+the+Ancient+Near+East+in+the+Twenty-first+Century%3A+The+William+Foxwell+Albright+Centennial+Conference&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E10-%3C%2Fspan%3E14&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9780931464966&rft.aulast=Cooper&rft.aufirst=Jerrol+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3hc1Yp0VcjoC%26pg%3DPA10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MKH-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MKH_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MKH_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MKH_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MKH_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MKH_7-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHartwig2014" class="citation book cs1">Hartwig, Melinda K. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z0NwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA424"><i>A Companion to Ancient Egyptian Art</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. pp. <span class="nowrap">424–</span>425. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781444333503" title="Special:BookSources/9781444333503"><bdi>9781444333503</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Ancient+Egyptian+Art&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E424-%3C%2Fspan%3E425&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781444333503&rft.aulast=Hartwig&rft.aufirst=Melinda+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz0NwDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA424&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Eisenbrauns-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Eisenbrauns_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eisenbrauns_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConference1996" class="citation book cs1">Conference, William Foxwell Albright Centennial (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3hc1Yp0VcjoC&pg=PA15"><i>The Study of the Ancient Near East in the Twenty-first Century: The William Foxwell Albright Centennial Conference</i></a>. Eisenbrauns. p. 15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780931464966" title="Special:BookSources/9780931464966"><bdi>9780931464966</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Study+of+the+Ancient+Near+East+in+the+Twenty-first+Century%3A+The+William+Foxwell+Albright+Centennial+Conference&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9780931464966&rft.aulast=Conference&rft.aufirst=William+Foxwell+Albright+Centennial&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3hc1Yp0VcjoC%26pg%3DPA15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SANE14-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SANE14_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SANE14_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConference1996" class="citation book cs1">Conference, William Foxwell Albright Centennial (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3hc1Yp0VcjoC&pg=PA14"><i>The Study of the Ancient Near East in the Twenty-first Century: The William Foxwell Albright Centennial Conference</i></a>. Eisenbrauns. p. 14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780931464966" title="Special:BookSources/9780931464966"><bdi>9780931464966</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Study+of+the+Ancient+Near+East+in+the+Twenty-first+Century%3A+The+William+Foxwell+Albright+Centennial+Conference&rft.pages=14&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9780931464966&rft.aulast=Conference&rft.aufirst=William+Foxwell+Albright+Centennial&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3hc1Yp0VcjoC%26pg%3DPA14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDemand2011" class="citation book cs1">Demand, Nancy H. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YVSg-DOHzJMC&pg=PA69"><i>The Mediterranean Context of Early Greek History</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 69. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781444342345" title="Special:BookSources/9781444342345"><bdi>9781444342345</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mediterranean+Context+of+Early+Greek+History&rft.pages=69&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781444342345&rft.aulast=Demand&rft.aufirst=Nancy+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYVSg-DOHzJMC%26pg%3DPA69&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollon1995" class="citation book cs1">Collon, Dominique (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RTGc9YH-C38C&pg=PA51"><i>Ancient Near Eastern Art</i></a>. University of California Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">51–</span>53. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520203075" title="Special:BookSources/9780520203075"><bdi>9780520203075</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Near+Eastern+Art&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E51-%3C%2Fspan%3E53&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=9780520203075&rft.aulast=Collon&rft.aufirst=Dominique&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRTGc9YH-C38C%26pg%3DPA51&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Redford_16-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Redford_16_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Redford, Donald B. <i>Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times.</i> (Princeton: University Press, 1992), p. 16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ET166-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ET166_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ET166_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ET166_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ET166_13-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ET166_13-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ET166_13-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTeeter2011" class="citation book cs1">Teeter, Emily (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/1823765"><i>Before the pyramids : the origins of Egyptian civilization</i></a>. Chicago, Ill.: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. p. 166. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-885923-82-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-885923-82-0"><bdi>978-1-885923-82-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Before+the+pyramids+%3A+the+origins+of+Egyptian+civilization&rft.place=Chicago%2C+Ill.&rft.pages=166&rft.pub=Oriental+Institute+of+the+University+of+Chicago&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-885923-82-0&rft.aulast=Teeter&rft.aufirst=Emily&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F1823765&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CP-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CP_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CP_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CP_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRowlands1987" class="citation book cs1">Rowlands, Michael J. (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YDs9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA37"><i>Centre and Periphery in the Ancient World</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 37. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521251037" title="Special:BookSources/9780521251037"><bdi>9780521251037</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Centre+and+Periphery+in+the+Ancient+World&rft.pages=37&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=9780521251037&rft.aulast=Rowlands&rft.aufirst=Michael+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYDs9AAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA37&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CS-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CS_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CS_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CS_15-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScarreFagan2016" class="citation book cs1">Scarre, Chris; Fagan, Brian M. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xAy4CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA10"><i>Ancient Civilizations</i></a>. Routledge. p. 106. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781317296089" title="Special:BookSources/9781317296089"><bdi>9781317296089</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Civilizations&rft.pages=106&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781317296089&rft.aulast=Scarre&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft.au=Fagan%2C+Brian+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxAy4CwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MI-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MI_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MI_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIsler2001" class="citation book cs1">Isler, Martin (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ip-tqz1xGkoC&pg=PA42"><i>Sticks, Stones, and Shadows: Building the Egyptian Pyramids</i></a>. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-3342-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-3342-3"><bdi>978-0-8061-3342-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sticks%2C+Stones%2C+and+Shadows%3A+Building+the+Egyptian+Pyramids&rft.pages=42&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8061-3342-3&rft.aulast=Isler&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIp-tqz1xGkoC%26pg%3DPA42&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HK239-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HK239_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HK239_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HK239_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HK239_17-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKantor1952" class="citation journal cs1">Kantor, Helene J. (1952). "Further Evidence for Early Mesopotamian Relations with Egypt". <i>Journal of Near Eastern Studies</i>. <b>11</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">239–</span>250. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F371099">10.1086/371099</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-2968">0022-2968</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/542687">542687</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161166931">161166931</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Near+Eastern+Studies&rft.atitle=Further+Evidence+for+Early+Mesopotamian+Relations+with+Egypt&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E239-%3C%2Fspan%3E250&rft.date=1952&rft.issn=0022-2968&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161166931%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F542687%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F371099&rft.aulast=Kantor&rft.aufirst=Helene+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIsler2001" class="citation book cs1">Isler, Martin (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ip-tqz1xGkoC&pg=PA33"><i>Sticks, Stones, and Shadows: Building the Egyptian Pyramids</i></a>. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 33. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-3342-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-3342-3"><bdi>978-0-8061-3342-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sticks%2C+Stones%2C+and+Shadows%3A+Building+the+Egyptian+Pyramids&rft.pages=33&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8061-3342-3&rft.aulast=Isler&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIp-tqz1xGkoC%26pg%3DPA33&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EH-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EH_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EH_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EH_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHonoré2007" class="citation journal cs1">Honoré, Emmanuelle (January 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/41692593">"Earliest Cylinder-Seal Glyptic in Egypt: From Greater Mesopotamia to Naqada"</a>. <i>H. Hanna Ed., Preprints of the International Conference on Heritage of Naqada and Qus Region, Volume I</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=H.+Hanna+Ed.%2C+Preprints+of+the+International+Conference+on+Heritage+of+Naqada+and+Qus+Region%2C+Volume+I&rft.atitle=Earliest+Cylinder-Seal+Glyptic+in+Egypt%3A+From+Greater+Mesopotamia+to+Naqada&rft.date=2007-01&rft.aulast=Honor%C3%A9&rft.aufirst=Emmanuelle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F41692593&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NHD-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NHD_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NHD_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDemand2011" class="citation book cs1">Demand, Nancy H. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YVSg-DOHzJMC&pg=PA71"><i>The Mediterranean Context of Early Greek History</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. pp. <span class="nowrap">71–</span>72. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781444342345" title="Special:BookSources/9781444342345"><bdi>9781444342345</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mediterranean+Context+of+Early+Greek+History&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E71-%3C%2Fspan%3E72&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781444342345&rft.aulast=Demand&rft.aufirst=Nancy+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYVSg-DOHzJMC%26pg%3DPA71&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Redford_18-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Redford_18_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Redford, Donald B. <i>Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times.</i> (Princeton: University Press, 1992), p. 18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Redford_17-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Redford_17_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Redford, Donald B. <i>Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times.</i> (Princeton: University Press, 1992), p. 17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConference1996" class="citation book cs1">Conference, William Foxwell Albright Centennial (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3hc1Yp0VcjoC&pg=PA20"><i>The Study of the Ancient Near East in the Twenty-first Century: The William Foxwell Albright Centennial Conference</i></a>. Eisenbrauns. p. 20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780931464966" title="Special:BookSources/9780931464966"><bdi>9780931464966</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Study+of+the+Ancient+Near+East+in+the+Twenty-first+Century%3A+The+William+Foxwell+Albright+Centennial+Conference&rft.pages=20&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9780931464966&rft.aulast=Conference&rft.aufirst=William+Foxwell+Albright+Centennial&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3hc1Yp0VcjoC%26pg%3DPA20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConference1996" class="citation book cs1">Conference, William Foxwell Albright Centennial (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3hc1Yp0VcjoC&pg=PA16"><i>The Study of the Ancient Near East in the Twenty-first Century: The William Foxwell Albright Centennial Conference</i></a>. Eisenbrauns. p. 16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780931464966" title="Special:BookSources/9780931464966"><bdi>9780931464966</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Study+of+the+Ancient+Near+East+in+the+Twenty-first+Century%3A+The+William+Foxwell+Albright+Centennial+Conference&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9780931464966&rft.aulast=Conference&rft.aufirst=William+Foxwell+Albright+Centennial&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3hc1Yp0VcjoC%26pg%3DPA16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeador2000" class="citation book cs1">Meador, Betty De Shong (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=B45PvLlj3ogC&pg=PA14"><i>Inanna, Lady of Largest Heart: Poems of the Sumerian High Priestess Enheduanna</i></a>. University of Texas Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">14–</span>15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-292-75242-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-292-75242-9"><bdi>978-0-292-75242-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inanna%2C+Lady+of+Largest+Heart%3A+Poems+of+the+Sumerian+High+Priestess+Enheduanna&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E14-%3C%2Fspan%3E15&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-292-75242-9&rft.aulast=Meador&rft.aufirst=Betty+De+Shong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DB45PvLlj3ogC%26pg%3DPA14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-John_Wiley_&_Sons-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-John_Wiley_&_Sons_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-John_Wiley_&_Sons_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-John_Wiley_&_Sons_26-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-John_Wiley_&_Sons_26-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDemand2011" class="citation book cs1">Demand, Nancy H. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YVSg-DOHzJMC&pg=PA71"><i>The Mediterranean Context of Early Greek History</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 71. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781444342345" title="Special:BookSources/9781444342345"><bdi>9781444342345</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mediterranean+Context+of+Early+Greek+History&rft.pages=71&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781444342345&rft.aulast=Demand&rft.aufirst=Nancy+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYVSg-DOHzJMC%26pg%3DPA71&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSilberman2012" class="citation book cs1">Silberman, Neil Asher (November 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xeJMAgAAQBAJ"><i>The Oxford Companion to Archaeology</i></a>. Oxford University Press USA. p. 464. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-973578-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-973578-5"><bdi>978-0-19-973578-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+Archaeology&rft.pages=464&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press+USA&rft.date=2012-11&rft.isbn=978-0-19-973578-5&rft.aulast=Silberman&rft.aufirst=Neil+Asher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxeJMAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CCH-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CCH_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CCH_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CCH_28-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"The stepped design of the Pyramid of Zoser at Saqqara, the oldest known pyramid along the Nile, suggests that it was borrowed from the Mesopotamian ziggurat concept." in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeld2018" class="citation book cs1">Held, Colbert C. (University of Nebraska) (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fOlgDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA63"><i>Middle East Patterns, Student Economy Edition: Places, People, and Politics</i></a>. Routledge. p. 63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-429-96199-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-429-96199-1"><bdi>978-0-429-96199-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Middle+East+Patterns%2C+Student+Economy+Edition%3A+Places%2C+People%2C+and+Politics&rft.pages=63&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-429-96199-1&rft.aulast=Held&rft.aufirst=Colbert+C.+%28University+of+Nebraska%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfOlgDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrüsemannEssHilgertSalje2019" class="citation book cs1">Crüsemann, Nicola; Ess, Margarete van; Hilgert, Markus; Salje, Beate; Potts, Timothy (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=muCvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT325"><i>Uruk: First City of the Ancient World</i></a>. Getty Publications. p. 325. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60606-444-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60606-444-3"><bdi>978-1-60606-444-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Uruk%3A+First+City+of+the+Ancient+World&rft.pages=325&rft.pub=Getty+Publications&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-60606-444-3&rft.aulast=Cr%C3%BCsemann&rft.aufirst=Nicola&rft.au=Ess%2C+Margarete+van&rft.au=Hilgert%2C+Markus&rft.au=Salje%2C+Beate&rft.au=Potts%2C+Timothy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmuCvDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT325&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConference1996" class="citation book cs1">Conference, William Foxwell Albright Centennial (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3hc1Yp0VcjoC&pg=PA13"><i>The Study of the Ancient Near East in the Twenty-first Century: The William Foxwell Albright Centennial Conference</i></a>. Eisenbrauns. p. 13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780931464966" title="Special:BookSources/9780931464966"><bdi>9780931464966</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Study+of+the+Ancient+Near+East+in+the+Twenty-first+Century%3A+The+William+Foxwell+Albright+Centennial+Conference&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9780931464966&rft.aulast=Conference&rft.aufirst=William+Foxwell+Albright+Centennial&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3hc1Yp0VcjoC%26pg%3DPA13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ANE17-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ANE17_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ANE17_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ANE17_31-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConference1996" class="citation book cs1">Conference, William Foxwell Albright Centennial (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3hc1Yp0VcjoC&pg=PA17"><i>The Study of the Ancient Near East in the Twenty-first Century: The William Foxwell Albright Centennial Conference</i></a>. Eisenbrauns. p. 17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780931464966" title="Special:BookSources/9780931464966"><bdi>9780931464966</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Study+of+the+Ancient+Near+East+in+the+Twenty-first+Century%3A+The+William+Foxwell+Albright+Centennial+Conference&rft.pages=17&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9780931464966&rft.aulast=Conference&rft.aufirst=William+Foxwell+Albright+Centennial&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3hc1Yp0VcjoC%26pg%3DPA17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Redford_20-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Redford_20_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Redford, Donald B. <i>Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times.</i> (Princeton: University Press, 1992), p. 20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wilkinson, Toby A.H. <cite>Early Dynastic Egypt</cite>. p.6, Routledge, London. 1999. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-203-20421-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-203-20421-2">0-203-20421-2</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/anthonyhuan/49431096893/in/photostream/">"British Museum notice"</a>. 23 January 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=British+Museum+notice&rft.date=2020-01-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.flickr.com%2Fphotos%2Fanthonyhuan%2F49431096893%2Fin%2Fphotostream%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/Y_EA57586">"Necklace British Museum"</a>. <i>The British Museum</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+British+Museum&rft.atitle=Necklace+British+Museum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britishmuseum.org%2Fcollection%2Fobject%2FY_EA57586&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/Y_EA57765">"Pendant British Museum"</a>. <i>The British Museum</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+British+Museum&rft.atitle=Pendant+British+Museum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britishmuseum.org%2Fcollection%2Fobject%2FY_EA57765&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PDM-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PDM_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiroschedji" class="citation book cs1">Miroschedji, Pierre de. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/1833048"><i>Une palette égyptienne prédynastique du sud de la plaine côtière d'Israël</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Une+palette+%C3%A9gyptienne+pr%C3%A9dynastique+du+sud+de+la+plaine+c%C3%B4ti%C3%A8re+d%27Isra%C3%ABl&rft.aulast=Miroschedji&rft.aufirst=Pierre+de&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F1833048&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Early Dynastic Egypt (Routledge, 1999), p.15</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Redford, Donald B., <i>Egypt, Israel, and Canaan in Ancient Times</i> (Princeton: University Press, 1992), p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gardiner, Alan. <i>Egypt of the Pharaohs</i> (Oxford: University Press, 1961), p. 392.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shaw, Ian. and Nicholson, Paul, <i>The Dictionary of Ancient Egypt</i> (London: British Museum Press, 1995), p. 228.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Because the reverse is not true, namely there is no trace of an Egyptian presence in Mesopotamia at that time, all seems to point to a flow of ideas from Mesopotamia to Egypt." <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.archaeology.org/9903/newsbriefs/egypt.html">"Earliest Egyptian Glyphs – Archaeology Magazine Archive"</a>. <i>archive.archaeology.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=archive.archaeology.org&rft.atitle=Earliest+Egyptian+Glyphs+%E2%80%93+Archaeology+Magazine+Archive&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.archaeology.org%2F9903%2Fnewsbriefs%2Fegypt.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Louvre Museum AO 5359 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiroschedji" class="citation book cs1">Miroschedji, Pierre de. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/1833048"><i>Une palette égyptienne prédynastique du sud de la plaine côtière d'Israël</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Une+palette+%C3%A9gyptienne+pr%C3%A9dynastique+du+sud+de+la+plaine+c%C3%B4ti%C3%A8re+d%27Isra%C3%ABl&rft.aulast=Miroschedji&rft.aufirst=Pierre+de&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F1833048&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDerry1956" class="citation journal cs1">Derry, D.E. (1956). "The Dynastic Race in Egypt". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Egyptian_Archaeology" title="Journal of Egyptian Archaeology">Journal of Egyptian Archaeology</a></i>. <b>42</b>: <span class="nowrap">80–</span>85. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F030751335604200111">10.1177/030751335604200111</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:194596267">194596267</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Egyptian+Archaeology&rft.atitle=The+Dynastic+Race+in+Egypt&rft.volume=42&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E80-%3C%2Fspan%3E85&rft.date=1956&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F030751335604200111&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A194596267%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Derry&rft.aufirst=D.E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Early_dynastic_Egypt-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Early_dynastic_Egypt_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Early_dynastic_Egypt_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilkinson1999" class="citation book cs1">Wilkinson, Toby (1999). <i>Early dynastic Egypt</i>. London: Routledge. p. 15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415186331" title="Special:BookSources/0415186331"><bdi>0415186331</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+dynastic+Egypt&rft.place=London&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0415186331&rft.aulast=Wilkinson&rft.aufirst=Toby&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">*Pg84-85 "major burial sites of those founding locales of ancient Egypt in the fourth millennium BCE, notably El-Badari as well as Naqada, show no demographic indebtedness to the Levant. They reveal instead a population with cranial and dental features with closest parallels to those of other longtime populations of the surrounding areas of northeastern Africa, such as Nubia and the northern Horn of Africa".<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEhret2023" class="citation book cs1">Ehret, Christopher (20 June 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5KjEAAAQBAJ&q=ancient+africa:+a+global+history,+to+300+ce+christopher+ehret"><i>Ancient Africa: A Global History, to 300 CE</i></a>. Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">83–</span>86, <span class="nowrap">167–</span>169. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-24409-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-24409-9"><bdi>978-0-691-24409-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Africa%3A+A+Global+History%2C+to+300+CE&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E83-%3C%2Fspan%3E86%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E167-%3C%2Fspan%3E169&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2023-06-20&rft.isbn=978-0-691-24409-9&rft.aulast=Ehret&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQ5KjEAAAQBAJ%26q%3Dancient%2Bafrica%3A%2Ba%2Bglobal%2Bhistory%2C%2Bto%2B300%2Bce%2Bchristopher%2Behret&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2001" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Stuart Tyson (2001). Redford, Donald (ed.). <i>The Oxford encyclopedia of ancient Egypt</i>. Vol. 3. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">27–</span>28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+encyclopedia+of+ancient+Egypt&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E27-%3C%2Fspan%3E28&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Stuart+Tyson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYurco,_Frank_(1996)._"An_Egyptological_Review".1996" class="citation book cs1">Yurco, Frank (1996). "An Egyptological Review". (1996). <i>Black Athena revisited</i>. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">62–</span>100. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0807845558" title="Special:BookSources/0807845558"><bdi>0807845558</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+Athena+revisited&rft.place=Chapel+Hill&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E62-%3C%2Fspan%3E100&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0807845558&rft.au=Yurco%2C+Frank+%281996%29.+%22An+Egyptological+Review%22.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sonia_R._Zakrzewski_2003-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sonia_R._Zakrzewski_2003_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZakrzewski2003" class="citation book cs1">Zakrzewski, Sonia R. (2003). <i>Population continuity or population change: Formation of the ancient Egyptian state</i>. Highfield, Southampton: Department of Archaeology, University of Southampton.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Population+continuity+or+population+change%3A+Formation+of+the+ancient+Egyptian+state&rft.place=Highfield%2C+Southampton&rft.pub=Department+of+Archaeology%2C+University+of+Southampton&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Zakrzewski&rft.aufirst=Sonia+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShomarka_Keita_and_A.J._Boyce_"The_Geographic_and_Origins_and_Population_Relationships_of_Early_Ancient_Egyptians"._Celenko_Theodore_(ed).1996" class="citation book cs1">Shomarka Keita and A.J. Boyce "The Geographic and Origins and Population Relationships of Early Ancient Egyptians". Celenko Theodore (ed). (1996). <i>Egypt in Africa</i>. Indianapolis, Ind.: Indianapolis Museum of Art. pp. <span class="nowrap">20–</span>33. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0936260645" title="Special:BookSources/0936260645"><bdi>0936260645</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Egypt+in+Africa&rft.place=Indianapolis%2C+Ind.&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E20-%3C%2Fspan%3E33&rft.pub=Indianapolis+Museum+of+Art&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0936260645&rft.au=Shomarka+Keita+and+A.J.+Boyce+%22The+Geographic+and+Origins+and+Population+Relationships+of+Early+Ancient+Egyptians%22.+Celenko+Theodore+%28ed%29.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Times_Atlas_of_World_History-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-The_Times_Atlas_of_World_History_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Times_Atlas_of_World_History_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarracloughStone1989" class="citation book cs1">Barraclough, Geoffrey; Stone, Norman (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MpEkAQAAMAAJ"><i>The Times Atlas of World History</i></a>. Hammond Incorporated. p. 53. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780723003045" title="Special:BookSources/9780723003045"><bdi>9780723003045</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Times+Atlas+of+World+History&rft.pages=53&rft.pub=Hammond+Incorporated&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=9780723003045&rft.aulast=Barraclough&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rft.au=Stone%2C+Norman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMpEkAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSenner1991" class="citation book cs1">Senner, Wayne M. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Kc4xAlunCSEC&pg=PA77"><i>The Origins of Writing</i></a>. University of Nebraska Press. p. 77. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780803291676" title="Special:BookSources/9780803291676"><bdi>9780803291676</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+Writing&rft.pages=77&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=9780803291676&rft.aulast=Senner&rft.aufirst=Wayne+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKc4xAlunCSEC%26pg%3DPA77&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoudreau2004" class="citation book cs1">Boudreau, Vincent (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jsWL_XJt-dMC&pg=PA71"><i>The First Writing: Script Invention as History and Process</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 71. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521838610" title="Special:BookSources/9780521838610"><bdi>9780521838610</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+First+Writing%3A+Script+Invention+as+History+and+Process&rft.pages=71&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780521838610&rft.aulast=Boudreau&rft.aufirst=Vincent&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjsWL_XJt-dMC%26pg%3DPA71&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-b1-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-b1_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeoffrey_Sampson1990" class="citation book cs1">Geoffrey Sampson (1 January 1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tVcdNRvwoDkC&pg=PA78"><i>Writing Systems: A Linguistic Introduction</i></a>. Stanford University Press. pp. 78–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-1756-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-1756-4"><bdi>978-0-8047-1756-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 October</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Writing+Systems%3A+A+Linguistic+Introduction&rft.pages=78-&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1990-01-01&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-1756-4&rft.au=Geoffrey+Sampson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtVcdNRvwoDkC%26pg%3DPA78&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeoffrey_W._Bromiley1995" class="citation book cs1">Geoffrey W. Bromiley (June 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6OJvO2jMCr8C&pg=PA1150"><i>The international standard Bible encyclopedia</i></a>. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 1150–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-3784-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-3784-4"><bdi>978-0-8028-3784-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 October</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+international+standard+Bible+encyclopedia&rft.pages=1150-&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans+Publishing&rft.date=1995-06&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-3784-4&rft.au=Geoffrey+W.+Bromiley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6OJvO2jMCr8C%26pg%3DPA1150&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards, et al., The Cambridge Ancient History (3d ed. 1970) pp. 43–44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_E._KrebsCarolyn_A._Krebs2003" class="citation book cs1">Robert E. Krebs; Carolyn A. Krebs (December 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0H0fjBeseVEC&pg=PA91"><i>Groundbreaking scientific experiments, inventions, and discoveries of the ancient world</i></a>. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 91–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-31342-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-31342-4"><bdi>978-0-313-31342-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 October</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Groundbreaking+scientific+experiments%2C+inventions%2C+and+discoveries+of+the+ancient+world&rft.pages=91-&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2003-12&rft.isbn=978-0-313-31342-4&rft.au=Robert+E.+Krebs&rft.au=Carolyn+A.+Krebs&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0H0fjBeseVEC%26pg%3DPA91&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Simson Najovits, <i>Egypt, Trunk of the Tree: A Modern Survey of an Ancient Land</i>, Algora Publishing, 2004, pp. 55–56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"And recent finds at Abydos that have pushed back the date of writing in Egypt, making it contemporaneous with the Mesopotamian invention, further undermine the old assumption that writing arose in Egypt under Sumerian influence."<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoods2010" class="citation book cs1">Woods, Christopher (2010). <i>Visible Language: Inventions of Writing in the Ancient Middle East and Beyond</i>. Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. p. 16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Visible+Language%3A+Inventions+of+Writing+in+the+Ancient+Middle+East+and+Beyond&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=Oriental+Institute+of+the+University+of+Chicago&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Woods&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"“The world’s earliest known writing systems emerged at more or less the same time, around 3300 bc, in Egypt and Mesopotamia (today’s Iraq).”"<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTeeter2011" class="citation book cs1">Teeter, Emily (2011). <i>Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization</i>. Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. p. 99.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Before+the+Pyramids%3A+The+Origins+of+Egyptian+Civilization&rft.pages=99&rft.pub=Oriental+Institute+of+the+University+of+Chicago&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Teeter&rft.aufirst=Emily&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Although it was once thought that the idea of writing came to Egypt from Mesopotamia, recent discoveries indicate that writing arose first in Egypt."<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllen2010" class="citation book cs1">Allen, James P. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lF78Max-h8MC&q=recent+discoveries+indicate+writing"><i>Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781139486354" title="Special:BookSources/9781139486354"><bdi>9781139486354</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Middle+Egyptian%3A+An+Introduction+to+the+Language+and+Culture+of+Hieroglyphs&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9781139486354&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=James+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlF78Max-h8MC%26q%3Drecent%2Bdiscoveries%2Bindicate%2Bwriting&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mitchell1999-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mitchell1999_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mitchell1999_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"The seal impressions, from various tombs, date even further back, to 3400 B.C. These dates challenge the commonly held belief that early logographs, pictographic symbols representing a specific place, object, or quantity, first evolved into more complex phonetic symbols in Mesopotamia." <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitchell" class="citation web cs1">Mitchell, Larkin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.archaeology.org/9903/newsbriefs/egypt.html">"Earliest Egyptian Glyphs"</a>. <i>Archaeology</i>. Archaeological Institute of America<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 February</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Archaeology&rft.atitle=Earliest+Egyptian+Glyphs&rft.aulast=Mitchell&rft.aufirst=Larkin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.archaeology.org%2F9903%2Fnewsbriefs%2Fegypt.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConference1996" class="citation book cs1">Conference, William Foxwell Albright Centennial (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3hc1Yp0VcjoC&pg=PA24"><i>The Study of the Ancient Near East in the Twenty-first Century: The William Foxwell Albright Centennial Conference</i></a>. Eisenbrauns. p. –24–25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780931464966" title="Special:BookSources/9780931464966"><bdi>9780931464966</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Study+of+the+Ancient+Near+East+in+the+Twenty-first+Century%3A+The+William+Foxwell+Albright+Centennial+Conference&rft.pages=-24-25&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9780931464966&rft.aulast=Conference&rft.aufirst=William+Foxwell+Albright+Centennial&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3hc1Yp0VcjoC%26pg%3DPA24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Ancient Civilizations of Africa Vol 2 (Unesco General History of Africa (abridged))</i> (Abridged ed.). London [England]: J. Currey. 1990. pp. <span class="nowrap">11–</span>12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0852550928" title="Special:BookSources/0852550928"><bdi>0852550928</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Civilizations+of+Africa+Vol+2+%28Unesco+General+History+of+Africa+%28abridged%29%29&rft.place=London+%5BEngland%5D&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E11-%3C%2Fspan%3E12&rft.edition=Abridged&rft.pub=J.+Currey&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0852550928&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrank_J.Yurco1996" class="citation book cs1">Frank J.Yurco (1996). <i>"The Origin and Development of Ancient Nile Valley Writing," in Egypt in Africa, Theodore Celenko (ed)</i>. Indianapolis, Ind.: Indianapolis Museum of Art. pp. <span class="nowrap">34–</span>35. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-936260-64-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-936260-64-5"><bdi>0-936260-64-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%22The+Origin+and+Development+of+Ancient+Nile+Valley+Writing%2C%22+in+Egypt+in+Africa%2C+Theodore+Celenko+%28ed%29.&rft.place=Indianapolis%2C+Ind.&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E34-%3C%2Fspan%3E35&rft.pub=Indianapolis+Museum+of+Art&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-936260-64-5&rft.au=Frank+J.Yurco&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConference1996" class="citation book cs1">Conference, William Foxwell Albright Centennial (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3hc1Yp0VcjoC&pg=PA24"><i>The Study of the Ancient Near East in the Twenty-first Century: The William Foxwell Albright Centennial Conference</i></a>. Eisenbrauns. p. –24–25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780931464966" title="Special:BookSources/9780931464966"><bdi>9780931464966</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Study+of+the+Ancient+Near+East+in+the+Twenty-first+Century%3A+The+William+Foxwell+Albright+Centennial+Conference&rft.pages=-24-25&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9780931464966&rft.aulast=Conference&rft.aufirst=William+Foxwell+Albright+Centennial&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3hc1Yp0VcjoC%26pg%3DPA24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MKH428-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MKH428_67-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MKH428_67-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MKH428_67-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MKH428_67-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MKH428_67-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MKH428_67-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHartwig2014" class="citation book cs1">Hartwig, Melinda K. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z0NwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA428"><i>A Companion to Ancient Egyptian Art</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. pp. <span class="nowrap">428–</span>429. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781444333503" title="Special:BookSources/9781444333503"><bdi>9781444333503</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Ancient+Egyptian+Art&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E428-%3C%2Fspan%3E429&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781444333503&rft.aulast=Hartwig&rft.aufirst=Melinda+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz0NwDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA428&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CAEA428-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CAEA428_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHartwig2014" class="citation book cs1">Hartwig, Melinda K. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z0NwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA428"><i>A Companion to Ancient Egyptian Art</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 428. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781444333503" title="Special:BookSources/9781444333503"><bdi>9781444333503</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Ancient+Egyptian+Art&rft.pages=428&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781444333503&rft.aulast=Hartwig&rft.aufirst=Melinda+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz0NwDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA428&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MKH430-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MKH430_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHartwig2014" class="citation book cs1">Hartwig, Melinda K. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z0NwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA430"><i>A Companion to Ancient Egyptian Art</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 430. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781444333503" title="Special:BookSources/9781444333503"><bdi>9781444333503</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Ancient+Egyptian+Art&rft.pages=430&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781444333503&rft.aulast=Hartwig&rft.aufirst=Melinda+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz0NwDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA430&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrajetzki2014" class="citation journal cs1">Grajetzki, Wolfram (2014). "Tomb 197 at Abydos, Further Evidence for Long Distance Trade in the Middle Kingdom". <i>Ägypten und Levante / Egypt and the Levant</i>. <b>24</b>: <span class="nowrap">159–</span>170. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1553%2Fs159">10.1553/s159</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43553796">43553796</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%C3%84gypten+und+Levante+%2F+Egypt+and+the+Levant&rft.atitle=Tomb+197+at+Abydos%2C+Further+Evidence+for+Long+Distance+Trade+in+the+Middle+Kingdom&rft.volume=24&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E159-%3C%2Fspan%3E170&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1553%2Fs159&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43553796%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Grajetzki&rft.aufirst=Wolfram&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStevenson2015" class="citation book cs1">Stevenson, Alice (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DEZLDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT54"><i>Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology: Characters and Collections</i></a>. UCL Press. p. 54. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781910634042" title="Special:BookSources/9781910634042"><bdi>9781910634042</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Petrie+Museum+of+Egyptian+Archaeology%3A+Characters+and+Collections&rft.pages=54&rft.pub=UCL+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781910634042&rft.aulast=Stevenson&rft.aufirst=Alice&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDEZLDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT54&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_de_Mieroop2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Marc_van_de_Mieroop" class="mw-redirect" title="Marc van de Mieroop">Van de Mieroop, Marc</a> (2011). <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 131. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781405160704" title="Special:BookSources/9781405160704"><bdi>9781405160704</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Ancient+Egypt&rft.pages=131&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781405160704&rft.aulast=Van+de+Mieroop&rft.aufirst=Marc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bard-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bard_73-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bard_73-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBard2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kathryn_A._Bard" title="Kathryn A. Bard">Bard, Kathryn A.</a> (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lFscBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA188"><i>An Introduction to the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 188. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-89611-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-89611-2"><bdi>978-1-118-89611-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+the+Archaeology+of+Ancient+Egypt&rft.pages=188&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-118-89611-2&rft.aulast=Bard&rft.aufirst=Kathryn+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlFscBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA188&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKamrin2009" class="citation journal cs1">Kamrin, Janice (2009). "The Aamu of Shu in the Tomb of Khnumhotep II at Beni Hassan". <i>Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections</i>. <b>1</b> (3). <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:199601200">199601200</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Ancient+Egyptian+Interconnections&rft.atitle=The+Aamu+of+Shu+in+the+Tomb+of+Khnumhotep+II+at+Beni+Hassan&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=3&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A199601200%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Kamrin&rft.aufirst=Janice&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMieroop2010" class="citation book cs1">Mieroop, Marc Van De (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JADDYAZ9GIIC&pg=PA131"><i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 131. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-6070-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-6070-4"><bdi>978-1-4051-6070-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Ancient+Egypt&rft.pages=131&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-6070-4&rft.aulast=Mieroop&rft.aufirst=Marc+Van+De&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJADDYAZ9GIIC%26pg%3DPA131&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRohl2010" class="citation book cs1">Rohl, David (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K3Nu8F8GobsC&pg=PA216"><i>The Lords Of Avaris</i></a>. Random House. p. 216. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4070-1092-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4070-1092-2"><bdi>978-1-4070-1092-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Lords+Of+Avaris&rft.pages=216&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4070-1092-2&rft.aulast=Rohl&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DK3Nu8F8GobsC%26pg%3DPA216&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeigall2016" class="citation book cs1">Weigall, Arthur E. P. Brome (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TGKcCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA188"><i>A History of the Pharaohs</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 188. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-08291-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-08291-4"><bdi>978-1-108-08291-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Pharaohs&rft.pages=188&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-108-08291-4&rft.aulast=Weigall&rft.aufirst=Arthur+E.+P.+Brome&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTGKcCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA188&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/Y_EA987">"Statue British Museum"</a>. <i>The British Museum</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+British+Museum&rft.atitle=Statue+British+Museum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britishmuseum.org%2Fcollection%2Fobject%2FY_EA987&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoux1992" class="citation book cs1">Roux, Georges (1992). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientiraq00roux"><i>Ancient Iraq</i></a></span> (Third ed.). London: Penguin book. p. 332. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-012523-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-012523-8"><bdi>978-0-14-012523-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Iraq&rft.place=London&rft.pages=332&rft.edition=Third&rft.pub=Penguin+book&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-14-012523-8&rft.aulast=Roux&rft.aufirst=Georges&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fancientiraq00roux&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/ancient-Egypt/Egypt-from-1075-bce-to-the-Macedonian-invasion#ref306840">"The Late period (664–332 BCE)"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Late+period+%28664%E2%80%93332+BCE%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2Fancient-Egypt%2FEgypt-from-1075-bce-to-the-Macedonian-invasion%23ref306840&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Mesopotamia152" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Mesopotamia_topics" title="Template:Ancient Mesopotamia topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Mesopotamia_topics" title="Template talk:Ancient Mesopotamia topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Mesopotamia_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Mesopotamia topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Mesopotamia152" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Ancient Mesopotamia</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Mesopotamia" title="Geography of Mesopotamia">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Mesopotamia" title="Upper Mesopotamia">Upper Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Mesopotamia" title="Lower Mesopotamia">Lower Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Marshes" title="Mesopotamian Marshes">Mesopotamian Marshes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Desert" title="Syrian Desert">Syrian Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taurus_Mountains" title="Taurus Mountains">Taurus Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigris%E2%80%93Euphrates_river_system" title="Tigris–Euphrates river system">Tigris–Euphrates river system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zagros_Mountains" title="Zagros Mountains">Zagros Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamrin_Mountains" title="Hamrin Mountains">Hamrin Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinjar_Mountains" title="Sinjar Mountains">Sinjar Mountains</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adiabene" title="Adiabene">Adiabene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkad_(city)" title="Akkad (city)">Akkad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armani_(kingdom)" title="Armani (kingdom)">Armani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chaldea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_people" title="Gutian people">Gutium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamazi" title="Hamazi">Hamazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simurrum" title="Simurrum">Simurrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subartu" title="Subartu">Subartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suhum" title="Suhum">Suhum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turukkaeans" title="Turukkaeans">Tukri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_of_the_ancient_Near_East" title="List of cities of the ancient Near East">Cities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ishtar_Gate.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="Ishtar Gate in the city of Babylon"><img alt="Ishtar Gate in the city of Babylon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Ishtar_Gate.gif/110px-Ishtar_Gate.gif" decoding="async" width="110" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Ishtar_Gate.gif/165px-Ishtar_Gate.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Ishtar_Gate.gif/220px-Ishtar_Gate.gif 2x" data-file-width="275" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">(Pre)history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Mesopotamia" title="Prehistory of Mesopotamia">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acheulean" title="Acheulean">Acheulean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mousterian" title="Mousterian">Mousterian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trialetian" class="mw-redirect" title="Trialetian">Trialetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarzian_culture" title="Zarzian culture">Zarzian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natufian_culture" title="Natufian culture">Natufian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemrik_9" title="Nemrik 9">Nemrik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khiamian" class="mw-redirect" title="Khiamian">Khiamian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Pottery_Neolithic_A" title="Pre-Pottery Neolithic A">Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Pottery_Neolithic_B" title="Pre-Pottery Neolithic B">Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassuna_culture" title="Hassuna culture">Hassuna</a>/<a href="/wiki/Samarra_culture" title="Samarra culture">Samarra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halaf_culture" title="Halaf culture">Halaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr_period" title="Jemdet Nasr period">Jemdet Nasr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kish_civilization" title="Kish civilization">Kish civilization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mesopotamia" title="History of Mesopotamia">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_rule_in_Mesopotamia" title="Gutian rule in Mesopotamia">Gutians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simurrum" title="Simurrum">Simurrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Ur III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isin-Larsa_period" title="Isin-Larsa period">Isin-Larsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Babylonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="First Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassite_dynasty" title="Kassite dynasty">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Babylonian_period" title="Middle Babylonian period">Middle Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Babylon" title="Fall of Babylon">Fall of Babylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Assyria" title="Achaemenid Assyria">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Assyriology" title="Assyriology">Languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amorite_language" title="Amorite language">Amorite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eblaite_language" title="Eblaite language">Eblaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elamite_language" title="Elamite language">Elamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_language" title="Gutian language">Gutian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_language" title="Hittite language">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurrian_language" title="Hurrian language">Hurrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassite_language" title="Kassite language">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luwian_language" title="Luwian language">Luwian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Median_language" title="Median language">Median</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Persian" title="Old Persian">Old Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_language" title="Parthian language">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Armenian_language" title="Proto-Armenian language">Proto-Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutean_language" title="Sutean language">Sutean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urartian_language" title="Urartian language">Urartian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture/society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Mesopotamia" title="Architecture of Mesopotamia">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Mesopotamia" title="Art of Mesopotamia">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akitu" title="Akitu">Akitu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">Cuneiform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomy" title="Babylonian astronomy">Babylonian astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_mathematics" title="Babylonian mathematics">Babylonian mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_literature" title="Akkadian literature">Akkadian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Sumer" title="Economy of Sumer">Economy of Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warfare_in_Sumer" title="Warfare in Sumer">Warfare in Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire">Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sumerian_cuisine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sumerian cuisine (page does not exist)">Sumerian cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_literature" title="Sumerian literature">Sumerian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Mesopotamia" title="Music of Mesopotamia">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus-Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus-Mesopotamia relations">Indus-Mesopotamia relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt-Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt-Mesopotamia relations">Egypt-Mesopotamia relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_royal_titulary" title="Akkadian royal titulary">Royal titles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mesopotamian_dynasties" title="List of Mesopotamian dynasties">List of rulers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Archaeology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_looting_in_Iraq" title="Archaeological looting in Iraq">Looting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_cultural_heritage_by_ISIL" class="mw-redirect" title="Destruction of cultural heritage by ISIL">Destruction by ISIL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_(archaeology)" title="Tell (archaeology)">Tell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion" title="Ancient Mesopotamian religion">Ancient Mesopotamian religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_religion" title="Sumerian religion">Sumerian religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mesopotamian_deities" title="List of Mesopotamian deities">Deities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_myths" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesopotamian myths">Mesopotamian myths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_divination" title="Mesopotamian divination">Divination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_prayer" title="Mesopotamian prayer">Prayers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ziggurat" title="Ziggurat">Ziggurat (Temple)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assyriology" title="Assyriology">Assyriology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Assyriologists" title="List of Assyriologists">Assyriologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittitology" title="Hittitology">Hittitology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Sumerian_Dictionary" title="Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary">Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Assyrian_Dictionary" title="Chicago Assyrian Dictionary">Chicago Assyrian Dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Hittite_Dictionary" title="Chicago Hittite Dictionary">Chicago Hittite Dictionary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Egypt_topics809" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background-color:#decd87"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Egypt_topics" title="Template:Ancient Egypt topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Egypt_topics" title="Template talk:Ancient Egypt topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Egypt_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Egypt topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Egypt_topics809" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background-color:#decd87"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_ancient_Egypt_artifacts" title="Glossary of ancient Egypt artifacts">Glossary of artifacts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_ancient_Egypt%E2%80%93related_articles" title="Index of ancient Egypt–related articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Egypt/Main_topics" title="Portal:Ancient Egypt/Main topics">Main topics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding-left:81px"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_agriculture" title="Ancient Egyptian agriculture">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_architecture" title="Ancient Egyptian architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Revival_architecture" title="Egyptian Revival architecture">Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Egyptian_obelisks" title="List of Egyptian obelisks">Obelisks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pylon_(architecture)" title="Pylon (architecture)">Pylon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Art of ancient Egypt">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portraiture_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Portraiture in ancient Egypt">Portraiture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_astronomy" title="Egyptian astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_chronology" title="Egyptian chronology">Chronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Urban planning in ancient Egypt">Cities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Egyptian_towns_and_cities" title="List of ancient Egyptian towns and cities">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Clothing in ancient Egypt">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy" title="Ancient Egyptian race controversy">Ancient Egyptian race controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_Egypt" title="Population history of Egypt">Population history of Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Egypt" title="Prehistoric Egypt">Prehistoric Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_cuisine" title="Ancient Egyptian cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dance_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Dance in ancient Egypt">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynasties_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Dynasties of ancient Egypt">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_funerary_practices" title="Ancient Egyptian funerary practices">Funerary practices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Geography_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Category:Geography of ancient Egypt">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Royal_Wife" title="Great Royal Wife">Great Royal Wives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Egyptian_royal_consorts" title="List of ancient Egyptian royal consorts">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Hieroglyphs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cursive_hieroglyphs" title="Cursive hieroglyphs">Cursive hieroglyphs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Egypt" title="History of ancient Egypt">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demotic_(Egyptian)" title="Demotic (Egyptian)">Demotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hieratic" title="Hieratic">Hieratic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_literature" title="Ancient Egyptian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_mathematics" title="Ancient Egyptian mathematics">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_medicine" title="Ancient Egyptian medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Military of ancient Egypt">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Egypt" title="Music of Egypt">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_mythology" title="Egyptian mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Egyptians" title="List of ancient Egyptians">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">Pharaohs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pharaohs" title="List of pharaohs">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_royal_titulary" title="Ancient Egyptian royal titulary">Titulary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_pottery" title="Ancient Egyptian pottery">Pottery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Egyptian_scribes" title="List of ancient Egyptian scribes">Scribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Egyptian_sites" title="List of ancient Egyptian sites">Sites</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_historical_capitals_of_Egypt" title="List of historical capitals of Egypt">Capitals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nome_(Egypt)" title="Nome (Egypt)">District</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_technology" title="Ancient Egyptian technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_trade" title="Ancient Egyptian trade">Trade</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Egypt–Mesopotamia relations</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="2" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Giza_pyramid_complex" title="Giza pyramid complex"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg/100px-All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="66" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg/150px-All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg/200px-All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4372" data-file-height="2906" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding-left:81px"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptology" title="Egyptology">Egyptology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Egyptologists" title="List of Egyptologists">Egyptologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_of_Egyptian_antiquities" title="List of museums of Egyptian antiquities">Museums</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background-color:#decd87"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Pyramidi_aavikolla.png/16px-Pyramidi_aavikolla.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Pyramidi_aavikolla.png/24px-Pyramidi_aavikolla.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Pyramidi_aavikolla.png/32px-Pyramidi_aavikolla.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Egypt" title="Portal:Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Egypt" title="Category:Ancient Egypt">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ancient_Egypt" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Ancient Egypt">Commons</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Outline of ancient Egypt">Outline</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Ancient_Egypt" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Ancient Egypt">WikiProject</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Rulers_of_the_ancient_Near_East125" style="display:table;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Rulers_of_the_ancient_Near_East" title="Template:Rulers of the ancient Near East"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Rulers_of_the_ancient_Near_East" title="Template talk:Rulers of the ancient Near East"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Rulers_of_the_ancient_Near_East" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Rulers of the ancient Near East"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Rulers_of_the_ancient_Near_East125" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Rulers of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">ancient Near East</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;border-width:0;"><div style="padding:0"><div style="overflow:auto"> <table style="width:100%" class="wraplinks"> <tbody><tr> <td style="padding:0; font-size:96.6%;"> <table class="wikitable" style="width:100%; margin:0; font-size:96.6%;"> <tbody><tr> <th>Territories/<br />dates<br /><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egypt</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Ebla</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Kish_(Sumer)" title="Kish (Sumer)">Kish</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Assur" title="Assur">Assur</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Akshak" title="Akshak">Akshak</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Akkad_(city)" title="Akkad (city)">Akkad</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Adab_(city)" title="Adab (city)">Adab</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Umma" title="Umma">Umma</a><br /></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Lagash" title="Lagash">Lagash</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Ur" title="Ur">Ur</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a> </th></tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top;"> <td rowspan="2">4000–3200 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Naqada_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Naqada I">Naqada I</a></b><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Gerzeh_culture" title="Gerzeh culture">Naqada II</a></b><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_ivory_handle_(front_top_part_detail).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Gebel el-Arak Knife"><img alt="Gebel el-Arak Knife" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_ivory_handle_%28front_top_part_detail%29.jpg/50px-Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_ivory_handle_%28front_top_part_detail%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="50" height="35" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_ivory_handle_%28front_top_part_detail%29.jpg/75px-Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_ivory_handle_%28front_top_part_detail%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_ivory_handle_%28front_top_part_detail%29.jpg/100px-Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_ivory_handle_%28front_top_part_detail%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1582" data-file-height="1100" /></a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="1" rowspan="4"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Egypt–Mesopotamia relations</a> </td> <td colspan="9" style="text-align:center; background:#F5F5F5;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mesopotamia" title="History of Mesopotamia">Pre-Dynastic period</a> (4000–2900 BCE) </td> <td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><a href="/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susa I</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="9" rowspan="3" style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a></b><br />(4000–3100 BCE)<br /><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg/100px-White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="59" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg/150px-White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg/200px-White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1952" data-file-height="1158" /></a></span><br />(<a href="/wiki/Ziggurat" title="Ziggurat">Anu Ziggurat</a>, 4000 BCE)<br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Rolzegel.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Rolzegel.JPG/100px-Rolzegel.JPG" decoding="async" width="100" height="41" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Rolzegel.JPG/150px-Rolzegel.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Rolzegel.JPG/200px-Rolzegel.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1726" data-file-height="714" /></a></span><br />(Anonymous "King-priests") </td> <td colspan="1" rowspan="3" style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><a href="/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susa II</a><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Susa_II_King-Priest_with_bow_and_arrow.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Susa II Priest-King with bow and arrows"><img alt="Susa II Priest-King with bow and arrows" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Susa_II_King-Priest_with_bow_and_arrow.jpg/35px-Susa_II_King-Priest_with_bow_and_arrow.jpg" decoding="async" width="35" height="45" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Susa_II_King-Priest_with_bow_and_arrow.jpg/53px-Susa_II_King-Priest_with_bow_and_arrow.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Susa_II_King-Priest_with_bow_and_arrow.jpg/70px-Susa_II_King-Priest_with_bow_and_arrow.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1283" data-file-height="1663" /></a></span><br />(Uruk influence or control) </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">3200–3100 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Naqada_III" title="Naqada III">Proto-Dynastic period</a></b><br />(<a href="/wiki/Naqada_III" title="Naqada III">Naqada III</a>)<br />Early or legendary kings: </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="1"><b><a href="/wiki/Upper_Egypt" title="Upper Egypt">Upper Egypt</a></b><br /><i><a href="/wiki/Finger_Snail" title="Finger Snail">Finger Snail</a></i> <i><a href="/wiki/Fish_(pharaoh)" title="Fish (pharaoh)">Fish</a></i> <i><a href="/wiki/Elephant_(pharaoh)" title="Elephant (pharaoh)">Pen-Abu</a></i> <i>Animal</i> <i><a href="/wiki/Stork_(pharaoh)" title="Stork (pharaoh)">Stork</a></i> <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Canide_(pharaoh)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Canide (pharaoh) (page does not exist)">Canide</a></i> <i><a href="/wiki/Taurus_(ruler)" title="Taurus (ruler)">Bull</a></i> <i><a href="/wiki/Scorpion_I" title="Scorpion I">Scorpion I</a></i> <i><a href="/wiki/Crocodile_(pharaoh)" title="Crocodile (pharaoh)">Shendjw</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Iry-Hor" title="Iry-Hor">Iry-Hor</a> <a href="/wiki/Ka_(pharaoh)" title="Ka (pharaoh)">Ka</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Scorpion_II" title="Scorpion II">Scorpion II</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Narmer" title="Narmer">Narmer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Menes" title="Menes">Menes</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="1"><b><a href="/wiki/Lower_Egypt" title="Lower Egypt">Lower Egypt</a></b><br /><i><a href="/wiki/Hedju_Hor" title="Hedju Hor">Hedju Hor</a></i> <i><a href="/wiki/Ny-Hor" title="Ny-Hor">Ny-Hor</a></i> <i><a href="/wiki/Hsekiu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hsekiu">Hsekiu</a></i> <i><a href="/wiki/Khayu" class="mw-redirect" title="Khayu">Khayu</a></i> <i><a href="/wiki/Tiu_(pharaoh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiu (pharaoh)">Tiu</a></i> <i><a href="/wiki/Thesh" class="mw-redirect" title="Thesh">Thesh</a></i> <i><a href="/wiki/Neheb" class="mw-redirect" title="Neheb">Neheb</a></i> <i><a href="/wiki/Wazner" class="mw-redirect" title="Wazner">Wazner</a></i> <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nat-Hor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nat-Hor (page does not exist)">Nat-Hor</a></i> <i><a href="/wiki/Mekh" class="mw-redirect" title="Mekh">Mekh</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Double_Falcon" title="Double Falcon">Double Falcon</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Wash_(pharaoh)" title="Wash (pharaoh)">Wash</a></i> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1">3100–2900 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" rowspan="1" colspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Egypt)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)">Early Dynastic Period</a></b><br /><b><a href="/wiki/First_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="First Dynasty of Egypt">First Dynasty of Egypt</a></b><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Narmer_Palette_verso.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Narmer Palette"><img alt="Narmer Palette" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Narmer_Palette_verso.jpg/40px-Narmer_Palette_verso.jpg" decoding="async" width="40" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Narmer_Palette_verso.jpg/60px-Narmer_Palette_verso.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Narmer_Palette_verso.jpg/80px-Narmer_Palette_verso.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1611" data-file-height="2404" /></a><figcaption>Narmer Palette</figcaption></figure><br /><a href="/wiki/Narmer" title="Narmer">Narmer</a> <a href="/wiki/Menes" title="Menes">Menes</a> <a href="/wiki/Neithhotep" title="Neithhotep">Neithhotep</a><sup>♀</sup> (regent) <a href="/wiki/Hor-Aha" title="Hor-Aha">Hor-Aha</a> <a href="/wiki/Djer" title="Djer">Djer</a> <a href="/wiki/Djet" title="Djet">Djet</a> <a href="/wiki/Merneith" title="Merneith">Merneith</a><sup>♀</sup> (regent) <a href="/wiki/Den_(pharaoh)" title="Den (pharaoh)">Den</a> <a href="/wiki/Anedjib" title="Anedjib">Anedjib</a> <a href="/wiki/Semerkhet" title="Semerkhet">Semerkhet</a> <a href="/wiki/Qa%27a" title="Qa'a">Qa'a</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Sneferka" title="Sneferka">Sneferka</a></i> <i><a href="/wiki/Horus_Bird_(pharaoh)" title="Horus Bird (pharaoh)">Horus Bird</a></i> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="1" rowspan="13"><a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaanites</a> </td> <td colspan="9" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><b><a href="/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr_period" title="Jemdet Nasr period">Jemdet Nasr period</a></b><br />(3100–2900 BCE) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="7"><b><a href="/wiki/Proto-Elamite_(period)" title="Proto-Elamite (period)">Proto-Elamite<br />period</a></b><br />(<a href="/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susa III</a>)<br />(3100–2700 BCE) </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">2900 BCE </td> <td rowspan="8" colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;"><b><a href="/wiki/Second_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Second Dynasty of Egypt">Second Dynasty of Egypt</a></b><br /><br /><a href="/wiki/Hotepsekhemwy" title="Hotepsekhemwy">Hotepsekhemwy</a> <a href="/wiki/Nebra_(pharaoh)" title="Nebra (pharaoh)">Nebra/Raneb</a> <a href="/wiki/Nynetjer" title="Nynetjer">Nynetjer</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Ba_(pharaoh)" title="Ba (pharaoh)">Ba</a></i> <i><a href="/wiki/Nubnefer" title="Nubnefer">Nubnefer</a></i> <i><a href="/wiki/Horus_Sa" title="Horus Sa">Horus Sa</a></i> <i><a href="/wiki/Weneg_(pharaoh)" title="Weneg (pharaoh)">Weneg-Nebty</a></i> <i><a href="/wiki/Wadjenes" title="Wadjenes">Wadjenes</a></i> <i><a href="/wiki/Senedj" title="Senedj">Senedj</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Seth-Peribsen" title="Seth-Peribsen">Seth-Peribsen</a> <a href="/wiki/Sekhemib-Perenmaat" title="Sekhemib-Perenmaat">Sekhemib-Perenmaat</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Neferkara_I" title="Neferkara I">Neferkara I</a></i> <i><a href="/wiki/Neferkasokar" title="Neferkasokar">Neferkasokar</a></i> <i><a href="/wiki/Hudjefa_I" title="Hudjefa I">Hudjefa I</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Khasekhemwy" title="Khasekhemwy">Khasekhemwy</a><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Khasekhemwy_statue_Ashmolean.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Khasekhemwy"><img alt="Khasekhemwy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Khasekhemwy_statue_Ashmolean.JPG/30px-Khasekhemwy_statue_Ashmolean.JPG" decoding="async" width="30" height="38" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Khasekhemwy_statue_Ashmolean.JPG/45px-Khasekhemwy_statue_Ashmolean.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Khasekhemwy_statue_Ashmolean.JPG/60px-Khasekhemwy_statue_Ashmolean.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4103" data-file-height="5203" /></a></span> </td> <td colspan="9" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#F5F5F5;"><a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic Period I</a> (2900–2700 BCE) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="3"><b><a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">First Eblaite</a><br />Kingdom</b><br /> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="3"><b><a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">First kingdom of Mari</a></b><br /> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="7" rowspan="1"><b><a href="/wiki/Kish_(Sumer)" title="Kish (Sumer)">Kish</a> I dynasty</b><br /><i><a href="/wiki/Jushur" title="Jushur">Jushur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kullassina-bel" title="Kullassina-bel">Kullassina-bel</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Nangishlishma" title="Nangishlishma">Nangishlishma</a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/En-tarah-ana" title="En-tarah-ana">En-tarah-ana</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Babum" title="Babum">Babum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Puannum" title="Puannum">Puannum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kalibum" title="Kalibum">Kalibum</a></i> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">2800 BCE <p><br /> </p> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"><i><a href="/wiki/Kalumum" title="Kalumum">Kalumum</a> <a href="/wiki/Zuqaqip" title="Zuqaqip">Zuqaqip</a> <a href="/wiki/Atab" title="Atab">Atab</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Mashda" title="Mashda">Mashda</a> <a href="/wiki/Arwium" title="Arwium">Arwium</a> <a href="/wiki/Etana" title="Etana">Etana</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Balih" title="Balih">Balih</a> <a href="/wiki/En-me-nuna" title="En-me-nuna">En-me-nuna</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Melem-Kish" title="Melem-Kish">Melem-Kish</a> <a href="/wiki/Barsal-nuna" title="Barsal-nuna">Barsal-nuna</a></i> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5" rowspan="1"><b><a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> I dynasty</b><br /><i><a href="/wiki/Meshkiangasher" title="Meshkiangasher">Meshkiangasher</a></i> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5" rowspan="1"><i><a href="/wiki/Enmerkar" title="Enmerkar">Enmerkar</a> ("conqueror of <a href="/wiki/Aratta" title="Aratta">Aratta</a>")</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="4">2700 BCE </td> <td colspan="9" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#F5F5F5;"><a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic Period II</a> (2700–2600 BCE) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="3"> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="3"> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><i><a href="/wiki/Zamug" title="Zamug">Zamug</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tizqar" title="Tizqar">Tizqar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ilku" title="Ilku">Ilku</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Iltasadum" title="Iltasadum">Iltasadum</a></i> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5" rowspan="1"><i><a href="/wiki/Lugalbanda" title="Lugalbanda">Lugalbanda</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Dumuzid,_the_Fisherman" class="mw-redirect" title="Dumuzid, the Fisherman">Dumuzid, the Fisherman</a></i> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="8" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Enmebaragesi" title="Enmebaragesi">Enmebaragesi</a> ("made the land of Elam submit")<sup id="cite_ref-SKL_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SKL-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Aga_of_Kish" title="Aga of Kish">Aga of Kish</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blank_space.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/5px-Blank_space.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/8px-Blank_space.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/10px-Blank_space.png 2x" data-file-width="50" data-file-height="50" /></a></span><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ak_gal-ukkin_(detail).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Aga of Kish"><img alt="Aga of Kish" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Ak_gal-ukkin_%28detail%29.jpg/22px-Ak_gal-ukkin_%28detail%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="22" height="33" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Ak_gal-ukkin_%28detail%29.jpg/33px-Ak_gal-ukkin_%28detail%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Ak_gal-ukkin_%28detail%29.jpg/44px-Ak_gal-ukkin_%28detail%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="559" data-file-height="826" /></a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Gilgamesh" title="Gilgamesh">Gilgamesh</a><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blank_space.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/10px-Blank_space.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/15px-Blank_space.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/20px-Blank_space.png 2x" data-file-width="50" data-file-height="50" /></a></span><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gilgamesh_on_a_seal_of_Mesannapeda,_2600_BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Gilgamesh_on_a_seal_of_Mesannapeda%2C_2600_BCE.jpg/30px-Gilgamesh_on_a_seal_of_Mesannapeda%2C_2600_BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="29" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Gilgamesh_on_a_seal_of_Mesannapeda%2C_2600_BCE.jpg/45px-Gilgamesh_on_a_seal_of_Mesannapeda%2C_2600_BCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Gilgamesh_on_a_seal_of_Mesannapeda%2C_2600_BCE.jpg/60px-Gilgamesh_on_a_seal_of_Mesannapeda%2C_2600_BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="612" data-file-height="595" /></a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="5"><b><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Old Elamite period</a></b><br />(2700–1500 BCE)<br /><br /><a href="/wiki/Indo-Mesopotamia_relations" title="Indo-Mesopotamia relations">Indo-Mesopotamia relations</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">2600 BCE </td> <td rowspan="3" colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;"><b><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Third Dynasty of Egypt">Third Dynasty of Egypt</a></b><br /><br /><a href="/wiki/Djoser" title="Djoser">Djoser</a><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Saqqara,_Pyramid_of_Djoser_2,_Ancient_Egypt.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Saqqarah Djeser pyramid"><img alt="Saqqarah Djeser pyramid" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Saqqara%2C_Pyramid_of_Djoser_2%2C_Ancient_Egypt.jpg/50px-Saqqara%2C_Pyramid_of_Djoser_2%2C_Ancient_Egypt.jpg" decoding="async" width="50" height="33" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Saqqara%2C_Pyramid_of_Djoser_2%2C_Ancient_Egypt.jpg/75px-Saqqara%2C_Pyramid_of_Djoser_2%2C_Ancient_Egypt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Saqqara%2C_Pyramid_of_Djoser_2%2C_Ancient_Egypt.jpg/100px-Saqqara%2C_Pyramid_of_Djoser_2%2C_Ancient_Egypt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2048" /></a></span><br />(First <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_pyramids" title="Egyptian pyramids">Egyptian pyramids</a>)<br /><a href="/wiki/Sekhemkhet" title="Sekhemkhet">Sekhemkhet</a> <a href="/wiki/Sanakht" title="Sanakht">Sanakht</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Nebka" title="Nebka">Nebka</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Khaba" title="Khaba">Khaba</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Qahedjet" title="Qahedjet">Qahedjet</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Huni" title="Huni">Huni</a> </td> <td colspan="9" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#F5F5F5;"><a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic Period III</a> (2600–2340 BCE) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Sagisu" title="Sagisu">Sagisu</a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abur-lim&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abur-lim (page does not exist)">Abur-lim</a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Agur-lim&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Agur-lim (page does not exist)">Agur-lim</a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ibbi-Damu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ibbi-Damu (page does not exist)">Ibbi-Damu</a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baba-Damu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Baba-Damu (page does not exist)">Baba-Damu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="2"> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" rowspan="2" colspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Kish_(Sumer)" title="Kish (Sumer)">Kish</a> II dynasty</b><br />(5 kings)<br /><a href="/wiki/Uhub" title="Uhub">Uhub</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Mesilim" title="Mesilim">Mesilim</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="3" rowspan="1"><i><a href="/wiki/Ur-Nungal" title="Ur-Nungal">Ur-Nungal</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Udul-kalama" title="Udul-kalama">Udulkalama</a><br /><a href="/wiki/La-ba%27shum" title="La-ba'shum">Labashum</a></i> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FAEBD7;" rowspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Lagash" title="Lagash">Lagash</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/En-hegal" title="En-hegal">En-hegal</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Lugalshaengur" title="Lugalshaengur">Lugal-<br />shaengur</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#ADD8E6;" rowspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Ur_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Ur I">Ur</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/A-Imdugud" title="A-Imdugud">A-Imdugud</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Ur-Pabilsag" title="Ur-Pabilsag">Ur-Pabilsag</a><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blank_space.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/5px-Blank_space.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/8px-Blank_space.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/10px-Blank_space.png 2x" data-file-width="50" data-file-height="50" /></a></span><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ur-Palbisag.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Ur-Palbisag.jpg/30px-Ur-Palbisag.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="48" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Ur-Palbisag.jpg/45px-Ur-Palbisag.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Ur-Palbisag.jpg/60px-Ur-Palbisag.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1385" data-file-height="2201" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Meskalamdug" title="Meskalamdug">Meskalamdug</a><br />(Queen <a href="/wiki/Puabi" title="Puabi">Puabi</a>)<br /><a href="/wiki/Akalamdug" title="Akalamdug">Akalamdug</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><i><a href="/wiki/En-nun-tarah-ana" title="En-nun-tarah-ana">Enun-dara-anna</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Mesh-he" title="Mesh-he">Mesh-he</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Melem-ana" title="Melem-ana">Melem-ana</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Lugal-kitun" title="Lugal-kitun">Lugal-kitun</a></i> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" rowspan="1"><b><a href="/wiki/Adab_(city)" title="Adab (city)">Adab</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Nin-kisalsi" title="Nin-kisalsi">Nin-kisalsi</a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Me-durba&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Me-durba (page does not exist)">Me-durba</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Lugal-dalu" title="Lugal-dalu">Lugal-dalu</a> </td> <td colspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" rowspan="1"> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2575 BCE </td> <td rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;"><b><a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom of Egypt</a></b><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fourth Dynasty of Egypt">Fourth Dynasty of Egypt</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Sneferu" title="Sneferu">Snefru</a> <a href="/wiki/Khufu" title="Khufu">Khufu</a><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kheops-Pyramid.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Kheops-Pyramid.jpg/50px-Kheops-Pyramid.jpg" decoding="async" width="50" height="31" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Kheops-Pyramid.jpg/75px-Kheops-Pyramid.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Kheops-Pyramid.jpg/100px-Kheops-Pyramid.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1581" data-file-height="971" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Djedefre" title="Djedefre">Djedefre</a> <a href="/wiki/Khafre" title="Khafre">Khafre</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Bikheris" title="Bikheris">Bikheris</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Menkaure" title="Menkaure">Menkaure</a> <a href="/wiki/Shepseskaf" title="Shepseskaf">Shepseskaf</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Thamphthis" title="Thamphthis">Thamphthis</a></i> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#ADD8E6;" colspan="8"><b><a href="/wiki/First_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="First Dynasty of Ur">Ur I dynasty</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Mesannepada" title="Mesannepada">Mesannepada</a><br />"King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk </td></tr> <tr> <td>2500 BCE </td> <td rowspan="22" style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a> (2500–539 BCE) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="5"><b><a href="/wiki/The_second_kingdom_of_Mari" class="mw-redirect" title="The second kingdom of Mari">Second kingdom of Mari</a></b><br /><br /><a href="/wiki/Ikun-Shamash" title="Ikun-Shamash">Ikun-Shamash</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Iku-Shamagan" title="Iku-Shamagan">Iku-Shamagan</a><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Iku-Shamagan_-_Mari_-_Temple_of_Ninni-Zaza_(retouched).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Iku-Shamagan"><img alt="Iku-Shamagan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Iku-Shamagan_-_Mari_-_Temple_of_Ninni-Zaza_%28retouched%29.jpg/30px-Iku-Shamagan_-_Mari_-_Temple_of_Ninni-Zaza_%28retouched%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="52" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Iku-Shamagan_-_Mari_-_Temple_of_Ninni-Zaza_%28retouched%29.jpg/45px-Iku-Shamagan_-_Mari_-_Temple_of_Ninni-Zaza_%28retouched%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Iku-Shamagan_-_Mari_-_Temple_of_Ninni-Zaza_%28retouched%29.jpg/60px-Iku-Shamagan_-_Mari_-_Temple_of_Ninni-Zaza_%28retouched%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1202" data-file-height="2102" /></a></span><br /><br /><br /><a href="/wiki/Ansud" title="Ansud">Ansud</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Sa%27umu" class="mw-redirect" title="Sa'umu">Sa'umu</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Ishtup-Ishar" title="Ishtup-Ishar">Ishtup-Ishar</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Ikun-Mari" title="Ikun-Mari">Ikun-Mari</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Iblul-Il" title="Iblul-Il">Iblul-Il</a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nizi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nizi (page does not exist)">Nizi</a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Enna-Dagan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Enna-Dagan (page does not exist)">Enna-Dagan</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" rowspan="3"><b>Kish III dynasty</b><br /><a href="/wiki/Ku-Baba" class="mw-redirect" title="Ku-Baba">Ku-Baba</a><sup>♀</sup> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" rowspan="3"><b><a href="/wiki/Akshak" title="Akshak">Akshak dynasty</a></b><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unzi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Unzi (page does not exist)">Unzi</a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Undalulu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Undalulu (page does not exist)">Undalulu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" rowspan="3"><b><a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> II dynasty</b><br /><a href="/wiki/Enshakushanna" title="Enshakushanna">Ensha-<br />kushanna</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Mug-si" title="Mug-si">Mug-si</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" rowspan="1"><b><a href="/wiki/Umma" title="Umma">Umma</a> I dynasty</b><br /><br /><a href="/wiki/Pabilgagaltuku" title="Pabilgagaltuku">Pabilgagaltuku</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FAEBD7;" rowspan="3"><b><a href="/wiki/Lagash" title="Lagash">Lagash</a> I dynasty</b><br /><br /><a href="/wiki/Ur-Nanshe" title="Ur-Nanshe">Ur-Nanshe</a><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ur-Nanshe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Ur-Nanshe.jpg/30px-Ur-Nanshe.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="42" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Ur-Nanshe.jpg/45px-Ur-Nanshe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Ur-Nanshe.jpg/60px-Ur-Nanshe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="663" data-file-height="918" /></a></span><br /><br /><a href="/wiki/Akurgal" title="Akurgal">Akurgal</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#ADD8E6;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/A%27annepada" title="A'annepada">A'annepada</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Meskiagnun" title="Meskiagnun">Meskiagnun</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Elulu" title="Elulu">Elulu</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Balulu" title="Balulu">Balulu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Awan_dynasty" title="Awan dynasty">Awan dynasty</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Peli_(king_of_Awan)" title="Peli (king of Awan)">Peli</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Tata_(king_of_Awan)" title="Tata (king of Awan)">Tata</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Ukku-Tanhish" title="Ukku-Tanhish">Ukkutahesh</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Hishutash" title="Hishutash">Hishur</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">2450 BCE </td> <td rowspan="4" colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;"><b><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fifth Dynasty of Egypt">Fifth Dynasty of Egypt</a></b><br /><br /><a href="/wiki/Userkaf" title="Userkaf">Userkaf</a> <a href="/wiki/Sahure" title="Sahure">Sahure</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferirkare_Kakai" title="Neferirkare Kakai">Neferirkare Kakai</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferefre" title="Neferefre">Neferefre</a> <a href="/wiki/Shepseskare" title="Shepseskare">Shepseskare</a> <a href="/wiki/Nyuserre_Ini" title="Nyuserre Ini">Nyuserre Ini</a> <a href="/wiki/Menkauhor_Kaiu" title="Menkauhor Kaiu">Menkauhor Kaiu</a> <a href="/wiki/Djedkare_Isesi" title="Djedkare Isesi">Djedkare Isesi</a> <a href="/wiki/Unas" title="Unas">Unas</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="2"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Enar-Damu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Enar-Damu (page does not exist)">Enar-Damu</a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ishar-Malik&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ishar-Malik (page does not exist)">Ishar-Malik</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Ush,_king_of_Umma" title="Ush, king of Umma">Ush</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Enakalle" title="Enakalle">Enakalle</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;"><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elamite</a> invasions<br />(3 kings)<sup id="cite_ref-SKL_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SKL-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Shushun-Tarana" title="Shushun-Tarana">Shushun-Tarana</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Napi-Ilhush" title="Napi-Ilhush">Napi-Ilhush</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2425 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;"><a href="/wiki/Kun-Damu" title="Kun-Damu">Kun-Damu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FAEBD7;" colspan="8"><a href="/wiki/Eannatum" title="Eannatum">Eannatum</a><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blank_space.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/5px-Blank_space.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/8px-Blank_space.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/10px-Blank_space.png 2x" data-file-width="50" data-file-height="50" /></a></span><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P1130735_Louvre_st%C3%A8le_des_Vautours_rwk.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/P1130735_Louvre_st%C3%A8le_des_Vautours_rwk.JPG/30px-P1130735_Louvre_st%C3%A8le_des_Vautours_rwk.JPG" decoding="async" width="30" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/P1130735_Louvre_st%C3%A8le_des_Vautours_rwk.JPG/45px-P1130735_Louvre_st%C3%A8le_des_Vautours_rwk.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/P1130735_Louvre_st%C3%A8le_des_Vautours_rwk.JPG/60px-P1130735_Louvre_st%C3%A8le_des_Vautours_rwk.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2600" data-file-height="2595" /></a></span><br />(King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam) </td></tr> <tr> <td>2400 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adub-Damu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Adub-Damu (page does not exist)">Adub-Damu</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Igrish-Halam" title="Igrish-Halam">Igrish-Halam</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Irkab-Damu" title="Irkab-Damu">Irkab-Damu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;"><b><a href="/wiki/Kish_(Sumer)" title="Kish (Sumer)">Kish</a> IV dynasty</b><br /><a href="/wiki/Puzur-Suen" title="Puzur-Suen">Puzur-Suen</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Ur-Zababa" title="Ur-Zababa">Ur-Zababa</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urur&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Urur (page does not exist)">Urur</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><a href="/wiki/Lugal-kinishe-dudu" title="Lugal-kinishe-dudu">Lugal-kinishe-dudu</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Lugal-kisalsi" title="Lugal-kisalsi">Lugal-kisalsi</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;"><a href="/wiki/E-iginimpa%27e" title="E-iginimpa'e">E-iginimpa'e</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Meskigal" title="Meskigal">Meskigal</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><a href="/wiki/Ur-Lumma" title="Ur-Lumma">Ur-Lumma</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Il,_king_of_Umma" title="Il, king of Umma">Il</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Gishakidu" title="Gishakidu">Gishakidu</a><br />(Queen <a href="/wiki/Bara-irnun" title="Bara-irnun">Bara-irnun</a>) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FAEBD7;"><a href="/wiki/Enannatum_I" title="Enannatum I">Enannatum</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Entemena" title="Entemena">Entemena</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Enannatum_II" title="Enannatum II">Enannatum II</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Enentarzi" title="Enentarzi">Enentarzi</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#ADD8E6;"><b><a href="/wiki/Ur" title="Ur">Ur</a> II dynasty</b><br />Nanni<br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna_II&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II (page does not exist)">Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;"><a href="/wiki/Kikku-Siwe-Temti" title="Kikku-Siwe-Temti">Kikku-Siwe-Temti</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2380 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="6"><b><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Sixth Dynasty of Egypt">Sixth Dynasty of Egypt</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Teti" title="Teti">Teti</a> <a href="/wiki/Userkare" title="Userkare">Userkare</a> <a href="/wiki/Pepi_I_Meryre" title="Pepi I Meryre">Pepi I</a> <a href="/wiki/Merenre_Nemtyemsaf_I" title="Merenre Nemtyemsaf I">Merenre Nemtyemsaf I</a> <a href="/wiki/Pepi_II_Neferkare" title="Pepi II Neferkare">Pepi II</a> <a href="/wiki/Merenre_Nemtyemsaf_II" title="Merenre Nemtyemsaf II">Merenre Nemtyemsaf II</a> <a href="/wiki/Netjerkare_Siptah" title="Netjerkare Siptah">Netjerkare Siptah</a><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kneeling_Statuette_of_Pepy_I,_ca._2338-2298_B.C.E.,_39.121.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Kneeling statuette of Pepy I"><img alt="Kneeling statuette of Pepy I" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Kneeling_Statuette_of_Pepy_I%2C_ca._2338-2298_B.C.E.%2C_39.121.jpg/30px-Kneeling_Statuette_of_Pepy_I%2C_ca._2338-2298_B.C.E.%2C_39.121.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Kneeling_Statuette_of_Pepy_I%2C_ca._2338-2298_B.C.E.%2C_39.121.jpg/45px-Kneeling_Statuette_of_Pepy_I%2C_ca._2338-2298_B.C.E.%2C_39.121.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Kneeling_Statuette_of_Pepy_I%2C_ca._2338-2298_B.C.E.%2C_39.121.jpg/60px-Kneeling_Statuette_of_Pepy_I%2C_ca._2338-2298_B.C.E.%2C_39.121.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1148" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="10" rowspan="1"><b><a href="/wiki/Adab_(city)" title="Adab (city)">Adab</a> dynasty</b><br /><a href="/wiki/Lugal-Anne-Mundu" title="Lugal-Anne-Mundu">Lugal-Anne-Mundu</a><br />"King of the four quarters of the world" </td></tr> <tr> <td>2370 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Isar-Damu" title="Isar-Damu">Isar-Damu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="2"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Enna-Dagan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Enna-Dagan (page does not exist)">Enna-Dagan</a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ikun-Ishar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ikun-Ishar (page does not exist)">Ikun-Ishar</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Ishqi-Mari" title="Ishqi-Mari">Ishqi-Mari</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" colspan="4" rowspan="1">Invasion by <a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a><br />Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter<sup id="cite_ref-SKL_86-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SKL-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Ukush" title="Ukush">Ukush</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FAEBD7;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Lugalanda" title="Lugalanda">Lugalanda</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Urukagina" title="Urukagina">Urukagina</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Luh-ishan" title="Luh-ishan">Luh-ishan</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2350 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Puzur-Nirah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Puzur-Nirah (page does not exist)">Puzur-Nirah</a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ishu-Il&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ishu-Il (page does not exist)">Ishu-Il</a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shu-Sin_(Akshak)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shu-Sin (Akshak) (page does not exist)">Shu-Sin</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5"><b><a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> III dynasty</b><br /><a href="/wiki/Lugal-zage-si" title="Lugal-zage-si">Lugal-zage-si</a><br />(Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer) </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">2340 BCE </td> <td> </td> <td colspan="10" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#F5F5F5;"><b><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Period</a> (2340–2150 BCE)</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#C0C0C0;" colspan="9"><b><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a></b><br /><br /><a href="/wiki/Sargon_of_Akkad" title="Sargon of Akkad">Sargon of Akkad</a> <a href="/wiki/Rimush" title="Rimush">Rimush</a> <a href="/wiki/Manishtushu" title="Manishtushu">Manishtushu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#C0C0C0;" colspan="1" rowspan="3"><b>Akkadian Governors:</b><br /><a href="/wiki/Eshpum" title="Eshpum">Eshpum</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Ilshu-rabi" title="Ilshu-rabi">Ilshu-rabi</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Epirmupi" title="Epirmupi">Epirmupi</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Ili-ishmani" title="Ili-ishmani">Ili-ishmani</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2250 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#C0C0C0;" colspan="7"><a href="/wiki/Naram-Sin_of_Akkad" title="Naram-Sin of Akkad">Naram-Sin</a><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blank_space.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/5px-Blank_space.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/8px-Blank_space.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/10px-Blank_space.png 2x" data-file-width="50" data-file-height="50" /></a></span><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Relief_of_Naram-Sin_(portrait).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Relief_of_Naram-Sin_%28portrait%29.jpg/25px-Relief_of_Naram-Sin_%28portrait%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="25" height="37" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Relief_of_Naram-Sin_%28portrait%29.jpg/38px-Relief_of_Naram-Sin_%28portrait%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Relief_of_Naram-Sin_%28portrait%29.jpg/50px-Relief_of_Naram-Sin_%28portrait%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1567" data-file-height="2300" /></a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#C0C0C0;" rowspan="2" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Lugal-ushumgal" title="Lugal-ushumgal">Lugal-ushumgal</a><br />(vassal of the Akkadians) </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">2200 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/First_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="First Intermediate Period of Egypt">First Intermediate Period</a></b><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Seventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Seventh Dynasty of Egypt">Seventh Dynasty of Egypt</a></b><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Eighth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eighth Dynasty of Egypt">Eighth Dynasty of Egypt</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Menkare" title="Menkare">Menkare</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkare_II" title="Neferkare II">Neferkare II</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkare_Neby" title="Neferkare Neby">Neferkare Neby</a> <a href="/wiki/Djedkare_Shemai" title="Djedkare Shemai">Djedkare Shemai</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkare_Khendu" title="Neferkare Khendu">Neferkare Khendu</a> <a href="/wiki/Merenhor" title="Merenhor">Merenhor</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkamin" title="Neferkamin">Neferkamin</a> <a href="/wiki/Nikare" title="Nikare">Nikare</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkare_Tereru" title="Neferkare Tereru">Neferkare Tereru</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkahor" title="Neferkahor">Neferkahor</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkare_Pepiseneb" title="Neferkare Pepiseneb">Neferkare Pepiseneb</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkamin_Anu" title="Neferkamin Anu">Neferkamin Anu</a> <a href="/wiki/Qakare_Ibi" title="Qakare Ibi">Qakare Ibi</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkaure" title="Neferkaure">Neferkaure</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkauhor" title="Neferkauhor">Neferkauhor</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferirkare" title="Neferirkare">Neferirkare</a> </td> <td colspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="6"><b>Second <a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Eblaite</a><br />Kingdom</b> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Third kingdom of Mari</a></b><br />(<a href="/wiki/Shakkanakku" title="Shakkanakku">Shakkanakku</a><br />dynasty)<br /><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ididish&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ididish (page does not exist)">Ididish</a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shu-Dagan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shu-Dagan (page does not exist)">Shu-Dagan</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Ishma-Dagan" title="Ishma-Dagan">Ishma-Dagan</a><br />(vassals of the Akkadians) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#C0C0C0;" colspan="5"><br /><a href="/wiki/Shar-Kali-Sharri" title="Shar-Kali-Sharri">Shar-Kali-Sharri</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#C0C0C0;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Igigi_of_Akkad" title="Igigi of Akkad">Igigi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Imi" title="Imi">Imi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nanum_of_Akkad" title="Nanum of Akkad">Nanum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ilulu" title="Ilulu">Ilulu</a> (3 years)<br /><a href="/wiki/Dudu_of_Akkad" title="Dudu of Akkad">Dudu</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Shu-turul" title="Shu-turul">Shu-turul</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" rowspan="1"><b><a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> IV dynasty</b><br /><a href="/wiki/Ur-nigin" title="Ur-nigin">Ur-nigin</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Ur-gigir" title="Ur-gigir">Ur-gigir</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#C0C0C0;" colspan="2"> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FAEBD7;" rowspan="1" colspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Lagash" title="Lagash">Lagash</a> II dynasty</b><br /><a href="/wiki/Puzer-Mama" title="Puzer-Mama">Puzer-Mama</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Ur-Ningirsu_I" title="Ur-Ningirsu I">Ur-Ningirsu I</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Pirig-me" title="Pirig-me">Pirig-me</a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lu-Baba&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lu-Baba (page does not exist)">Lu-Baba</a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lu-gula&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lu-gula (page does not exist)">Lu-gula</a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kaku_of_Lagash&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kaku of Lagash (page does not exist)">Ka-ku</a><br /> </td> <td colspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Hishep-ratep" title="Hishep-ratep">Hishep-ratep</a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Helu_(Awan)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Helu (Awan) (page does not exist)">Helu</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Khita" title="Khita">Khita</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Puzur-Inshushinak" title="Puzur-Inshushinak">Puzur-Inshushinak</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">2150 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="3"><b><a href="/wiki/Ninth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Ninth Dynasty of Egypt">Ninth Dynasty of Egypt</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Meryibre_Khety" title="Meryibre Khety">Meryibre Khety</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkare_(9th_dynasty)" title="Neferkare (9th dynasty)">Neferkare VII</a> <a href="/wiki/Nebkaure_Khety" title="Nebkaure Khety">Nebkaure Khety</a> <a href="/wiki/Setut" title="Setut">Setut</a> </td> <td colspan="8" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#F5F5F5;"><b><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Ur III period</a> (2150–2000 BCE)</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/N%C3%BBr-M%C3%AAr" title="Nûr-Mêr">Nûr-Mêr</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Ishtup-Ilum" title="Ishtup-Ilum">Ishtup-Ilum</a><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ishtup-Ilum_statue_(head).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Ishtup-Ilum_statue_%28head%29.jpg/25px-Ishtup-Ilum_statue_%28head%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="25" height="36" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Ishtup-Ilum_statue_%28head%29.jpg/38px-Ishtup-Ilum_statue_%28head%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Ishtup-Ilum_statue_%28head%29.jpg/50px-Ishtup-Ilum_statue_%28head%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="568" data-file-height="810" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Ishgum-Addu" title="Ishgum-Addu">Ishgum-Addu</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Apil-kin" title="Apil-kin">Apil-kin</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#A9A9A9;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><b><a href="/wiki/Gutian_dynasty_of_Sumer" class="mw-redirect" title="Gutian dynasty of Sumer">Gutian dynasty</a></b><br />(21 kings)<br /><br /><a href="/wiki/La-erabum" title="La-erabum">La-erabum</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Si%27um" title="Si'um">Si'um</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" rowspan="1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kuda_(Uruk)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kuda (Uruk) (page does not exist)">Kuda (Uruk)</a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Puzur-ili&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Puzur-ili (page does not exist)">Puzur-ili</a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ur-Utu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ur-Utu (page does not exist)">Ur-Utu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#A9A9A9;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"> </td> <td colspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE; rowspan=2"><b><a href="/wiki/Umma" title="Umma">Umma</a> II dynasty</b><br /><a href="/wiki/Lugalannatum" title="Lugalannatum">Lugalannatum</a><br />(vassal of the Gutians) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FAEBD7;" rowspan="2" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Ur-Baba" title="Ur-Baba">Ur-Baba</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Gudea" title="Gudea">Gudea</a><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg/30px-Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="45" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg/45px-Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg/60px-Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2600" data-file-height="3900" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure><br /><a href="/wiki/Ur-Ningirsu" title="Ur-Ningirsu">Ur-Ningirsu</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Ur-gar" title="Ur-gar">Ur-gar</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Nam-mahani" title="Nam-mahani">Nam-mahani</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#A9A9A9;" colspan="5" rowspan="1"><br /><a href="/wiki/Tirigan" title="Tirigan">Tirigan</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2125 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="3"><b><a href="/wiki/Tenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Tenth Dynasty of Egypt">Tenth Dynasty of Egypt</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Meryhathor" title="Meryhathor">Meryhathor</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkare_VIII" title="Neferkare VIII">Neferkare VIII</a> <a href="/wiki/Wahkare_Khety" title="Wahkare Khety">Wahkare Khety</a> <a href="/wiki/Merikare" title="Merikare">Merikare</a> <p><br /> </p> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="7"><b><a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> V dynasty</b><br /><a href="/wiki/Utu-hengal" title="Utu-hengal">Utu-hengal</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2100 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="1">(Vassals of UR III) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Iddi-ilum" title="Iddi-ilum">Iddi-ilum</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Ili-Ishar" title="Ili-Ishar">Ili-Ishar</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Tura-Dagan" title="Tura-Dagan">Tura-Dagan</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Puzur-Ishtar" title="Puzur-Ishtar">Puzur-Ishtar</a><br />(vassals of Ur III)<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#ADD8E6;" colspan="8" rowspan="1"><b><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Ur III dynasty</a></b><br />"Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad"<span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blank_space.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/5px-Blank_space.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/8px-Blank_space.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/10px-Blank_space.png 2x" data-file-width="50" data-file-height="50" /></a></span><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:King_Ur-Nammu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/King_Ur-Nammu.jpg/35px-King_Ur-Nammu.jpg" decoding="async" width="35" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/King_Ur-Nammu.jpg/53px-King_Ur-Nammu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/King_Ur-Nammu.jpg/70px-King_Ur-Nammu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="734" data-file-height="632" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Ur-Nammu" title="Ur-Nammu">Ur-Nammu</a> <a href="/wiki/Shulgi" title="Shulgi">Shulgi</a> <a href="/wiki/Amar-Sin" title="Amar-Sin">Amar-Sin</a> <a href="/wiki/Shu-Sin" title="Shu-Sin">Shu-Sin</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="4">2025–1763 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#D2B48C;" colspan="7" rowspan="1"><b><a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorite</a> invasions</b> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#ADD8E6;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Ibbi-Sin" title="Ibbi-Sin">Ibbi-Sin</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Proto-Elamite" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Elamite">Elamite</a> invasions</b><br /><a href="/wiki/Kindattu" title="Kindattu">Kindattu</a> (<a href="/wiki/Shimashki_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Shimashki Dynasty">Shimashki Dynasty</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom of Egypt</a></b><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt">Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Mentuhotep_I" title="Mentuhotep I">Mentuhotep I</a> <a href="/wiki/Intef_I" title="Intef I">Intef I</a> <a href="/wiki/Intef_II" title="Intef II">Intef II</a> <a href="/wiki/Intef_III" title="Intef III">Intef III</a> <a href="/wiki/Mentuhotep_II" title="Mentuhotep II">Mentuhotep II</a> <a href="/wiki/Mentuhotep_III" title="Mentuhotep III">Mentuhotep III</a> <a href="/wiki/Mentuhotep_IV" title="Mentuhotep IV">Mentuhotep IV</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#D2B48C;" rowspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Third Eblaite</a><br />Kingdom</b><br /> (<a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorites</a>)<br /><a href="/wiki/Ibbit-Lim" title="Ibbit-Lim">Ibbit-Lim</a><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ibbit-Lim.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Ibbit-Lim.png/30px-Ibbit-Lim.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Ibbit-Lim.png/45px-Ibbit-Lim.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Ibbit-Lim.png/60px-Ibbit-Lim.png 2x" data-file-width="343" data-file-height="345" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Immeya" title="Immeya">Immeya</a> <a href="/wiki/Indilimma" title="Indilimma">Indilimma</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#D2B48C;" rowspan="2">(<a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorite</a> <a href="/wiki/Shakkanakku" title="Shakkanakku">Shakkanakkus</a>)<br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hitial-Erra&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hitial-Erra (page does not exist)">Hitial-Erra</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Hanun-Dagan" title="Hanun-Dagan">Hanun-Dagan</a><br />(...)<br /><br /><br /><b>Lim Dynasty</b><br /><b>of <a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a></b><br />(<a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorites</a>)<br /><a href="/wiki/Yaggid-Lim" title="Yaggid-Lim">Yaggid-Lim</a> <a href="/wiki/Yahdun-Lim" title="Yahdun-Lim">Yahdun-Lim</a> <a href="/wiki/Yasmah-Adad" title="Yasmah-Adad">Yasmah-Adad</a> <a href="/wiki/Zimri-Lim" title="Zimri-Lim">Zimri-Lim</a> (Queen <a href="/wiki/Shibtu" title="Shibtu">Shibtu</a>) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="1" rowspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Old_Assyrian_period" title="Old Assyrian period">Old Assyria</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Puzur-Ashur_I" title="Puzur-Ashur I">Puzur-Ashur I</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Shalim-ahum" title="Shalim-ahum">Shalim-ahum</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Ilu-shuma" title="Ilu-shuma">Ilu-shuma</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Erishum_I" title="Erishum I">Erishum I</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Ikunum" title="Ikunum">Ikunum</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Sargon_I" title="Sargon I">Sargon I</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Puzur-Ashur_II" title="Puzur-Ashur II">Puzur-Ashur II</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Naram-Sin_of_Assyria" title="Naram-Sin of Assyria">Naram-Sin</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Erishum_II" title="Erishum II">Erishum II</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#D2B48C;" colspan="6" rowspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Isin-Larsa_period" title="Isin-Larsa period">Isin-Larsa period</a></b><br />(<a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorites</a>)<br /><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Image_from_page_25_of_%22Ancient_seals_of_the_Near_East%22_(1940).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Image_from_page_25_of_%22Ancient_seals_of_the_Near_East%22_%281940%29.jpg/30px-Image_from_page_25_of_%22Ancient_seals_of_the_Near_East%22_%281940%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="44" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Image_from_page_25_of_%22Ancient_seals_of_the_Near_East%22_%281940%29.jpg/45px-Image_from_page_25_of_%22Ancient_seals_of_the_Near_East%22_%281940%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Image_from_page_25_of_%22Ancient_seals_of_the_Near_East%22_%281940%29.jpg/60px-Image_from_page_25_of_%22Ancient_seals_of_the_Near_East%22_%281940%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1072" data-file-height="1558" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure><b><a href="/wiki/Dynasty_of_Isin" title="Dynasty of Isin">Dynasty of Isin</a></b>: <a href="/wiki/Ishbi-Erra" title="Ishbi-Erra">Ishbi-Erra</a> <a href="/wiki/Shu-Ilishu" title="Shu-Ilishu">Shu-Ilishu</a> <a href="/wiki/Iddin-Dagan" title="Iddin-Dagan">Iddin-Dagan</a> <a href="/wiki/Ishme-Dagan" title="Ishme-Dagan">Ishme-Dagan</a> <a href="/wiki/Lipit-Ishtar" title="Lipit-Ishtar">Lipit-Ishtar</a> <a href="/wiki/Ur-Ninurta" title="Ur-Ninurta">Ur-Ninurta</a> <a href="/wiki/Bur-Suen" title="Bur-Suen">Bur-Suen</a> <a href="/wiki/Lipit-Enlil" title="Lipit-Enlil">Lipit-Enlil</a> <a href="/wiki/Erra-imitti" title="Erra-imitti">Erra-imitti</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-bani" title="Enlil-bani">Enlil-bani</a> <a href="/wiki/Zambiya" title="Zambiya">Zambiya</a> <a href="/wiki/Iter-pisha" title="Iter-pisha">Iter-pisha</a> <a href="/wiki/Ur-du-kuga" title="Ur-du-kuga">Ur-du-kuga</a> <a href="/wiki/Suen-magir" title="Suen-magir">Suen-magir</a> <a href="/wiki/Damiq-ilishu" title="Damiq-ilishu">Damiq-ilishu</a><br /><b>Dynasty of Larsa</b>: <a href="/wiki/Naplanum" title="Naplanum">Naplanum</a> <a href="/wiki/Emisum" title="Emisum">Emisum</a> <a href="/wiki/Samium" title="Samium">Samium</a> <a href="/wiki/Zabaia" title="Zabaia">Zabaia</a> <a href="/wiki/Gungunum" title="Gungunum">Gungunum</a> <a href="/wiki/Abisare" title="Abisare">Abisare</a> <a href="/wiki/Sumuel" title="Sumuel">Sumuel</a> <a href="/wiki/Nur-Adad" title="Nur-Adad">Nur-Adad</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin-Iddinam" title="Sin-Iddinam">Sin-Iddinam</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin-Eribam" title="Sin-Eribam">Sin-Eribam</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin-Iqisham" title="Sin-Iqisham">Sin-Iqisham</a> <a href="/wiki/Silli-Adad" title="Silli-Adad">Silli-Adad</a> <a href="/wiki/Warad-Sin" title="Warad-Sin">Warad-Sin</a> <a href="/wiki/Rim-Sin_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Rim-Sin I">Rim-Sin I</a> (...) <a href="/wiki/Rim-Sin_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Rim-Sin II">Rim-Sin II</a><br /><b>Uruk VI dynasty</b>: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk <a href="/wiki/S%C3%AEn-k%C4%81%C5%A1id" title="Sîn-kāšid">Sîn-kāšid</a> Sîn-iribam <a href="/wiki/S%C3%AEn-g%C4%81mil" title="Sîn-gāmil">Sîn-gāmil</a> Ilum-gamil <a href="/wiki/An-am" title="An-am">An-am</a> <a href="/wiki/Irdanene" title="Irdanene">Irdanene</a> <a href="/wiki/R%C3%AEm-Anum" title="Rîm-Anum">Rîm-Anum</a> Nabi-ilišu </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="4"><b><a href="/wiki/Sukkalmah_dynasty" title="Sukkalmah dynasty">Sukkalmah dynasty</a></b><br /><br /><a href="/wiki/Siwe-Palar-Khuppak" title="Siwe-Palar-Khuppak">Siwe-Palar-Khuppak</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><b><a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt">Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Amenemhat_I" title="Amenemhat I">Amenemhat I</a> <a href="/wiki/Senusret_I" title="Senusret I">Senusret I</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenemhat_II" title="Amenemhat II">Amenemhat II</a> <a href="/wiki/Senusret_II" title="Senusret II">Senusret II</a> <a href="/wiki/Senusret_III" title="Senusret III">Senusret III</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenemhat_III" title="Amenemhat III">Amenemhat III</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenemhat_IV" title="Amenemhat IV">Amenemhat IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Sobekneferu" title="Sobekneferu">Sobekneferu</a><sup>♀</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">1800–1595 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><b><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt</a></b><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt</a></b> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Biblical" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical">Biblical</a>)<br /><a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Byblos" title="Kings of Byblos">Kings of Byblos</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Tyre" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Tyre">Kings of Tyre</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Sidon" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Sidon">Kings of Sidon</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#D2B48C;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><b><a href="/wiki/Yamhad" title="Yamhad">Yamhad</a></b><br />(<a href="/wiki/Yamhad_dynasty" title="Yamhad dynasty">Yamhad dynasty</a>)<br />(Amorites) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="2" rowspan="6"><b><a href="/wiki/Old_Assyrian_period" title="Old Assyrian period">Old Assyria</a></b><br /> <p>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Assyrian_kings" title="List of Assyrian kings">Shamshi-Adad</a> dynasty<br />1808–1736 BCE)<br />(Amorites)<br /><a href="/wiki/Shamshi-Adad_I" title="Shamshi-Adad I">Shamshi-Adad I</a> <a href="/wiki/Ishme-Dagan_I" title="Ishme-Dagan I">Ishme-Dagan I</a> <a href="/wiki/Mut-Ashkur" title="Mut-Ashkur">Mut-Ashkur</a> <a href="/wiki/Rimush_of_Assyria" title="Rimush of Assyria">Rimush</a> <a href="/wiki/Asinum" title="Asinum">Asinum</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-dugul" title="Ashur-dugul">Ashur-dugul</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-apla-idi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashur-apla-idi">Ashur-apla-idi</a> <a href="/wiki/Nasir-Sin" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasir-Sin">Nasir-Sin</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin-namir" class="mw-redirect" title="Sin-namir">Sin-namir</a> <a href="/wiki/Ipqi-Ishtar" class="mw-redirect" title="Ipqi-Ishtar">Ipqi-Ishtar</a> <a href="/wiki/Adad-salulu" class="mw-redirect" title="Adad-salulu">Adad-salulu</a> <a href="/wiki/Adasi_(Assyria)" title="Adasi (Assyria)">Adasi</a><br /><br /> (Non-dynastic usurpers<br />1735–1701 BCE)<br /> <a href="/wiki/Puzur-Sin" title="Puzur-Sin">Puzur-Sin</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-dugul" title="Ashur-dugul">Ashur-dugul</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-apla-idi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashur-apla-idi">Ashur-apla-idi</a> <a href="/wiki/Nasir-Sin" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasir-Sin">Nasir-Sin</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin-namir" class="mw-redirect" title="Sin-namir">Sin-namir</a> <a href="/wiki/Ipqi-Ishtar" class="mw-redirect" title="Ipqi-Ishtar">Ipqi-Ishtar</a> <a href="/wiki/Adad-salulu" class="mw-redirect" title="Adad-salulu">Adad-salulu</a> <a href="/wiki/Adasi_(Assyria)" title="Adasi (Assyria)">Adasi</a><br /><br /> (<a href="/wiki/Adaside_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Adaside dynasty">Adaside dynasty</a><br />1700–722 BCE)<br /><a href="/wiki/Bel-bani" title="Bel-bani">Bel-bani</a> <a href="/wiki/Libaya" title="Libaya">Libaya</a> <a href="/wiki/Sharma-Adad_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Sharma-Adad I">Sharma-Adad I</a> <a href="/wiki/Iptar-Sin" title="Iptar-Sin">Iptar-Sin</a> <a href="/wiki/Bazaya" title="Bazaya">Bazaya</a> <a href="/wiki/Lullaya" title="Lullaya">Lullaya</a> <a href="/wiki/Shu-Ninua" title="Shu-Ninua">Shu-Ninua</a> <a href="/wiki/Sharma-Adad_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Sharma-Adad II">Sharma-Adad II</a> <a href="/wiki/Erishum_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Erishum III">Erishum III</a> <a href="/wiki/Shamshi-Adad_II" title="Shamshi-Adad II">Shamshi-Adad II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ishme-Dagan_II" title="Ishme-Dagan II">Ishme-Dagan II</a> <a href="/wiki/Shamshi-Adad_III" title="Shamshi-Adad III">Shamshi-Adad III</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nirari_I" title="Ashur-nirari I">Ashur-nirari I</a> <a href="/wiki/Puzur-Ashur_III" title="Puzur-Ashur III">Puzur-Ashur III</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-nasir_I" title="Enlil-nasir I">Enlil-nasir I</a> <a href="/wiki/Nur-ili" title="Nur-ili">Nur-ili</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-shaduni" title="Ashur-shaduni">Ashur-shaduni</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-rabi_I" title="Ashur-rabi I">Ashur-rabi I</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nadin-ahhe_I" title="Ashur-nadin-ahhe I">Ashur-nadin-ahhe I</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-Nasir_II" title="Enlil-Nasir II">Enlil-Nasir II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nirari_II" title="Ashur-nirari II">Ashur-nirari II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-bel-nisheshu" title="Ashur-bel-nisheshu">Ashur-bel-nisheshu</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-rim-nisheshu" title="Ashur-rim-nisheshu">Ashur-rim-nisheshu</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nadin-ahhe_II" title="Ashur-nadin-ahhe II">Ashur-nadin-ahhe II</a> </p> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#D2B48C;" colspan="4" rowspan="2"><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:F0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/F0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg/40px-F0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg" decoding="async" width="40" height="44" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/F0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg/60px-F0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/F0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg/80px-F0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3170" data-file-height="3500" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure><b><a href="/wiki/First_Babylonian_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="First Babylonian dynasty">First Babylonian dynasty</a><br />("Old Babylonian Period")<br />(<a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorites</a>)</b><br /><a href="/wiki/Sumu-abum" title="Sumu-abum">Sumu-abum</a> <a href="/wiki/Sumu-la-El" title="Sumu-la-El">Sumu-la-El</a> <a href="/wiki/Sabium" title="Sabium">Sabium</a> <a href="/wiki/Apil-Sin" title="Apil-Sin">Apil-Sin</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin-Muballit" title="Sin-Muballit">Sin-Muballit</a> <a href="/wiki/Hammurabi" title="Hammurabi">Hammurabi</a> <a href="/wiki/Samsu-iluna" title="Samsu-iluna">Samsu-iluna</a> <a href="/wiki/Abi-Eshuh" title="Abi-Eshuh">Abi-Eshuh</a> <a href="/wiki/Ammi-Ditana" title="Ammi-Ditana">Ammi-Ditana</a> <a href="/wiki/Ammi-Saduqa" title="Ammi-Saduqa">Ammi-Saduqa</a> <a href="/wiki/Samsu-Ditana" title="Samsu-Ditana">Samsu-Ditana</a><br /><br /><a href="/wiki/Early_Kassite_rulers" title="Early Kassite rulers">Early Kassite rulers</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"><br /><br /><b>Second Babylonian dynasty<br />("<a href="/wiki/Sealand_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Sealand Dynasty">Sealand Dynasty</a>")</b><br /><a href="/wiki/Ilum-ma-ili" class="mw-redirect" title="Ilum-ma-ili">Ilum-ma-ili</a> <a href="/wiki/Itti-ili-nibi" class="mw-redirect" title="Itti-ili-nibi">Itti-ili-nibi</a> <a href="/wiki/Damqi-ilishu" class="mw-redirect" title="Damqi-ilishu">Damqi-ilishu</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Ishkibal" class="mw-redirect" title="Ishkibal">Ishkibal</a> <a href="/wiki/Shushushi" class="mw-redirect" title="Shushushi">Shushushi</a> <a href="/wiki/Gulkishar" class="mw-redirect" title="Gulkishar">Gulkishar</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Sealand_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Sealand Dynasty"><sup>m</sup>DIŠ+U-EN</a> <a href="/wiki/Peshgaldaramesh" class="mw-redirect" title="Peshgaldaramesh">Peshgaldaramesh</a> <a href="/wiki/Ayadaragalama" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayadaragalama">Ayadaragalama</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Akurduana" class="mw-redirect" title="Akurduana">Akurduana</a> <a href="/wiki/Melamkurkurra" class="mw-redirect" title="Melamkurkurra">Melamkurkurra</a> <a href="/wiki/Ea-gamil" class="mw-redirect" title="Ea-gamil">Ea-gamil</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Second_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="Second Intermediate Period of Egypt">Second Intermediate Period</a></b><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Sixteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Sixteenth<br />Dynasty of Egypt</a></b><br /> <b><a href="/wiki/Abydos_Dynasty" title="Abydos Dynasty">Abydos<br />Dynasty</a></b><br /> <b><a href="/wiki/Seventeenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt">Seventeenth<br />Dynasty of Egypt</a></b> </p> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><b><a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt</a></b><br />("<a href="/wiki/Hyksos" title="Hyksos">Hyksos</a>")<br /><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pharaoh_Ahmose_I_slaying_a_Hyksos_(axe_of_Ahmose_I,_from_the_Treasure_of_Queen_Aahhotep_II)_Colorized_per_source.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Pharaoh Ahmose I slaying a Hyksos"><img alt="Pharaoh Ahmose I slaying a Hyksos" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Pharaoh_Ahmose_I_slaying_a_Hyksos_%28axe_of_Ahmose_I%2C_from_the_Treasure_of_Queen_Aahhotep_II%29_Colorized_per_source.jpg/35px-Pharaoh_Ahmose_I_slaying_a_Hyksos_%28axe_of_Ahmose_I%2C_from_the_Treasure_of_Queen_Aahhotep_II%29_Colorized_per_source.jpg" decoding="async" width="35" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Pharaoh_Ahmose_I_slaying_a_Hyksos_%28axe_of_Ahmose_I%2C_from_the_Treasure_of_Queen_Aahhotep_II%29_Colorized_per_source.jpg/53px-Pharaoh_Ahmose_I_slaying_a_Hyksos_%28axe_of_Ahmose_I%2C_from_the_Treasure_of_Queen_Aahhotep_II%29_Colorized_per_source.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Pharaoh_Ahmose_I_slaying_a_Hyksos_%28axe_of_Ahmose_I%2C_from_the_Treasure_of_Queen_Aahhotep_II%29_Colorized_per_source.jpg/70px-Pharaoh_Ahmose_I_slaying_a_Hyksos_%28axe_of_Ahmose_I%2C_from_the_Treasure_of_Queen_Aahhotep_II%29_Colorized_per_source.jpg 2x" data-file-width="614" data-file-height="690" /></a><figcaption>Pharaoh Ahmose I slaying a Hyksos</figcaption></figure><br /><i><a href="/wiki/Semqen" title="Semqen">Semqen</a></i> <i><a href="/wiki/Aperanat" title="Aperanat">'Aper-'Anati</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Sakir-Har" title="Sakir-Har">Sakir-Har</a> <a href="/wiki/Khyan" title="Khyan">Khyan</a> <a href="/wiki/Apepi" title="Apepi">Apepi</a> <a href="/wiki/Khamudi" title="Khamudi">Khamudi</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="1" rowspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a></b><br />(1600–1260 BCE)<br /><a href="/wiki/Kirta" title="Kirta">Kirta</a> <a href="/wiki/Shuttarna_I" title="Shuttarna I">Shuttarna I</a> <a href="/wiki/Baratarna" title="Baratarna">Baratarna</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="4">1531–1155 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="3" rowspan="1"><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Tutankhamun"><img alt="Tutankhamun" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg/30px-CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="38" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg/45px-CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg/60px-CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>Tutankhamun</figcaption></figure><b><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom of Egypt</a></b><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Ahmose_I" title="Ahmose I">Ahmose I</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenhotep_I" title="Amenhotep I">Amenhotep I</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" colspan="6" rowspan="3"><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kudurru_Louvre_Sb31.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Kudurru_Louvre_Sb31.jpg/30px-Kudurru_Louvre_Sb31.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="45" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Kudurru_Louvre_Sb31.jpg/45px-Kudurru_Louvre_Sb31.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Kudurru_Louvre_Sb31.jpg/60px-Kudurru_Louvre_Sb31.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2639" data-file-height="3973" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure><b>Third Babylonian dynasty (<a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassites</a>)</b><br /><a href="/wiki/Agum_II" title="Agum II">Agum-Kakrime</a> <a href="/wiki/Burnaburiash_I" title="Burnaburiash I">Burnaburiash I</a> <a href="/wiki/Kashtiliash_III" title="Kashtiliash III">Kashtiliash III</a> <a href="/wiki/Ulamburiash" title="Ulamburiash">Ulamburiash</a> <a href="/wiki/Agum_III" title="Agum III">Agum III</a> <a href="/wiki/Karaindash" title="Karaindash">Karaindash</a> <a href="/wiki/Kadashman-Harbe_I" title="Kadashman-Harbe I">Kadashman-Harbe I</a> <a href="/wiki/Kurigalzu_I" title="Kurigalzu I">Kurigalzu I</a> <a href="/wiki/Kadashman-Enlil_I" title="Kadashman-Enlil I">Kadashman-Enlil I</a> <a href="/wiki/Burna-Buriash_II" title="Burna-Buriash II">Burna-Buriash II</a> <a href="/wiki/Kara-hardash" title="Kara-hardash">Kara-hardash</a> <a href="/wiki/Nazi-Bugash" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi-Bugash">Nazi-Bugash</a> <a href="/wiki/Kurigalzu_II" title="Kurigalzu II">Kurigalzu II</a> <a href="/wiki/Nazi-Maruttash" title="Nazi-Maruttash">Nazi-Maruttash</a> <a href="/wiki/Kadashman-Turgu" title="Kadashman-Turgu">Kadashman-Turgu</a> <a href="/wiki/Kadashman-Enlil_II" title="Kadashman-Enlil II">Kadashman-Enlil II</a> <a href="/wiki/Kudur-Enlil" title="Kudur-Enlil">Kudur-Enlil</a> <a href="/wiki/Shagarakti-Shuriash" title="Shagarakti-Shuriash">Shagarakti-Shuriash</a> <a href="/wiki/Kashtiliash_IV" title="Kashtiliash IV">Kashtiliash IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-nadin-shumi" title="Enlil-nadin-shumi">Enlil-nadin-shumi</a> <a href="/wiki/Kadashman-Harbe_II" title="Kadashman-Harbe II">Kadashman-Harbe II</a> <a href="/wiki/Adad-shuma-iddina" title="Adad-shuma-iddina">Adad-shuma-iddina</a> <a href="/wiki/Adad-shuma-usur" title="Adad-shuma-usur">Adad-shuma-usur</a> <a href="/wiki/Meli-Shipak_II" title="Meli-Shipak II">Meli-Shipak II</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-apla-iddina_I" title="Marduk-apla-iddina I">Marduk-apla-iddina I</a> <a href="/wiki/Zababa-shuma-iddin" title="Zababa-shuma-iddin">Zababa-shuma-iddin</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-nadin-ahi" title="Enlil-nadin-ahi">Enlil-nadin-ahi</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Middle Elamite period</a> <p>(1500–1100 BCE)<br /><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_Elamite_kings" title="List of Elamite kings">Kidinuid dynasty</a></b><br /><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_Elamite_kings" title="List of Elamite kings">Igehalkid dynasty</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Untash-Napirisha" title="Untash-Napirisha">Untash-Napirisha</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="4" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Thutmose_I" title="Thutmose I">Thutmose I</a> <a href="/wiki/Thutmose_II" title="Thutmose II">Thutmose II</a> <a href="/wiki/Hatshepsut" title="Hatshepsut">Hatshepsut</a><sup>♀</sup> <a href="/wiki/Thutmose_III" title="Thutmose III">Thutmose III</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="3" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Amenhotep_II" title="Amenhotep II">Amenhotep II</a> <a href="/wiki/Thutmose_IV" title="Thutmose IV">Thutmose IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenhotep_III" title="Amenhotep III">Amenhotep III</a> <a href="/wiki/Akhenaten" title="Akhenaten">Akhenaten</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Smenkhkare" title="Smenkhkare">Smenkhkare</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Neferneferuaten" title="Neferneferuaten">Neferneferuaten</a><sup>♀</sup> <a href="/wiki/Tutankhamun" title="Tutankhamun">Tutankhamun</a> <a href="/wiki/Ay_(pharaoh)" title="Ay (pharaoh)">Ay</a> <a href="/wiki/Horemheb" title="Horemheb">Horemheb</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="1" rowspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Hittite_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Hittite Empire">Hittite Empire</a></b><br /><br /><a href="/wiki/Ugarit" title="Ugarit">Ugarit</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="3" rowspan="1"><b><a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Ramesses_I" title="Ramesses I">Ramesses I</a> <a href="/wiki/Seti_I" title="Seti I">Seti I</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_II" title="Ramesses II">Ramesses II</a> <a href="/wiki/Merneptah" title="Merneptah">Merneptah</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenmesse" title="Amenmesse">Amenmesses</a> <a href="/wiki/Seti_II" title="Seti II">Seti II</a> <a href="/wiki/Siptah" title="Siptah">Siptah</a> <a href="/wiki/Tausret" title="Tausret">Tausret</a><sup>♀</sup> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="7" rowspan="1"><b><a href="/wiki/Elamite_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Elamite Empire">Elamite Empire</a></b><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Shutrukid_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Shutrukid Dynasty">Shutrukid dynasty</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Shutruk-Nakhunte" title="Shutruk-Nakhunte">Shutruk-Nakhunte</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1155–1025 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Twentieth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt">Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt</a></b><br /><br /><a href="/wiki/Setnakhte" title="Setnakhte">Setnakhte</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_III" title="Ramesses III">Ramesses III</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_IV" title="Ramesses IV">Ramesses IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_V" title="Ramesses V">Ramesses V</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_VI" title="Ramesses VI">Ramesses VI</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_VII" title="Ramesses VII">Ramesses VII</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_VIII" title="Ramesses VIII">Ramesses VIII</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_IX" title="Ramesses IX">Ramesses IX</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_X" title="Ramesses X">Ramesses X</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_XI" title="Ramesses XI">Ramesses XI</a><br /><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Third_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="Third Intermediate Period of Egypt">Third Intermediate Period</a></b><br /> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Twenty-first_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Smendes" title="Smendes">Smendes</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenemnisu" title="Amenemnisu">Amenemnisu</a> <a href="/wiki/Psusennes_I" title="Psusennes I">Psusennes I</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenemope_(pharaoh)" title="Amenemope (pharaoh)">Amenemope</a> <a href="/wiki/Osorkon_the_Elder" title="Osorkon the Elder">Osorkon the Elder</a> <a href="/wiki/Siamun" title="Siamun">Siamun</a> <a href="/wiki/Psusennes_II" title="Psusennes II">Psusennes II</a> </p> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Byblos" title="Kings of Byblos">Kings of Byblos</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Tyre" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Tyre">Kings of Tyre</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Sidon" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Sidon">Kings of Sidon</a><br /><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(united_monarchy)" title="Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)">Kingdom of Israel</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Saul" title="Saul">Saul</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Ish-bosheth" title="Ish-bosheth">Ish-bosheth</a><br /><a href="/wiki/David" title="David">David</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Solomon" title="Solomon">Solomon</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="1" rowspan="3"><b><a href="/wiki/Syro-Hittite_states" title="Syro-Hittite states">Syro-Hittite states</a></b> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyria</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Eriba-Adad_I" title="Eriba-Adad I">Eriba-Adad I</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-uballit_I" title="Ashur-uballit I">Ashur-uballit I</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-nirari" title="Enlil-nirari">Enlil-nirari</a> <a href="/wiki/Arik-den-ili" title="Arik-den-ili">Arik-den-ili</a> <a href="/wiki/Adad-nirari_I" title="Adad-nirari I">Adad-nirari I</a> <a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_I" title="Shalmaneser I">Shalmaneser I</a> <a href="/wiki/Tukulti-Ninurta_I" title="Tukulti-Ninurta I">Tukulti-Ninurta I</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nadin-apli" title="Ashur-nadin-apli">Ashur-nadin-apli</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nirari_III" title="Ashur-nirari III">Ashur-nirari III</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-kudurri-usur" title="Enlil-kudurri-usur">Enlil-kudurri-usur</a> <a href="/wiki/Ninurta-apal-Ekur" title="Ninurta-apal-Ekur">Ninurta-apal-Ekur</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-dan_I" title="Ashur-dan I">Ashur-dan I</a> <a href="/wiki/Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur" title="Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur">Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur</a> <a href="/wiki/Mutakkil-Nusku" title="Mutakkil-Nusku">Mutakkil-Nusku</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-resh-ishi_I" title="Ashur-resh-ishi I">Ashur-resh-ishi I</a> <a href="/wiki/Tiglath-Pileser_I" title="Tiglath-Pileser I">Tiglath-Pileser I</a> <a href="/wiki/Asharid-apal-Ekur" title="Asharid-apal-Ekur">Asharid-apal-Ekur</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-bel-kala" title="Ashur-bel-kala">Ashur-bel-kala</a> <a href="/wiki/Eriba-Adad_II" title="Eriba-Adad II">Eriba-Adad II</a> <a href="/wiki/Shamshi-Adad_IV" title="Shamshi-Adad IV">Shamshi-Adad IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashurnasirpal_I" title="Ashurnasirpal I">Ashurnasirpal I</a> <a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_II" title="Shalmaneser II">Shalmaneser II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nirari_IV" title="Ashur-nirari IV">Ashur-nirari IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-rabi_II" title="Ashur-rabi II">Ashur-rabi II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-resh-ishi_II" title="Ashur-resh-ishi II">Ashur-resh-ishi II</a> <a href="/wiki/Tiglath-Pileser_II" title="Tiglath-Pileser II">Tiglath-Pileser II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-dan_II" title="Ashur-dan II">Ashur-dan II</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" colspan="6"><b>Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("<a href="/wiki/Second_Dynasty_of_Isin" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Dynasty of Isin">Second Dynasty of Isin</a>")</b><br /><a href="/wiki/Marduk-kabit-ahheshu" title="Marduk-kabit-ahheshu">Marduk-kabit-ahheshu</a> <a href="/wiki/Itti-Marduk-balatu_(king)" title="Itti-Marduk-balatu (king)">Itti-Marduk-balatu</a> <a href="/wiki/Ninurta-nadin-shumi" title="Ninurta-nadin-shumi">Ninurta-nadin-shumi</a> <a href="/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_I" title="Nebuchadnezzar I">Nebuchadnezzar I</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-nadin-apli" title="Enlil-nadin-apli">Enlil-nadin-apli</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-nadin-ahhe" title="Marduk-nadin-ahhe">Marduk-nadin-ahhe</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-shapik-zeri" title="Marduk-shapik-zeri">Marduk-shapik-zeri</a> <a href="/wiki/Adad-apla-iddina" title="Adad-apla-iddina">Adad-apla-iddina</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-ahhe-eriba" title="Marduk-ahhe-eriba">Marduk-ahhe-eriba</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-zer-X" title="Marduk-zer-X">Marduk-zer-X</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabu-shum-libur" title="Nabu-shum-libur">Nabu-shum-libur</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Neo-Elamite period</a> (1100–540 BCE) </td></tr> <tr> <td>1025–934 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" colspan="6"><b>Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos")</b><br /><a href="/wiki/Simbar-shipak" title="Simbar-shipak">Simbar-shipak</a> <a href="/wiki/Ea-mukin-zeri" title="Ea-mukin-zeri">Ea-mukin-zeri</a> <a href="/wiki/Kashshu-nadin-ahi" title="Kashshu-nadin-ahi">Kashshu-nadin-ahi</a> <a href="/wiki/Eulmash-shakin-shumi" title="Eulmash-shakin-shumi">Eulmash-shakin-shumi</a> <a href="/wiki/Ninurta-kudurri-usur_I" title="Ninurta-kudurri-usur I">Ninurta-kudurri-usur I</a> <a href="/wiki/Shirikti-shuqamuna" title="Shirikti-shuqamuna">Shirikti-shuqamuna</a> <a href="/wiki/Mar-biti-apla-usur" title="Mar-biti-apla-usur">Mar-biti-apla-usur</a> <a href="/wiki/Nab%C3%BB-mukin-apli" title="Nabû-mukin-apli">Nabû-mukin-apli</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>911–745 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><b><a href="/wiki/Twenty-second_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_I" title="Shoshenq I">Shoshenq I</a> <a href="/wiki/Osorkon_I" title="Osorkon I">Osorkon I</a> <a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_II" title="Shoshenq II">Shoshenq II</a> <a href="/wiki/Takelot_I" title="Takelot I">Takelot I</a> <a href="/wiki/Osorkon_II" title="Osorkon II">Osorkon II</a> <a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_III" title="Shoshenq III">Shoshenq III</a> <a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_IV" title="Shoshenq IV">Shoshenq IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Pami" title="Pami">Pami</a> <a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_V" title="Shoshenq V">Shoshenq V</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Pedubast_II" title="Pedubast II">Pedubast II</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Osorkon_IV" title="Osorkon IV">Osorkon IV</a><br /><br /> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Twenty-third_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Harsiese_A" title="Harsiese A">Harsiese A</a> <a href="/wiki/Takelot_II" title="Takelot II">Takelot II</a> <a href="/wiki/Pedubast_I" title="Pedubast I">Pedubast I</a> <a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_VI" title="Shoshenq VI">Shoshenq VI</a> <a href="/wiki/Osorkon_III" title="Osorkon III">Osorkon III</a> <a href="/wiki/Takelot_III" title="Takelot III">Takelot III</a> <a href="/wiki/Rudamun" title="Rudamun">Rudamun</a> <a href="/wiki/Ini_(pharaoh)" title="Ini (pharaoh)">Menkheperre Ini</a><br /><br /> <b><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Tefnakht" title="Tefnakht">Tefnakht</a> <a href="/wiki/Bakenranef" title="Bakenranef">Bakenranef</a> </p> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Samaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Samaria">Kingdom of Samaria</a><br /><br /><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">Kingdom of Judah</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Adad-nirari_II" title="Adad-nirari II">Adad-nirari II</a> <a href="/wiki/Tukulti-Ninurta_II" title="Tukulti-Ninurta II">Tukulti-Ninurta II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashurnasirpal_II" title="Ashurnasirpal II">Ashurnasirpal II</a> <a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_III" title="Shalmaneser III">Shalmaneser III</a> <a href="/wiki/Shamshi-Adad_V" title="Shamshi-Adad V">Shamshi-Adad V</a> <a href="/wiki/Shammuramat" title="Shammuramat">Shammuramat</a><sup>♀</sup> (regent) <a href="/wiki/Adad-nirari_III" title="Adad-nirari III">Adad-nirari III</a> <a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_IV" title="Shalmaneser IV">Shalmaneser IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-dan_III" title="Ashur-dan III">Ashur-Dan III</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nirari_V" title="Ashur-nirari V">Ashur-nirari V</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" colspan="6"><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tablet_of_Shamash_relief.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Tablet_of_Shamash_relief.jpg/45px-Tablet_of_Shamash_relief.jpg" decoding="async" width="45" height="37" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Tablet_of_Shamash_relief.jpg/68px-Tablet_of_Shamash_relief.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Tablet_of_Shamash_relief.jpg/90px-Tablet_of_Shamash_relief.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1154" data-file-height="937" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure><b>Eight Babylonian Dynasty</b><br /><a href="/wiki/Ninurta-kudurri-usur_II" title="Ninurta-kudurri-usur II">Ninurta-kudurri-usur II</a> <a href="/wiki/Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina" title="Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina">Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina</a> <a href="/wiki/Shamash-mudammiq" title="Shamash-mudammiq">Shamash-mudammiq</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabu-shuma-ukin_I" title="Nabu-shuma-ukin I">Nabu-shuma-ukin I</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabu-apla-iddina" title="Nabu-apla-iddina">Nabu-apla-iddina</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-zakir-shumi_I" title="Marduk-zakir-shumi I">Marduk-zakir-shumi I</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-balassu-iqbi" title="Marduk-balassu-iqbi">Marduk-balassu-iqbi</a> <a href="/wiki/Baba-aha-iddina" title="Baba-aha-iddina">Baba-aha-iddina</a> (five kings) <a href="/wiki/Ninurta-apla-X" title="Ninurta-apla-X">Ninurta-apla-X</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-bel-zeri" title="Marduk-bel-zeri">Marduk-bel-zeri</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-apla-usur" title="Marduk-apla-usur">Marduk-apla-usur</a> <a href="/wiki/Eriba-Marduk" title="Eriba-Marduk">Eriba-Marduk</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabu-shuma-ishkun" title="Nabu-shuma-ishkun">Nabu-shuma-ishkun</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabonassar" title="Nabonassar">Nabonassar</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabu-nadin-zeri" title="Nabu-nadin-zeri">Nabu-nadin-zeri</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabu-shuma-ukin_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Nabu-shuma-ukin II">Nabu-shuma-ukin II</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabu-mukin-zeri" title="Nabu-mukin-zeri">Nabu-mukin-zeri</a><br /> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_Elamite_kings" title="List of Elamite kings">Humban-Tahrid dynasty</a></b><br /><br /><a href="/wiki/Urtak_(king_of_Elam)" title="Urtak (king of Elam)">Urtak</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Teumman" title="Teumman">Teumman</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Ummanigash_(son_of_Urtak)" title="Ummanigash (son of Urtak)">Ummanigash</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Tammaritu_I" title="Tammaritu I">Tammaritu I</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Indabibi" title="Indabibi">Indabibi</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Humban-haltash_III" title="Humban-haltash III">Humban-haltash III</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">745–609 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><b><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt</a></b><br /><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Taharqa"><img alt="Taharqa" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg/30px-Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg/45px-Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg/60px-Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2112" data-file-height="2816" /></a><figcaption>Taharqa</figcaption></figure>("<a href="/wiki/Black_Pharaohs" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Pharaohs">Black Pharaohs</a>")<br /><a href="/wiki/Piye" title="Piye">Piye</a> <a href="/wiki/Shebitku" title="Shebitku">Shebitku</a> <a href="/wiki/Shabaka" title="Shabaka">Shabaka</a> <a href="/wiki/Taharqa" title="Taharqa">Taharqa</a> <a href="/wiki/Tantamani" title="Tantamani">Tanutamun</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="10" rowspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a></b><br /> <p><b>(<a href="/wiki/Sargonid_dynasty" title="Sargonid dynasty">Sargonid dynasty</a>)</b><br /><a href="/wiki/Tiglath-Pileser_III" title="Tiglath-Pileser III">Tiglath-Pileser</a><sup>†</sup> <a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_V" title="Shalmaneser V">Shalmaneser</a><sup>†</sup> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-apla-iddina_II" title="Marduk-apla-iddina II">Marduk-apla-iddina II</a> <a href="/wiki/Sargon_II" title="Sargon II">Sargon</a><sup>†</sup> <a href="/wiki/Sennacherib" title="Sennacherib">Sennacherib</a><sup>†</sup> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-zakir-shumi_II" title="Marduk-zakir-shumi II">Marduk-zakir-shumi II</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-apla-iddina_II" title="Marduk-apla-iddina II">Marduk-apla-iddina II</a> <a href="/wiki/Bel-ibni" title="Bel-ibni">Bel-ibni</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nadin-shumi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashur-nadin-shumi">Ashur-nadin-shumi</a><sup>†</sup> <a href="/wiki/Nergal-ushezib" title="Nergal-ushezib">Nergal-ushezib</a> <a href="/wiki/Mushezib-Marduk" title="Mushezib-Marduk">Mushezib-Marduk</a> <a href="/wiki/Esarhaddon" title="Esarhaddon">Esarhaddon</a><sup>†</sup> <a href="/wiki/Ashurbanipal" title="Ashurbanipal">Ashurbanipal</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-etil-ilani" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashur-etil-ilani">Ashur-etil-ilani</a> <a href="/wiki/Sinsharishkun" title="Sinsharishkun">Sinsharishkun</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin-shumu-lishir" class="mw-redirect" title="Sin-shumu-lishir">Sin-shumu-lishir</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-uballit_II" title="Ashur-uballit II">Ashur-uballit II</a><br /> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_conquest_of_Egypt" title="Assyrian conquest of Egypt">Assyrian conquest of Egypt</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_conquest_of_Elam" title="Assyrian conquest of Elam">Assyrian conquest of Elam</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>626–539 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><b><a href="/wiki/Late_Period_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Late Period of ancient Egypt">Late Period</a></b><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Necho_I" title="Necho I">Necho I</a> <a href="/wiki/Psamtik_I" title="Psamtik I">Psamtik I</a> <a href="/wiki/Necho_II" title="Necho II">Necho II</a> <a href="/wiki/Psamtik_II" title="Psamtik II">Psamtik II</a> <a href="/wiki/Apries" title="Apries">Wahibre</a> <a href="/wiki/Amasis_II" title="Amasis II">Ahmose II</a> <a href="/wiki/Psamtik_III" title="Psamtik III">Psamtik III</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" colspan="10"><b><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Nabopolassar" title="Nabopolassar">Nabopolassar</a> <a href="/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_II" title="Nebuchadnezzar II">Nebuchadnezzar II</a> <a href="/wiki/Amel-Marduk" title="Amel-Marduk">Amel-Marduk</a> <a href="/wiki/Neriglissar" title="Neriglissar">Neriglissar</a> <a href="/wiki/Labashi-Marduk" title="Labashi-Marduk">Labashi-Marduk</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabonidus" title="Nabonidus">Nabonidus</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="10"><b><a href="/wiki/Median_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Median Empire">Median Empire</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Deioces" title="Deioces">Deioces</a> <a href="/wiki/Phraortes" title="Phraortes">Phraortes</a> <a href="/wiki/Madyes" title="Madyes">Madyes</a> <a href="/wiki/Cyaxares" title="Cyaxares">Cyaxares</a> <a href="/wiki/Astyages" title="Astyages">Astyages</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">539–331 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt</a></b><br />(<a href="/wiki/First_Achaemenid_conquest_of_Egypt" title="First Achaemenid conquest of Egypt">First Achaemenid conquest of Egypt</a>) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="1" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Byblos" title="Kings of Byblos">Kings of Byblos</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Tyre" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Tyre">Kings of Tyre</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Sidon" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Sidon">Kings of Sidon</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="10" rowspan="3"><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Darius_In_Parse.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Darius_In_Parse.JPG/30px-Darius_In_Parse.JPG" decoding="async" width="30" height="53" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Darius_In_Parse.JPG/45px-Darius_In_Parse.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Darius_In_Parse.JPG/60px-Darius_In_Parse.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1775" data-file-height="3130" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure><b><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus</a> <a href="/wiki/Cambyses_II" title="Cambyses II">Cambyses</a> <a href="/wiki/Darius_the_Great" title="Darius the Great">Darius I</a> <a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I" title="Xerxes I">Xerxes</a> <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_I" title="Artaxerxes I">Artaxerxes I</a> <a href="/wiki/Darius_II" title="Darius II">Darius II</a> <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_II" title="Artaxerxes II">Artaxerxes II</a> <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_III" title="Artaxerxes III">Artaxerxes III</a> <a href="/wiki/Arses_of_Persia" title="Arses of Persia">Artaxerxes IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Darius_III" title="Darius III">Darius III</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Twenty-eighth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt</a></b><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Twenty-ninth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt</a></b><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Thirtieth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt">Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt</a></b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Thirty-first_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt">Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt</a></b> </td></tr> <tr> <td>331–141 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFDAB9;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Argead_dynasty" title="Argead dynasty">Argead dynasty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic Egypt">Ptolemaic Egypt</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter" title="Ptolemy I Soter">Ptolemy I Soter</a> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_Ceraunus" title="Ptolemy Ceraunus">Ptolemy Ceraunus</a> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_II_Philadelphus" title="Ptolemy II Philadelphus">Ptolemy II Philadelphus</a> <a href="/wiki/Arsinoe_II" title="Arsinoe II">Arsinoe II</a><sup>♀</sup> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_III_Euergetes" title="Ptolemy III Euergetes">Ptolemy III Euergetes</a> <a href="/wiki/Berenice_II_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Berenice II of Egypt">Berenice II Euergetis</a><sup>♀</sup> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_IV_Philopator" title="Ptolemy IV Philopator">Ptolemy IV Philopator</a> <a href="/wiki/Arsinoe_III_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Arsinoe III of Egypt">Arsinoe III Philopator</a><sup>♀</sup> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_V_Epiphanes" title="Ptolemy V Epiphanes">Ptolemy V Epiphanes</a> <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_I_Syra" title="Cleopatra I Syra">Cleopatra I Syra</a><sup>♀</sup> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_VI_Philometor" title="Ptolemy VI Philometor">Ptolemy VI Philometor</a> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_VII_Neos_Philopator" title="Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator">Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator</a> <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_II" title="Cleopatra II">Cleopatra II Philometor Soteira</a><sup>♀</sup> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_VIII_Physcon" title="Ptolemy VIII Physcon">Ptolemy VIII Physcon</a> <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_III" title="Cleopatra III">Cleopatra III</a><sup>♀</sup> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_IX_Lathyros" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy IX Lathyros">Ptolemy IX Lathyros</a> <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_IV" title="Cleopatra IV">Cleopatra IV</a><sup>♀</sup> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_X_Alexander_I" title="Ptolemy X Alexander I">Ptolemy X Alexander</a> <a href="/wiki/Berenice_III" title="Berenice III">Berenice III</a><sup>♀</sup> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_XI_Alexander_II" title="Ptolemy XI Alexander II">Ptolemy XI Alexander</a> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_XII_Auletes" title="Ptolemy XII Auletes">Ptolemy XII Auletes</a> <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_V" title="Cleopatra V">Cleopatra V</a><sup>♀</sup> <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_VI" title="Cleopatra VI">Cleopatra VI Tryphaena</a><sup>♀</sup> <a href="/wiki/Berenice_IV" title="Berenice IV">Berenice IV Epiphanea</a><sup>♀</sup> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_XIII_Theos_Philopator" title="Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator">Ptolemy XIII</a> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_XIV_Philopator" title="Ptolemy XIV Philopator">Ptolemy XIV</a> <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra" title="Cleopatra">Cleopatra VII Philopator</a><sup>♀</sup> <a href="/wiki/Caesarion" title="Caesarion">Ptolemy XV Caesarion</a> <a href="/wiki/Arsinoe_IV" title="Arsinoe IV">Arsinoe IV</a><sup>♀</sup> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFDAB9;" colspan="11"><b>Hellenistic Period</b><br /><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Seleukos_I_Nikator_Tetradrachm_from_Babylon.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Seleukos I Nikator Tetradrachm from Babylon"><img alt="Seleukos I Nikator Tetradrachm from Babylon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Seleukos_I_Nikator_Tetradrachm_from_Babylon.jpg/60px-Seleukos_I_Nikator_Tetradrachm_from_Babylon.jpg" decoding="async" width="60" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Seleukos_I_Nikator_Tetradrachm_from_Babylon.jpg/90px-Seleukos_I_Nikator_Tetradrachm_from_Babylon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Seleukos_I_Nikator_Tetradrachm_from_Babylon.jpg/120px-Seleukos_I_Nikator_Tetradrachm_from_Babylon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="395" /></a><figcaption>Seleukos I Nikator Tetradrachm from Babylon</figcaption></figure><b><a href="/wiki/Argead_dynasty" title="Argead dynasty">Argead dynasty</a></b>: <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander III</a> <a href="/wiki/Philip_III_of_Macedon" title="Philip III of Macedon">Philip III</a> <a href="/wiki/Alexander_IV_of_Macedon" title="Alexander IV of Macedon">Alexander IV</a> <br /><b><a href="/wiki/Antigonid_dynasty" title="Antigonid dynasty">Antigonid dynasty</a></b>: <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_I_Monophthalmus" title="Antigonus I Monophthalmus">Antigonus I</a><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a></b>: <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_I_Nicator" title="Seleucus I Nicator">Seleucus I</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_I_Soter" title="Antiochus I Soter">Antiochus I</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_II_Theos" title="Antiochus II Theos">Antiochus II</a> <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_II_Callinicus" title="Seleucus II Callinicus">Seleucus II</a> <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_III_Ceraunus" title="Seleucus III Ceraunus">Seleucus III</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_III_the_Great" title="Antiochus III the Great">Antiochus III</a> <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_IV_Philopator" title="Seleucus IV Philopator">Seleucus IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_IV_Epiphanes" title="Antiochus IV Epiphanes">Antiochus IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_V_Eupator" title="Antiochus V Eupator">Antiochus V</a> <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_I_Soter" title="Demetrius I Soter">Demetrius I</a> <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Balas" title="Alexander Balas">Alexander III</a> <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_II_Nicator" title="Demetrius II Nicator">Demetrius II</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_VI_Dionysus" title="Antiochus VI Dionysus">Antiochus VI Dionysus</a> <a href="/wiki/Diodotus_Tryphon" title="Diodotus Tryphon">Diodotus Tryphon</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_VII_Sidetes" title="Antiochus VII Sidetes">Antiochus VII Sidetes</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>141–30 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1"><b><a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_dynasty" title="Hasmonean dynasty">Kingdom of Judea</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Simon_Thassi" title="Simon Thassi">Simon Thassi</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Hyrcanus" title="John Hyrcanus">John Hyrcanus</a> <a href="/wiki/Aristobulus_I" title="Aristobulus I">Aristobulus I</a> <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Jannaeus" title="Alexander Jannaeus">Alexander Jannaeus</a> <a href="/wiki/Salome_Alexandra" title="Salome Alexandra">Salome Alexandra</a><sup>♀</sup> <a href="/wiki/Hyrcanus_II" title="Hyrcanus II">Hyrcanus II</a> <a href="/wiki/Aristobulus_II" title="Aristobulus II">Aristobulus II</a> <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_II_Mattathias" title="Antigonus II Mattathias">Antigonus II Mattathias</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFDAB9;" colspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_II_Zabinas" title="Alexander II Zabinas">Alexander II Zabinas</a> <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_V_Philometor" title="Seleucus V Philometor">Seleucus V Philometor</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_VIII_Grypus" title="Antiochus VIII Grypus">Antiochus VIII Grypus</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_IX_Cyzicenus" title="Antiochus IX Cyzicenus">Antiochus IX Cyzicenus</a> <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_VI_Epiphanes" title="Seleucus VI Epiphanes">Seleucus VI Epiphanes</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_X_Eusebes" title="Antiochus X Eusebes">Antiochus X Eusebes</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_XI_Epiphanes" title="Antiochus XI Epiphanes">Antiochus XI Epiphanes</a> <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_III_Eucaerus" title="Demetrius III Eucaerus">Demetrius III Eucaerus</a> <a href="/wiki/Philip_I_Philadelphus" title="Philip I Philadelphus">Philip I Philadelphus</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_XII_Dionysus" title="Antiochus XII Dionysus">Antiochus XII Dionysus</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_XIII_Asiaticus" title="Antiochus XIII Asiaticus">Antiochus XIII Asiaticus</a> <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_Philoromaeus" title="Philip II Philoromaeus">Philip II Philoromaeus</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFDEAD;" colspan="9" rowspan="3"><b><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Mithridates_I_of_Parthia" title="Mithridates I of Parthia">Mithridates I</a> <a href="/wiki/Phraates_II" title="Phraates II">Phraates</a> <a href="/wiki/Hyspaosines" title="Hyspaosines">Hyspaosines</a> <a href="/wiki/Artabanus_I_of_Parthia" title="Artabanus I of Parthia">Artabanus</a> <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_II_of_Parthia" title="Mithridates II of Parthia">Mithridates II</a> <a href="/wiki/Gotarzes_I" title="Gotarzes I">Gotarzes</a> <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_III_of_Parthia" title="Mithridates III of Parthia">Mithridates III</a> <a href="/wiki/Orodes_I_of_Parthia" title="Orodes I of Parthia">Orodes I</a> <a href="/wiki/Sinatruces_of_Parthia" title="Sinatruces of Parthia">Sinatruces</a> <a href="/wiki/Phraates_III" title="Phraates III">Phraates III</a> <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_IV_of_Parthia" title="Mithridates IV of Parthia">Mithridates IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Orodes_II" title="Orodes II">Orodes II</a> <a href="/wiki/Phraates_IV" title="Phraates IV">Phraates IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Tiridates_II_of_Parthia" title="Tiridates II of Parthia">Tiridates II</a> <a href="/wiki/Musa_of_Parthia" title="Musa of Parthia">Musa</a> <a href="/wiki/Phraates_V" title="Phraates V">Phraates V</a> <a href="/wiki/Orodes_III_of_Parthia" title="Orodes III of Parthia">Orodes III</a> <a href="/wiki/Vonones_I" title="Vonones I">Vonones I</a> <a href="/wiki/Artabanus_II_of_Parthia" title="Artabanus II of Parthia">Artabanus II</a> <a href="/wiki/Tiridates_III_of_Parthia" title="Tiridates III of Parthia">Tiridates III</a> <a href="/wiki/Artabanus_II_of_Parthia" title="Artabanus II of Parthia">Artabanus II</a> <a href="/wiki/Vardanes_I" title="Vardanes I">Vardanes I</a> <a href="/wiki/Gotarzes_II" title="Gotarzes II">Gotarzes II</a> <a href="/wiki/Meherdates" title="Meherdates">Meherdates</a> <a href="/wiki/Vonones_II" title="Vonones II">Vonones II</a> <a href="/wiki/Vologases_I_of_Parthia" title="Vologases I of Parthia">Vologases I</a> <a href="/wiki/Vardanes_II" title="Vardanes II">Vardanes II</a> <a href="/wiki/Pacorus_II" title="Pacorus II">Pacorus II</a> <a href="/wiki/Vologases_II_of_Parthia" title="Vologases II of Parthia">Vologases II</a> <a href="/wiki/Artabanus_III_of_Parthia" title="Artabanus III of Parthia">Artabanus III</a> <a href="/wiki/Osroes_I" title="Osroes I">Osroes I</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">30 BCE–116 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="4" rowspan="1"><b><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="2" rowspan="4">(<a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman conquest of Egypt">Roman conquest of Egypt</a>)<br /><a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Province of Egypt</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Judaea_(Roman_province)" title="Judaea (Roman province)">Judaea</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">Syria</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1">116–117 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="3" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Province of Mesopotamia</a> under <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="6" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Parthamaspates_of_Parthia" title="Parthamaspates of Parthia">Parthamaspates of Parthia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>117–224 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Syria_Palaestina" title="Syria Palaestina">Syria Palaestina</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Province of Mesopotamia</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFDEAD;" colspan="8" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Sinatruces_II_of_Parthia" title="Sinatruces II of Parthia">Sinatruces II</a> <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_V_of_Parthia" title="Mithridates V of Parthia">Mithridates V</a> <a href="/wiki/Vologases_IV" title="Vologases IV">Vologases IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Osroes_II" title="Osroes II">Osroes II</a> <a href="/wiki/Vologases_V" title="Vologases V">Vologases V</a> <a href="/wiki/Vologases_VI" title="Vologases VI">Vologases VI</a> <a href="/wiki/Artabanus_IV_of_Parthia" title="Artabanus IV of Parthia">Artabanus IV</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>224–270 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="8" rowspan="6"><b><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Asoristan" title="Asoristan">Province of Asoristan</a><br /><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coin_of_Ardashir_I_(phase_3),_Hamadan_mint.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coin of Ardashir I, Hamadan mint."><img alt="Coin of Ardashir I, Hamadan mint." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Coin_of_Ardashir_I_%28phase_3%29%2C_Hamadan_mint.jpg/40px-Coin_of_Ardashir_I_%28phase_3%29%2C_Hamadan_mint.jpg" decoding="async" width="40" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Coin_of_Ardashir_I_%28phase_3%29%2C_Hamadan_mint.jpg/60px-Coin_of_Ardashir_I_%28phase_3%29%2C_Hamadan_mint.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Coin_of_Ardashir_I_%28phase_3%29%2C_Hamadan_mint.jpg/80px-Coin_of_Ardashir_I_%28phase_3%29%2C_Hamadan_mint.jpg 2x" data-file-width="397" data-file-height="388" /></a><figcaption>Coin of Ardashir I, Hamadan mint.</figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/Ardashir_I" title="Ardashir I">Ardashir I</a> <a href="/wiki/Shapur_I" title="Shapur I">Shapur I</a> <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_I" title="Hormizd I">Hormizd I</a> <a href="/wiki/Bahram_I" title="Bahram I">Bahram I</a> <a href="/wiki/Bahram_II" title="Bahram II">Bahram II</a> <a href="/wiki/Bahram_III" title="Bahram III">Bahram III</a> <a href="/wiki/Narseh" title="Narseh">Narseh</a> <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_II" title="Hormizd II">Hormizd II</a> <a href="/wiki/Adur_Narseh" title="Adur Narseh">Adur Narseh</a> <a href="/wiki/Shapur_II" title="Shapur II">Shapur II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ardashir_II" title="Ardashir II">Ardashir II</a> <a href="/wiki/Shapur_III" title="Shapur III">Shapur III</a> <a href="/wiki/Bahram_IV" title="Bahram IV">Bahram IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Yazdegerd_I" title="Yazdegerd I">Yazdegerd I</a> <a href="/wiki/Shapur_IV" title="Shapur IV">Shapur IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_(son_of_Bahram_IV)" title="Khosrow (son of Bahram IV)">Khosrow</a> <a href="/wiki/Bahram_V" title="Bahram V">Bahram V</a> <a href="/wiki/Yazdegerd_II" title="Yazdegerd II">Yazdegerd II</a> <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_III" title="Hormizd III">Hormizd III</a> <a href="/wiki/Peroz_I" title="Peroz I">Peroz I</a> <a href="/wiki/Balash" title="Balash">Balash</a> <a href="/wiki/Kavad_I" title="Kavad I">Kavad I</a> <a href="/wiki/Jamasp" title="Jamasp">Jamasp</a> <a href="/wiki/Kavad_I" title="Kavad I">Kavad I</a> <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_I" title="Khosrow I">Khosrow I</a> <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_IV" title="Hormizd IV">Hormizd IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_II" title="Khosrow II">Khosrow II</a> <a href="/wiki/Bahram_Chobin" title="Bahram Chobin">Bahram VI Chobin</a> <a href="/wiki/Vistahm" title="Vistahm">Vistahm</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>270–273 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#48D1CC;" colspan="5"><b><a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene Empire</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Vaballathus" title="Vaballathus">Vaballathus</a> <a href="/wiki/Zenobia" title="Zenobia">Zenobia</a><sup>♀</sup> <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Antiochus" title="Septimius Antiochus">Antiochus</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">273–395 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5" rowspan="1"><b><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Province of Egypt</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Syria_Palaestina" title="Syria Palaestina">Syria Palaestina</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Syria_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria (Roman province)">Syria</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Province of Mesopotamia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">395–618 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5" rowspan="1"><b><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Egypt">Byzantine Egypt</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Palaestina_Prima" title="Palaestina Prima">Palaestina Prima</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palaestina_Secunda" title="Palaestina Secunda">Palaestina Secunda</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Syria">Byzantine Syria</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Mesopotamia">Byzantine Mesopotamia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>618–628 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="2">(<a href="/wiki/Sasanian_conquest_of_Egypt" title="Sasanian conquest of Egypt">Sasanian conquest of Egypt</a>)<br /><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Egypt" title="Sasanian Egypt">Province of Egypt</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Shahrbaraz" title="Shahrbaraz">Shahrbaraz</a> <a href="/wiki/Shahralanyozan" title="Shahralanyozan">Shahralanyozan</a> <a href="/wiki/Shahrbaraz" title="Shahrbaraz">Shahrbaraz</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="11" rowspan="1"><b><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Asoristan" title="Asoristan">Province of Asoristan</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Khosrow_II" title="Khosrow II">Khosrow II</a> <a href="/wiki/Kavad_II" title="Kavad II">Kavad II</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">628–641 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5"><b><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></b> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="8" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Ardashir_III" title="Ardashir III">Ardashir III</a> <a href="/wiki/Shahrbaraz" title="Shahrbaraz">Shahrbaraz</a> <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_III" title="Khosrow III">Khosrow III</a> <a href="/wiki/Boran" title="Boran">Boran</a><sup>♀</sup> <a href="/wiki/Shapur-i_Shahrvaraz" title="Shapur-i Shahrvaraz">Shapur-i Shahrvaraz</a> <a href="/wiki/Azarmidokht" title="Azarmidokht">Azarmidokht</a><sup>♀</sup> <a href="/wiki/Farrukh_Hormizd" title="Farrukh Hormizd">Farrukh Hormizd</a> <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_VI" title="Hormizd VI">Hormizd VI</a> <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_IV" title="Khosrow IV">Khosrow IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Boran" title="Boran">Boran</a> <a href="/wiki/Yazdegerd_III" title="Yazdegerd III">Yazdegerd III</a> <a href="/wiki/Peroz_III" title="Peroz III">Peroz III</a> <a href="/wiki/Narsieh" title="Narsieh">Narsieh</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Egypt">Byzantine Egypt</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Palaestina_Prima" title="Palaestina Prima">Palaestina Prima</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palaestina_Secunda" title="Palaestina Secunda">Palaestina Secunda</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Syria">Byzantine Syria</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Mesopotamia">Byzantine Mesopotamia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>639–651 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#8FBC8F;" colspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest of Egypt">Muslim conquest of Egypt</a></b> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#8FBC8F;" colspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant" title="Muslim conquest of the Levant">Muslim conquest of the Levant</a></b> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#8FBC8F;" colspan="9"><b><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia</a></b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left; background:#F5F5F5; border:0px" rowspan="1" colspan="7"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Font_Awesome_5_solid_arrow-up.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Font_Awesome_5_solid_arrow-up.svg/10px-Font_Awesome_5_solid_arrow-up.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Font_Awesome_5_solid_arrow-up.svg/15px-Font_Awesome_5_solid_arrow-up.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Font_Awesome_5_solid_arrow-up.svg/20px-Font_Awesome_5_solid_arrow-up.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="585" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/Template:Neolithic_Chronology" title="Template:Neolithic Chronology"> Chronology of the Neolithic period</a> </td> <td style="text-align:right; background:#F5F5F5; border:0px" colspan="7" align="right"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Font_Awesome_5_solid_long-arrow-alt-right.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Font_Awesome_5_solid_long-arrow-alt-right.svg/12px-Font_Awesome_5_solid_long-arrow-alt-right.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Font_Awesome_5_solid_long-arrow-alt-right.svg/18px-Font_Awesome_5_solid_long-arrow-alt-right.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Font_Awesome_5_solid_long-arrow-alt-right.svg/24px-Font_Awesome_5_solid_long-arrow-alt-right.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="585" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Template:Rulers_of_ancient_Central_Asia" title="Template:Rulers of ancient Central Asia">Rulers of ancient Central Asia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="14"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rulers with names in italics are considered fictional.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalloSimpson1971" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_W._Hallo" title="William W. Hallo">Hallo, William W.</a>; <a href="/wiki/William_Kelly_Simpson" title="William Kelly Simpson">Simpson, William Kelly</a> (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientneareasth0000hall/page/48/mode/2up"><i>The Ancient Near East: A History</i></a>. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. pp. <span class="nowrap">48–</span>49. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-15-502755-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-15-502755-8"><bdi>978-0-15-502755-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Near+East%3A+A+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E48-%3C%2Fspan%3E49&rft.pub=Harcourt+Brace+Jovanovich&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=978-0-15-502755-8&rft.aulast=Hallo&rft.aufirst=William+W.&rft.au=Simpson%2C+William+Kelly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fancientneareasth0000hall%2Fpage%2F48%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdli.ox.ac.uk/wiki/rulers_of_mesopotamia">"Rulers of Mesopotamia"</a>. <i>CDLI:wiki</i>. Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CDLI%3Awiki&rft.atitle=Rulers+of+Mesopotamia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcdli.ox.ac.uk%2Fwiki%2Frulers_of_mesopotamia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomasPotts2020" class="citation book cs1">Thomas, Ariane; <a href="/wiki/Timothy_Potts" title="Timothy Potts">Potts, Timothy</a>, eds. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VsHEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR14"><i>Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins</i></a>. Los Angeles: The J. Paul Getty Museum. p. 14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60606-649-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60606-649-2"><bdi>978-1-60606-649-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mesopotamia%3A+Civilization+Begins&rft.place=Los+Angeles&rft.pages=14&rft.pub=The+J.+Paul+Getty+Museum&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-60606-649-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVsHEDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPR14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoux1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Georges_Roux" title="Georges Roux">Roux, Georges</a> (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=klZX8B_RzzYC&pg=PT534"><i>Ancient Iraq</i></a>. London: Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-193825-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-193825-7"><bdi>978-0-14-193825-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Iraq&rft.place=London&rft.pages=532-534+%28Chronological+Tables%29&rft.pub=Penguin+Books+Limited&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-14-193825-7&rft.aulast=Roux&rft.aufirst=Georges&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DklZX8B_RzzYC%26pg%3DPT534&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SKL-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SKL_86-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SKL_86-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SKL_86-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Per the <i><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_King_List" title="Sumerian King List">Sumerian King List</a></i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnger2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Merrill_Unger" title="Merrill Unger">Unger, Merrill F.</a> (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qw6vCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5"><i>Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History</i></a>. Eugene, Oregon: Wipf and Stock. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-62564-606-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-62564-606-4"><bdi>978-1-62564-606-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Israel+and+the+Aramaeans+of+Damascus%3A+A+Study+in+Archaeological+Illumination+of+Bible+History&rft.place=Eugene%2C+Oregon&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Wipf+and+Stock&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-62564-606-4&rft.aulast=Unger&rft.aufirst=Merrill+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dqw6vCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Egypt–Mesopotamia_relations&oldid=1271404097">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Egypt–Mesopotamia_relations&oldid=1271404097</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_international_relations" title="Category:Ancient international relations">Ancient international relations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Egypt%E2%80%93Iraq_relations" title="Category:Egypt–Iraq relations">Egypt–Iraq relations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Foreign_contacts_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Category:Foreign contacts of ancient Egypt">Foreign contacts of ancient Egypt</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Mesopotamia" title="Category:History of Mesopotamia">History of Mesopotamia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Uruk_period" title="Category:Uruk period">Uruk period</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_multiple_image_with_auto_scaled_images" title="Category:Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images">Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Ancient_Egyptian-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Ancient Egyptian-language text">Articles containing Ancient Egyptian-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_May_2022" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from May 2022">Articles with unsourced statements from May 2022</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 23 January 2025, at 22:32<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia.svg" width="25" height="25" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" lang="en" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" width="88" height="31"><img src="/w/resources/assets/mediawiki_compact.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="25" height="25" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-header-container vector-sticky-header-container"> <div id="vector-sticky-header" class="vector-sticky-header"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-start"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-start vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" aria-hidden="true"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-sticky-header-search-toggle" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.vector-sticky-search-form.icon"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </button> </div> <div role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box"> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="vector-sticky-search-form" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia"> <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-sticky-header-toc vector-sticky-header-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-sticky-header-toc-label" for="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar-primary" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="mw-page-title-main">Egypt–Mesopotamia relations</span></div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-end" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icons"> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-talk-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="talk-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbles mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbles"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-subject-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="subject-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-article mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-article"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-history-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="history-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-history mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-history"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only mw-watchlink" id="ca-watchstar-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="watch-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-star mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-star"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="wikitext-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikiText mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-wikiText"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-ve-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-edit mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-edit"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-editLock mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-editLock"></span> <span></span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-language"></span> <span>5 languages</span> </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Add topic</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-d8647bfd6-p6fkl","wgBackendResponseTime":149,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.059","walltime":"1.338","ppvisitednodes":{"value":6050,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":242339,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":2396,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":16,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":27,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":335794,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":0,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 935.388 1 -total"," 45.80% 428.427 2 Template:Reflist"," 31.84% 297.805 57 Template:Cite_book"," 17.48% 163.483 9 Template:Multiple_image"," 12.28% 114.880 1 Template:Lang"," 10.88% 101.779 4 Template:Navbox"," 8.90% 83.215 1 Template:Ancient_Mesopotamia"," 6.35% 59.440 1 Template:Rulers_of_the_Ancient_Near_East"," 6.18% 57.850 1 Template:Short_description"," 3.94% 36.856 2 Template:Citation_needed"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.569","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":26193184,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-d8647bfd6-6hlfp","timestamp":"20250223060633","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Egypt\u2013Mesopotamia relations","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q65061872","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q65061872","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2019-04-01T05:34:34Z","dateModified":"2025-01-23T22:32:05Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/a\/ad\/Mesopotamia-Egypt_trade_routes.jpg","headline":"Middle Eastern international relations"}</script> </body> </html>