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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Origins</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Historical</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Types</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Types subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Occurrent_and_dispositional" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Occurrent_and_dispositional"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Occurrent and dispositional</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Occurrent_and_dispositional-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Full_and_partial" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Full_and_partial"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Full and partial</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Full_and_partial-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Belief-in_and_belief-that" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Belief-in_and_belief-that"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Belief-in and belief-that</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Belief-in_and_belief-that-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-De_dicto_and_de_re" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#De_dicto_and_de_re"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span><i>De dicto</i> and <i>de re</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-De_dicto_and_de_re-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Collective_belief" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Collective_belief"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Collective belief</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Collective_belief-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Contents</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Contents-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Contents subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Contents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Atomism,_molecularism_and_holism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Atomism,_molecularism_and_holism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Atomism, molecularism and holism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Atomism,_molecularism_and_holism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Internalism_and_externalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internalism_and_externalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Internalism and externalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internalism_and_externalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epistemology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epistemology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Epistemology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Epistemology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Epistemology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Epistemology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Justified_true_belief" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Justified_true_belief"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Justified true belief</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Justified_true_belief-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Belief_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Belief_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Belief systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Belief_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Glover's_view" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Glover's_view"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>Glover's view</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Glover's_view-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Religion</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Religion-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Religion subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Forms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Forms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fundamentalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fundamentalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.1</span> <span>Fundamentalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fundamentalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Orthodoxy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Orthodoxy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.2</span> <span>Orthodoxy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Orthodoxy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modernism/reform" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modernism/reform"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.3</span> <span>Modernism/reform</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modernism/reform-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Attitudes_to_other_religions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Attitudes_to_other_religions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Attitudes to other religions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Attitudes_to_other_religions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Exclusivism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exclusivism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.1</span> <span>Exclusivism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exclusivism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Inclusivism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inclusivism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.2</span> <span>Inclusivism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inclusivism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adherence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adherence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Adherence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adherence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Apostasy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Apostasy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Apostasy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Apostasy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Psychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Psychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Psychology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Psychology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Psychology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Psychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Belief_formation_and_revision" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Belief_formation_and_revision"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Belief formation and revision</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Belief_formation_and_revision-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Models_of_belief_formation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Models_of_belief_formation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.1</span> <span>Models of belief formation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Models_of_belief_formation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prediction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prediction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Prediction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prediction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Delusion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Delusion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Delusion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Delusion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Belief_studies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Belief_studies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Belief studies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Belief_studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emotion_and_beliefs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emotion_and_beliefs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Emotion and beliefs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emotion_and_beliefs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Belief</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 77 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-77" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">77 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%A9" title="عقيدة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="عقيدة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creyencia" title="Creyencia – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Creyencia" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0nanc" title="İnanc – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İnanc" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kapercayaan" title="Kapercayaan – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Kapercayaan" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Bali</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="বিশ্বাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বিশ্বাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%ACn-li%C4%81m" title="Sìn-liām – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Sìn-liām" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaum" title="Glaum – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Glaum" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creen%C3%A7a" title="Creença – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Creença" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%87%C4%83%D0%BA" title="Шанчăк – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Шанчăк" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinuohan" title="Tinuohan – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Tinuohan" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%ADra" title="Víra – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Víra" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chitendero" title="Chitendero – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Chitendero" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credo" title="Credo – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Credo" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glauben" title="Glauben – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Glauben" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uskumus" title="Uskumus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Uskumus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%AF%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B7" title="Πίστη – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πίστη" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creencia" title="Creencia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Creencia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kredo" title="Kredo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kredo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinesmen" title="Sinesmen – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Sinesmen" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1" title="باور – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="باور" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croyance" title="Croyance – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Croyance" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crenza" title="Crenza – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Crenza" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-got mw-list-item"><a href="https://got.wikipedia.org/wiki/%F0%90%8C%B2%F0%90%8C%B0%F0%90%8C%BB%F0%90%8C%B0%F0%90%8C%BF%F0%90%8C%B1%F0%90%8C%B4%F0%90%8C%B9%F0%90%8C%BD%F0%90%8D%83" title="𐌲𐌰𐌻𐌰𐌿𐌱𐌴𐌹𐌽𐍃 – Gothic" lang="got" hreflang="got" data-title="𐌲𐌰𐌻𐌰𐌿𐌱𐌴𐌹𐌽𐍃" data-language-autonym="𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺" data-language-local-name="Gothic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AF%BF%EC%9D%8C" title="믿음 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="믿음" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%BF%D6%84" title="Հավատք – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հավատք" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="विश्वास – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="विश्वास" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vjerovanje" title="Vjerovanje – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Vjerovanje" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keyakinan" title="Keyakinan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Keyakinan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credentia" title="Credentia – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Credentia" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sko%C3%B0un" title="Skoðun – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Skoðun" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credenza" title="Credenza – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Credenza" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%94" title="אמונה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אמונה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%83" title="Сену – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Сену" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krwayans" title="Krwayans – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Krwayans" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bawer%C3%AE" title="Bawerî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Bawerî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C4%81rliec%C4%ABba" title="Pārliecība – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Pārliecība" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hit_(filoz%C3%B3fia)" title="Hit (filozófia) – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Hit (filozófia)" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finoana" title="Finoana – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Finoana" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepercayaan" title="Kepercayaan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kepercayaan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%82%D0%B3%D1%8D%D0%BB_%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%88%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%BB" title="Итгэл бишрэл – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Итгэл бишрэл" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geloof" title="Geloof – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Geloof" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geleuven_(gedrag)" title="Geleuven (gedrag) – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Geleuven (gedrag)" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BF%A1%E5%BF%B5" title="信念 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="信念" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tru" title="Tru – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Tru" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crianche" title="Crianche – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Crianche" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nouormand</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cresen%C3%A7a" title="Cresença – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Cresença" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/E%CA%BCtiqod" title="Eʼtiqod – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Eʼtiqod" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8" title="ਵਿਸ਼ਵਾਸ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਵਿਸ਼ਵਾਸ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1" title="باور – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="باور" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biliif" title="Biliif – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Biliif" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiara_(psychologia)" title="Wiara (psychologia) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wiara (psychologia)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cren%C3%A7a" title="Crença – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Crença" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credin%C8%9B%C4%83" title="Credință – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Credință" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%96%D1%80%D0%B0_(%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Віра (филозофия) – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Віра (филозофия)" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Вера – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Вера" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belief" title="Belief – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Belief" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Besimi_(epistemologji)" title="Besimi (epistemologji) – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Besimi (epistemologji)" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belief" title="Belief – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Belief" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%88%DB%95%DA%95" title="باوەڕ – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="باوەڕ" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%9A%D0%B5" title="Веровање – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Веровање" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vjerovanje" title="Vjerovanje – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Vjerovanje" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uskomus" title="Uskomus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Uskomus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tro_(kognition)" title="Tro (kognition) – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Tro (kognition)" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%88" title="நம்பிக்கை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நம்பிக்கை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AB%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83" title="Ышану – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Ышану" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B7%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%AD" title="ความเชื่อ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ความเชื่อ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Бовар – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Бовар" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0nan%C3%A7" title="İnanç – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="İnanç" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%96%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Віра – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Віра" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%90%D8%AA%D9%89%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%AF" title="ئېتىقاد – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="ئېتىقاد" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%ADn_ng%C6%B0%E1%BB%A1ng" title="Tín ngưỡng – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tín ngưỡng" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BF%A1%E5%BF%B5" title="信念 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="信念" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%99%D7%91%D7%9F" title="גלויבן – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="גלויבן" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link 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<div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Mental state of holding a proposition or premise to be true</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the general concept. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Belief_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Belief (disambiguation)">Belief (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="padding-top:0.8em;">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding-bottom:0.5em;"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="padding:0.5em 0.5em 0.5em; display:block; background-color: #efefef;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_epistemology" title="Outline of epistemology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Epistemology" title="Category:Epistemology">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_epistemology_articles" title="Index of epistemology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Schools</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogmatism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dogmatism">Dogmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infallibilism" title="Infallibilism">Infallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinitism" title="Infinitism">Infinitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perspectivism" title="Perspectivism">Perspectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">Structuralism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);border-top:1px solid #A2A9B1; padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Concepts</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_knowledge_and_action" title="Unity of knowledge and action">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i></a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Belief</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Full_and_partial">Credence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Certainty" title="Certainty">Certainty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data" title="Data">Data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">Experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_(epistemology)" title="Justification (epistemology)">Justification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_(philosophy)" title="Meaning (philosophy)">Meaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">Rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">Reason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisdom" title="Wisdom">Wisdom</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);border-top:1px solid #A2A9B1; padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Domains</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_epistemology" title="Applied epistemology">Applied epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_epistemology" title="Formal epistemology">Formal epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical epistemology">Historical epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaepistemology" title="Metaepistemology">Metaepistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">Social epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_epistemology" title="Virtue epistemology">Virtue epistemology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);border-top:1px solid #A2A9B1; padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Epistemologists</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Empiricus" title="Sextus Empiricus">Sextus Empiricus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Gettier" title="Edmund Gettier">Edmund Gettier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Yangming" title="Wang Yangming">Wang Yangming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">more...</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);border-top:1px solid #A2A9B1; padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Related fields</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_cognition" title="Epistemic cognition">Epistemic cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_modal_logic" title="Epistemic modal logic">Epistemic logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">Philosophy of perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Epistemology_sidebar" title="Template:Epistemology sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Epistemology_sidebar" title="Template talk:Epistemology sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Epistemology_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Epistemology sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A <b>belief</b> is a subjective <a href="/wiki/Attitude_(psychology)" title="Attitude (psychology)">attitude</a> that something is <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">true</a> or a <a href="/wiki/State_of_affairs_(philosophy)" title="State of affairs (philosophy)">state of affairs</a> is the case. A subjective attitude is a <a href="/wiki/Mental_state" title="Mental state">mental state</a> of having some <a href="/wiki/Life_stance" title="Life stance">stance</a>, take, or <a href="/wiki/Opinion" title="Opinion">opinion</a> about something.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a>, philosophers use the term "belief" to refer to attitudes about the world which can be either <a href="/wiki/Truth_value" title="Truth value">true or false</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-SEP_Belief_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SEP_Belief-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To believe something is to take it to be true; for instance, to believe that snow is white is comparable to accepting the truth of the <a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">proposition</a> "snow is white". However, holding a belief does not require active <a href="/wiki/Introspection" title="Introspection">introspection</a>. For example, few individuals carefully consider whether or not the sun will rise tomorrow, simply assuming that it will. Moreover, beliefs need not be <i>occurrent</i> (e.g. a person actively thinking "snow is white"), but can instead be <i>dispositional</i> (e.g. a person who if asked about the color of snow would assert "snow is white").<sup id="cite_ref-SEP_Belief_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SEP_Belief-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are various ways that contemporary <a href="/wiki/Philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosopher">philosophers</a> have tried to describe beliefs, including as representations of ways that the world could be (<a href="/wiki/Jerry_Fodor" title="Jerry Fodor">Jerry Fodor</a>), as dispositions to act as if certain things are true (<a href="/wiki/Roderick_Chisholm" title="Roderick Chisholm">Roderick Chisholm</a>), as interpretive schemes for making sense of someone's actions (<a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a> and <a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</a>), or as mental states that fill a particular function (<a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-SEP_Belief_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SEP_Belief-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some have also attempted to offer significant revisions to our notion of belief, including <a href="/wiki/Eliminativism" class="mw-redirect" title="Eliminativism">eliminativists</a> about belief who argue that there is no phenomenon in the natural world which corresponds to our <a href="/wiki/Folk_psychology" title="Folk psychology">folk psychological</a> concept of belief (<a href="/wiki/Paul_Churchland" title="Paul Churchland">Paul Churchland</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Formal_epistemology" title="Formal epistemology">formal epistemologists</a> who aim to replace our bivalent notion of belief ("either we have a belief or we don't have a belief") with the more permissive, probabilistic notion of credence ("there is an entire spectrum of degrees of belief, not a simple dichotomy between belief and non-belief").<sup id="cite_ref-SEP_Belief_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SEP_Belief-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SEP_Formal_Belief_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SEP_Formal_Belief-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Beliefs are the subject of various important philosophical debates. Notable examples include: "What is the rational way to revise one's beliefs when presented with various sorts of evidence?", "Is the content of our beliefs entirely determined by our mental states, or do the relevant <a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">facts</a> have any bearing on our beliefs (e.g. if I believe that I'm holding a glass of water, is the non-mental fact that water is H<sub>2</sub>O part of the content of that belief)?", "How fine-grained or coarse-grained are our beliefs?", and "Must it be possible for a belief to be expressible in language, or are there non-linguistic beliefs?"<sup id="cite_ref-SEP_Belief_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SEP_Belief-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conceptions">Conceptions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Conceptions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Various conceptions of the essential features of beliefs have been proposed, but there is no consensus as to which is the right one. <i>Representationalism</i> is the traditionally dominant position. Its most popular version maintains that attitudes toward representations, which are typically associated with propositions, are mental attitudes that constitute beliefs. These attitudes are part of the internal constitution of the mind holding the attitude. This view contrasts with <i>functionalism</i>, which defines beliefs not in terms of the internal constitution of the mind but in terms of the function or the causal role played by beliefs. According to <i>dispositionalism</i>, beliefs are identified with dispositions to behave in certain ways. This view can be seen as a form of functionalism, defining beliefs in terms of the behavior they tend to cause. <i>Interpretationism</i> constitutes another conception, which has gained popularity in contemporary philosophy. It holds that the beliefs of an entity are in some sense dependent on or relative to someone's interpretation of this entity. <i>Representationalism</i> tends to be associated with mind-body-dualism. <i>Naturalist</i> considerations against this dualism are among the motivations for choosing one of the alternative conceptions.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwitzgebel_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwitzgebel-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Representationalism">Representationalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Representationalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Representationalism characterizes beliefs in terms of <a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">mental representations</a>. Representations are usually defined as objects with <a href="/wiki/Semantic_properties" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantic properties">semantic properties</a>—like having content, referring to something, or being true or false.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwitzgebel_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwitzgebel-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pitt_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pitt-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Beliefs form a special class of mental representations since they do not involve sensory qualities in order to represent something, unlike perceptions or episodic memories.<sup id="cite_ref-Borchert_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Borchert-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of this, it seems natural to construe beliefs as attitudes towards propositions, which also constitute non-sensory representations, i.e. as <a href="/wiki/Propositional_attitudes" class="mw-redirect" title="Propositional attitudes">propositional attitudes</a>. As <a href="/wiki/Mental_attitude" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental attitude">mental attitudes</a>, beliefs are characterized by both their content and their mode.<sup id="cite_ref-Borchert_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Borchert-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The content of an attitude is what this attitude is directed at: its object. Propositional attitudes are directed at propositions.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pitt_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pitt-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Beliefs are usually distinguished from other propositional attitudes, like desires, by their mode or the way in which they are directed at propositions. The mode of beliefs has a mind-to-world <a href="/wiki/Direction_of_fit" title="Direction of fit">direction of fit</a>: beliefs try to represent the world as it is; they do not, unlike desires, involve an intention to change it.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwitzgebel_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwitzgebel-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Borchert_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Borchert-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, if Rahul believes that it will be sunny today, then he has a mental attitude towards the proposition "It will be sunny today" which affirms that this proposition is true. This is different from Sofía's desire that it will be sunny today, despite the fact that both Rahul and Sofía have attitudes toward the same proposition. The mind-to-world direction of fit of beliefs is sometimes expressed by saying that beliefs aim at truth.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This aim is also reflected in the tendency to <a href="/wiki/Belief_revision" title="Belief revision">revise one's belief</a> upon receiving new evidence that an existing belief is false.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwitzgebel_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwitzgebel-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Upon hearing a forecast of bad weather, Rahul is likely to change his mental attitude but Sofía is not. </p><p>There are different ways of conceiving how mental representations are realized in the mind. One form of this is the <i><a href="/wiki/Language_of_thought_hypothesis" title="Language of thought hypothesis">language of thought hypothesis</a></i>, which claims that mental representations have a language-like structure, sometimes referred to as "mentalese".<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Craig_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Craig-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Just like regular language, this involves simple elements that are combined in various ways according to syntactic rules to form more complex elements that act as bearers of meaning.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwitzgebel_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwitzgebel-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Craig_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Craig-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On this conception, holding a belief would involve storing such a complex element in one's mind. Different beliefs are separated from each other in that they correspond to different elements stored in the mind. A more holistic alternative to the "language of thought hypothesis" is the <i>map-conception</i>, which uses an analogy of maps to elucidate the nature of beliefs.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwitzgebel_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwitzgebel-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Craig_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Craig-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to this view, the belief system of a mind should be conceived of not as a set of many individual sentences but as a map encoding the information contained in these sentences.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwitzgebel_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwitzgebel-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Craig_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Craig-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the fact that Brussels is halfway between Paris and Amsterdam can be expressed both linguistically as a sentence and in a map through its internal geometrical relations. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Functionalism">Functionalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Functionalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a> contrasts with representationalism in that it defines beliefs not in terms of the internal constitution of the mind but in terms of the function or the causal role played by them.<sup id="cite_ref-Levin_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Levin-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Polger_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Polger-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This view is often combined with the idea that the same belief can be realized in various ways and that it does not matter how it is realized as long as it plays the causal role characteristic to it.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwitzgebel_4-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwitzgebel-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As an analogy, a <a href="/wiki/Hard_drive" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard drive">hard drive</a> is defined in a functionalist manner: it performs the function of storing and retrieving digital data. This function can be realized in many different ways: being made of plastic or steel, or using magnetism or laser.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwitzgebel_4-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwitzgebel-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Functionalists hold that something similar is true for beliefs (or mental states in general).<sup id="cite_ref-Levin_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Levin-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Polger_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Polger-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among the roles relevant to beliefs is their relation to perceptions and to actions: perceptions usually cause beliefs and beliefs cause actions.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwitzgebel_4-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwitzgebel-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, seeing that a traffic light has switched to red is usually associated with a belief that the light is red, which in turn causes the driver to bring the car to a halt. Functionalists use such characteristics to define beliefs: whatever is caused by perceptions in a certain way and also causes behavior in a certain way is called a belief. This is not just true for humans but may include animals, hypothetical aliens or even computers.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwitzgebel_4-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwitzgebel-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Levin_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Levin-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From this perspective, it would make sense to ascribe the belief that a traffic light is red to a <a href="/wiki/Self-driving_car" title="Self-driving car">self-driving car</a> behaving just like a human driver. </p><p>Dispositionalism is sometimes seen as a specific form of functionalism.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwitzgebel_4-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwitzgebel-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It defines beliefs only concerning their role as causes of behavior or as <a href="/wiki/Dispositions" class="mw-redirect" title="Dispositions">dispositions</a> to behave in a certain way.<sup id="cite_ref-Quilty-Dunn_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Quilty-Dunn-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Audi_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Audi-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, a belief that there is a pie in the pantry is associated with the disposition to affirm this when asked and to go to the pantry when hungry.<sup id="cite_ref-Borchert_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Borchert-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While it is uncontroversial that beliefs shape our behavior, the thesis that beliefs can be defined exclusively through their role in producing behavior has been contested.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwitzgebel_4-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwitzgebel-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Quilty-Dunn_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Quilty-Dunn-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The problem arises because the mechanisms shaping our behavior seem to be too complex to single out the general contribution of one particular belief for any possible situation.<sup id="cite_ref-Borchert_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Borchert-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, one may decide not to affirm that there is a pie in the pantry when asked because one wants to keep it secret. Or one might not eat the pie despite being hungry, because one also believes that it is poisoned.<sup id="cite_ref-Borchert_6-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Borchert-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to this complexity, we are unable to define even a belief as simple as this one in terms of the behavioral dispositions for which it could be responsible.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwitzgebel_4-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwitzgebel-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interpretationism">Interpretationism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Interpretationism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to interpretationism, the beliefs of an entity are in some sense dependent on, or relative to, someone's interpretation of this entity.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwitzgebel_4-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwitzgebel-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Child1_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Child1-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a> is an important defender of such a position. He holds that we ascribe beliefs to entities in order to predict how they will behave. Entities with simple behavioral patterns can be described using physical laws or in terms of their function. Dennett refers to these forms of explanation as the "physical stance" and the "design stance". These stances are contrasted with the <a href="/wiki/Intentional_stance" title="Intentional stance">intentional stance</a>, which is applied to entities with a more complex behavior by ascribing beliefs and desires to these entities.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, we can predict that a chess player will move her queen to f7 if we ascribe to her the desire to win the game and the belief that this move will achieve that. The same procedure can also be applied to predicting how a chess computer will behave. The entity has the belief in question if this belief can be used to predict its behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwitzgebel_4-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwitzgebel-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Having a belief is relative to an interpretation since there may be different equally good ways of ascribing beliefs to predict behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwitzgebel_4-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwitzgebel-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> So there may be another interpretation that predicts the move of the queen to f7 that does not involve the belief that this move will win the game. Another version of interpretationism is due to <a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Child1_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Child1-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who uses the thought experiment of <a href="/wiki/Radical_interpretation" title="Radical interpretation">radical interpretation</a>, in which the goal is to make sense of the behavior and language of another person from scratch without any knowledge of this person's language.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwitzgebel_4-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwitzgebel-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This process involves ascribing beliefs and desires to the speaker. The speaker really has these beliefs if this project can be successful in principle.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwitzgebel_4-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwitzgebel-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Interpretationism can be combined with eliminativism and instrumentalism about beliefs. Eliminativists hold that, strictly speaking, there are no beliefs. Instrumentalists agree with eliminativists but add that belief-ascriptions are useful nonetheless.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwitzgebel_4-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwitzgebel-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This usefulness can be explained in terms of interpretationism: belief-ascriptions help us in predicting how entities will behave. It has been argued that interpretationism can also be understood in a more realistic sense: that entities really have the beliefs ascribed to them and that these beliefs participate in the causal network.<sup id="cite_ref-Child4_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Child4-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But, for this to be possible, it may be necessary to define interpretationism as a methodology and not as an <a href="/wiki/Ontological" class="mw-redirect" title="Ontological">ontological</a> outlook on beliefs.<sup id="cite_ref-Child1_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Child1-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins">Origins</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Biologist <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Wolpert" title="Lewis Wolpert">Lewis Wolpert</a> discusses the importance of <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causal</a> beliefs and associates the making and use of <a href="/wiki/Tool" title="Tool">tools</a> with the origin of human beliefs.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical">Historical</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Historical"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the context of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek thought</a>, three related concepts were identified regarding the concept of belief: <i><a href="/wiki/Pistis#Pistis_in_rhetoric" title="Pistis">pistis</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/MOS:BROKENSECTIONLINKS" class="mw-redirect" title="MOS:BROKENSECTIONLINKS"><span title="The anchor (Pistis in rhetoric) has been deleted. (2024-09-28)">broken anchor</span></a></i>]</sup>,</i> <i><a href="/wiki/Doxa" title="Doxa">doxa</a>,</i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Dogma" title="Dogma">dogma</a>.</i> Simplified, <i>Pistis</i> refers to "<a href="/wiki/Trust_(social_science)" title="Trust (social science)">trust</a>" and "confidence," <i>doxa</i> refers to "<a href="/wiki/Opinion" title="Opinion">opinion</a>" and "acceptance," and <i>dogma</i> refers to the <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_theory" title="Philosophical theory">positions</a> of a philosopher or of a <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophical movement">philosophical school</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Beliefs can be categorized into various types depending on their ontological status, their degree, their object or their semantic properties. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Occurrent_and_dispositional">Occurrent and dispositional</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Occurrent and dispositional"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Having an occurrent belief that the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Canyon" title="Grand Canyon">Grand Canyon</a> is in Arizona involves entertaining the representation associated with this belief—for example, by actively thinking about it. But the great majority of our beliefs are not active most of the time: they are merely dispositional.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwitzgebel_4-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwitzgebel-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They usually become activated or occurrent when needed or relevant in some way and then fall back into their dispositional state afterwards.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwitzgebel_4-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwitzgebel-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the belief that 57 is greater than 14 was probably dispositional to the reader before reading this sentence, has become occurrent while reading it and may soon become dispositional again as the mind focuses elsewhere. The distinction between occurrent and dispositional beliefs is sometimes identified with the distinction between conscious and unconscious beliefs.<sup id="cite_ref-Bartlett_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bartlett-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Frise_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frise-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But it has been argued that, despite overlapping, the two distinctions do not match. The reason for this is that beliefs can shape one's behaviour and be involved in one's reasoning even if the subject is not conscious of them. Such beliefs are cases of unconscious occurrent mental states.<sup id="cite_ref-Bartlett_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bartlett-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On this view, being occurrent corresponds to being active, either consciously or unconsciously.<sup id="cite_ref-Frise_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frise-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A dispositional belief is not the same as a disposition to believe.<sup id="cite_ref-Audi_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Audi-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> We have various dispositions to believe given the right perceptions; for example, to believe that it is raining given a perception of rain. Without this perception, there is still a disposition to believe but no actual dispositional belief.<sup id="cite_ref-Audi_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Audi-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On a dispositionalist conception of belief, there are no occurrent beliefs, since all beliefs are defined in terms of dispositions.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwitzgebel_4-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwitzgebel-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Full_and_partial">Full and partial</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Full and partial"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An important dispute in formal epistemology concerns the question of whether beliefs should be conceptualized as <i>full</i> beliefs or as <i>partial</i> beliefs.<sup id="cite_ref-Genin_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Genin-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Full beliefs are all-or-nothing attitudes: either one has a belief in a proposition or one does not. This conception is sufficient to understand many belief ascriptions found in everyday language: for example, Pedro's belief that the Earth is bigger than the Moon. But some cases involving comparisons between beliefs are not easily captured through full beliefs alone: for example, that Pedro's belief that the Earth is bigger than the Moon is more certain than his belief that the Earth is bigger than Venus. Such cases are most naturally analyzed in terms of partial beliefs involving degrees of belief, so-called <i><a href="/wiki/Credence_(statistics)" title="Credence (statistics)">credences</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Genin_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Genin-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Olsson_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Olsson-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The higher the degree of a belief, the more certain the believer is that the believed proposition is true.<sup id="cite_ref-Hartmann_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hartmann-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is usually formalized by numbers between 0 and 1: a degree of 1 represents an absolutely certain belief, a belief of 0 corresponds to an absolutely certain disbelief and all the numbers in between correspond to intermediate degrees of certainty. In the <a href="/wiki/Bayesian_epistemology" title="Bayesian epistemology">Bayesian approach</a>, these degrees are interpreted as <a href="/wiki/Subjective_probabilities" class="mw-redirect" title="Subjective probabilities">subjective probabilities</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pettigrew_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pettigrew-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> e.g. a belief of degree 0.9 that it will rain tomorrow means that the agent thinks that the probability of rain tomorrow is 90%. Bayesianism uses this relation between beliefs and probability to define the norms of rationality in terms of the laws of probability.<sup id="cite_ref-Hartmann_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hartmann-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This includes both synchronic laws about what one should believe at any moment and diachronic laws about how one should revise one's beliefs upon receiving new evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-Olsson_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Olsson-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hartmann_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hartmann-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The central question in the dispute between full and partial beliefs is whether these two types are really distinct types or whether one type can be explained in terms of the other.<sup id="cite_ref-Genin_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Genin-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One answer to this question is called the <i>Lockean thesis</i>. It states that partial beliefs are basic and that full beliefs are to be conceived as partial beliefs above a certain threshold: for example, every belief above 0.9 is a full belief.<sup id="cite_ref-Genin_24-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Genin-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Defenders of a primitive notion of full belief, on the other hand, have tried to explain partial beliefs as full beliefs about probabilities.<sup id="cite_ref-Genin_24-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Genin-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On this view, having a partial belief of degree 0.9 that it will rain tomorrow is the same as having a full belief that the probability of rain tomorrow is 90%. Another approach circumvents the notion of probability altogether and replaces degrees of belief with degrees of disposition to revise one's full belief.<sup id="cite_ref-Genin_24-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Genin-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From this perspective, both a belief of degree 0.6 and a belief of degree 0.9 may be seen as full beliefs. The difference between them is that the former belief can readily be changed upon receiving new evidence while the latter is more stable.<sup id="cite_ref-Genin_24-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Genin-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Belief-in_and_belief-that">Belief-in and belief-that</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Belief-in and belief-that"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Traditionally, philosophers have mainly focused in their inquiries concerning belief on the notion of <i>belief-that</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Price_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Price-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Belief-that can be characterized as a <a href="/wiki/Propositional_attitude" title="Propositional attitude">propositional attitude</a> to a claim which is either true or false. <i>Belief-in</i>, on the other hand, is more closely related to notions like trust or faith in that it refers usually to an attitude to persons.<sup id="cite_ref-Price_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Price-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Belief-in</i> plays a central role in many <a href="/wiki/Religious_traditions" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious traditions">religious traditions</a> in which <i>belief in God</i> is one of the central virtues of their followers.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The difference between belief-in and belief-that is sometimes blurry since various expressions using the term "belief in" seem to be translatable into corresponding expressions using the term "belief that" instead.<sup id="cite_ref-Macintosh2_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Macintosh2-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, a <i>belief in</i> fairies may be said to be a <i>belief that</i> fairies exist.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this sense, belief-in is often used when the entity is not real, or its existence is in doubt. Typical examples would include: "he believes in witches and ghosts" or "many children believe in <a href="/wiki/Santa_Claus" title="Santa Claus">Santa Claus</a>" or "I believe in a deity".<sup id="cite_ref-Macintosh_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Macintosh-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Not all usages of belief-in concern the existence of something: some are <i>commendatory</i> in that they express a positive attitude towards their object.<sup id="cite_ref-Macintosh_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Macintosh-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Price_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Price-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been suggested that these cases can also be accounted for in terms of belief-that. For example, a <i>belief in</i> marriage could be translated as a <i>belief that</i> marriage is good.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Belief-in is used in a similar sense when expressing <a href="/wiki/Self-confidence" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-confidence">self-confidence</a> or faith in one's self or one's abilities. </p><p>Defenders of a reductive account of belief-in have used this line of thought to argue that <i>belief in God</i> can be analyzed in a similar way: e.g. that it amounts to a belief that God exists with his characteristic attributes, like <a href="/wiki/Omniscience" title="Omniscience">omniscience</a> and <a href="/wiki/Omnipotence" title="Omnipotence">omnipotence</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams_32-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Opponents of this account often concede that belief-in may entail various forms of belief-that, but that there are additional aspects to belief-in that are not reducible to belief-that.<sup id="cite_ref-Macintosh2_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Macintosh2-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, a <i>belief in</i> an ideal may involve the <i>belief that</i> this ideal is something good, but it additionally involves a positive evaluative attitude toward this ideal that goes beyond a mere propositional attitude.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams_32-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Applied to the <i>belief in</i> God, opponents of the reductive approach may hold that a <i>belief that</i> God exists may be a necessary pre-condition for <i>belief in</i> God, but that it is not sufficient.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams_32-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Macintosh2_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Macintosh2-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="De_dicto_and_de_re"><i>De dicto</i> and <i>de re</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: De dicto and de re"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/De_dicto_and_de_re" title="De dicto and de re">De dicto and de re</a></div> <p>The difference between <i>de dicto</i> and <i>de re</i> beliefs or the corresponding ascriptions concerns the contributions singular terms like names and other referential devices make to the semantic properties of the belief or its ascription.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwitzgebel_4-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwitzgebel-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Broackes_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Broackes-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In regular contexts, the <a href="/wiki/Truth-value" class="mw-redirect" title="Truth-value">truth-value</a> of a sentence does not change upon substitution of co-referring terms.<sup id="cite_ref-Nelson_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nelson-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, since the names "Superman" and "Clark Kent" refer to the same person, we can replace one with the other in the sentence "Superman is strong" without changing its truth-value; this issue is more complicated in case of belief ascriptions.<sup id="cite_ref-Nelson_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nelson-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, Lois believes that Superman is strong but she does not believe that Clark Kent is strong.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwitzgebel_4-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwitzgebel-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This difficulty arises due to the fact that she does not know that the two names refer to the same entity. Beliefs or belief ascriptions for which this substitution does not generally work are <i>de dicto</i>, otherwise, they are <i>de re</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwitzgebel_4-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwitzgebel-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Nelson_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nelson-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Broackes_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Broackes-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a <i>de re</i> sense, Lois does believe that Clark Kent is strong, while in a <i>de dicto</i> sense she does not. The contexts corresponding to <i>de dicto</i> ascriptions are known as <a href="/wiki/Opaque_context" title="Opaque context">referentially opaque contexts</a> while <i>de re</i> ascriptions are referentially transparent.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwitzgebel_4-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwitzgebel-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Nelson_36-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nelson-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Collective_belief">Collective belief</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Collective belief"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A collective belief is referred to when people speak of what "we" believe when this is not simply elliptical for what "we all" believe.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sociologist <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a> wrote of collective beliefs and proposed that they, like all "<a href="/wiki/Social_fact" title="Social fact">social facts</a>", "inhered in" social <a href="/wiki/Group_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Group (sociology)">groups</a> as opposed to individual persons. <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Dancy" title="Jonathan Dancy">Jonathan Dancy</a> states that "Durkheim's discussion of collective belief, though suggestive, is relatively obscure".<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Gilbert" title="Margaret Gilbert">Margaret Gilbert</a> has offered a related account in terms of the joint commitment of a number of persons as a body to accept a certain belief. According to this account, individuals who together collectively believe something need not personally believe it individually. Gilbert's work on the topic has stimulated a developing literature among philosophers.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One question that has arisen is whether and how philosophical accounts of belief in general need to be sensitive to the possibility of collective belief. </p><p>Collective belief can play a role in <a href="/wiki/Control_theory_(sociology)" title="Control theory (sociology)">social control</a><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and serve as a touchstone for identifying and purging <a href="/wiki/Heresies" class="mw-redirect" title="Heresies">heresies</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">deviancy</a><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or political <a href="/wiki/Deviationism" title="Deviationism">deviationism</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contents">Contents</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Contents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As <a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">mental representations</a>, beliefs have contents, which is what the belief is about or what it represents. Within philosophy, there are various disputes about how the contents of beliefs are to be understood. Holists and molecularists hold that the content of one particular belief depends on or is determined by other beliefs belonging to the same subject, which is denied by atomists. The question of dependence or determination also plays a central role in the internalism-externalism- debate. Internalism states that the contents of someone's beliefs depend only on what is internal to that person and are determined entirely by things going on inside this person's head. Externalism, on the other hand, holds that the relations to one's environment also have a role to play in this. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Atomism,_molecularism_and_holism"><span id="Atomism.2C_molecularism_and_holism"></span>Atomism, molecularism and holism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Atomism, molecularism and holism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The disagreement between <i>atomism, molecularism and holism</i> concerns the question of how the content of one belief depends on the contents of other beliefs held by the same subject.<sup id="cite_ref-Block_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Block-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Atomists deny such dependence relations, molecularists restrict them to only a few closely related beliefs while holists hold that they may obtain between any two beliefs, however unrelated they seem.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwitzgebel_4-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwitzgebel-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pitt_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pitt-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Block_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Block-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, assume that Mei and Benjamin both affirm that <a href="/wiki/Jupiter" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a> is a planet. The most straightforward explanation, given by the atomists, would be that they have the same belief, i.e. that they hold the same content to be true. But now assume that Mei also believes that <a href="/wiki/Pluto" title="Pluto">Pluto</a> is a planet, which is denied by Benjamin. This indicates that they have different concepts of <a href="/wiki/Planet" title="Planet">planet</a>, which would mean that they were affirming different contents when they both agreed that Jupiter is a planet. This reasoning leads to molecularism or holism because the content of the Jupiter-belief depends on the Pluto-belief in this example.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwitzgebel_4-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwitzgebel-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Block_43-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Block-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An important motivation for this position comes from <a href="/wiki/W._V._Quine" class="mw-redirect" title="W. V. Quine">W. V. Quine</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Confirmational_holism" class="mw-redirect" title="Confirmational holism">confirmational holism</a>, which holds that, because of this interconnectedness, we cannot confirm or disconfirm individual hypotheses, that confirmation happens on the level of the theory as a whole.<sup id="cite_ref-Block_43-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Block-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another motivation is due to considerations of the nature of learning: it is often not possible to understand one concept, like <a href="/wiki/Force" title="Force">force</a> in <a href="/wiki/Newtonian_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Newtonian physics">Newtonian physics</a>, without understanding other concepts, like <a href="/wiki/Mass" title="Mass">mass</a> or <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">kinetic energy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Block_43-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Block-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One problem for holism is that genuine disagreements seem to be impossible or very rare: disputants would usually talk past each other since they never share exactly the same web of beliefs needed to determine the content of the source of the disagreement.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwitzgebel_4-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwitzgebel-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Block_43-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Block-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Internalism_and_externalism">Internalism and externalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Internalism and externalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Internalism and externalism</i> disagree about whether the contents of our beliefs are determined only by what's happening in our head or also by other factors.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwitzgebel_4-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwitzgebel-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pitt_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pitt-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rowlands_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rowlands-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Smith_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Internalists deny such a dependence on external factors. They hold that a person and a molecule-by-molecule copy would have exactly the same beliefs. <a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a> objects to this position by way of his <a href="/wiki/Twin_Earth_thought_experiment" title="Twin Earth thought experiment">twin Earth thought experiment</a>. He imagines a twin Earth in another part of the universe that is exactly like ours, except that their water has a different chemical composition despite behaving just like ours.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwitzgebel_4-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwitzgebel-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rowlands_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rowlands-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Smith_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Putnam, the reader's thought that water is wet is about <i>our water</i> while the reader's twin's thought on twin Earth that water is wet is about <i>their water</i>. This is the case despite the fact that the two readers have the same molecular composition. So it seems necessary to include external factors in order to explain the difference. One problem with this position is that this difference in content does not bring any causal difference with it: the two readers act in exactly the same way. This casts doubt on the thesis that there is any genuine difference in need of explanation between the contents of the two beliefs.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwitzgebel_4-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwitzgebel-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rowlands_45-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rowlands-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Smith_46-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Epistemology">Epistemology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Epistemology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Classical_definition_of_Kno.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Classical_definition_of_Kno.svg/250px-Classical_definition_of_Kno.svg.png" decoding="async" width="236" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Classical_definition_of_Kno.svg/500px-Classical_definition_of_Kno.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="342" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Venn_diagram" title="Venn diagram">Venn diagram</a> illustrating the traditional <a href="/wiki/Definition_of_knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Definition of knowledge">definition of knowledge</a> as justified true belief (represented by the yellow circle). The Gettier problem gives us reason to think that not all justified true beliefs constitute knowledge.</figcaption></figure> <p>Epistemology is concerned with delineating the boundary between justified belief and <a href="/wiki/Opinion" title="Opinion">opinion</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and involved generally with a theoretical <a href="/wiki/Philosophical" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophical">philosophical</a> study of <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a>. The primary problem in epistemology is to understand what is needed to have knowledge. In a notion derived from <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>'s dialogue <i><a href="/wiki/Theaetetus_(dialogue)" title="Theaetetus (dialogue)">Theaetetus</a></i>, where the epistemology of <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> most clearly departs from that of the <a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">sophists</a>, who appear to have defined knowledge as "<a href="/wiki/Justified_true_belief" class="mw-redirect" title="Justified true belief">justified true belief</a>". The tendency to base knowledge (<i><a href="/wiki/Episteme" title="Episteme">episteme</a></i>) on common opinion (<i><a href="/wiki/Doxa" title="Doxa">doxa</a></i>) Socrates dismisses, results from failing to distinguish a <a href="/wiki/Dispositive" class="mw-redirect" title="Dispositive">dispositive</a> belief (<i>doxa</i>) from knowledge (<i>episteme</i>) when the opinion is regarded correct (n.b., <i>orthé</i> not <i><a href="/wiki/Alethia" class="mw-redirect" title="Alethia">alethia</a></i>), in terms of right, and juristically so (according to the premises of the dialogue), which was the task of the <a href="/wiki/Rhetor" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhetor">rhetors</a> to prove. Plato dismisses this possibility of an affirmative relation between opinion and knowledge even when the one who opines grounds his belief on the rule and is able to add justification (<i><a href="/wiki/Logos" title="Logos">logos</a></i>: reasonable and necessarily plausible assertions/evidence/guidance) to it.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> A belief can be based fully or partially on <a href="/wiki/Intuition" title="Intuition">intuition</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Plato has been credited for the <i>justified true belief</i> theory of knowledge, even though Plato in the <i>Theaetetus</i> elegantly dismisses it, and even posits this argument of Socrates as a cause for his death penalty. The epistemologists, <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Gettier" title="Edmund Gettier">Gettier</a><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Alvin_Goldman" title="Alvin Goldman">Goldman</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have questioned the "justified true belief" definition. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Justified_true_belief">Justified true belief</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Justified true belief"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Definitions_of_knowledge#Justified_true_belief" title="Definitions of knowledge">Definitions of knowledge § Justified true belief</a></div> <p><b>Justified true belief</b> is a definition of <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a> that gained approval during the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>, "justified" standing in contrast to "revealed". There have been attempts to trace it back to <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> and his dialogues, more specifically in the <i><a href="/wiki/Theaetetus_(dialogue)" title="Theaetetus (dialogue)">Theaetetus</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Meno" title="Meno">Meno</a></i>. The concept of justified true belief states that in order to know that a given proposition is true, one must not only believe the relevant true proposition but also have justification for doing so. In more formal terms, an agent <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>S</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4611d85173cd3b508e67077d4a1252c9c05abca2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.499ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S}" /></span> knows that a proposition <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle P}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>P</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle P}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b4dc73bf40314945ff376bd363916a738548d40a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.745ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle P}" /></span> is true <a href="/wiki/If_and_only_if" title="If and only if">if and only if</a>: </p> <ul><li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle P}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>P</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle P}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b4dc73bf40314945ff376bd363916a738548d40a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.745ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle P}" /></span> is true</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>S</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4611d85173cd3b508e67077d4a1252c9c05abca2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.499ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S}" /></span> believes that <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle P}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>P</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle P}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b4dc73bf40314945ff376bd363916a738548d40a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.745ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle P}" /></span> is true, and</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>S</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4611d85173cd3b508e67077d4a1252c9c05abca2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.499ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S}" /></span> is justified in believing that <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle P}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>P</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle P}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b4dc73bf40314945ff376bd363916a738548d40a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.745ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle P}" /></span> is true</li></ul> <p>That theory of knowledge suffered a significant setback with the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Gettier_problem" title="Gettier problem">Gettier problems</a>, situations in which the above conditions were seemingly met but where many philosophers deny that anything is known.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Robert Nozick</a> suggested a <a href="/wiki/Gettier_problems#Fred_Dretske's_conclusive_reasons_and_Robert_Nozick's_truth-tracking" class="mw-redirect" title="Gettier problems">clarification</a> of "justification" which he believed eliminates the problem: the justification has to be such that were the justification false, the knowledge would be false.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bernecker and Dretske (2000) argue that "no epistemologist since Gettier has seriously and successfully defended the traditional view."<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 3">: 3 </span></sup> On the other hand, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Boghossian" title="Paul Boghossian">Paul Boghossian</a> argues that the justified true belief account is the "standard, widely accepted" definition of knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-Boghossian_on_Justification_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boghossian_on_Justification-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Belief_systems">Belief systems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Belief systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <b>belief system</b> comprises a set of mutually supportive beliefs. The beliefs of any such system can be <a href="/wiki/Religious_belief" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious belief">religious</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophical</a>, <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">political</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">ideological</a>, or a combination of these.<sup id="cite_ref-meadows2008_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-meadows2008-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Glover's_view"><span id="Glover.27s_view"></span>Glover's view</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Glover's view"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The British philosopher <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Glover" title="Jonathan Glover">Jonathan Glover</a>, following Meadows (2008), says that beliefs are always part of a belief system, and that tenanted belief systems are difficult for the tenants to completely revise or reject.<sup id="cite_ref-BitesGlover_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BitesGlover-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He suggests that beliefs have to be considered <a href="/wiki/Holistically" class="mw-redirect" title="Holistically">holistically</a>, and that no belief exists in isolation in the mind of the believer. Each belief always implicates and relates to other beliefs.<sup id="cite_ref-BitesGlover_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BitesGlover-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Glover provides the example of a patient with an illness who returns to a doctor, but the doctor says that the prescribed medicine is not working. At that point, the patient has a great deal of flexibility in choosing what beliefs to keep or reject: the patient could believe that the doctor is incompetent, that the doctor's assistants made a mistake, that the patient's own body is unique in some unexpected way, that Western medicine is ineffective, or even that Western science is entirely unable to discover truths about ailments.<sup id="cite_ref-BitesGlover_57-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BitesGlover-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This insight has relevance for <a href="/wiki/Inquisitor" title="Inquisitor">inquisitors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Missionaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Missionaries">missionaries</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agitprop" title="Agitprop">agitprop</a> groups and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/thought_police" class="extiw" title="wikt:thought police">thought-police</a>. The British philosopher <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Law" title="Stephen Law">Stephen Law</a> has described some belief systems (including belief in <a href="/wiki/Homeopathy" title="Homeopathy">homeopathy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychic_powers" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychic powers">psychic powers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alien_abduction" title="Alien abduction">alien abduction</a>) as <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/claptrap" class="extiw" title="wikt:claptrap">"claptrap"</a> and says that such belief-systems can "draw people in and hold them captive so they become willing slaves of claptrap ... if you get sucked in, it can be extremely difficult to think your way clear again".<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religion">Religion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Religious_text_primary plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>uses <a href="/wiki/Religious_text" title="Religious text">texts from within a religion or faith system</a></b> without referring to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:PSTS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:PSTS">secondary sources</a> that critically analyze them.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Belief&action=edit">improve this article</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Belief" title="Special:EditPage/Belief">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Belief%22">"Belief"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Belief%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Belief%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Belief%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Belief%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Belief%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">Faith</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Religion_collage_updated.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Religion_collage_updated.jpg/250px-Religion_collage_updated.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Religion_collage_updated.jpg/330px-Religion_collage_updated.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Religion_collage_updated.jpg/500px-Religion_collage_updated.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2017" data-file-height="1382" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <p>Religion is a personal set or institutionalized system of religious attitudes, beliefs, and practices; the service or worship of God or the supernatural.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Religious belief is distinct from <a href="/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">religious practice</a> and from <a href="/wiki/Religious_behaviour" title="Religious behaviour">religious behaviours</a>—with some believers not practicing <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a> and some practitioners not believing religion. <i>Belief</i> is no less of a theoretical term than is <i>religion</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Religious beliefs often relate to the existence, characteristics and worship of a <a href="/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">deity</a> or deities, to the idea of <a href="/wiki/Miracle" title="Miracle">divine intervention</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Personal_life" title="Personal life">human life</a>, or to the <a href="/wiki/Deontological" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontological">deontological</a> explanations for the values and practices centered on the teachings of a <a href="/wiki/Spiritual_leader" class="mw-redirect" title="Spiritual leader">spiritual leader</a> or <a href="/wiki/Community" title="Community">community</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Nye_2008_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nye_2008-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast to other <a href="/wiki/Belief_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Belief system">belief systems</a>, religious beliefs are usually <a href="/wiki/Codification_(law)" title="Codification (law)">codified</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Forms">Forms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Forms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A popular view holds that different religions each have identifiable and exclusive sets of beliefs or <a href="/wiki/Creed" title="Creed">creeds</a>, but surveys of religious belief have often found that the official doctrine and descriptions of the beliefs offered by religious authorities do not always agree with the privately held beliefs of those who identify as members of a particular religion.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For a broad classification of the kinds of religious belief, see below. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Fundamentalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Religious_fundamentalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious fundamentalism">Religious fundamentalism</a></div> <p>First self-applied as a term to the conservative doctrine outlined by anti-modernist <a href="/wiki/Protestants" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestants">Protestants</a> in the United States,<sup id="cite_ref-A.C._Dixon_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-A.C._Dixon-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "fundamentalism" in religious terms denotes strict adherence to an interpretation of scriptures that are generally associated with theologically conservative positions or traditional understandings of the text and are distrustful of innovative readings, new revelation, or alternative interpretations.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Religious fundamentalism has been identified<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (November 2017)">by whom?</span></a></i>]</sup> in the media as being associated with <a href="/wiki/Fanaticism" title="Fanaticism">fanatical</a> or <a href="/wiki/Zealotry" class="mw-redirect" title="Zealotry">zealous</a> political movements around the world that have used a strict adherence to a particular religious doctrine as a means to establish political identity and to enforce societal norms.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Orthodoxy">Orthodoxy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Orthodoxy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Orthodoxy" title="Orthodoxy">Orthodoxy</a></div> <p>First used in the context of <a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a>, the term "orthodoxy" relates to religious belief that closely follows the edicts, <a href="/wiki/Apologetics" title="Apologetics">apologies</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">hermeneutics</a> of a prevailing religious authority. In the case of Early Christianity, this authority was the communion of bishops, and is often referred to by the term "<a href="/wiki/Magisterium" title="Magisterium">Magisterium</a>". The term <i>orthodox</i> was applied<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (November 2017)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup> almost as an epithet to a group of Jewish believers who held to pre-Enlightenment understanding of Judaism—now known as <a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox Judaism</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox Church</a> of Christianity and the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> each consider themselves to be the true heir to Early Christian belief and practice. The antonym of "orthodox" is "<a href="/wiki/Heterodox" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterodox">heterodox</a>", and those adhering to orthodoxy often accuse the heterodox of <a href="/wiki/Apostasy" title="Apostasy">apostasy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Schism_(religion)" class="mw-redirect" title="Schism (religion)">schism</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy">heresy</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Modernism/reform"><span id="Modernism.2Freform"></span>Modernism/reform</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Modernism/reform"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> and later the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> in Europe exhibited varying degrees of <a href="/wiki/Religious_tolerance" title="Religious tolerance">religious tolerance</a> and intolerance towards new and old religious ideas. The <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophes" title="Philosophes">philosophes</a></i> took particular exception to many of the more fantastical claims of religions and directly challenged religious authority and the prevailing beliefs associated with the established churches. In response to the liberalizing political and social movements, some religious groups attempted to integrate Enlightenment ideals of rationality, equality, and individual liberty into their belief systems, especially in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. <a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform Judaism</a><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Christianity" title="Liberal Christianity">Liberal Christianity</a> offer two examples of such religious associations. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Attitudes_to_other_religions">Attitudes to other religions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Attitudes to other religions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Adherents of particular religions deal with the differing doctrines and practices espoused by other religions or by other <a href="/wiki/Religious_denomination" title="Religious denomination">religious denominations</a> in a variety of ways. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Exclusivism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Religious_exclusivism" title="Religious exclusivism">Religious exclusivism</a></div> <p>People with exclusivist beliefs typically explain other beliefs either as in error, or as corruptions or counterfeits of the <a href="/wiki/One_true_faith" class="mw-redirect" title="One true faith">true faith</a>. This approach is a fairly consistent feature among smaller <a href="/wiki/New_religious_movement" title="New religious movement">new religious movements</a> that often rely on doctrine that claims a unique <a href="/wiki/Revelation" title="Revelation">revelation</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Founders_of_religious_traditions" class="mw-redirect" title="Founders of religious traditions">founders</a> or <a href="/wiki/Leader" class="mw-redirect" title="Leader">leaders</a>, and considers it a matter of faith that the "correct" religion has a monopoly on truth. All three major <a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic monotheistic religions</a> have passages in their holy scriptures that attest to the primacy of the scriptural testimony, and indeed <a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">monotheism</a> itself is often<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="This term requires quantification. (June 2018)">quantify</span></a></i>]</sup> vouched<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (November 2017)">by whom?</span></a></i>]</sup> as an innovation characterized specifically by its explicit rejection of earlier polytheistic faiths. </p><p>Some exclusivist faiths incorporate a specific element of <a href="/wiki/Proselytization" class="mw-redirect" title="Proselytization">proselytization</a>. This is a strongly-held belief in the Christian tradition which follows the doctrine of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Commission" title="Great Commission">Great Commission</a>, and is less emphasized by the Islamic faith where the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quranic</a> edict "There shall be no compulsion in religion" (2:256) is often quoted as a justification for toleration of alternative beliefs. The <a href="/wiki/Conversion_to_Judaism" title="Conversion to Judaism">Jewish tradition</a> does not actively seek out converts. </p><p>Exclusivism correlates with conservative, fundamentalist, and orthodox approaches of many religions, while pluralistic and syncretist approaches either explicitly downplay or reject the exclusivist tendencies within a religion.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Inclusivism">Inclusivism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Inclusivism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>People with <a href="/wiki/Inclusivism" title="Inclusivism">inclusivist</a> beliefs recognize some truth in all faith <a href="/wiki/System" title="System">systems</a>, highlighting agreements and minimizing differences. This attitude is sometimes associated<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (November 2017)">by whom?</span></a></i>]</sup> with <a href="/wiki/Interfaith_dialog" class="mw-redirect" title="Interfaith dialog">Interfaith dialogue</a> or with the Christian <a href="/wiki/Ecumenical" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecumenical">Ecumenical</a> movement, though in principle such attempts at pluralism are not necessarily inclusivist and many actors in such interactions (for example, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a>) still hold to exclusivist dogma while participating in inter-religious organizations. Explicitly inclusivist religions include many that are associated with the <a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a> movement, as well as modern reinterpretations of <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí Faith</a> considers it doctrine that there is truth in all faith systems. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Religious_pluralism" title="Religious pluralism">Pluralism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syncretism" title="Syncretism">syncretism</a> are two closely related concepts. People with pluralist beliefs make no distinction between faith systems, viewing each one as valid within a particular culture. People with syncretic views blend the views of a variety of different religions or traditional beliefs into a unique fusion which suits their particular <a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">experiences</a> and contexts (<a href="/wiki/Eclecticism" title="Eclecticism">eclecticism</a>). <a href="/wiki/Unitarian_Universalism" title="Unitarian Universalism">Unitarian Universalism</a> exemplifies a syncretic faith. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adherence">Adherence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Adherence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Existence_of_God" title="Existence of God">Existence of God</a></div> <p>Typical reasons for adherence to religion include the following: </p> <ul><li>Some see belief in a deity as necessary for <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">moral behavior</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-moore_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-moore-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Some regard religious practices as serene, beautiful, and conducive to religious experiences, which in turn support religious beliefs.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Organized religions promote a <a href="/wiki/Sense_of_community" title="Sense of community">sense of community</a> among their followers, and the moral and cultural common ground of these communities makes them attractive to people with similar <a href="/wiki/Values" class="mw-redirect" title="Values">values</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-repa_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-repa-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indeed, while religious beliefs and practices are usually connected, some individuals with substantially secular beliefs still participate in religious practices for cultural reasons.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Each religion asserts that it is a means by which its adherents may come into closer contact with the Divine, with Truth, and with <a href="/w/index.php?title=Spiritual_power&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Spiritual power (page does not exist)">spiritual power</a>. They all promise to free adherents from spiritual bondage, and to bring them into spiritual freedom. It naturally follows that a religion which can free its adherents from deception, sin, and spiritual death will have significant mental-health benefits. <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Maslow" title="Abraham Maslow">Abraham Maslow</a>'s research after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> showed that <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">Holocaust</a> survivors tended to be those who held strong religious beliefs (not necessarily temple attendance, etc.), suggesting that belief helped people cope in extreme circumstances. <a href="/wiki/Humanistic_psychology" title="Humanistic psychology">Humanistic psychology</a> went on to investigate how religious or spiritual identity may have correlations with longer lifespan and better health. The study found that humans may particularly need religious ideas to serve various emotional needs such as the need to feel loved, the need to belong to homogeneous groups, the need for understandable explanations and the need for a guarantee of ultimate justice. Other factors may involve sense of <a href="/wiki/Motivation" title="Motivation">purpose</a>, sense of <a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">identity</a>, or a sense of contact with the divine. See also <i><a href="/wiki/Man%27s_Search_for_Meaning" title="Man's Search for Meaning">Man's Search for Meaning</a></i>, by <a href="/wiki/Viktor_Frankl" title="Viktor Frankl">Viktor Frankl</a>, detailing his experience with the importance of religion in surviving the Holocaust. Critics assert that the very fact that religion was the primary selector for research subjects may have introduced a bias, and that the fact that all subjects were Holocaust survivors may also have had an effect. According to Larson et al. (2000), "[m]ore longitudinal research with better multidimensional measures will help further clarify the roles of these [religious] factors and whether they are beneficial or harmful."<sup id="cite_ref-larson_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-larson-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Psychologist <a href="/wiki/James_Alcock" title="James Alcock">James Alcock</a> also summarizes a number of apparent benefits which reinforce religious belief. These include prayer appearing to account for successful resolution of problems, "a bulwark against existential anxiety and fear of annihilation," an increased sense of control, companionship with one's deity, a source of self-significance, and group identity.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Apostasy">Apostasy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Apostasy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Apostasy" title="Apostasy">Apostasy</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Existence_of_God#Arguments_against_the_existence_of_God_or_gods" title="Existence of God">Existence of God § Arguments against the existence of God or gods</a></div> <p>Typical reasons for rejection of religion include: </p> <ul><li>Some people regard certain fundamental doctrines of some religions as illogical, contrary to experience, or unsupported by sufficient <a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">evidence</a>; such people may reject one or more religions for those reasons.<sup id="cite_ref-russell_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-russell-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even some believers may have difficulty accepting particular religious assertions or doctrines. Some people believe the body of evidence available to humans to be insufficient to justify certain religious beliefs. They may thus disagree with religious interpretations of ethics and human purpose, or with various <a href="/wiki/Creation_myth" title="Creation myth">creation myths</a>. This reason has perhaps<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="The material near this tag possibly contains original research. (November 2017)">original research?</span></a></i>]</sup> been aggravated by the protestations and emphases of some <a href="/wiki/Fundamentalist_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundamentalist Christianity">fundamentalist Christians</a>.</li> <li>Some religions include beliefs that certain groups of people are inferior or sinful and deserve contempt, persecution, or even death, and that non-believers will be punished for their unbelief in an <a href="/wiki/After-life" class="mw-redirect" title="After-life">after-life</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adherents to a religion may feel antipathy to unbelievers. Numerous examples exist of people of one religion or sect using religion as an excuse to murder people with different religious beliefs. To mention just a few examples: <ul><li>the slaughter of the <a href="/wiki/Huguenot" class="mw-redirect" title="Huguenot">Huguenots</a> by French <a href="/wiki/Catholics" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholics">Catholics</a> in the sixteenth century</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslims</a> killing each other when <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> separated from India in 1947</li> <li>the persecution and killing of <a href="/wiki/Shiite" class="mw-redirect" title="Shiite">Shiite</a> Muslims by <a href="/wiki/Sunni" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunni">Sunni</a> Muslims in Iraq</li> <li>the murder of <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestants</a> by <a href="/wiki/Catholics" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholics">Catholics</a> and vice versa in <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> (both of these examples in the late twentieth century)</li> <li>the <a href="/wiki/Israeli%E2%80%93Palestinian_conflict" title="Israeli–Palestinian conflict">Israeli–Palestinian conflict</a> that continues as of 2018<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Belief&action=edit">[update]</a></sup> – According to some critics of religion, such beliefs can encourage completely unnecessary conflicts and in some cases even wars. Many <a href="/wiki/Atheist" class="mw-redirect" title="Atheist">atheists</a> believe that, because of this, religion is incompatible with world peace, freedom, civil rights, equality, and good government. On the other hand, most religions perceive atheism as a threat and will vigorously and even violently<sup id="cite_ref-:0_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> defend themselves against religious sterilization, making the attempt to remove public religious practices a source of strife.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li>Some people may be unable to accept the values that a specific religion promotes and will therefore not join that religion. They may also be unable to accept the proposition that those who do not believe will go to hell or be damned, especially if said nonbelievers are close to the person.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Psychology">Psychology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Psychology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Belief" title="Special:EditPage/Belief">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Belief%22">"Belief"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Belief%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Belief%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Belief%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Belief%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Belief%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Mainstream psychology and related disciplines have traditionally treated belief as if it were the simplest form of mental representation and therefore one of the building blocks of conscious thought.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Philosophers have tended to be more abstract in their analysis, and much of the work examining the viability of the belief concept stems from philosophical analysis.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The concept of belief presumes a subject (the believer) and an object of belief (the proposition). Like other <a href="/wiki/Propositional_attitude" title="Propositional attitude">propositional attitudes</a>, belief implies the existence of <a href="/wiki/Mental_state" title="Mental state">mental states</a> and <a href="/wiki/Intentionality" title="Intentionality">intentionality</a>, both of which are hotly debated topics in the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">philosophy of mind</a>, whose foundations and relation to brain states are still controversial. </p><p>Beliefs are sometimes divided into <a href="/wiki/Core_beliefs" class="mw-redirect" title="Core beliefs">core beliefs</a> (that are actively thought about) and <a href="/wiki/Dispositional_belief" class="mw-redirect" title="Dispositional belief">dispositional beliefs</a> (that may be ascribed to someone who has not thought about the issue). For example, if asked "do you believe tigers wear pink pajamas?" a person might answer that they do not, despite the fact they may never have thought about this situation before.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Philosopher <a href="/wiki/Lynne_Rudder_Baker" title="Lynne Rudder Baker">Lynne Rudder Baker</a> has outlined four main contemporary approaches to belief in her book <i>Saving Belief</i>:<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Our common-sense understanding of belief is correct – Sometimes called the "mental sentence theory," in this conception, beliefs exist as coherent entities, and the way we talk about them in everyday life is a valid basis for scientific endeavor. <a href="/wiki/Jerry_Fodor" title="Jerry Fodor">Jerry Fodor</a> was one of the principal defenders of this point of view.</li> <li>Our common-sense understanding of belief may not be entirely correct, but it is close enough to make some useful predictions – This view argues that we will eventually reject the idea of belief as we know it now, but that there may be a correlation between what we take to be a belief when someone says "I believe that snow is white" and how a future theory of psychology will explain this behavior. Philosopher <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Stich" title="Stephen Stich">Stephen Stich</a> has argued for this particular understanding of belief.</li> <li>Our common-sense understanding of belief is entirely wrong and will be completely superseded by a radically different theory that will have no use for the concept of belief as we know it – Known as <a href="/wiki/Eliminativism" class="mw-redirect" title="Eliminativism">eliminativism</a>, this view (most notably proposed by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Churchland" title="Paul Churchland">Paul</a> and <a href="/wiki/Patricia_Churchland" title="Patricia Churchland">Patricia Churchland</a>) argues that the concept of belief is like obsolete theories of times past such as <a href="/wiki/The_four_humours" class="mw-redirect" title="The four humours">the four humours</a> theory of medicine, or the <a href="/wiki/Phlogiston_theory" title="Phlogiston theory">phlogiston theory</a> of combustion. In these cases science has not provided us with a more detailed account of these theories, but completely rejected them as valid scientific concepts to be replaced by entirely different accounts. The Churchland argue that our common-sense concept of belief is similar in that as we discover more about neuroscience and the brain, the inevitable conclusion will be to reject the belief hypothesis in its entirety.</li> <li>Our common-sense understanding of belief is entirely wrong; however, treating people, animals, and even computers as if they had beliefs is often a successful strategy – The major proponents of this view, <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lynne_Rudder_Baker" title="Lynne Rudder Baker">Lynne Rudder Baker</a>, are both eliminativists in that they hold that beliefs are not a scientifically valid concept, but they do not go as far as rejecting the concept of belief as a predictive device. Dennett gives the example of playing a computer at chess. While few people would agree that the computer held beliefs, treating the computer as if it did (e.g. that the computer believes that taking the opposition's queen will give it a considerable advantage) is likely to be a successful and predictive strategy. In this understanding of belief, named by Dennett <i>the <a href="/wiki/Intentional_stance" title="Intentional stance">intentional stance</a></i>, belief-based explanations of mind and behaviour are at a different level of explanation and are not reducible to those based on fundamental neuroscience, although both may be explanatory at their own level.</li></ul> <p>Strategic approaches make a distinction between rules, norms and beliefs as follows: </p> <ul><li>Rules. Explicit regulative processes such as policies, laws, inspection routines, or incentives. Rules function as a coercive regulator of behavior and are dependent upon the imposing entity's ability to enforce them.</li> <li>Norms. Regulative mechanisms accepted by the social collective. Norms are enforced by normative mechanisms within the organization and are not strictly dependent upon law or regulation.</li> <li>Beliefs. The collective perception of fundamental truths governing behavior. The adherence to accepted and shared beliefs by members of a social system will likely persist and be difficult to change over time. Strong beliefs about determinant factors (i.e., security, survival, or honor) are likely to cause a social entity or group to accept rules and norms.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Belief_formation_and_revision">Belief formation and revision</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Belief formation and revision"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Belief_revision" title="Belief revision">Belief revision</a></div> <p>Belief revision is a term commonly used to refer to the modification of beliefs. An extensive amount of scientific research and philosophical discussion exists around belief revision. Generally speaking, the process of belief revision entails the believer weighing the set of truths and/or evidence, and the dominance of a set of truths or evidence on an alternative to a held belief can lead to revision. One process of belief revision is <a href="/wiki/Bayesian_inference" title="Bayesian inference">Bayesian updating</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Bayesian_inference" title="Bayesian inference">Bayesian inference</a>) and is often referenced for its mathematical basis and conceptual simplicity.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, such a process may not be representative for individuals whose beliefs are not easily characterized as probabilistic. </p><p>There are several techniques for individuals or groups to change the beliefs of others; these methods generally fall under the umbrella of <a href="/wiki/Persuasion" title="Persuasion">persuasion</a>. Persuasion can take on more specific forms such as <a href="/wiki/Consciousness_raising" title="Consciousness raising">consciousness raising</a> when considered in an activist or political context. Belief modification may also occur as a result of the experience of outcomes. Because <a href="/wiki/Goal" title="Goal">goals</a> are based, in part on beliefs, the success or failure at a particular goal may contribute to modification of beliefs that supported the original goal. </p><p>Whether or not belief modification actually occurs is dependent not only on the extent of truths or evidence for the alternative belief, but also characteristics outside the specific truths or evidence. This includes, but is not limited to: the source characteristics of the message, such as <a href="/wiki/Source_credibility" title="Source credibility">credibility</a>; <a href="/wiki/Peer_pressure" title="Peer pressure">social pressures</a>; the anticipated consequences of a modification; or the ability of the individual or group to act on the modification. Therefore, individuals seeking to achieve belief modification in themselves or others need to consider all possible forms of resistance to belief revision. </p><p>Glover maintains that any person can continue to hold any belief if they would really like to<sup id="cite_ref-BitesGlover_57-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BitesGlover-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (for example, with help from <a href="/wiki/Ad_hoc_hypotheses" class="mw-redirect" title="Ad hoc hypotheses"><i>ad hoc</i> hypotheses</a>). One belief can be held fixed, and other beliefs will be altered around it. Glover warns that some beliefs may not be entirely <a href="/wiki/Explicit_memory" title="Explicit memory">explicitly</a> believed (for example, some people may not realize they have racist belief-systems adopted from their environment as a child). Glover believes that people tend to first realize that beliefs can change, and may be contingent on their upbringing, around age 12 or 15.<sup id="cite_ref-BitesGlover_57-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BitesGlover-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Snipa.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Snipa.JPG/250px-Snipa.JPG" decoding="async" width="240" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Snipa.JPG/500px-Snipa.JPG 1.5x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="2112" /></a><figcaption> Philosopher Jonathan Glover warns that belief systems are like whole boats in the water; it is extremely difficult to alter them all at once (for example, it may be too stressful, or people may maintain their biases without realizing it).<sup id="cite_ref-BitesGlover_57-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BitesGlover-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure><p> Glover emphasizes that beliefs are difficult to change. He says that one may try to rebuild one's beliefs on more secure foundations (<a href="/wiki/Axioms" class="mw-redirect" title="Axioms">axioms</a>), like building a new house, but warns that this may not be possible. Glover offers the example of <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a>, saying: "[Descartes] starts off with the characteristic beliefs of a 17th-century Frenchman; he then junks the lot, he rebuilds the system, and somehow it looks a lot like the beliefs of a 17th-century Frenchman." To Glover, belief systems are not like houses but are instead like boats. As Glover puts it: "Maybe the whole thing needs rebuilding, but inevitably at any point you have to keep enough of it intact to keep floating."<sup id="cite_ref-BitesGlover_57-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BitesGlover-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Models_of_belief_formation">Models of belief formation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Models of belief formation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ripples_of_influence.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Ripples_of_influence.jpg/220px-Ripples_of_influence.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Ripples_of_influence.jpg/330px-Ripples_of_influence.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Ripples_of_influence.jpg/440px-Ripples_of_influence.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3888" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>We are influenced by many factors that ripple through our minds as our beliefs form, evolve, and may eventually change.</figcaption></figure> <p>Psychologists study belief formation and the relationship between beliefs and actions. Three types of <i>models of belief formation</i> and change have been proposed: conditional inference process models, linear models and information processing models. </p><p><b>Conditional inference process models</b> emphasize the role of inference for belief formation. When asked to estimate the likelihood that a statement is true, people allegedly search their memory for information that has implications for the validity of this statement. Once this information has been identified, they estimate the likelihood that the statement would be true if the information were true, and the likelihood that the statement would be true if the information were false. If their estimates for these two <a href="/wiki/Probability" title="Probability">probabilities</a> differ, people average them, weighting each by the likelihood that the information is true and false. Thus, information bears directly on beliefs of another, related statement.<sup id="cite_ref-Wyer,_R._S._2005_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wyer,_R._S._2005-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unlike the previous model, <b>linear models</b> take into consideration the possibility of multiple factors influencing belief formation. Using regression procedures, these models predict belief formation on the basis of several different pieces of information, with weights assigned to each piece on the basis of their relative importance.<sup id="cite_ref-Wyer,_R._S._2005_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wyer,_R._S._2005-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Information processing models</b> address the fact that the responses people have to belief-relevant information is unlikely to be predicted from the objective basis of the information that they can recall at the time their beliefs are reported. Instead, these responses reflect the number and meaning of the thoughts that people have about the message at the time that they encounter it.<sup id="cite_ref-Wyer,_R._S._2005_86-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wyer,_R._S._2005-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some influences on people's belief formation include: </p> <ul><li>Internalization of beliefs during childhood, which can form and shape humans' beliefs in different domains. <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> is often quoted as having said that "Common sense is the collection of prejudices acquired by age eighteen." Political beliefs depend most strongly on the political beliefs most common in the community where one lives.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most individuals believe the <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a> they were taught in childhood.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_leader" class="mw-redirect" title="Charismatic leader">Charismatic leaders</a> can form or modify beliefs (even if those beliefs fly in the face of all previous beliefs).<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rational individuals need to reconcile their direct reality with any said belief; therefore, if belief is not present or possible, it reflects the fact that contradictions were necessarily overcome using <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance" title="Cognitive dissonance">cognitive dissonance</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advertising" title="Advertising">Advertising</a> can form or change beliefs through repetition, shock, or association with images of sex, love, beauty, and other strong positive emotions.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Contrary to <a href="/wiki/Intuition" title="Intuition">intuition</a>, a delay, known as the <a href="/wiki/Sleeper_effect" title="Sleeper effect">sleeper effect</a>, instead of immediate succession may increase an advertisement's ability to persuade viewer's beliefs if a discounting cue is present.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Physical trauma, especially to the head, can radically alter a person's beliefs.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>However, even educated people, well aware of the process by which beliefs form, still strongly cling to their beliefs, and act on those beliefs even against their own self-interest. In her book <i>Leadership Therapy</i>, Anna Rowley states: "You want your beliefs to change. It's proof that you are keeping your eyes open, living fully, and welcoming everything that the world and people around you can teach you." This view implies that peoples' beliefs may evolve as they gain new experiences.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prediction">Prediction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Prediction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Different psychological models have tried to predict people's beliefs and some of them try to estimate the exact probabilities of beliefs. For example, <a href="/wiki/Robert_S._Wyer" title="Robert S. Wyer">Robert Wyer</a> developed a model of subjective probabilities.<sup id="cite_ref-Wyer,_R._S._1970_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wyer,_R._S._1970-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-WyerGoldberg_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WyerGoldberg-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When people rate the likelihood of a certain statement (e.g., "It will rain tomorrow"), this rating can be seen as a subjective probability value. The subjective probability model posits that these subjective probabilities follow the same rules as objective probabilities. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_total_probability" title="Law of total probability">law of total probability</a> might be applied to predict a subjective probability value. Wyer found that this model produces relatively accurate predictions for probabilities of single events and for changes in these probabilities, but that the probabilities of several beliefs linked by "and" or "or" do not follow the model as well.<sup id="cite_ref-Wyer,_R._S._1970_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wyer,_R._S._1970-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-WyerGoldberg_95-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WyerGoldberg-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Delusion">Delusion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Delusion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/DSM-5" title="DSM-5">DSM-5</a>, delusions are defined as fixed false beliefs that are not changed even when confronted with conflicting evidence. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Belief_studies">Belief studies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Belief studies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Socio-demographic_correlates_of_witchcraft_beliefs.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Socio-demographic_correlates_of_witchcraft_beliefs.png/220px-Socio-demographic_correlates_of_witchcraft_beliefs.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Socio-demographic_correlates_of_witchcraft_beliefs.png/330px-Socio-demographic_correlates_of_witchcraft_beliefs.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Socio-demographic_correlates_of_witchcraft_beliefs.png/440px-Socio-demographic_correlates_of_witchcraft_beliefs.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1691" /></a><figcaption>Socio-demographic correlates of witchcraft beliefs<sup id="cite_ref-10.1371/journal.pone.0276872_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10.1371/journal.pone.0276872-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>There is research investigating specific beliefs, types of beliefs and patterns of beliefs. For example, a study estimated contemporary prevalence and associations with belief in <a href="/wiki/Witchcraft" title="Witchcraft">witchcraft</a> around the world, which (in its data) varied between 9% and 90% between <a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">nations</a> and is still a widespread element in <a href="/wiki/Reality#World_views_and_theories" title="Reality">worldviews</a> globally. It also shows associations such as with lower "innovative activity", higher levels of anxiety, lower <a href="/wiki/Life_expectancy" title="Life expectancy">life expectancy</a>, and higher <a href="/wiki/Religiosity" title="Religiosity">religiosity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10.1371/journal.pone.0276872_96-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10.1371/journal.pone.0276872-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other research is investigating beliefs in misinformation and their resistance to correction, including with respect to <a href="/wiki/Misinformation#Countermeasures" title="Misinformation">misinformation countermeasures</a>. It describes cognitive, social and affective processes that leave people vulnerable to the formation of false beliefs.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A study introduced the concept of <i>false social reality</i> which refers to widespread perceptions of public opinion that are shown to be false, such as <a href="/wiki/Public_opinion_on_climate_change" title="Public opinion on climate change">underestimated</a> general <a href="/wiki/Climate_communication" title="Climate communication">public support</a> in the U.S. for <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">climate change mitigation</a> <a href="/wiki/Policy" title="Policy">policies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies also suggested some uses of <a href="/wiki/Psychedelic" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychedelic">psychedelics</a> can shift beliefs in some humans in certain ways, such as increasing attribution of consciousness to various entities (including plants and inanimate objects) and towards <a href="/wiki/Panpsychism" title="Panpsychism">panpsychism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fatalism" title="Fatalism">fatalism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emotion_and_beliefs">Emotion and beliefs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Emotion and beliefs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Belief&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2020</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Research has indicated that <a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">emotion</a> and cognition act in conjunction to produce beliefs, and more specifically emotion plays a vital role in the formation and maintenance of beliefs.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" 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href="/wiki/Culture-specific_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Culture-specific syndrome">Culture-specific syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doxastic_attitudes" title="Doxastic attitudes">Doxastic attitudes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doxastic_logic" title="Doxastic logic">Doxastic logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doxastic_voluntarism" title="Doxastic voluntarism">Doxastic voluntarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expectation_(epistemic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Expectation (epistemic)">Expectation (epistemic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Idea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magical_thinking" title="Magical thinking">Magical thinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moore%27s_paradox" title="Moore's paradox">Moore's paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observer-expectancy_effect" title="Observer-expectancy effect">Observer-expectancy effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opinion" title="Opinion">Opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propositional_knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Propositional knowledge">Propositional knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-deception" title="Self-deception">Self-deception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subject-expectancy_effect" title="Subject-expectancy effect">Subject-expectancy effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_validation" title="Subjective validation">Subjective validation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suggestibility" title="Suggestibility">Suggestibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suggestion" title="Suggestion">Suggestion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_justification" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of justification">Theory of justification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_theorem" title="Thomas theorem">Thomas theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tinkerbell_effect" title="Tinkerbell effect">Tinkerbell effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(social_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trust (social sciences)">Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unintended_consequence" class="mw-redirect" title="Unintended consequence">Unintended consequence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Validity_(logic)" title="Validity (logic)">Validity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(personal_and_cultural)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (personal and cultural)">Value (personal and cultural)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_view" class="mw-redirect" title="World view">World view</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFPrimmer2018" class="citation cs2">Primmer, Justin (2018), "Belief", in Primmer, Justin (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/belief/"><i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i></a>, Stanford, CA: The Metaphysics Research Lab, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191115080001/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/belief/">archived</a> from the original on 15 November 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 September</span> 2008</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Belief&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.place=Stanford%2C+CA&rft.pub=The+Metaphysics+Research+Lab&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Primmer&rft.aufirst=Justin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fbelief%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SEP_Belief-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SEP_Belief_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SEP_Belief_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SEP_Belief_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SEP_Belief_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SEP_Belief_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Multiple+Realizability&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Bickle&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fmultiple-realizability%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Quilty-Dunn-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Quilty-Dunn_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Quilty-Dunn_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFQuilty-DunnMandelbaum2018" class="citation journal cs1">Quilty-Dunn, Jake; Mandelbaum, Eric (1 September 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11098-017-0962-x">"Against dispositionalism: belief in cognitive science"</a>. <i>Philosophical Studies</i>. <b>175</b> (9): <span class="nowrap">2353–</span>2372. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11098-017-0962-x">10.1007/s11098-017-0962-x</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1573-0883">1573-0883</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Studies&rft.atitle=Against+dispositionalism%3A+belief+in+cognitive+science&rft.volume=175&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2353-%3C%2Fspan%3E2372&rft.date=2018-09-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11098-017-0962-x&rft.issn=1573-0883&rft.aulast=Quilty-Dunn&rft.aufirst=Jake&rft.au=Mandelbaum%2C+Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs11098-017-0962-x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Audi-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Audi_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Audi_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Audi_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAudi1999" class="citation book cs1">Audi, Robert (1999). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Belief&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Dictionary+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Audi&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FAUDTCD-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Child1-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Child1_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Child1_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Child1_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFChild1994" class="citation book cs1">Child, William (1994). "1. Interpretationism". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/CHICIA"><i>Causality, Interpretation, and the Mind</i></a>. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160505023634/http://philpapers.org/rec/CHICIA">Archived</a> from the original on 5 May 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=1.+Interpretationism&rft.btitle=Causality%2C+Interpretation%2C+and+the+Mind&rft.pub=Oxford%2C+UK%3A+Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Child&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FCHICIA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDennett1989" class="citation book cs1">Dennett, Daniel (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/intentional-stance"><i>The Intentional Stance</i></a>. The MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0262040938" title="Special:BookSources/978-0262040938"><bdi>978-0262040938</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210415044716/https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/intentional-stance">Archived</a> from the original on 15 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Intentional+Stance&rft.pub=The+MIT+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0262040938&rft.aulast=Dennett&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmitpress.mit.edu%2Fbooks%2Fintentional-stance&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDennett1988" class="citation journal cs1">Dennett, Daniel C. (1988). "Précis of <i>The Intentional Stance</i>". <i>Behavioral and Brain Sciences</i>. <b>11</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">495–</span>505. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.1026.2283">10.1.1.1026.2283</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0140525X00058611">10.1017/S0140525X00058611</a> (inactive 1 November 2024). <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145750868">145750868</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Behavioral+and+Brain+Sciences&rft.atitle=Pr%C3%A9cis+of+The+Intentional+Stance&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E495-%3C%2Fspan%3E505&rft.date=1988&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.1026.2283%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145750868%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0140525X00058611&rft.aulast=Dennett&rft.aufirst=Daniel+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Child4-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Child4_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFChild1994" class="citation book cs1">Child, William (1994). "4. Causalism and Interpretationism: The Problem of Compatibility". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/CHICIA"><i>Causality, Interpretation, and the Mind</i></a>. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160505023634/http://philpapers.org/rec/CHICIA">Archived</a> from the original on 5 May 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=4.+Causalism+and+Interpretationism%3A+The+Problem+of+Compatibility&rft.btitle=Causality%2C+Interpretation%2C+and+the+Mind&rft.pub=Oxford%2C+UK%3A+Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Child&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FCHICIA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWolpert2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Wolpert" title="Lewis Wolpert">Wolpert, Lewis</a> (3 February 2011) [2006]. "Belief". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Zu-Z0ttQj3oC"><i>Six Impossible Things Before Breakfast: The Evolutionary Origins of Belief</i></a> (reprint ed.). London: Faber & Faber. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780571266722" title="Special:BookSources/9780571266722"><bdi>9780571266722</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 December</span> 2023</span>. <q>Causal beliefs are a fundamental characteristic of humans; animals, by contrast, [...] have very few causal beliefs. Beliefs come from a wide variety of sources that include the individual's experiences, the influence of authority, and the interpretation of events. At their core, beliefs establish a cause-and-effect relationship between events [...] From an evolutionary point of view, beliefs should help the individual survive, and I will argue that they had their origin in tool making and use.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Belief&rft.btitle=Six+Impossible+Things+Before+Breakfast%3A+The+Evolutionary+Origins+of+Belief&rft.place=London&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=Faber+%26+Faber&rft.date=2011-02-03&rft.isbn=9780571266722&rft.aulast=Wolpert&rft.aufirst=Lewis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZu-Z0ttQj3oC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bartlett-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bartlett_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bartlett_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBartlett2018" class="citation journal cs1">Bartlett, Gary (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/BAROS-4">"Occurrent States"</a>. <i>Canadian Journal of Philosophy</i>. <b>48</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>17. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00455091.2017.1323531">10.1080/00455091.2017.1323531</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:220316213">220316213</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210504181849/https://philpapers.org/rec/BAROS-4">Archived</a> from the original on 4 May 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Canadian+Journal+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Occurrent+States&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E17&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00455091.2017.1323531&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A220316213%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Bartlett&rft.aufirst=Gary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FBAROS-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Frise-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Frise_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Frise_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFrise2018" class="citation journal cs1">Frise, Matthew (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/FRIETP-3">"Eliminating the Problem of Stored Beliefs"</a>. <i>American Philosophical Quarterly</i>. <b>55</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">63–</span>79. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F45128599">10.2307/45128599</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/45128599">45128599</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:149057271">149057271</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210601042950/https://philpapers.org/rec/FRIETP-3">Archived</a> from the original on 1 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Philosophical+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Eliminating+the+Problem+of+Stored+Beliefs&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E63-%3C%2Fspan%3E79&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A149057271%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F45128599%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F45128599&rft.aulast=Frise&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FFRIETP-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Genin-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Genin_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Genin_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Genin_24-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Genin_24-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Genin_24-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Genin_24-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Genin_24-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGeninHuber2021" class="citation web cs1">Genin, Konstantin; Huber, Franz (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/formal-belief/">"Formal Representations of Belief"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413164951/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/formal-belief/">Archived</a> from the original on 13 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Formal+Representations+of+Belief&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Genin&rft.aufirst=Konstantin&rft.au=Huber%2C+Franz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fformal-belief%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Olsson-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Olsson_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Olsson_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFOlsson2018" class="citation book cs1">Olsson, Erik J. (2018). "Bayesian Epistemology". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/OLSBE"><i>Introduction to Formal Philosophy</i></a>. Springer. pp. <span class="nowrap">431–</span>442. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210516095057/https://philpapers.org/rec/OLSBE">Archived</a> from the original on 16 May 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Bayesian+Epistemology&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Formal+Philosophy&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E431-%3C%2Fspan%3E442&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Olsson&rft.aufirst=Erik+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FOLSBE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hartmann-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hartmann_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hartmann_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hartmann_26-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHartmannSprenger2010" class="citation book cs1">Hartmann, Stephan; Sprenger, Jan (2010). "Bayesian Epistemology". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/BOVSIO"><i>The Routledge Companion to Epistemology</i></a>. London: Routledge. pp. <span class="nowrap">609–</span>620. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210516095047/https://philpapers.org/rec/BOVSIO">Archived</a> from the original on 16 May 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Belief+de+Re+and+de+Dicto&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=144&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E374-%3C%2Fspan%3E383&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2220191&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2220191%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Broackes&rft.aufirst=Justin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FBROBDR&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nelson-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nelson_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nelson_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nelson_36-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nelson_36-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNelson" class="citation web cs1">Nelson, Michael. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/prop-attitude-reports/dere.html">"Propositional Attitude Reports: The De Re/De Dicto Distinction"</a>. <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413223910/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/prop-attitude-reports/dere.html">Archived</a> from the original on 13 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Propositional+Attitude+Reports%3A+The+De+Re%2FDe+Dicto+Distinction&rft.aulast=Nelson&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fprop-attitude-reports%2Fdere.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDancy2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Dancy" title="Jonathan Dancy">Dancy, Jonathan</a> (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WToMZZoTu_QC"><i>A Companion to Epistemology</i></a>. Just the Facts101 (2 ed.). Content Technologies Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1478400028" title="Special:BookSources/978-1478400028"><bdi>978-1478400028</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 April</span> 2019</span>. <q>A collective belief is referred to when people speak of what 'we' believe when this is not simply elliptical for what 'we all' believe.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Epistemology&rft.series=Just+the+Facts101&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Content+Technologies+Inc.&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1478400028&rft.aulast=Dancy&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWToMZZoTu_QC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDancy2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Dancy" title="Jonathan Dancy">Dancy, Jonathan</a> (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WToMZZoTu_QC"><i>A Companion to Epistemology</i></a>. Just the Facts101 (2 ed.). Content Technologies Inc. (published 2016). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1478400028" title="Special:BookSources/978-1478400028"><bdi>978-1478400028</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 April</span> 2019</span>. <q>Sociologist Émile Durkheim wrote of collective beliefs and proposed that they, like all 'social facts', 'inhered in' social groups as opposed to individual persons. Durkheim's discussion of collective belief, though suggestive, is relatively obscure.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Epistemology&rft.series=Just+the+Facts101&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Content+Technologies+Inc.&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1478400028&rft.aulast=Dancy&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWToMZZoTu_QC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGilbert1987" class="citation journal cs1">Gilbert, Margaret (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00485446">"Modelling collective belief"</a>. <i>Synthese</i>. <b>73</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">185–</span>204. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf00485446">10.1007/bf00485446</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0039-7857">0039-7857</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:46976878">46976878</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Synthese&rft.atitle=Modelling+collective+belief&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E185-%3C%2Fspan%3E204&rft.date=1987&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A46976878%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0039-7857&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fbf00485446&rft.aulast=Gilbert&rft.aufirst=Margaret&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1007%2Fbf00485446&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFInnes2003" class="citation book cs1">Innes, Martin (16 December 2003). "A history of the idea of social control". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jwBEBgAAQBAJ"><i>Understanding Social Control: Deviance, crime and social order</i></a>. UK Higher Education OUP Humanities & Social Sciences Criminology. Maidenhead, Berkshire: McGraw-Hill Education (UK). p. 22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780335225880" title="Special:BookSources/9780335225880"><bdi>9780335225880</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 October</span> 2023</span>. <q>[...] all states and all collectives draw upon shared remembrances of the past to establish or preserve a sense of shared identity and a collective belief system. A coherent approach to understanding the functions of social control for collective life is to be found in Erikson's (1966) discussion of the social control of witchcraft in seventeenth-century New England.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+history+of+the+idea+of+social+control&rft.btitle=Understanding+Social+Control%3A+Deviance%2C+crime+and+social+order&rft.place=Maidenhead%2C+Berkshire&rft.series=UK+Higher+Education+OUP+Humanities+%26+Social+Sciences+Criminology&rft.pages=22&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Education+%28UK%29&rft.date=2003-12-16&rft.isbn=9780335225880&rft.aulast=Innes&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjwBEBgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSandkühler2011" class="citation book cs1">Sandkühler, Hans Jörg (23 December 2011). "Critique of Representation: Cultures of Knowledge - Humanly Speaking". In <a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCnter_Abel" title="Günter Abel">Abel, Günter</a>; <a href="/wiki/James_F._Conant" title="James F. Conant">Conant, James</a> (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=py412Sy7XpwC"><i>Rethinking Epistemology</i></a>. Berlin Studies in Knowledge Research, volume 1. Vol. 1. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. p. 185. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110253573" title="Special:BookSources/9783110253573"><bdi>9783110253573</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 October</span> 2023</span>. <q>Collective belief systems are characterized by the belief of knowing what counts as proper beliefs; divergence is condemned as heresy, betrayal, apostasy, etc.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Critique+of+Representation%3A+Cultures+of+Knowledge+-+Humanly+Speaking&rft.btitle=Rethinking+Epistemology&rft.place=Berlin&rft.series=Berlin+Studies+in+Knowledge+Research%2C+volume+1&rft.pages=185&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2011-12-23&rft.isbn=9783110253573&rft.aulast=Sandk%C3%BChler&rft.aufirst=Hans+J%C3%B6rg&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dpy412Sy7XpwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFVisano1998" class="citation book cs1">Visano, L. A. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=g7ZIAAAAYAAJ"><i>Crime and Culture: Refining the Traditions</i></a>. Toronto: Canadian Scholars Press. p. 51. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781551301273" title="Special:BookSources/9781551301273"><bdi>9781551301273</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 October</span> 2023</span>. <q>[...] deviance cannot be studied in isolation nor understood apart from [...] overwhelmingly binding collective belief systems.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crime+and+Culture%3A+Refining+the+Traditions&rft.place=Toronto&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=Canadian+Scholars+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9781551301273&rft.aulast=Visano&rft.aufirst=L.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dg7ZIAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Block-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Block_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Block_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Block_43-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Block_43-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Block_43-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Block_43-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBlock1996" class="citation book cs1">Block, Ned (1996). "Holism, Mental and Semantic". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/BLOMAS"><i>Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i></a>. Routledge. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160815130429/http://philpapers.org/rec/BLOMAS">Archived</a> from the original on 15 August 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Holism%2C+Mental+and+Semantic&rft.btitle=Routledge+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Block&rft.aufirst=Ned&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FBLOMAS&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWagner1986" class="citation journal cs1">Wagner, Steven J. (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3328733">"Quine's Holism"</a>. <i>Analysis</i>. <b>46</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>6. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3328733">10.2307/3328733</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-2638">0003-2638</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3328733">3328733</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210601042957/https://www.jstor.org/stable/3328733?seq=1">Archived</a> from the original on 1 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413163023/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/content-externalism/">Archived</a> from the original on 13 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Externalism+About+the+Mind&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Rowlands&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft.au=Lau%2C+Joe&rft.au=Deutsch%2C+Max&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fcontent-externalism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Smith-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Smith_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Smith_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Smith_46-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSmith" class="citation web cs1">Smith, Basil. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/int-ex-ml/">"Internalism and Externalism in the Philosophy of Mind and Language"</a>. <i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210506234940/https://iep.utm.edu/int-ex-ml/">Archived</a> from the original on 6 May 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Internalism+and+Externalism+in+the+Philosophy+of+Mind+and+Language&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Basil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiep.utm.edu%2Fint-ex-ml%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Oxford Dictionaries – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/epistemology">definition</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160906221037/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/epistemology">Archived</a> 6 September 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> published by <a href="/wiki/OUP" class="mw-redirect" title="OUP">OUP</a> [Retrieved 2015-08-09]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPust2019" class="citation cs2">Pust, Joel (2019), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2019/entries/intuition/">"Intuition"</a>, in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (Summer 2019 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 September</span> 2022</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Intuition&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.edition=Summer+2019&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Pust&rft.aufirst=Joel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fsum2019%2Fentries%2Fintuition%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGettier1963" class="citation journal cs1">Gettier, E.L. (1963). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01439314/file/2013%20Gettier%20Conocimiento.pdf">"Is justified true belief knowledge?"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Analysis_(journal)" title="Analysis (journal)">Analysis</a></i>. <b>23</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">121–</span>123. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fanalys%2F23.6.121">10.1093/analys/23.6.121</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3326922">3326922</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190902025339/https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01439314/file/2013%2520Gettier%2520Conocimiento.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2 September 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 September</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Analysis&rft.atitle=Is+justified+true+belief+knowledge%3F&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E121-%3C%2Fspan%3E123&rft.date=1963&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fanalys%2F23.6.121&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3326922%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Gettier&rft.aufirst=E.L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhalshs.archives-ouvertes.fr%2Fhalshs-01439314%2Ffile%2F2013%2520Gettier%2520Conocimiento.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGoldman1967" class="citation journal cs1">Goldman, A.I. (1967). "A causal theory of knowing". <i><a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_Philosophy" title="The Journal of Philosophy">The Journal of Philosophy</a></i>. <b>64</b> (12): <span class="nowrap">357–</span>372. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2024268">10.2307/2024268</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2024268">2024268</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53049561">53049561</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=A+causal+theory+of+knowing&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E357-%3C%2Fspan%3E372&rft.date=1967&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A53049561%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2024268%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2024268&rft.aulast=Goldman&rft.aufirst=A.I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The received view holds it that Plato's theory presents knowledge as remembering eternal truths and justification reawakens memory, see <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFine2003" class="citation book cs1">Fine, G. (2003). "Introduction". <i>Plato on Knowledge and Forms: Selected Essays</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">5–</span>7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199245581" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199245581"><bdi>978-0199245581</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Plato+on+Knowledge+and+Forms%3A+Selected+Essays&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E5-%3C%2Fspan%3E7&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0199245581&rft.aulast=Fine&rft.aufirst=G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFChisholm1982" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roderick_Chisholm" title="Roderick Chisholm">Chisholm, Roderick</a> (1982). "Knowledge as Justified True Belief". <i>The Foundations of Knowing</i>. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0816611034" title="Special:BookSources/978-0816611034"><bdi>978-0816611034</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Knowledge+as+Justified+True+Belief&rft.btitle=The+Foundations+of+Knowing&rft.place=Minneapolis&rft.pub=University+of+Minnesota+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0816611034&rft.aulast=Chisholm&rft.aufirst=Roderick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNozick,_Robert.1981" class="citation book cs1">Nozick, Robert. (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780674664791"><i>Philosophical explanations</i></a>. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0674664485" title="Special:BookSources/0674664485"><bdi>0674664485</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/7283862">7283862</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophical+explanations&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass.&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1981&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F7283862&rft.isbn=0674664485&rft.au=Nozick%2C+Robert.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780674664791&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBerneckerDretske2000" class="citation book cs1">Bernecker, Sven; Dretske, Fred (2000). <i>Knowledge. Readings in contemporary epistemology</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0198752615" title="Special:BookSources/978-0198752615"><bdi>978-0198752615</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Knowledge.+Readings+in+contemporary+epistemology&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0198752615&rft.aulast=Bernecker&rft.aufirst=Sven&rft.au=Dretske%2C+Fred&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Boghossian_on_Justification-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Boghossian_on_Justification_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPaul_Boghossian2007" class="citation cs2">Paul Boghossian (2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/fear-of-knowledge-9780199230419?cc=us&lang=en&"><i>Fear of Knowledge: Against relativism and constructivism</i></a>, Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199230419" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199230419"><bdi>978-0199230419</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171007022310/https://global.oup.com/academic/product/fear-of-knowledge-9780199230419?cc=us&lang=en&">archived</a> from the original on 7 October 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 April</span> 2017</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fear+of+Knowledge%3A+Against+relativism+and+constructivism&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0199230419&rft.au=Paul+Boghossian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fglobal.oup.com%2Facademic%2Fproduct%2Ffear-of-knowledge-9780199230419%3Fcc%3Dus%26lang%3Den%26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span>, Chapter 2, p. 15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-meadows2008-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-meadows2008_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"A system is an interconnected set of elements that is coherently organized in a way that achieves something." —<a href="/wiki/Donella_Meadows" title="Donella Meadows">Donella Meadows</a> (2008) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wtf.tw/ref/meadows.pdf">Thinking in Systems: A Primer</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210502081905/https://wtf.tw/ref/meadows.pdf">Archived</a> 2 May 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i> p.11, as quoted by <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://medium.com/intercultural-mindset/belief-systems-what-they-are-and-how-they-affect-you-1cd87aa775ff">Tim Rettig (2017) Belief Systems: what they are and how they affect you</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210516171438/https://medium.com/intercultural-mindset/belief-systems-what-they-are-and-how-they-affect-you-1cd87aa775ff">Archived</a> 16 May 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BitesGlover-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BitesGlover_57-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BitesGlover_57-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BitesGlover_57-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BitesGlover_57-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BitesGlover_57-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BitesGlover_57-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BitesGlover_57-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philosophybites.com/2011/10/jonathan-glover-on-systems-of-belief.html">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Jonathan Glover on systems of belief", Philosophy Bites Podcast, Oct 9 2011"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111014052132/http://philosophybites.com/2011/10/jonathan-glover-on-systems-of-belief.html">Archived</a> from the original on 14 October 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 July</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22Jonathan+Glover+on+systems+of+belief%22%2C+Philosophy+Bites+Podcast%2C+Oct+9+2011&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphilosophybites.com%2F2011%2F10%2Fjonathan-glover-on-systems-of-belief.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFElizabeth_A._Minton,_Lynn_R._Khale2014" class="citation book cs1">Elizabeth A. Minton, Lynn R. Khale (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hk5pngEACAAJ"><i>Belief Systems, Religion, and Behavioral Economics</i></a>. New York: Business Expert Press LLC. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1606497043" title="Special:BookSources/978-1606497043"><bdi>978-1606497043</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191222011727/https://books.google.com/books?id=hk5pngEACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 22 December 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Belief+Systems%2C+Religion%2C+and+Behavioral+Economics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Business+Expert+Press+LLC&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1606497043&rft.au=Elizabeth+A.+Minton%2C+Lynn+R.+Khale&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dhk5pngEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/New_Scientist" title="New Scientist">New Scientist</a></i> (magazine), 11 June 2011 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg21028160.200-a-field-guide-to-bullshit.html">A field guide to bullshit | New Scientist</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150616042330/http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg21028160.200-a-field-guide-to-bullshit.html">Archived</a> 16 June 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> - "Intellectual black holes are belief systems that draw people in and hold them captive so they become willing slaves of claptrap. Belief in homeopathy, psychic powers, alien abductions—these are examples of intellectual black holes. As you approach them, you need to be on your guard because if you get sucked in, it can be extremely difficult to think your way clear again."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/religion">"Definition of RELIGION"</a>. <i>Merriam-Webster</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Merriam-Webster&rft.atitle=Definition+of+RELIGION&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Freligion&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFIiiJongMulukom2018" class="citation journal cs1">Iii, Thomas J. Coleman; Jong, Jonathan; Mulukom, Valerie van (31 August 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/view/journals/copr/15/3/article-p279_279.xml">"Introduction to the Special Issue: What are Religious Beliefs?"</a>. <i>Contemporary Pragmatism</i>. <b>15</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">279–</span>283. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F18758185-01503001">10.1163/18758185-01503001</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1572-3429">1572-3429</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:171838557">171838557</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Contemporary+Pragmatism&rft.atitle=Introduction+to+the+Special+Issue%3A+What+are+Religious+Beliefs%3F&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E279-%3C%2Fspan%3E283&rft.date=2018-08-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A171838557%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1572-3429&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F18758185-01503001&rft.aulast=Iii&rft.aufirst=Thomas+J.+Coleman&rft.au=Jong%2C+Jonathan&rft.au=Mulukom%2C+Valerie+van&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrill.com%2Fview%2Fjournals%2Fcopr%2F15%2F3%2Farticle-p279_279.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nye_2008-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nye_2008_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNye2008" class="citation book cs1">Nye, Malory (2008). <i>Religion: The Basics</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1134059478" title="Special:BookSources/978-1134059478"><bdi>978-1134059478</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion%3A+The+Basics&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1134059478&rft.aulast=Nye&rft.aufirst=Malory&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWittgenstein,_Ludwig2007" class="citation book cs1">Wittgenstein, Ludwig (2007). <i>Lectures and Conversations on Aesthetics, Psychology and Religious Belief</i>. University of California Press. p. 53. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520251816" title="Special:BookSources/978-0520251816"><bdi>978-0520251816</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lectures+and+Conversations+on+Aesthetics%2C+Psychology+and+Religious+Belief&rft.pages=53&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0520251816&rft.au=Wittgenstein%2C+Ludwig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBraithwaite,_R.B.1975" class="citation book cs1">Braithwaite, R.B. (1975). <i>An empiricist's view of the nature of religious belief</i>. Norwood Editions (Norwood, Pa.). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0883059555" title="Special:BookSources/978-0883059555"><bdi>978-0883059555</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+empiricist%27s+view+of+the+nature+of+religious+belief&rft.pub=Norwood+Editions+%28Norwood%2C+Pa.%29&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0883059555&rft.au=Braithwaite%2C+R.B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-A.C._Dixon-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-A.C._Dixon_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121203144842/http://user.xmission.com/~fidelis/volume1/volume1.php">"The Fundamentals: A Testimony to the Truth"</a>. 27 November 2012. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://user.xmission.com/~fidelis/volume1/volume1.php">the original</a> on 3 December 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 November</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Fundamentals%3A+A+Testimony+to+the+Truth&rft.date=2012-11-27&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fuser.xmission.com%2F~fidelis%2Fvolume1%2Fvolume1.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBruce2008" class="citation book cs1">Bruce, Steve (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/1001942770"><i>Fundamentalism</i></a>. Polity. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0745640754" title="Special:BookSources/978-0745640754"><bdi>978-0745640754</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1001942770">1001942770</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamentalism&rft.pub=Polity&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1001942770&rft.isbn=978-0745640754&rft.aulast=Bruce&rft.aufirst=Steve&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1001942770&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFox2018" class="citation book cs1">Fox, Jonathan (13 February 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315183787"><i>An Introduction to Religion and Politics</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315183787">10.4324/9781315183787</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1315183787" title="Special:BookSources/978-1315183787"><bdi>978-1315183787</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Religion+and+Politics&rft.date=2018-02-13&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781315183787&rft.isbn=978-1315183787&rft.aulast=Fox&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.4324%2F9781315183787&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reformjudaism.org/what-reform-judaism">"What is Reform Judaism?"</a>. <i>Reform Judaism</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 March</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Reform+Judaism&rft.atitle=What+is+Reform+Judaism%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reformjudaism.org%2Fwhat-reform-judaism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Reform-Judaism">"Reform Judaism | Britannica"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 March</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Reform+Judaism+%7C+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FReform-Judaism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMeister2011" class="citation book cs1">Meister, Chad (2011). <i>The Oxford Handbook of Religious Diversity</i>. OUP US. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195340136" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195340136"><bdi>978-0195340136</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Religious+Diversity&rft.pub=OUP+US&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0195340136&rft.aulast=Meister&rft.aufirst=Chad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-moore-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-moore_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Compare: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2005/110/13.0.html">"Roy Moore: 'We Have No Morality Without an Acknowledgment of God'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Christianity_Today" title="Christianity Today">Christianity Today</a></i>. 7 March 2005. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090108205932/http://www.christianitytoday.com./ct/2005/110/13.0.html">Archived</a> from the original on 8 January 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 May</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Christianity+Today&rft.atitle=Roy+Moore%3A+%27We+Have+No+Morality+Without+an+Acknowledgment+of+God%27&rft.date=2005-03-07&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.christianitytoday.com%2Fct%2F2005%2F110%2F13.0.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMiller2005" class="citation web cs1">Miller, David Ian (15 February 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/gate/archive/2005/02/15/findrelig.DTL">"Finding My Religion: Steve Georgiou on his faith and mentor, minimalist poet Robert Lax"</a>. SFGate. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120516095524/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=%2Fgate%2Farchive%2F2005%2F02%2F15%2Ffindrelig.DTL">Archived</a> from the original on 16 May 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 May</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Finding+My+Religion%3A+Steve+Georgiou+on+his+faith+and+mentor%2C+minimalist+poet+Robert+Lax&rft.pub=SFGate&rft.date=2005-02-15&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=David+Ian&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sfgate.com%2Fcgi-bin%2Farticle.cgi%3Ffile%3D%2Fgate%2Farchive%2F2005%2F02%2F15%2Ffindrelig.DTL&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-repa-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-repa_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRepa1998" class="citation web cs1">Repa, J. Theodore (18 October 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060907172411/http://pages.nyu.edu/~jtr1/sermon.htm">"Building Community: The Marriage of Religion and Education"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pages.nyu.edu/~jtr1/sermon.htm">the original</a> on 7 September 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 May</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Building+Community%3A+The+Marriage+of+Religion+and+Education&rft.date=1998-10-18&rft.aulast=Repa&rft.aufirst=J.+Theodore&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpages.nyu.edu%2F~jtr1%2Fsermon.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Note for example the concept of a <a href="/wiki/Cultural_Christian" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural Christian">cultural Christian</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-larson-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-larson_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLarsonSusan_S._LarsonHarold_G._Koenig2000" class="citation journal cs1">Larson, David B.; Susan S. Larson; Harold G. Koenig (October 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/p001078.html">"Research Findings on Religious Commitment and Mental Health"</a>. <i>Psychiatric Times</i>. <b>17</b> (10). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090108120239/http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/p001078.html">Archived</a> from the original on 8 January 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 May</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychiatric+Times&rft.atitle=Research+Findings+on+Religious+Commitment+and+Mental+Health&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=10&rft.date=2000-10&rft.aulast=Larson&rft.aufirst=David+B.&rft.au=Susan+S.+Larson&rft.au=Harold+G.+Koenig&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.psychiatrictimes.com%2Fp001078.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAlcock2018" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Alcock" title="James Alcock">Alcock, James</a> (2018). "The God Engine". <i><a href="/wiki/Skeptical_Inquirer" title="Skeptical Inquirer">Skeptical Inquirer</a></i>. <b>42</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">32–</span>38.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Skeptical+Inquirer&rft.atitle=The+God+Engine&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E32-%3C%2Fspan%3E38&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Alcock&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-russell-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-russell_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For example: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRussell1927" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell, Bertrand</a> (1927). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061119081311/http://www.positiveatheism.org/hist/russell0.htm">"Why I am Not a Christian"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.positiveatheism.org/hist/russell0.htm">the original</a> on 19 November 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 May</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Why+I+am+Not+a+Christian&rft.date=1927&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Bertrand&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.positiveatheism.org%2Fhist%2Frussell0.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For example, some <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslims</a> believe that women are inferior to men. Some <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christians</a> share this belief. At the time of the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a> of 1861–1865, many Southerners used passages from the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> to justify race-based <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a>. Certain campaigners have used the Christian religion as a reason to persecute and to deny the rights of homosexuals, on the basis that the Christian biblical God disapproves of homosexuality, and by implication of homosexuals. Compare <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.godhatesfags.com">http://www.godhatesfags.com</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210307223124/https://www.godhatesfags.com/">Archived</a> 7 March 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_79-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_79-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Beauchamp, Philip (pseudonym of Jeremy Bentham) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qiRQAAAAIAAJ"><i>Analysis of the Influence of Natural Religion on the Temporal Happiness of Mankind</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200204213852/https://books.google.com/books?id=qiRQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover">Archived</a> 4 February 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, 1822, R. Carlile, London, at page 76: "Of all human antipathies, that which the believer in a God bears to the unbeliever is the fullest, the most unqualified, and the most universal"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBering2006" class="citation journal cs1">Bering, Jesse (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1511/2006.58.142">"The Cognitive Psychology of Belief in the Supernatural"</a>. <i>American Scientist</i>. <b>94</b> (2): 142. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1511%2F2006.58.142">10.1511/2006.58.142</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-0996">0003-0996</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Scientist&rft.atitle=The+Cognitive+Psychology+of+Belief+in+the+Supernatural&rft.volume=94&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=142&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1511%2F2006.58.142&rft.issn=0003-0996&rft.aulast=Bering&rft.aufirst=Jesse&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1511%2F2006.58.142&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBarnett2019" class="citation journal cs1">Barnett, Zach (1 January 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/mind/article/128/509/109/3897540">"Philosophy Without Belief"</a>. <i>Mind</i>. <b>128</b> (509): <span class="nowrap">109–</span>138. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmind%2Ffzw076">10.1093/mind/fzw076</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0026-4423">0026-4423</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mind&rft.atitle=Philosophy+Without+Belief&rft.volume=128&rft.issue=509&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E109-%3C%2Fspan%3E138&rft.date=2019-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fmind%2Ffzw076&rft.issn=0026-4423&rft.aulast=Barnett&rft.aufirst=Zach&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fmind%2Farticle%2F128%2F509%2F109%2F3897540&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBellHalliganEllis2006" class="citation book cs1">Bell, V.; Halligan, P.W.; Ellis, H.D. (2006). "A Cognitive Neuroscience of Belief". In Halligan, Peter W.; Aylward, Mansel (eds.). <i>The Power of Belief: Psychological Influence on Illness, Disability, and Medicine</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0198530107" title="Special:BookSources/978-0198530107"><bdi>978-0198530107</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+Cognitive+Neuroscience+of+Belief&rft.btitle=The+Power+of+Belief%3A+Psychological+Influence+on+Illness%2C+Disability%2C+and+Medicine&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0198530107&rft.aulast=Bell&rft.aufirst=V.&rft.au=Halligan%2C+P.W.&rft.au=Ellis%2C+H.D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBaker1989" class="citation book cs1">Baker, Lynne Rudder (1989). <i>Saving Belief: A Critique of Physicalism</i>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691073200" title="Special:BookSources/978-0691073200"><bdi>978-0691073200</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Saving+Belief%3A+A+Critique+of+Physicalism&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0691073200&rft.aulast=Baker&rft.aufirst=Lynne+Rudder&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, U.S. Army (2012). Information Operations. Joint Publication 3–13. Joint Doctrine Support Division, Suffolk, VA. p. 22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFParrReesFriston2018" class="citation journal cs1">Parr, Thomas; Rees, Geraint; Friston, Karl J. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5829460">"Computational Neuropsychology and Bayesian Inference"</a>. <i>Frontiers in Human Neuroscience</i>. <b>12</b>: 61. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffnhum.2018.00061">10.3389/fnhum.2018.00061</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1662-5161">1662-5161</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5829460">5829460</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29527157">29527157</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Human+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Computational+Neuropsychology+and+Bayesian+Inference&rft.volume=12&rft.pages=61&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5829460%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1662-5161&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29527157&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffnhum.2018.00061&rft.aulast=Parr&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft.au=Rees%2C+Geraint&rft.au=Friston%2C+Karl+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5829460&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wyer,_R._S._2005-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wyer,_R._S._2005_86-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wyer,_R._S._2005_86-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wyer,_R._S._2005_86-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wyer, R.S., & Albarracin, D. (2005). "Belief formation, organization, and change: Cognitive and motivational influences". In D. Albarracin, B.T. Johnson, & M.P. Zanna, <i>The Handbook of Attitudes</i> (273–322). New York: Psychology Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGelmanParkShorBafumi2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Gelman" title="Andrew Gelman">Gelman, Andrew</a>; Park, David; Shor, Boris; Bafumi, Joseph; Cortina, Jeronimo (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/redstatebluestat00gelm"><i>Red State, Blue State, Rich State, Poor State: Why Americans Vote the Way They Do</i></a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691139272" title="Special:BookSources/978-0691139272"><bdi>978-0691139272</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Red+State%2C+Blue+State%2C+Rich+State%2C+Poor+State%3A+Why+Americans+Vote+the+Way+They+Do&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0691139272&rft.aulast=Gelman&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft.au=Park%2C+David&rft.au=Shor%2C+Boris&rft.au=Bafumi%2C+Joseph&rft.au=Cortina%2C+Jeronimo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fredstatebluestat00gelm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFArgyle1997" class="citation book cs1">Argyle, Michael (1997). <i>The Psychology of Religious Behaviour, Belief and Experience</i>. London: Routledge. p. 25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415123303" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415123303"><bdi>978-0415123303</bdi></a>. <q>Religion, in most cultures, is ascribed, not chosen.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Psychology+of+Religious+Behaviour%2C+Belief+and+Experience&rft.place=London&rft.pages=25&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0415123303&rft.aulast=Argyle&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHoffer2002" class="citation book cs1">Hoffer, Eric (2002). <i>The True Believer</i>. New York: Harper Perennial Modern Classics. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0060505912" title="Special:BookSources/978-0060505912"><bdi>978-0060505912</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+True+Believer&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harper+Perennial+Modern+Classics&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0060505912&rft.aulast=Hoffer&rft.aufirst=Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKilbournePipher2000" class="citation book cs1">Kilbourne, Jane; Pipher, Mary (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cantbuymylovehow00kilb"><i>Can't Buy My Love: How Advertising Changes the Way We Think and Feel</i></a>. Free Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0684866000" title="Special:BookSources/978-0684866000"><bdi>978-0684866000</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Can%27t+Buy+My+Love%3A+How+Advertising+Changes+the+Way+We+Think+and+Feel&rft.pub=Free+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0684866000&rft.aulast=Kilbourne&rft.aufirst=Jane&rft.au=Pipher%2C+Mary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcantbuymylovehow00kilb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Kumkale & Albarracin, 2004.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRothschild2000" class="citation book cs1">Rothschild, Babette (2000). <i>The Body Remembers: The Psychophysiology of Trauma and Trauma Treatment</i>. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0393703276" title="Special:BookSources/978-0393703276"><bdi>978-0393703276</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Body+Remembers%3A+The+Psychophysiology+of+Trauma+and+Trauma+Treatment&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0393703276&rft.aulast=Rothschild&rft.aufirst=Babette&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRowley2007" class="citation book cs1">Rowley, Anna (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/leadershiptherap0000rowl/page/69"><i>Leadership Therapy: Inside the Mind of Microsoft</i></a>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/leadershiptherap0000rowl/page/69">69</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1403984036" title="Special:BookSources/978-1403984036"><bdi>978-1403984036</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Leadership+Therapy%3A+Inside+the+Mind+of+Microsoft&rft.place=Basingstoke&rft.pages=69&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1403984036&rft.aulast=Rowley&rft.aufirst=Anna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fleadershiptherap0000rowl%2Fpage%2F69&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wyer,_R._S._1970-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wyer,_R._S._1970_94-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wyer,_R._S._1970_94-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWyer1970" class="citation journal cs1">Wyer, R.S. (1970). 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(19 September 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3776943">"The influence of emotions on cognitive control: feelings and beliefs—where do they meet?"</a>. <i>Frontiers in Human Neuroscience</i>. <b>7</b>: 508. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffnhum.2013.00508">10.3389/fnhum.2013.00508</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1662-5161">1662-5161</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3776943">3776943</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24065901">24065901</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Human+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=The+influence+of+emotions+on+cognitive+control%3A+feelings+and+beliefs%E2%80%94where+do+they+meet%3F&rft.volume=7&rft.pages=508&rft.date=2013-09-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3776943%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1662-5161&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24065901&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffnhum.2013.00508&rft.aulast=Harl%C3%A9&rft.aufirst=Katia+M.&rft.au=Shenoy%2C+Pradeep&rft.au=Paulus%2C+Martin+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3776943&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Audi" title="Robert Audi">Robert Audi</a> (Dec. 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2215473">"Dispositional Beliefs and Dispositions to Believe"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/No%C3%BBs" title="Noûs">Noûs</a></i>, Vol. 28, No. 4, pp. 419–434. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/481484099">481484099</a>.</li> <li>Coleman, T. III, Jong, J., & van Mulukom, V. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://booksandjournals.brillonline.com/content/journals/10.1163/18758185-01503001">Introduction to the Special Issue: What are Religious Beliefs?</a>. Contemporary Pragmatism, 15(3), 279–283. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F18758185-01503001">10.1163/18758185-01503001</a></li> <li>Järnefelt, Elisa, <i>Created by Some Being: Theoretical and Empirical Exploration of Adults' Automatic and Reflective Beliefs about the Origin of Natural Phenomena.</i> Diss. University of Helsinki, 2013. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9521094163" title="Special:BookSources/978-9521094163">978-9521094163</a>.</li> <li>Leicester, J. "What beliefs are made from". Sharjah, UAE: Bentham Science Publishers, 2016.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output 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class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/belief_system" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:belief system">belief system</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSchwitzgebel" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Schwitzgebel, Eric. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/belief/">"Belief"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Belief&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.aulast=Schwitzgebel&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fbelief%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/beli-aim">"The Aim of Belief"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Aim+of+Belief&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fbeli-aim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Russell,_Viscount_Amberley" title="John Russell, Viscount Amberley">John Russell</a> (1877), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/64748">An analysis of religious belief</a>.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antireligion" title="Antireligion">Antireligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharmism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dualistic_cosmology" class="mw-redirect" title="Dualistic cosmology">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Esotericism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Feminist theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanence" title="Immanence">Immanence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monolatry" title="Monolatry">Monolatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Thought" title="New Thought">New Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonduality_(spirituality)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonduality (spirituality)">Nondualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_naturalism" title="Religious naturalism">Religious naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">Shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arama%E1%B9%87a" title="Śramaṇa">Shramanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">Taoic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendence_(religion)" title="Transcendence (religion)">Transcendence</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Epistemology722" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Epistemology" title="Template:Epistemology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Epistemology" title="Template talk:Epistemology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Epistemology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Epistemology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Epistemology722" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">Epistemologists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Alston" title="William Alston">William Alston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Audi" title="Robert Audi">Robert Audi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurence_BonJour" title="Laurence BonJour">Laurence BonJour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Gilles Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keith_DeRose" title="Keith DeRose">Keith DeRose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Dretske" title="Fred Dretske">Fred Dretske</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Gettier" title="Edmund Gettier">Edmund Gettier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Goldman" title="Alvin Goldman">Alvin Goldman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Goodman" title="Nelson Goodman">Nelson Goodman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Paul Grice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anil_Gupta_(philosopher)" title="Anil Gupta (philosopher)">Anil Gupta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Haack" title="Susan Haack">Susan Haack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_D._Klein" title="Peter D. Klein">Peter Klein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Kornblith" title="Hilary Kornblith">Hilary Kornblith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McDowell" title="John McDowell">John McDowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Robert Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duncan_Pritchard" title="Duncan Pritchard">Duncan Pritchard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Pryor" title="James Pryor">James Pryor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Thomas Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilfrid_Sellars" title="Wilfrid Sellars">Wilfrid Sellars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susanna_Siegel" title="Susanna Siegel">Susanna Siegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Sosa" title="Ernest Sosa">Ernest Sosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Williamson" title="Timothy Williamson">Timothy Williamson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Epistemological_theories" title="Category:Epistemological theories">Theories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_epistemology" title="Feminist epistemology">Feminist epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_holism" title="Semantic holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinitism" title="Infinitism">Infinitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innatism" title="Innatism">Innatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_realism" title="Naïve realism">Naïve realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalized epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reliabilism" title="Reliabilism">Reliabilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_and_indirect_realism" title="Direct and indirect realism">Representational realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental idealism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Concepts_in_epistemology" title="Category:Concepts in epistemology">Concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A posteriori</i> knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Belief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Certainty" title="Certainty">Certainty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">Common sense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Descriptive knowledge">Descriptive knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploratory_thought" title="Exploratory thought">Exploratory thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_injustice" title="Epistemic injustice">Epistemic injustice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_virtue" title="Epistemic virtue">Epistemic virtue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gettier_problem" title="Gettier problem">Gettier problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_(epistemology)" title="Justification (epistemology)">Justification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta_(prefix)" title="Meta (prefix)">Meta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privileged_access" class="mw-redirect" title="Privileged access">Privileged access</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_other_minds" title="Problem of other minds">Problem of other minds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedural_knowledge" title="Procedural knowledge">Procedural knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regress_argument" class="mw-redirect" title="Regress argument">Regress argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicity" title="Simplicity">Simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncertainty" title="Uncertainty">Uncertainty</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_epistemology_articles" title="Index of epistemology articles">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_epistemology" title="Formal epistemology">Formal epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaepistemology" title="Metaepistemology">Metaepistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">Philosophy of perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">Social epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_epistemology" title="Virtue epistemology">Virtue epistemology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" 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href="/wiki/Outline_of_epistemology" title="Outline of epistemology">Outline</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/20px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/40px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophical_logic" title="Template:Philosophical logic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophical_logic" title="Template talk:Philosophical logic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophical_logic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophical logic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophical_logic236" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_logic" title="Philosophical logic">Philosophical logic</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical thinking</a> and<br /><a href="/wiki/Informal_logic" title="Informal logic">informal logic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">Ambiguity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument" title="Argument">Argument</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Belief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias" title="Bias">Bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Credibility" title="Credibility">Credibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">Dialectic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antithesis" title="Antithesis">Antithesis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Socratic_method" title="Socratic method">Socratic method</a>, <a href="/wiki/Unity_of_opposites" title="Unity of opposites">Unity of opposites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">Evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explanation" title="Explanation">Explanation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explanatory_power" title="Explanatory power">Explanatory power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">Fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy" title="Fallacy">Fallacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fallacies" title="List of fallacies">List of fallacies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">Hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquiry" title="Inquiry">Inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opinion" title="Opinion">Opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">Parsimony (Occam's razor)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Premise" title="Premise">Premise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prudence" title="Prudence">Prudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_razor" title="Philosophical razor">Razor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">Reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relevance" title="Relevance">Relevance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">Rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rigour" title="Rigour">Rigor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">Theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vagueness" title="Vagueness">Vagueness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">Theories of deduction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constructivism_(philosophy_of_mathematics)" title="Constructivism (philosophy of mathematics)">Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialetheism" title="Dialetheism">Dialetheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fictionalism" title="Fictionalism">Fictionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finitism" title="Finitism">Finitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(mathematics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Formalism (mathematics)">Formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intuitionism" title="Intuitionism">Intuitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_atomism" title="Logical atomism">Logical atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logicism" title="Logicism">Logicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Platonic realism">Platonic realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophical_logic" title="Category:Philosophical logic">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Religion220" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Religion_topics" title="Template:Religion topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Religion_topics" title="Template talk:Religion topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Religion_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Religion topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Religion220" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religion</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Religious_groups_and_denominations220" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_religions_and_spiritual_traditions" title="List of religions and spiritual traditions">Religious groups and denominations</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Orthodox_Judaism" title="Modern Orthodox Judaism">Modern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_Zionism" title="Religious Zionism">Zionist</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymanot" title="Haymanot">Haymanot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Judaism" title="Reconstructionist Judaism">Reconstructionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Renewal" title="Jewish Renewal">Renewal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Judaism" title="Humanistic Judaism">Humanistic</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements" title="Jewish religious movements">list</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches" title="Eastern Catholic Churches">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodoxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nestorianism" title="Nestorianism">Nestorianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Church_of_the_East" title="Ancient Church of the East">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Church_of_the_East" title="Assyrian Church of the East">Assyrian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Protestantism" title="Proto-Protestantism">Proto-Protestantism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hussites" title="Hussites">Hussites</a>/<a href="/wiki/Moravian_Church" title="Moravian Church">Moravians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waldensians" title="Waldensians">Waldensians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptism" title="Anabaptism">Anabaptism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amish" title="Amish">Amish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schwarzenau_Brethren" title="Schwarzenau Brethren">Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hutterites" title="Hutterites">Hutterites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mennonites" title="Mennonites">Mennonites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schwenkfelder_Church" title="Schwenkfelder Church">Schwenkfelder Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congregational_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregational church">Congregationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presbyterianism" title="Presbyterianism">Presbyterianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Reformed_Protestantism" title="Continental Reformed Protestantism">Reformed</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_Christianity" title="Charismatic Christianity">Charismatic Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_movement" title="Charismatic movement">Charismatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-charismatic_movement" title="Neo-charismatic movement">Neo-charismatic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">Evangelicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Apostolic_Church" title="Catholic Apostolic Church">Irvingism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondenominational_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Nondenominational Christianity">Nondenominational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plymouth_Brethren" title="Plymouth Brethren">Plymouth Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakerism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_Movement" title="Restoration Movement">Restorationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esoteric_Christianity" title="Esoteric Christianity">Esoteric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Christian_Community" title="The Christian Community">The Christian Community</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Catholicism" title="Independent Catholicism">Independent Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Catholic_Church" title="Old Catholic Church">Old Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaizers" title="Judaizers">Judaizers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nontrinitarianism" title="Nontrinitarianism">Nontrinitarianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bible_Student_movement" title="Bible Student movement">Bible Students</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bible_Student_movement#Associated_Bible_Students" title="Bible Student movement">Associated Bible Students</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Bible_Students" title="Free Bible Students">Free Bible Students</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friends_of_Man" title="Friends of Man">Friends of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo#Kitawala" title="Religion in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Kitawala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laymen%27s_Home_Missionary_Movement" title="Laymen's Home Missionary Movement">Laymen's Home Missionary Movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christadelphians" title="Christadelphians">Christadelphians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mormonism" title="Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oneness_Pentecostalism" title="Oneness Pentecostalism">Oneness Pentecostalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritual_Christianity" title="Spiritual Christianity">Spiritual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_New_Church_(Swedenborgian)" title="The New Church (Swedenborgian)">Swedenborgianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolstoyan_movement" title="Tolstoyan movement">Tolstoyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitarianism" title="Unitarianism">Unitarianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations" title="List of Christian denominations">list</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunnism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ash%27arism" title="Ash'arism">Ash'arism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maturidism" title="Maturidism">Maturidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atharism" title="Atharism">Atharism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salafi_movement" title="Salafi movement">Salafism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wahhabism" title="Wahhabism">Wahhabism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_modernism" title="Islamic modernism">Modernist Salafism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shi'ism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alawites" title="Alawites">Alawism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali-Illahism" title="Ali-Illahism">Ali-Illahism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isma%27ilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Isma'ilism">Isma'ilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelver_Shi%27ism" title="Twelver Shi'ism">Twelver Shi'ism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaydism" title="Zaydism">Zaydism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharijites" title="Kharijites">Khawarij</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibadi_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibadi Islam">Ibadism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alevism" title="Alevism">Alevism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ishikism" title="Ishikism">Ishikism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_Alevism" title="Kurdish Alevism">Kurdish Alevism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmadiyya" title="Ahmadiyya">Ahmadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahdawi_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahdawi movement">Mahdavism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quranism" title="Quranism">Quranism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milah_Abraham" title="Milah Abraham">Milah Abraham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-denominational_Muslim" title="Non-denominational Muslim">Non-denominational</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Islamic_schools_and_branches" title="Islamic schools and branches">list</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A1bism" title="Bábism">Bábism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azalism" title="Azalism">Azalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí Faith</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Druze" title="Druze">Druze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaeism" title="Mandaeism">Mandaeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rastafari" title="Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritanism" title="Samaritanism">Samaritanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_religions" title="Iranian religions">Iranian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoroastrian">Zoroastrian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism_in_Russia" title="Zoroastrianism in Russia">Blagovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilm-e-Khshnoom" title="Ilm-e-Khshnoom">Ilm-e-Khshnoom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mazdaznan" title="Mazdaznan">Mazdaznan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Kurdish</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shabakism" class="mw-redirect" title="Shabakism">Shabakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yarsanism" title="Yarsanism">Yarsanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assianism" title="Assianism">Assianism/Uatsdin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roshani_movement" title="Roshani movement">Roshani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manichaeism" title="Manichaeism">Manichaeism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Manichaeism" title="Chinese Manichaeism">Chinese Manichaeism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazd%C3%A2nism" title="Yazdânism">Yazdânism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazidism" title="Yazidism">Yazidism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_religions" title="Eastern religions">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">East Asian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Chinese folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luo_teaching" title="Luo teaching">Luoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuo_folk_religion" title="Nuo folk religion">Nuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_salvationist_religions" title="Chinese salvationist religions">Salvationist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xiantiandao" title="Xiantiandao">Xiantiandao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiguandao" title="Yiguandao">Yiguandao</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_ritual_mastery_traditions" title="Chinese ritual mastery traditions">Folk Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yao_folk_religion" title="Yao folk religion">Yao Taoism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Japan" title="Religion in Japan">Japonic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shinto" title="Shinto">Shinto</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Shinto_sects_and_schools" title="Shinto sects and schools">list</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shugend%C5%8D" title="Shugendō">Shugendō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenrikyo" title="Tenrikyo">Tenrikyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ryukyuan_religion" title="Ryukyuan religion">Ryukyuan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Korea" title="Religion in Korea">Korean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korean_shamanism" title="Korean shamanism">Korean shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheondoism" title="Cheondoism">Cheondoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeung_San_Do" title="Jeung San Do">Jeungsanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Vietnam" title="Religion in Vietnam">Vietnamese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_folk_religion" title="Vietnamese folk religion">Vietnamese folk religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1o_M%E1%BA%ABu" title="Đạo Mẫu">Đạo Mẫu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caodaism" title="Caodaism">Caodaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C3%B2a_H%E1%BA%A3o" title="Hòa Hảo">Hoahaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1o_B%E1%BB%ADu_S%C6%A1n_K%E1%BB%B3_H%C6%B0%C6%A1ng" title="Đạo Bửu Sơn Kỳ Hương">Đạo Bửu Sơn Kỳ Hương</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism" title="Vaishnavism">Vaishnavism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Krishnaism" title="Krishnaism">Krishnaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Vaishnavism" title="Sri Vaishnavism">Sri Vaishnavism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahma_Sampradaya" title="Brahma Sampradaya">Brahma Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pushtimarg" class="mw-redirect" title="Pushtimarg">Pushtimarg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahanubhava" title="Mahanubhava">Mahanubhava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramanandi_Sampradaya" title="Ramanandi Sampradaya">Ramanandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warkari" title="Warkari">Warkari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swaminarayan_Sampradaya" title="Swaminarayan Sampradaya">Swaminarayan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaivism" title="Shaivism">Shaivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shaiva_Siddhanta" title="Shaiva Siddhanta">Shaiva Siddhanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganapatya" title="Ganapatya">Ganapatya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashmir_Shaivism" title="Kashmir Shaivism">Kashmiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kapalika" title="Kapalika">Kapalika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaumaram" title="Kaumaram">Kaumaram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingayatism" class="mw-redirect" title="Lingayatism">Lingayatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nath" class="mw-redirect" title="Nath">Nath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balinese_Hinduism" title="Balinese Hinduism">Balinese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaktism" title="Shaktism">Shaktism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smarta_tradition" title="Smarta tradition">Smartism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saura_(Hinduism)" title="Saura (Hinduism)">Sauraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arauta" title="Śrauta">Śrauta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sant_Mat" title="Sant Mat">Sant Mat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_reform_movements" title="Hindu reform movements">Neo-Hinduism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hindu_denominations" title="Hindu denominations">list</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a>/<a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a>/<a href="/wiki/Thi%E1%BB%81n" title="Thiền">Thiền</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Amidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nichiren_Buddhism" title="Nichiren Buddhism">Nichiren</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_modernism" title="Buddhist modernism">Neo-Buddhism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Buddhism" title="Schools of Buddhism">list</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ayyavazhi" title="Ayyavazhi">Ayyavazhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalash_people#Religion" title="Kalash people">Kalash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digambara" title="Digambara">Digambara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Avet%C4%81mbara" title="Śvetāmbara">Śvetāmbara</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarnaism" title="Sarnaism">Sarnaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirat_Mundhum" title="Kirat Mundhum">Kirat Mundhum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedda#Religion" title="Vedda">Vedda religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravidassia" title="Ravidassia">Ravidassia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khalsa" title="Khalsa">Khalsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sects_of_Sikhism" title="Sects of Sikhism">Sects</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_religion" title="Ethnic religion">Ethnic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Altaic_languages" title="Altaic languages">Altaic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_mythology" title="Turkic mythology">Turko</a>-<a href="/wiki/Mongolian_shamanism" title="Mongolian shamanism">Mongolic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burkhanism" title="Burkhanism">Burkhanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tengrism" title="Tengrism">Tengrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vattisen_Yaly" title="Vattisen Yaly">Vattisen Yaly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tungusic_creation_myth" title="Tungusic creation myth">Tungusic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evenks#Religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Evenks">Evenki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_shamanism" title="Manchu shamanism">Manchu</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sarna_(place)" title="Sarna (place)">Sarnaism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parmalim" title="Parmalim">Batak Parmalim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayak_people#Religion_and_festivals" title="Dayak people">Dayak</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kaharingan" title="Kaharingan">Kaharingan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Sabahan_religions" title="Traditional Sabahan religions">Traditional Sabahan religions</a></li></ul></li> <li>Indonesian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aliran_Kepercayaan" title="Aliran Kepercayaan">Aliran Kepercayaan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kejaw%C3%A8n" title="Kejawèn">Kejawèn</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kapitayan" title="Kapitayan">Kapitayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pemena" title="Pemena">Karo Pemena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_folk_religion" title="Malaysian folk religion">Malaysian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Philippine_folk_religions" title="Indigenous Philippine folk religions">Philippine Dayawism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_religious_beliefs_of_the_Tagalog_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous religious beliefs of the Tagalog people">Tagalog</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesian_mythology" title="Polynesian mythology">Polynesian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_religion" title="Hawaiian religion">Hawaiian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_M%C4%81ori_people" title="Religion of Māori people">Māori</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marapu" title="Marapu">Sumbese Marapu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunda_Wiwitan" title="Sunda Wiwitan">Sundanese Wiwitan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_religions" title="Native American religions">Native<br />American</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abenaki_mythology" title="Abenaki mythology">Abenaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Native_religion" title="Alaska Native religion">Alaskan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anishinaabe_traditional_beliefs" title="Anishinaabe traditional beliefs">Anishinaabe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ojibwe#Spiritual_beliefs" title="Ojibwe">Ojibwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midewiwin" title="Midewiwin">Midewiwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wabunowin" title="Wabunowin">Wabunowin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apache#Religion" title="Apache">Apache</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_mythology" title="Blackfoot mythology">Blackfoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_narratives_of_Indigenous_Californians" title="Traditional narratives of Indigenous Californians">Californian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kuksu_(religion)" title="Kuksu (religion)">Kuksu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miwok_mythology" title="Miwok mythology">Miwok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ohlone_mythology" title="Ohlone mythology">Ohlone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomo_religion" title="Pomo religion">Pomo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilote_mythology" title="Chilote mythology">Chilote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_mythology" title="Choctaw mythology">Choctaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crow_religion" title="Crow religion">Crow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_Dance" title="Ghost Dance">Ghost Dance</a>/<a href="/wiki/Sun_Dance" title="Sun Dance">Sun Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guarani_mythology" title="Guarani mythology">Guarani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haida_mythology" title="Haida mythology">Haida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ho-Chunk_mythology" title="Ho-Chunk mythology">Ho-Chunk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iroquois_mythology" title="Iroquois mythology">Iroquois</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_spiritual_beliefs" title="Cherokee spiritual beliefs">Cherokee</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Mothers_Society" title="Four Mothers Society">Four Mothers Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keetoowah_Nighthawk_Society" title="Keetoowah Nighthawk Society">Keetoowah Society</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longhouse_Religion" title="Longhouse Religion">Longhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohawk_people#Religion" title="Mohawk people">Mohawk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_mythology" title="Creek mythology">Muscogee Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_mythology" title="Seneca mythology">Seneca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wyandot_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Wyandot religion">Wyandot</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jivaroan_peoples#Religion" title="Jivaroan peoples">Jivaroan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwakwaka%CA%BCwakw_mythology" title="Kwakwakaʼwakw mythology">Kwakwakaʼwakw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lenape_mythology" title="Lenape mythology">Lenape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapuche_religion" title="Mapuche religion">Mapuche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_religion" title="Mesoamerican religion">Mesoamerican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_religion" title="Aztec religion">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_religion" title="Maya religion">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pur%C3%A9pecha_religion" title="Purépecha religion">Purépecha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muisca_mythology" title="Muisca mythology">Muisca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Church" title="Native American Church">Native American Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo#Spiritual_and_religious_beliefs" title="Navajo">Navajo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuu-chah-nulth_mythology" title="Nuu-chah-nulth mythology">Nuu-chah-nulth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pawnee_mythology" title="Pawnee mythology">Pawnee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_religion" title="Pueblo religion">Pueblo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acoma_Pueblo#Religion" title="Acoma Pueblo">Acoma Pueblo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hopi_mythology" title="Hopi mythology">Hopi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuni_mythology" title="Zuni mythology">Zuni</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sioux#Religion" title="Sioux">Sioux</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lakota_religion" title="Lakota religion">Lakota</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wocekiye" title="Wocekiye">Wocekiye</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsimshian_mythology" title="Tsimshian mythology">Tsimshian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ute_mythology" title="Ute mythology">Ute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_religions#Washat_Dreamers_Religion" title="Native American religions">Washat Dreamers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaqui#Yaqui_cosmology_and_religion" title="Yaqui">Yaqui</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tai_peoples" title="Tai peoples">Tai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Miao_people" title="Miao people">Miao</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahom_religion" title="Ahom religion">Ahom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_folk_religion" title="Miao folk religion">Hmongism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mo_(religion)" title="Mo (religion)">Mo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_folk_religion" title="Tai folk religion">Satsana Phi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tibeto-Burman_languages" title="Tibeto-Burman languages">Tibeto-Burmese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bon" title="Bon">Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_folk_religion" title="Burmese folk religion">Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzhuism" title="Benzhuism">Benzhuism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bimoism" title="Bimoism">Bimoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathouism" title="Bathouism">Bathouism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mun_(religion)" title="Mun (religion)">Bongthingism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dongba" title="Dongba">Dongba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donyi-Polo" title="Donyi-Polo">Donyi-Polo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurung_shamanism" title="Gurung shamanism">Gurung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraka" class="mw-redirect" title="Heraka">Heraka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirat_Mundhum" title="Kirat Mundhum">Kiratism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiang_folk_religion" title="Qiang folk religion">Qiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanamahism" title="Sanamahism">Sanamahism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_African_religions" title="Traditional African religions">Traditional <br /> African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">North African</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Berber_religion" title="Traditional Berber religion">Berber</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_Guanche_People" title="Church of the Guanche People">Guanche church</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Africa" title="Religion in Africa">Sub-Saharan<br />African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kamba_people" title="Kamba people">Akamba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akan_religion" title="Akan religion">Akan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baluba_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Baluba mythology">Baluba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bantu_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Bantu mythology">Bantu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kongo_religion" title="Kongo religion">Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zulu_traditional_religion" title="Zulu traditional religion">Zulu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushongo_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Bushongo mythology">Bushongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinka_religion" title="Dinka religion">Dinka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogon_religion" title="Dogon religion">Dogon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Efik_mythology" title="Efik mythology">Efik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dahomean_religion" title="Dahomean religion">Fon and Ewe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ik_people" title="Ik people">Ik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotuko_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Lotuko mythology">Lotuko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lozi_mythology" title="Lozi mythology">Lozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugbara_mythology" title="Lugbara mythology">Lugbara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maasai_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Maasai mythology">Maasai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mbuti_mythology" title="Mbuti mythology">Mbuti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odinala" title="Odinala">Odinala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_religion" title="San religion">San</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serer_religion" title="Serer religion">Serer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumbuka_mythology" title="Tumbuka mythology">Tumbuka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urhobo_people" title="Urhobo people">Urhobo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waaqeffanna" title="Waaqeffanna">Waaqeffanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoruba_religion" title="Yoruba religion">Yoruba</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/If%C3%A1" title="Ifá">Ifá</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/African_diaspora_religions" title="African diaspora religions">Diasporic</a>:</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9" title="Candomblé">Candomblé</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9_Bantu" title="Candomblé Bantu">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9_Jej%C3%A9" title="Candomblé Jejé">Jejé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9_Ketu" title="Candomblé Ketu">Ketu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comfa" title="Comfa">Comfa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convince" title="Convince">Convince</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Espiritismo" title="Espiritismo">Espiritismo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumina" title="Kumina">Kumina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obeah" title="Obeah">Obeah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palo_(religion)" title="Palo (religion)">Palo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quimbanda" title="Quimbanda">Quimbanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santer%C3%ADa" title="Santería">Santería</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tambor_de_Mina" title="Tambor de Mina">Tambor de Mina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinidad_Orisha" title="Trinidad Orisha">Trinidad Orisha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbanda" title="Umbanda">Umbanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Vodou" title="Haitian Vodou">Vodou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Voodoo" title="Louisiana Voodoo">Voodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winti" title="Winti">Winti</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other ethnic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_religion_and_mythology" title="Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology">Aboriginal Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_religion" title="Inuit religion">Inuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papuan_mythology" title="Papuan mythology">Papuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism_in_Siberia" title="Shamanism in Siberia">Siberian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/New_religious_movement" title="New religious movement">New<br /> religious<br /> movements</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Syncretic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism_in_Russia" title="Zoroastrianism in Russia">Blagovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmoism" title="Brahmoism">Brahmoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_salvationist_religions" title="Chinese salvationist religions">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Falun_Gong" title="Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coconut_Religion" title="Coconut Religion">Coconut Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_new_religions" title="Japanese new religions">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meivazhi" title="Meivazhi">Meivazhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modekngei" title="Modekngei">Modekngei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Acropolis" title="New Acropolis">New Acropolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Thought" title="New Thought">New Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajneesh_movement" title="Rajneesh movement">Rajneesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rastafari" title="Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Sant_Mat_movements" title="Contemporary Sant Mat movements">Sant Mat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radha_Soami" title="Radha Soami">Radha Soami</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(movement)" title="Spiritualism (movement)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subud" title="Subud">Subud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tensegrity_(Castaneda)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tensegrity (Castaneda)">Tensegrity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thelema" title="Thelema">Thelema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theosophy" title="Theosophy">Theosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Theosophy" title="Neo-Theosophy">Neo-Theosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agni_Yoga" title="Agni Yoga">Agni Yoga</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roerichism" title="Roerichism">Roerichism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_Meditation" title="Transcendental Meditation">Transcendental Meditation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitarian_Universalism" title="Unitarian Universalism">Unitarian Universalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_White_Brotherhood" title="Universal White Brotherhood">White Brotherhood</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Modern_paganism" title="Modern paganism">Modern<br />paganism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>African <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Godianism" title="Godianism">Godianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hetanism" title="Hetanism">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_neopaganism" title="Baltic neopaganism">Baltic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dievtur%C4%ABba" title="Dievturība">Dievturība</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romuva_(religion)" title="Romuva (religion)">Romuva</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasian_neopaganism" title="Caucasian neopaganism">Caucasian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abkhaz_neopaganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Abkhaz neopaganism">Abkhaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adyghe_Xabze" title="Adyghe Xabze">Circassian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_neopaganism" title="Celtic neopaganism">Celtic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Druidry_(modern)" title="Druidry (modern)">Druidry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heathenry_(new_religious_movement)" title="Heathenry (new religious movement)">Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenism_(modern_religion)" title="Hellenism (modern religion)">Hellenism (modern religion)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoshamanism" title="Neoshamanism">Neoshamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assianism" title="Assianism">Ossetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheistic_reconstructionism" title="Polytheistic reconstructionism">Polytheistic reconstructionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Roman_religion" title="Reconstructionist Roman religion">Italo-Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kemetism" title="Kemetism">Kemetism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zalmoxianism" title="Zalmoxianism">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_Native_Faith" title="Slavic Native Faith">Slavic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Authentism" title="Russian Authentism">Authentism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uralic_neopaganism" title="Uralic neopaganism">Uralic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_neopaganism" title="Estonian neopaganism">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Finnish_paganism" title="Modern Finnish paganism">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Native_Faith" title="Hungarian Native Faith">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mari_religion" title="Mari religion">Mari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erzyan_native_religion" title="Erzyan native religion">Erzya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A1mi_shamanism" title="Sámi shamanism">Sámi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Udmurt_Vos" title="Udmurt Vos">Udmurt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wicca" title="Wicca">Wicca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zalmoxianism" title="Zalmoxianism">Zalmoxianism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_modern_pagan_movements" title="List of modern pagan movements">list</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">De novo</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthroposophy" title="Anthroposophy">Anthroposophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Christian_Community" title="The Christian Community">The Christian Community</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discordianism" title="Discordianism">Discordianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eckankar" title="Eckankar">Eckankar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Way" title="Fourth Way">Fourth Way</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goddess_movement" title="Goddess movement">Goddess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jediism" title="Jediism">Jediism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satanism" title="Satanism">Satanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientology" title="Scientology">Scientology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UFO_religion" title="UFO religion">UFO religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ra%C3%ABlism" title="Raëlism">Raëlism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Historical_religions220" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">Historical religions</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_religion" title="Prehistoric religion">Prehistoric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_religion" title="Paleolithic religion">Paleolithic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ainu_people#Religion" title="Ainu people">Ainu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_mythology" title="Armenian mythology">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_mythology" title="Latvian mythology">Latvian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_mythology" title="Lithuanian mythology">Lithuanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prussian_mythology" title="Prussian mythology">Old Prussian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_mythology" title="Basque mythology">Basque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Celtic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Druid" title="Druid">Druidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_mythology" title="Irish mythology">Irish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cook_Islands_mythology" title="Cook Islands mythology">Cook Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_folk_religion" title="Dravidian folk religion">Dravidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">Egyptian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atenism" title="Atenism">Atenism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_religion" title="Etruscan religion">Etruscan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_mythology" title="Finnish mythology">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuegians#Spiritual_culture" title="Fuegians">Fuegian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Selk%27nam_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Selk'nam mythology">Selk'nam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_mythology" title="Georgian mythology">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Germanic_mythology" title="Continental Germanic mythology">Continental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_paganism" title="Frankish paganism">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Greek</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhism" title="Greco-Buddhism">Greco-Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeticism" title="Hermeticism">Hermeticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_mysteries" title="Greco-Roman mysteries">Mysteries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orphism" title="Orphism">Orphism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanches#System_of_beliefs" title="Guanches">Guanche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation#Religion" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Harappan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_mythology_and_religion" title="Hittite mythology and religion">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_mythology" title="Hungarian mythology">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurrian_religion" title="Hurrian religion">Hurrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illinois_Confederacy#Religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Illinois Confederacy">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_mythology" title="Inca mythology">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamaican_Maroon_religion" title="Jamaican Maroon religion">Jamaican Maroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manichaeism" title="Manichaeism">Manichaeism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdak" title="Mazdak">Mazdakism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanesian_mythology" title="Melanesian mythology">Melanesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion" title="Ancient Mesopotamian religion">Mesopotamian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_religion" title="Babylonian religion">Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_religion" title="Sumerian religion">Sumerian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesian_mythology" title="Micronesian mythology">Micronesian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nauruan_Indigenous_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nauruan Indigenous religion">Nauruan Indigenous religion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olmec_religion" title="Olmec religion">Olmec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_mythology" title="Paleo-Balkan mythology">Paleo-Balkan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_folk_beliefs" class="mw-redirect" title="Albanian folk beliefs">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dacian_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Dacian mythology">Dacian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illyrian_religion" title="Illyrian religion">Illyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thracian_religion" title="Thracian religion">Thracian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_religion" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian religion">Proto-Indo-Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Iranian_religion" title="Ancient Iranian religion">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basketmaker_III_Era#Culture_and_religion" title="Basketmaker III Era">Ancestral Pueblo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_II_Period#Culture_and_religion" title="Pueblo II Period">Pueblo II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_III_Period#Culture_and_religion" title="Pueblo III Period">Pueblo III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_IV_Period#Culture_and_religion" title="Pueblo IV Period">Pueblo IV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapa_Nui_mythology" title="Rapa Nui mythology">Rapa Nui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cybele" title="Cybele">Cult of Magna Mater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_religion" title="Gallo-Roman religion">Gallo-Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_imperial_cult" title="Roman imperial cult">Imperial cult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysteries_of_Isis" title="Mysteries of Isis">Mysteries of Isis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Semitic_religion" title="Ancient Semitic religion">Semitic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia">Arabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_religion" title="Canaanite religion">Canaanite</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yahwism" title="Yahwism">Yahwism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punic_religion" title="Punic religion">Punic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scythian_religion" title="Scythian religion">Scythian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_mythology" title="Somali mythology">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongan_religion" title="Tongan religion">Tongan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_mythology" title="Turkic mythology">Turkic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tengrism" title="Tengrism">Tengrism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urartu#Religion" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vainakh_religion" title="Vainakh religion">Vainakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zapotec_civilization#Religion_and_Myth" title="Zapotec civilization">Zapotec</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Topics220" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostasy" title="Apostasy">Apostasy</a> / <a href="/wiki/Religious_disaffiliation" title="Religious disaffiliation">Disaffiliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_behaviour" title="Religious behaviour">Behaviour</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Religion">Beliefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Call_to_prayer" title="Call to prayer">Call to prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laicism" title="Laicism">Laicism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Laity" title="Laity">Laity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Covenant_(religion)" title="Covenant (religion)">Covenant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_conversion" title="Religious conversion">Conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">Deities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_denomination" title="Religious denomination">Denomination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entheogen" title="Entheogen">Entheogens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goddess" title="Goddess">Goddess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meditation" title="Meditation">Meditation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monasticism" title="Monasticism">Monasticism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monk" title="Monk">Monk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novice" title="Novice">Novice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nun" title="Nun">Nun</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_mythology" title="Religion and mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination" title="Ordination">Ordination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthodoxy" title="Orthodoxy">Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthopraxy" title="Orthopraxy">Orthopraxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">Paganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer" title="Prayer">Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophecy" title="Prophecy">Prophecy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_experience" title="Religious experience">Religious experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">Ritual</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liturgy" title="Liturgy">Liturgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritual_purification" title="Ritual purification">Purification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacrifice" title="Sacrifice">Sacrifice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_space" title="Sacred space">Sacred space</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_waters" title="Sacred waters">Bodies of water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_grove" title="Sacred grove">Groves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_mountains" title="Sacred mountains">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_tree" title="Sacred tree">Trees</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">Spirituality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernatural" title="Supernatural">Supernatural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_symbol" title="Religious symbol">Symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_text" title="Religious text">Text</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_views_on_truth" title="Religious views on truth">Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_and_religion" title="Water and religion">Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worship" title="Worship">Worship</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Worship_of_heavenly_bodies" title="Worship of heavenly bodies">Astral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_worship" title="Fire worship">Fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_worship" title="Nature worship">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Place_of_worship" title="Place of worship">Place</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dualism_in_cosmology" title="Dualism in cosmology">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nontheism" title="Nontheism">Nontheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transtheism" title="Transtheism">Transtheism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religious_studies" title="Religious studies">Religious<br />studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_religion" title="Anthropology of religion">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science_of_religion" title="Cognitive science of religion">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_religion" title="Comparative religion">Comparative</a></li> <li>Demographics <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_religion" title="Ethnic religion">Ethnic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_religion" title="Folk religion">Folk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_religion" title="Indigenous religion">Indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Major_religious_groups" title="Major religious groups">Major</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_religions" title="World religions">World</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religion" title="Evolutionary origin of religion">Evolutionary origin of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_religion" title="Evolutionary psychology of religion">Evolutionary psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_religion" title="Neuroscience of religion">Neurotheology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_religion" title="Psychology of religion">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_religion" title="Sociology of religion">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soteriology" title="Soteriology">Soteriology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salvation" title="Salvation">Salvation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_about_religion" title="Theories about religion">Theories about religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_and_religion" title="Women and religion">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Religion_and_society" title="Category:Religion and society">Religion <br />and society</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_agriculture" title="Religion and agriculture">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_business" title="Religion and business">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clericalism" title="Clericalism">Clericalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Clergy" title="Clergy">Clergy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monasticism" title="Monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination" title="Ordination">Ordination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priest" title="Priest">Priest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_conversion" title="Religious conversion">Conversion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_assimilation" title="Religious assimilation">Assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missionary" title="Missionary">Missionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proselytism" title="Proselytism">Proselytism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_and_religion" title="Disability and religion">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_education" title="Religious education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_fanaticism" title="Religious fanaticism">Fanaticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Freedom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_pluralism" title="Religious pluralism">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syncretism" title="Syncretism">Syncretism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Toleration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universalism" title="Universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Growth_of_religion" title="Growth of religion">Growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_gender" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion and gender">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_happiness" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion and happiness">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_LGBTQ_people" title="Religion and LGBTQ people">LGBTQ people</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Homosexuality_and_religion" title="Homosexuality and religion">Homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_people_and_religion" title="Intersex people and religion">Intersex people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_people_and_religion" title="Transgender people and religion">Transgender people</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minority_religion" title="Minority religion">Minorities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_church" title="National church">National church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Importance_of_religion_by_country" title="Importance of religion by country">National religiosity levels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_politics" title="Religion in politics">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religious_populations" title="List of religious populations">Populations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religiocentrism" title="Religiocentrism">Religiocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schism" title="Schism">Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_school" title="Religious school">School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_sexuality" title="Religion and sexuality">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_views_on_suicide" title="Religious views on suicide">Suicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetarianism_and_religion" title="Vegetarianism and religion">Vegetarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_video_games" title="Religion and video games">Video games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence" title="Religious violence">Violence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_terrorism" title="Religious terrorism">Terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sectarian_violence" title="Sectarian violence">Sectarian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wealth_and_religion" title="Wealth and religion">Wealth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a> <br />and <a href="/wiki/Irreligion" title="Irreligion">irreligion</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antireligion" title="Antireligion">Antireligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_religion" title="Criticism of religion">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_deconstruction" title="Positive deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_religion" title="Secular religion">Secular religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_theology" title="Secular theology">Secular theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularization" title="Secularization">Secularization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religions_and_spiritual_traditions" title="List of religions and spiritual traditions">Unaffiliated</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Overviews<br />and <a href="/wiki/Category:Religion-related_lists" title="Category:Religion-related lists">lists</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Table_of_prophets_of_Abrahamic_religions" title="Table of prophets of Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic prophets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_who_have_been_considered_deities" title="List of people who have been considered deities">Deification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_deities" title="Lists of deities">Deities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_founders_of_religious_traditions" title="List of founders of religious traditions">Founders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_religion-related_articles" title="Index of religion-related articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_peaceful_gatherings" title="List of largest peaceful gatherings">Mass gatherings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_God" title="Names of God">Names of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_new_religious_movements" title="List of new religious movements">New religious movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religious_organizations" title="List of religious organizations">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_religion" title="Outline of religion">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religions_and_spiritual_traditions" title="List of religions and spiritual traditions">Religions and spiritual traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_studies" title="Religious studies">Scholars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_religion" title="Timeline of religion">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Religion_by_country220" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Religion by country</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Africa" title="Religion in Africa">Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Algeria" title="Religion in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Angola" title="Religion in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Benin" title="Religion in Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Botswana" title="Religion in Botswana">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Burkina_Faso" title="Religion in Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Burundi" title="Religion in Burundi">Burundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cameroon" title="Religion in Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cape_Verde" title="Religion in Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Central_African_Republic" title="Religion in the Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Chad" title="Religion in Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Comoros" title="Religion in the Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Religion in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Religion in the Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Djibouti" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Egypt" title="Religion in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Equatorial_Guinea" title="Religion in Equatorial Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Eritrea" title="Religion in Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Eswatini" title="Religion in Eswatini">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ethiopia" title="Religion in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Gabon" title="Religion in Gabon">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Gambia" title="Religion in the Gambia">Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ghana" title="Religion in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Guinea" title="Religion in Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Guinea-Bissau" title="Religion in Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ivory_Coast" title="Religion in Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kenya" title="Religion in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Lesotho" title="Religion in Lesotho">Lesotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Liberia" title="Religion in Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Libya" title="Religion in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Madagascar" title="Religion in Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Malawi" title="Religion in Malawi">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mali" title="Religion in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mauritania" title="Religion in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mauritius" title="Religion in Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Morocco" title="Religion in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mozambique" title="Religion in Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Namibia" title="Religion in Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Niger" title="Religion in Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nigeria" title="Religion in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Rwanda" title="Religion in Rwanda">Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="Religion in São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Senegal" title="Religion in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Seychelles" title="Religion in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Sierra_Leone" title="Religion in Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Somalia" title="Religion in Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_Africa" title="Religion in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_Sudan" title="Religion in South Sudan">South Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Sudan" title="Religion in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tanzania" title="Religion in Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Togo" title="Religion in Togo">Togo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tunisia" title="Religion in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Uganda" title="Religion in Uganda">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Zambia" title="Religion in Zambia">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Zimbabwe" title="Religion in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Asia" title="Religion in Asia">Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Afghanistan" title="Religion in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Armenia" title="Religion in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Azerbaijan" title="Religion in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bahrain" title="Religion in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bangladesh" title="Religion in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bhutan" title="Religion in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Brunei" title="Religion in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cambodia" title="Religion in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cyprus" title="Religion in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_East_Timor" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in East Timor">East Timor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Religion in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Hong_Kong" title="Religion in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_India" title="Religion in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Indonesia" title="Religion in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iran" title="Religion in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iraq" title="Religion in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Israel" title="Religion in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Japan" title="Religion in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Jordan" title="Religion in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kazakhstan" title="Religion in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Korea" title="Religion in Korea">Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_North_Korea" title="Religion in North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_Korea" title="Religion in South Korea">South Korea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kuwait" title="Religion in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kyrgyzstan" title="Religion in Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Laos" title="Religion in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Lebanon" title="Religion in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Macau" title="Religion in Macau">Macau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Malaysia" title="Religion in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Maldives" title="Religion in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mongolia" title="Religion in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Myanmar" title="Religion in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nepal" title="Religion in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Oman" title="Religion in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Pakistan" title="Religion in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_State_of_Palestine" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in the State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Philippines" title="Religion in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Qatar" title="Religion in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Religion in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Singapore" title="Religion in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Religion in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Syria" title="Religion in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Taiwan" title="Religion in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tajikistan" title="Religion in Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Thailand" title="Religion in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Turkey" title="Religion in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Turkmenistan" title="Religion in Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="Religion in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Uzbekistan" title="Religion in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Vietnam" title="Religion in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Yemen" title="Religion in Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Europe" title="Religion in Europe">Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Albania" title="Religion in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Andorra" title="Religion in Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Austria" title="Religion in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Belarus" title="Religion in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Belgium" title="Religion in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Religion in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bulgaria" title="Religion in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Croatia" title="Religion in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Religion in the Czech Republic">Czechia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Denmark" title="Religion in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Estonia" title="Religion in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Finland" title="Religion in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_France" title="Religion in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Germany" title="Religion in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Greece" title="Religion in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Hungary" title="Religion in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iceland" title="Religion in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Religion in the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Italy" title="Religion in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kosovo" title="Religion in Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Latvia" title="Religion in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Liechtenstein" title="Religion in Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Lithuania" title="Religion in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Luxembourg" title="Religion in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Malta" title="Religion in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Moldova" title="Religion in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Monaco" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Montenegro" title="Religion in Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Netherlands" title="Religion in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_North_Macedonia" title="Religion in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Norway" title="Religion in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Poland" title="Religion in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Portugal" title="Religion in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Romania" title="Religion in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Russia" title="Religion in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_San_Marino" title="Religion in San Marino">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Serbia" title="Religion in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Slovakia" title="Religion in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Slovenia" title="Religion in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Spain" title="Religion in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Sweden" title="Religion in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Switzerland" title="Religion in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ukraine" title="Religion in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Religion in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_England" title="Religion in England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Northern_Ireland" title="Religion in Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Scotland" title="Religion in Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Wales" title="Religion in Wales">Wales</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_North_America" title="Religion in North America">North America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="Religion in Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Bahamas" title="Religion in the Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Barbados" title="Religion in Barbados">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Belize" title="Religion in Belize">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Canada" title="Religion in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Costa_Rica" title="Religion in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cuba" title="Religion in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Dominica" title="Religion in Dominica">Dominica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Religion in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_El_Salvador" title="Religion in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Grenada" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Grenada">Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Guatemala" title="Religion in Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Haiti" title="Religion in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Honduras" title="Religion in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Jamaica" title="Religion in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mexico" title="Religion in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nicaragua" title="Religion in Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Panama" title="Religion in Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Saint Kitts and Nevis">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Saint_Lucia" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Religion in Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_States" title="Religion in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Oceania" title="Religion in Oceania">Oceania</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Australia" title="Religion in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Fiji" title="Religion in Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kiribati" title="Religion in Kiribati">Kiribati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Marshall_Islands" title="Religion in the Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia" title="Religion in the Federated States of Micronesia">Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nauru" title="Religion in Nauru">Nauru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_New_Zealand" title="Religion in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Palau" title="Religion in Palau">Palau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Religion in Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Samoa" title="Religion in Samoa">Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Solomon_Islands" title="Religion in Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tonga" title="Religion in Tonga">Tonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tuvalu" title="Religion in Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Vanuatu" title="Religion in Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_America" title="Religion in South America">South America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Argentina" title="Religion in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bolivia" title="Religion in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Brazil" title="Religion in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Chile" title="Religion in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Colombia" title="Religion in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ecuador" title="Religion in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Guyana" title="Religion in Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Paraguay" title="Religion in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Peru" title="Religion in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Suriname" title="Religion in Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Uruguay" title="Religion in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Venezuela" title="Religion in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Religion" title="Category:Religion">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/20px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/40px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Religion" title="Portal:Religion">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_religion485" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Template:Philosophy of religion"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Template talk:Philosophy of religion"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of religion"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_religion485" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Conceptions_of_God" title="Conceptions of God">Conceptions of God</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demiurge" title="Demiurge">Demiurge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_simplicity" title="Divine simplicity">Divine simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_egoism" title="Ethical egoism">Egoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit" title="Holy Spirit">Holy Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misotheism" title="Misotheism">Misotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_god" title="Personal god">Personal god</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God" title="God">Supreme Being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">Unmoved mover</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">God in</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Abrahamic_religions" title="God in Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creator_in_Buddhism" title="Creator in Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Hinduism" title="God in Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Jainism" title="God in Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Mormonism" title="God in Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Sikhism" title="God in Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_the_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="God in the Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiccan_views_of_divinity" title="Wiccan views of divinity">Wicca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Existence_of_God" title="Existence of God">Existence of God</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">For</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_beauty" title="Argument from beauty">Beauty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christological_argument" title="Christological argument">Christological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lewis%27_trilemma" class="mw-redirect" title="Lewis' trilemma">Trilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_consciousness" title="Argument from consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument" title="Cosmological argument">Cosmological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kalam_cosmological_argument" title="Kalam cosmological argument">Kalam cosmological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument#Aquinas's_argument_from_contingency" title="Cosmological argument">Contingency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument#Duns_Scotus's_metaphysical_argument" title="Cosmological argument">Metaphysical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_degree" title="Argument from degree">Degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_desire" title="Argument from desire">Desire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_religious_experience" title="Argument from religious experience">Experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leap_of_faith" title="Leap of faith">Existential choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fine-tuned_universe" title="Fine-tuned universe">Fine-tuned universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontological_argument#Baruch_Spinoza" title="Ontological argument">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_love" title="Argument from love">Love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_and_God" title="Mathematics and God">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_miracles" title="Argument from miracles">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_morality" title="Argument from morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley#Theology" title="George Berkeley">Mystical idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural-law_argument" title="Natural-law argument">Natural-law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proof_of_the_Truthful" title="Proof of the Truthful">Necessary existent</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seddiqin_argument" title="Seddiqin argument">Seddiqin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyayakusumanjali" title="Nyayakusumanjali">Nyayakusumanjali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontological_argument" title="Ontological argument">Ontological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proslogion" title="Proslogion">Anselm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6del%27s_ontological_proof" title="Gödel's ontological proof">Gödel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meinongian_argument" title="Meinongian argument">Meinongian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontological_argument#Modal_versions_of_the_ontological_argument" title="Ontological argument">Modal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendent_theosophy" title="Transcendent theosophy">Mulla Sadra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pascal%27s_wager" title="Pascal's wager">Pascal's wager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_reason" title="Argument from reason">Reason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Proper basis and Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_responses_to_the_problem_of_evil" title="Religious responses to the problem of evil">Responses to the problem of evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleological_argument" title="Teleological argument">Teleological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural-law_argument" title="Natural-law argument">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watchmaker_analogy" title="Watchmaker analogy">Watchmaker</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existence_of_God#Arguments_from_witnesses'_testimony" title="Existence of God">Testimony</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Existence_of_God#Arguments_from_historical_events" title="Existence of God">Historical events</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existence_of_God#Arguments_from_the_authority_of_historical_personages" title="Existence of God">Historical personages</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trademark_argument" title="Trademark argument">Trademark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_argument_for_the_existence_of_God" title="Transcendental argument for the existence of God">Transcendental</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">Against</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ultimate_Boeing_747_gambit" title="Ultimate Boeing 747 gambit">747 gambit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheist%27s_Wager" class="mw-redirect" title="Atheist's Wager">Atheist's Wager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_free_will" title="Argument from free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_Hell" title="Problem of Hell">Hell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_inconsistent_revelations" class="mw-redirect" title="Argument from inconsistent revelations">Inconsistent revelations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_nonbelief" title="Argument from nonbelief">Nonbelief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_noncognitivism" title="Theological noncognitivism">Noncognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">Occam's razor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnipotence_paradox" title="Omnipotence paradox">Omnipotence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_poor_design" title="Argument from poor design">Poor design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell%27s_teapot" title="Russell's teapot">Russell's teapot</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acosmism" title="Acosmism">Acosmism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antireligion" title="Antireligion">Antireligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">Creationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharmism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonology" title="Demonology">Demonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dualism_in_cosmology" title="Dualism in cosmology">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Esotericism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheistic_existentialism" title="Atheistic existentialism">Atheistic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Feminist theology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thealogy" title="Thealogy">Thealogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">Womanist theology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_humanism" title="Religious humanism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inclusivism" title="Inclusivism">Inclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_about_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Theories about religions">Theories about religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Metaphysical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_naturalism" title="Religious naturalism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_naturalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Humanistic naturalism">Humanistic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondualism" title="Nondualism">Nondualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nontheism" title="Nontheism">Nontheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perennial_philosophy" title="Perennial philosophy">Perennialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possibilianism" title="Possibilianism">Possibilianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_skepticism" title="Religious skepticism">Religious skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(beliefs)" title="Spiritualism (beliefs)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">Shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">Taoic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_religion" title="Category:Philosophers of religion">Philosophers<br />of religion</a></div><br />(by date active)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient</a> and<br /><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm of Canterbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaudapada" title="Gaudapada">Gaudapada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaunilo_of_Marmoutiers" title="Gaunilo of Marmoutiers">Gaunilo of Marmoutiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pico_della_Mirandola" title="Giovanni Pico della Mirandola">Pico della Mirandola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">King James VI and I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcion_of_Sinope" title="Marcion of Sinope">Marcion of Sinope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Augustin_Calmet" title="Antoine Augustin Calmet">Augustin Calmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desiderius_Erasmus" class="mw-redirect" title="Desiderius Erasmus">Desiderius Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried W Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Wollaston" title="William Wollaston">William Wollaston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Chubb" title="Thomas Chubb">Thomas Chubb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baron_d%27Holbach" title="Baron d'Holbach">Baron d'Holbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Johann G Herder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1800<br />1850</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schleiermacher" title="Friedrich Schleiermacher">Friedrich Schleiermacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Christian_Friedrich_Krause" title="Karl Christian Friedrich Krause">Karl C F Krause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg W F Hegel</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Feuerbach" title="Ludwig Feuerbach">Ludwig Feuerbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albrecht_Ritschl" title="Albrecht Ritschl">Albrecht Ritschl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikan_Spir" title="Afrikan Spir">Afrikan Spir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1880<br />1900</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Kingdon_Clifford" title="William Kingdon Clifford">W K Clifford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harald_H%C3%B8ffding" title="Harald Høffding">Harald Høffding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Solovyov_(philosopher)" title="Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)">Vladimir Solovyov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Troeltsch" title="Ernst Troeltsch">Ernst Troeltsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Otto" title="Rudolf Otto">Rudolf Otto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Shestov" title="Lev Shestov">Lev Shestov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Bulgakov" title="Sergei Bulgakov">Sergei Bulgakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pavel_Florensky" title="Pavel Florensky">Pavel Florensky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Ernst Cassirer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Joseph Maréchal">Joseph Maréchal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1920<br />postwar</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">George Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Buber" title="Martin Buber">Martin Buber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">René Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Paul Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Karl Barth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Brunner" title="Emil Brunner">Emil Brunner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Bultmann" title="Rudolf Bultmann">Rudolf Bultmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Marcel" title="Gabriel Marcel">Gabriel Marcel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Reinhold Niebuhr</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Hartshorne" title="Charles Hartshorne">Charles Hartshorne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade">Mircea Eliade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frithjof_Schuon" title="Frithjof Schuon">Frithjof Schuon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">J L Mackie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Kaufmann_(philosopher)" title="Walter Kaufmann (philosopher)">Walter Kaufmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Lings" title="Martin Lings">Martin Lings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Geach" title="Peter Geach">Peter Geach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_I._Mavrodes" title="George I. Mavrodes">George I Mavrodes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Alston" title="William Alston">William Alston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antony_Flew" title="Antony Flew">Antony Flew</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1970<br />1990<br />2010</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_L._Rowe" title="William L. Rowe">William L Rowe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dewi_Zephaniah_Phillips" title="Dewi Zephaniah Phillips">Dewi Z Phillips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kenny" title="Anthony Kenny">Anthony Kenny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Richard Swinburne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Robert Merrihew Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravi_Zacharias" title="Ravi Zacharias">Ravi Zacharias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyal_Rue" title="Loyal Rue">Loyal Rue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Marion" title="Jean-Luc Marion">Jean-Luc Marion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lane_Craig" title="William Lane Craig">William Lane Craig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Akbar_Rashad" title="Ali Akbar Rashad">Ali Akbar Rashad</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pruss" title="Alexander Pruss">Alexander Pruss</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_religion" title="Criticism of religion">Criticism of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desacralization_of_knowledge" title="Desacralization of knowledge">Desacralization of knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion" title="Ethics in religion">Ethics in religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exegesis" title="Exegesis">Exegesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">History of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_religious_language" title="Problem of religious language">Religious language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_philosophy" title="Religious philosophy">Religious philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_religion_articles" title="Index of philosophy of religion articles">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/20px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/40px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Category:Philosophy of religion">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Worldview13" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:World_view" title="Template:World view"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li 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beliefs</a> / <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Beliefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_consciousness" title="Collective consciousness">Collective consciousness</a> / <a href="/wiki/Collective_unconscious" title="Collective unconscious">Collective unconscious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptual_system" title="Conceptual system">Conceptual system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Context" title="Context">Context</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventional_wisdom" title="Conventional wisdom">Conventional wisdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_(norm)" title="Convention (norm)">Conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_movement" title="Cultural movement">Cultural movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">Epic poetry</a> / <a href="/wiki/National_epic" title="National epic">National epics</a> / <a href="/wiki/List_of_world_folk-epics" title="List of world folk-epics">World folk-epics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">Facts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Factoid" title="Factoid">factoids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Framing_(social_sciences)" title="Framing (social sciences)">Framing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_stance" title="Life stance">Life stance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lifestyle_(social_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lifestyle (social sciences)">Lifestyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meme" title="Meme">Memes</a> / <a href="/wiki/Memeplex" title="Memeplex">Memeplex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_model" title="Mental model">Mental model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metanarrative" title="Metanarrative">Metanarrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mindset" title="Mindset">Mindset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">Norms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">Paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_theory" title="Philosophical theory">Philosophical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point_of_view_(philosophy)" title="Point of view (philosophy)">Point of view</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presupposition" title="Presupposition">Presuppositions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primal_world_beliefs" title="Primal world beliefs">Primal world beliefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reality_tunnel" title="Reality tunnel">Reality tunnel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schema_(psychology)" title="Schema (psychology)">Schemata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_thought" title="School of thought">School of thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Set_(psychology)" title="Set (psychology)">Set</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_reality" title="Social reality">Social reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_everything" title="Theory of everything">Theory of everything</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umwelt" title="Umwelt">Umwelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Value system">Value system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Aspects13" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Aspects</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em"><a href="/wiki/Bias" title="Bias">Biases</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_bias" title="Academic bias">Academic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attentional_bias" title="Attentional bias">Attentional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attitude_polarization" class="mw-redirect" title="Attitude polarization">Attitude polarization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief_bias" title="Belief bias">Belief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias" title="Cognitive bias">Cognitive</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases" title="List of cognitive biases">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_narcissism" title="Collective narcissism">Collective narcissism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation bias">Confirmation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congruence_bias" title="Congruence bias">Congruence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptomnesia" title="Cryptomnesia">Cryptomnesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_bias" title="Cultural bias">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocentrism" title="Ethnocentrism">Ethnocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filter_bubble" title="Filter bubble">Filter bubble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homophily" title="Homophily">Homophily</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-group_favoritism" title="In-group favoritism">In-group favoritism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magical_thinking" title="Magical thinking">Magical thinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias" title="Media bias">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observational_error" title="Observational error">Observational error</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observer-expectancy_effect" title="Observer-expectancy effect">Observer-expectancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_exposure_theory" title="Selective exposure theory">Selective exposure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_perception" title="Selective perception">Selective perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-deception" title="Self-deception">Self-deception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-fulfilling_prophecy" title="Self-fulfilling prophecy">Self-fulfilling prophecy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clever_Hans" title="Clever Hans">Clever Hans effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placebo" title="Placebo">placebo effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wishful_thinking" title="Wishful thinking">wishful thinking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_quo_bias" title="Status quo bias">Status quo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype" title="Stereotype">Stereotyping</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_stereotype" title="Ethnic stereotype">ethnic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">Change and<br />maintenance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Activism" title="Activism">Activism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument" title="Argument">Argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argumentum_ad_populum" title="Argumentum ad populum">Argumentum ad populum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attitude_change" title="Attitude change">Attitude change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brainwashing" title="Brainwashing">Brainwashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship" title="Censorship">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charisma" title="Charisma">Charisma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circular_reporting" title="Circular reporting">Circular reporting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance" title="Cognitive dissonance">Cognitive dissonance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical thinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crowd_manipulation" title="Crowd manipulation">Crowd manipulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_dissonance" title="Cultural dissonance">Cultural dissonance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deprogramming" title="Deprogramming">Deprogramming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Echo_chamber_(media)" title="Echo chamber (media)">Echo chamber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_education" title="Religious education">religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_education" title="Values education">values</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euphemism" title="Euphemism">Euphemism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excommunication" title="Excommunication">Excommunication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fearmongering" title="Fearmongering">Fearmongering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_revisionism" title="Historical revisionism">Historical revisionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_negationism" title="Historical negationism">negationism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideological_repression" title="Ideological repression">Ideological repression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indoctrination" title="Indoctrination">Indoctrination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manipulation_(psychology)" title="Manipulation (psychology)">Manipulation (psychology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_manipulation" title="Media manipulation">Media manipulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_regulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Media regulation">Media regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missionary" title="Missionary">Missionaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_entrepreneur" class="mw-redirect" title="Moral entrepreneur">Moral entrepreneurship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persuasion" title="Persuasion">Persuasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polite_fiction" title="Polite fiction">Polite fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_engineering" title="Political engineering">Political engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_model" title="Propaganda model">Propaganda model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proselytism" title="Proselytism">Proselytism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_warfare" title="Psychological warfare">Psychological warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_conversion" title="Religious conversion">Religious conversion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion" title="Forced conversion">forced</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Religious persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_uniformity" title="Religious uniformity">Religious uniformity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">Revolutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">Rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-censorship" title="Self-censorship">Self-censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_change" title="Social change">Social change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_control" title="Social control">Social control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_engineering_(political_science)" title="Social engineering (political science)">Social engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_influence" title="Social influence">Social influence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_progress" class="mw-redirect" title="Social progress">Social progress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suppression_of_dissent" class="mw-redirect" title="Suppression of dissent">Suppression of dissent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemic_bias" title="Systemic bias">Systemic bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woozle_effect" title="Woozle effect">Woozle effect</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em"><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calendar" title="Calendar">Calendars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceremony" title="Ceremony">Ceremonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coronation" title="Coronation">Coronations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_psychology" title="Cross-cultural psychology">Cross-cultural psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_psychology" title="Cultural psychology">Cultural psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctrine" title="Doctrine">Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employment" title="Employment">Employment</a> / <a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">Serfdom</a> / <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family" title="Family">Families</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funeral" title="Funeral">Funerals</a> / <a href="/wiki/Burial" title="Burial">Burial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game" title="Game">Games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiday" title="Holiday">Holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hygiene" title="Hygiene">Hygiene</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ritual_purification" title="Ritual purification">ritual</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">Identity (philosophy)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_identity" title="Cultural identity">cultural</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liminality" title="Liminality">Liminality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liturgy" title="Liturgy">Liturgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage" title="Marriage">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myth_and_ritual" title="Myth and ritual">Myth and ritual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oath" title="Oath">Oaths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pilgrimage" title="Pilgrimage">Pilgrimages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Play_(activity)" title="Play (activity)">Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rite_of_passage" title="Rite of passage">Rites of passage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Secular_coming-of-age_ceremony" title="Secular coming-of-age ceremony">secular</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">Rituals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">Social class</a> / <a href="/wiki/Social_status" title="Social status">Social status</a> / <a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">Caste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">Symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_boundaries" title="Symbolic boundaries">Symbolic boundaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worship" title="Worship">Worship</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em"><a href="/wiki/Groupthink" title="Groupthink">Groupthink</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abilene_paradox" title="Abilene paradox">Abilene paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bandwagon_effect" title="Bandwagon effect">Bandwagon effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective" title="Collective">Collectives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_behavior" title="Collective behavior">Collective behavior</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collective_animal_behavior" title="Collective animal behavior">animal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_effervescence" title="Collective effervescence">Collective effervescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_intelligence" title="Collective intelligence">Collective intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conformity" title="Conformity">Conformity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consensus_theory" title="Consensus theory">Consensus theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crowd_psychology" title="Crowd psychology">Crowd psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cult" title="Cult">Cults</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture-bound_syndrome" title="Culture-bound syndrome">Culture-bound syndromes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deindividuation" title="Deindividuation">Deindividuation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doublethink" title="Doublethink">Doublethink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">Emergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_contagion" title="Emotional contagion">Emotional contagion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entitativity" title="Entitativity">Entitativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_consensus_effect" title="False consensus effect">False consensus effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folie_%C3%A0_deux" title="Folie à deux">Folie à deux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_action_(sociology)" title="Group action (sociology)">Group action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_cohesiveness" title="Group cohesiveness">Group cohesiveness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_dynamics" title="Group dynamics">Group dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_emotion" title="Group emotion">Group emotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_polarization" title="Group polarization">Group polarization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groupshift" title="Groupshift">Groupshift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herd_behavior" title="Herd behavior">Herd behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hysterical_contagion" title="Hysterical contagion">Hysterical contagion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_cascade" title="Information cascade">Information cascade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-group_and_out-group" title="In-group and out-group">In-group and out-group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">Invisible hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majoritarianism" title="Majoritarianism">Majoritarianism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Mob_rule" title="Mob rule">Mob rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_action_(sociology)" title="Mass action (sociology)">Mass action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_psychogenic_illness" title="Mass psychogenic illness">Mass psychogenic illness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milieu_control" title="Milieu control">Milieu control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobbing" title="Mobbing">Mobbing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_panic" title="Moral panic">Moral panic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peer_pressure" title="Peer pressure">Peer pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralistic_ignorance" title="Pluralistic ignorance">Pluralistic ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_correctness" title="Political correctness">Political correctness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoconsensus" title="Pseudoconsensus">Pseudoconsensus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scapegoating" title="Scapegoating">Scapegoating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-organization" title="Self-organization">Self-organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_action" title="Social action">Social action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_behavior" title="Social behavior">Social behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_emotions" title="Social emotions">Social emotions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_facilitation" title="Social facilitation">Social facilitation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_facilitation_in_animals" title="Social facilitation in animals">animal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_group" title="Social group">Social group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_proof" title="Social proof">Social proof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_order" title="Spontaneous order">Spontaneous order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_quo" title="Status quo">Status quo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stigmergy" title="Stigmergy">Stigmergy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarm_behaviour" title="Swarm behaviour">Swarm behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/System_justification" title="System justification">System justification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_phenomenon" title="Viral phenomenon">Viral phenomena</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em"><a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axiom" title="Axiom">Axioms</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tacit_assumption" title="Tacit assumption">tacit assumptions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptual_framework" title="Conceptual framework">Conceptual framework</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_epistemology" title="Outline of epistemology">outline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">Evidence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anecdotal_evidence" title="Anecdotal evidence">anecdotal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_evidence" title="Scientific evidence">scientific</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explanation" title="Explanation">Explanations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">Faith</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">fideism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnosis" title="Gnosis">Gnosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intuition" title="Intuition">Intuition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning-making" title="Meaning-making">Meaning-making</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">Memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-knowledge">Meta-knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodology" title="Methodology">Methodology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">Observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observational_learning" title="Observational learning">Observational learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">Reasoning</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy" title="Fallacy">fallacious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revelation" title="Revelation">Revelation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testimony" title="Testimony">Testimony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">Tradition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore">folklore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consensus_theory_of_truth" title="Consensus theory of truth">consensus theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criteria_of_truth" title="Criteria of truth">criteria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_disclosure" title="World disclosure">World disclosure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Etiology" title="Etiology">Ætiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">Afterlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anima_mundi" title="Anima mundi">Anima mundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_problem" title="Mind–body problem">mind–body problem</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmogony" title="Cosmogony">Cosmogony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_cosmology" title="Religious cosmology">religious</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creation_myth" title="Creation myth">Creation myth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">Deities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Existence_of_God" title="Existence of God">existence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destiny" title="Destiny">Destiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eschatology" title="Eschatology">Eschatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Everything" title="Everything">Everything</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nothing" title="Nothing">Nothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">Existence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiction" title="Fiction">Fiction</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nonfiction" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonfiction">Nonfiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future" title="Future">Future</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Ideas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idios_kosmos" title="Idios kosmos">Idios kosmos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illusion" title="Illusion">Illusions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incarnation" title="Incarnation">Incarnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_(supernatural)" title="Magic (supernatural)">Magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matter_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Matter (philosophy)">Matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracle" title="Miracle">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Mythology">Mythology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_mythology" title="Comparative mythology">comparative</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_myth" title="National myth">National mythoi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">Nature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">philosophical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_myth" title="Origin myth">Origin myths</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_myth" title="Political myth">political</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otherworld" title="Otherworld">Otherworlds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axis_mundi" title="Axis mundi">axes mundi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">Physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Souls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernatural" title="Supernatural">Supernature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">Teleology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unobservable" title="Unobservable">Unobservables</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em"><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Value</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_taste" title="Aesthetic taste">Aesthetic taste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_value" class="mw-redirect" title="Aesthetic value">Aesthetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alms" title="Alms">Almsgiving</a> / <a href="/wiki/Charity_(practice)" title="Charity (practice)">Charity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altruism" title="Altruism">Altruism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">Autonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beauty" title="Beauty">Beauty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_conduct" title="Code of conduct">Codes of conduct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comedy" title="Comedy">Comedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscience" title="Conscience">Conscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent" title="Consent">Consent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">Creativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disgust" title="Disgust">Disgust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecstasy_(philosophy)" title="Ecstasy (philosophy)">Ecstasy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecstasy_(emotion)" title="Ecstasy (emotion)">emotional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_ecstasy" title="Religious ecstasy">religious</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elegance" title="Elegance">Elegance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">Emotions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entertainment" title="Entertainment">Entertainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eroticism" title="Eroticism">Eroticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etiquette" title="Etiquette">Étiquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_and_drink_prohibitions" title="Food and drink prohibitions">Food and drink prohibitions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unclean_animal" title="Unclean animal">unclean animals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Rule" title="Golden Rule">Golden Rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guilt_(emotion)" title="Guilt (emotion)">Guilt</a> / <a href="/wiki/Culpability" title="Culpability">Culpability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Happiness" title="Happiness">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harmony" title="Harmony">Harmony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judgement" title="Judgement">Judgement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_law" title="Religious law">religious</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_freedom" title="Political freedom">political freedom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Love" title="Love">Love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnificence_(history_of_ideas)" title="Magnificence (history of ideas)">Magnificence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxim_(philosophy)" title="Maxim (philosophy)">Maxims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_of_life" title="Meaning of life">Meaning of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_morality" title="Public morality">public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obligation" title="Obligation">Obligations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piety" title="Piety">Piety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praxeology" title="Praxeology">Praxeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle" title="Principle">Principles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punishment" title="Punishment">Punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quality_(philosophy)" title="Quality (philosophy)">Qualities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repentance" title="Repentance">Repentance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverence_(emotion)" title="Reverence (emotion)">Reverence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">Sexuality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_ethics" title="Sexual ethics">ethics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sin" title="Sin">Sin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">Social stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Style_(visual_arts)" title="Style (visual arts)">Styles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sublime_(philosophy)" title="Sublime (philosophy)">Sublime, The</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffering" title="Suffering">Suffering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympathy" title="Sympathy">Sympathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taboo" title="Taboo">Taboo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(social_science)" title="Trust (social science)">Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unspoken_rule" title="Unspoken rule">Unspoken rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">Virtues</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vice" title="Vice">Vices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_of_art" title="Work of art">Works of art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wrongdoing" title="Wrongdoing">Wrongdoing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Examples13" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Examples</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em"><a href="/wiki/Attitude_(psychology)" title="Attitude (psychology)">Attitudes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Misanthropy" title="Misanthropy">Misanthropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimism" title="Optimism">Optimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pessimism" title="Pessimism">Pessimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recluse" title="Recluse">Reclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weltschmerz" title="Weltschmerz">Weltschmerz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em">Economic and<br />political <a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">ideologies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization#Collectivism_and_individualism" title="Social organization">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communalism_(Bookchin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Communalism (Bookchin)">Communalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extremism" title="Extremism">Extremism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fanaticism" title="Fanaticism">Fanaticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalism" title="Globalism">Globalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_politics" title="Green politics">Green politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrialisation" title="Industrialisation">Industrialisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectualism" title="Intellectualism">Intellectualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masculism" title="Masculism">Masculism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Militarism" title="Militarism">Militarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_politics" title="Radical politics">Radicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformism" title="Reformism">Reformism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentientism" title="Sentientism">Sentientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veganism" title="Veganism">Veganism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em"><a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caodaism" title="Caodaism">Caodaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheondoism" title="Cheondoism">Cheondoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Chinese folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a 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title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shinto" title="Shinto">Shinto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kardecist_spiritism" title="Kardecist spiritism">Spiritism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenrikyo" title="Tenrikyo">Tenrikyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_African_religions" title="Traditional African religions">Traditional African religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitarian_Universalism" title="Unitarian Universalism">Unitarian Universalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em">Schools of<br /><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization" title="Social organization">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a> / <a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dualism_in_cosmology" title="Dualism in cosmology">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatalism" title="Fatalism">Fatalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hedonism" title="Hedonism">Hedonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a> / <a href="/wiki/New_historicism" title="New historicism">New historicism</a></li> <li><a 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href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralist_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Pluralist school">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Pre-Socratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreanism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentientism" title="Sentientism">Sentientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li></ul> 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