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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Marked_and_unmarked_word_pairs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marked_and_unmarked_word_pairs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Marked and unmarked word pairs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marked_and_unmarked_word_pairs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Background_in_Prague_School" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Background_in_Prague_School"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Background in Prague School</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Background_in_Prague_School-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jakobsonian_tradition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jakobsonian_tradition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Jakobsonian tradition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jakobsonian_tradition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cultural_markedness_and_informedness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural_markedness_and_informedness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Cultural markedness and informedness</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cultural_markedness_and_informedness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Local_markedness_and_markedness_reversals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Local_markedness_and_markedness_reversals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Local markedness and markedness reversals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Local_markedness_and_markedness_reversals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Universals_and_frequency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Universals_and_frequency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Universals and frequency</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Universals_and_frequency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diagnostics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diagnostics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Diagnostics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diagnostics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_generative_grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_generative_grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>In generative grammar</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_generative_grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item 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href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C5%99%C3%ADznakovost" title="Příznakovost – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Příznakovost" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markiertheit" title="Markiertheit – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Markiertheit" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="نشان‌داری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نشان‌داری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcatezza" title="Marcatezza – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Marcatezza" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%AA" title="מסומננות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מסומננות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%82_%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%82" title="അങ്കിതവും അനങ്കിതവും – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അങ്കിതവും അനങ്കിതവും" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemarkeerdheid" title="Gemarkeerdheid – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Gemarkeerdheid" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marca%C3%A7%C3%A3o_social" title="Marcação social – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Marcação social" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Маркированность – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Маркированность" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%93%E0%B8%B0%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%94%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%99_(%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C)" title="การมีลักษณะเด่น (ภาษาศาสตร์) – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การมีลักษณะเด่น (ภาษาศาสตร์)" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1897166#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" 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screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:18em"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#ccccff;font-size:110%"><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_category" title="Grammatical category">Grammatical features</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content vlist" style="padding:.3em; text-align:left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Related to nouns</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animacy" title="Animacy">Animacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">Case</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dative_construction" title="Dative construction">Dative construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dative_shift" title="Dative shift">Dative shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quirky_subject" title="Quirky subject">Quirky subject</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">Nominative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comitative_case" title="Comitative case">Comitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_case" title="Instrumental case">Instrumental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classifier_(linguistics)" title="Classifier (linguistics)">Classifier</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Measure_word" title="Measure word">Measure word</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construct_state" title="Construct state">Construct state</a></li> <li>Countability <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Count_noun" title="Count noun">Count noun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_noun" title="Mass noun">Mass noun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_noun" title="Collective noun">Collective noun</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Definiteness" title="Definiteness">Definiteness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genitive_construction" title="Genitive construction">Genitive construction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Possession_(linguistics)" title="Possession (linguistics)">Possession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffixaufnahme" title="Suffixaufnahme">Suffixaufnahme (case stacking)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noun_class" title="Noun class">Noun class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">Number</a> <ul><li><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Singular</li><li><a href="/wiki/Dual_(grammatical_number)" title="Dual (grammatical number)">Dual</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Plural" title="Plural">Plural</a></li></ul></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singulative_number" title="Singulative number">Singulative-Collective-Plurative</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specificity_(linguistics)" title="Specificity (linguistics)">Specificity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_grinder" title="Universal grinder">Universal grinder</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content vlist" style="padding:.3em; text-align:left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Related to verbs</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Associated_motion" title="Associated motion">Associated motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clusivity" title="Clusivity">Clusivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_conjugation" title="Grammatical conjugation">Conjugation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidentiality" title="Evidentiality">Evidentiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modality_(semantics)" title="Modality (semantics)">Modality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">Person</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telicity" title="Telicity">Telicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirativity" title="Mirativity">Mirativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tense%E2%80%93aspect%E2%80%93mood" title="Tense–aspect–mood">Tense–aspect–mood</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect">Grammatical aspect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexical_aspect" title="Lexical aspect">Lexical aspect (Aktionsart)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_mood" title="Grammatical mood">Mood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">Tense</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voice_(grammar)" title="Voice (grammar)">Voice</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content vlist" style="padding:.3em; text-align:left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">General features</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_(linguistics)" title="Affect (linguistics)">Affect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boundedness_(linguistics)" title="Boundedness (linguistics)">Boundedness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_(grammar)" title="Comparison (grammar)">Comparison (degree)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egophoricity" title="Egophoricity">Egophoricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluractionality" title="Pluractionality">Pluractionality</a> (verbal number)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honorifics_(linguistics)" title="Honorifics (linguistics)">Honorifics (politeness)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affirmation_and_negation" title="Affirmation and negation">Polarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_construction" title="Reciprocal construction">Reciprocity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reflexive_pronoun" title="Reflexive pronoun">Reflexive pronoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflexive_verb" title="Reflexive verb">Reflexive verb</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content vlist" style="padding:.3em; text-align:left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Syntax relationships</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argument_(linguistics)" title="Argument (linguistics)">Argument</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transitivity_(grammar)" title="Transitivity (grammar)">Transitivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valency_(linguistics)" title="Valency (linguistics)">Valency</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Branching_(linguistics)" title="Branching (linguistics)">Branching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serial_verb_construction" title="Serial verb construction">Serial verb construction</a></li> <li>Traditional grammar <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Predicate_(grammar)" title="Predicate (grammar)">Predicate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">Subject</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object_(grammar)" title="Object (grammar)">Object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adjunct_(grammar)" title="Adjunct (grammar)">Adjunct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predicative_expression" title="Predicative expression">Predicative</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content vlist" style="padding:.3em; text-align:left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Semantics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contrast_(linguistics)" title="Contrast (linguistics)">Contrast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirativity" title="Mirativity">Mirativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thematic_relation" title="Thematic relation">Thematic relation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agent_(grammar)" title="Agent (grammar)">Agent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_(grammar)" title="Patient (grammar)">Patient</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topic_and_comment" title="Topic and comment">Topic and Comment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Focus_(linguistics)" title="Focus (linguistics)">Focus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volition_(linguistics)" title="Volition (linguistics)">Volition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veridicality" title="Veridicality">Veridicality</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content vlist" style="padding:.3em; text-align:left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Phenomena</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agreement_(linguistics)" title="Agreement (linguistics)">Agreement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polypersonal_agreement" title="Polypersonal agreement">Polypersonal agreement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declension" title="Declension">Declension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empty_category" title="Empty category">Empty category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incorporation_(linguistics)" title="Incorporation (linguistics)">Incorporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">Inflection</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Markedness</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Grammatical_categories" title="Template:Grammatical categories"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Grammatical_categories" title="Template talk:Grammatical categories"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Grammatical_categories" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Grammatical categories"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a> and social sciences, <b>markedness</b> is the state of standing out as nontypical or divergent as opposed to regular or common. In a marked–unmarked relation, one term of an opposition is the broader, dominant one. The dominant default or minimum-effort form is known as <i>unmarked</i>; the other, secondary one is <i>marked</i>. In other words, markedness involves the characterization of a "normal" linguistic unit against one or more of its possible "irregular" forms. </p><p>In linguistics, markedness can apply to, among others, <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonological</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammatical</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">semantic</a> oppositions, defining them in terms of marked and unmarked oppositions, such as <i>honest</i> (unmarked) vs. <i>dishonest</i> (marked). Marking may be purely semantic, or may be realized as extra morphology. The term derives from the marking of a grammatical role with a suffix or another element, and has been extended to situations where there is no morphological distinction. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social sciences</a> more broadly, markedness is, among other things, used to distinguish two meanings of the same term, where one is common usage (unmarked sense) and the other is specialized to a certain cultural context (marked sense). </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, the social science concept of <b>markedness</b> is quantified as a measure of how much one variable is marked as a predictor or possible cause of another, and is also known as <span class="texhtml">Δp</span> (deltaP) in simple two-choice cases. See <a href="/wiki/Confusion_matrix" title="Confusion matrix">confusion matrix</a> for more details. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Marked_and_unmarked_word_pairs">Marked and unmarked word pairs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Markedness&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Marked and unmarked word pairs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Markedness" title="Special:EditPage/Markedness">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2019</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In terms of lexical opposites, a marked form is a non-basic one, often one with <a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">inflectional</a> or <a href="/wiki/Derivation_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Derivation (linguistics)">derivational</a> endings. Thus, a morphologically negative word form is marked as opposed to a positive one: <i>happy</i>/<i>unhappy</i>, <i>honest</i>/<i>dishonest</i>, <i>fair</i>/<i>unfair</i>, <i>clean</i>/<i>unclean</i>, and so forth. Similarly, unaffixed masculine or singular forms are taken to be unmarked in contrast to affixed feminine or plural forms: <i>lion</i>/<i>lioness</i>, <i>host</i>/<i>hostess</i>, <i>automobile</i>/<i>automobiles</i>, <i>child</i>/<i>children</i>. An unmarked form is also a default form. For example, the unmarked <i>lion</i> can refer to a male or female, while <i>lioness</i> is marked because it can refer only to females. </p><p>The default nature allows unmarked lexical forms to be identified even when the opposites are not morphologically related. In the pairs <i>old</i>/<i>young</i>, <i>big</i>/<i>little</i>, <i>happy</i>/<i>sad</i>, <i>clean</i>/<i>dirty</i>, the first term of each pair is taken as unmarked because it occurs generally in questions. For example, English speakers typically ask how old someone is; use of the marked term (<i>how <b>young</b> are you?</i>) would presuppose youth. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background_in_Prague_School">Background in Prague School</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Markedness&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Background in Prague School"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While the idea of linguistic asymmetry predated the actual coining of the terms <i>marked</i> and <i>unmarked</i>, the modern concept of markedness originated in the <a href="/wiki/Prague_school_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Prague school (linguistics)">Prague School</a> <a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">structuralism</a> of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Jakobson" title="Roman Jakobson">Roman Jakobson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Trubetzkoy" title="Nikolai Trubetzkoy">Nikolai Trubetzkoy</a> as a means of characterizing binary oppositions.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Both sound and meaning were analyzed into systems of binary distinctive features. <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Battistella" title="Edwin Battistella">Edwin Battistella</a> wrote: "Binarism suggests symmetry and equivalence in <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic analysis">linguistic analysis</a>; markedness adds the idea of hierarchy."<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Trubetzkoy and Jakobson analyzed phonological oppositions such as nasal versus non-nasal as defined as the presence versus the absence of nasality; the presence of the feature, <a href="/wiki/Nasalization" title="Nasalization">nasality</a>, was marked; its absence, non-nasality, was unmarked. For Jakobson and Trubetzkoy, binary phonological features formed part of a universal feature alphabet applicable to all languages. In his 1932 article "Structure of the Russian Verb", Jakobson extended the concept to grammatical meanings in which the marked element "announces the existence of [some meaning] A" while the unmarked element "does not announce the existence of A, i.e., does not state whether A is present or not".<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Forty years later, Jakobson described language by saying that "every single constituent of a linguistic system is built on an opposition of two logical contradictories: the presence of an attribute ('markedness') in contraposition to its absence ('unmarkedness')."<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In his 1941 <i>Child Language, Aphasia, and Universals of Language</i>, Jakobson suggested that phonological markedness played a role in <a href="/wiki/Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">language acquisition</a> and <a href="/wiki/Language_loss" class="mw-redirect" title="Language loss">loss</a>. Drawing on existing studies of acquisition and <a href="/wiki/Aphasia" title="Aphasia">aphasia</a>, Jakobson suggested a mirror-image relationship determined by a universal feature hierarchy of marked and unmarked oppositions. Today many<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (July 2020)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> still see Jakobson's theory of phonological acquisition as identifying useful tendencies.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Jakobsonian_tradition">Jakobsonian tradition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Markedness&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Jakobsonian tradition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The work of Cornelius van Schooneveld, <a href="/wiki/Edna_Andrews" title="Edna Andrews">Edna Andrews</a>, Rodney Sangster, Yishai Tobin and others on 'semantic invariance' (different general meanings reflected in the contextual specific meanings of features) has further developed the <a href="/wiki/Semantic_analysis_(linguistics)" title="Semantic analysis (linguistics)">semantic analysis</a> of grammatical items in terms of marked and unmarked features. Other semiotically-oriented work has investigated the isomorphism of form and meaning with less emphasis on invariance, including the efforts of Henning Andersen, Michael Shapiro, and Edwin Battistella. Shapiro and Andrews have especially made connections between the semiotic of <a href="/wiki/C._S._Peirce" class="mw-redirect" title="C. S. Peirce">C. S. Peirce</a> and markedness, treating it "as species of interpretant" in Peirce's sign–object–interpretant triad. </p><p>Functional linguists such as <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Givon" title="Thomas Givon">Talmy Givón</a> have suggested that markedness is related to cognitive complexity—"in terms of attention, mental effort or processing time".<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Linguistic 'naturalists' view markedness relations in terms of the ways in which extralinguistic principles of perceptibility and psychological efficiency determine what is natural in language. Willi Mayerthaler, another linguist, for example, defines unmarked categories as those "in agreement with the typical attributes of the speaker".<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cultural_markedness_and_informedness">Cultural markedness and informedness</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Markedness&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Cultural markedness and informedness"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since a main component of markedness is the information content and information value of an element,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> some studies have taken markedness as an encoding of that which is unusual or informative, and this is reflected in formal probabilistic definitions of markedness and <a href="/wiki/Informedness" class="mw-redirect" title="Informedness">informedness</a> that, for dichotomous problems, correspond to the chance-correct unidirectional components of the <a href="/wiki/Matthews_correlation_coefficient" class="mw-redirect" title="Matthews correlation coefficient">Matthews correlation coefficient</a> known as Δp and Δp'.<sup id="cite_ref-Powers2007_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Powers2007-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Conceptual familiarity with cultural norms provided by familiar categories creates a ground against which marked categories provide a figure, opening the way for markedness to be applied to cultural and social categorization. </p><p>As early as the 1930s Jakobson had already suggested applying markedness to all oppositions, explicitly mentioning such pairs as life/death, liberty/bondage, sin/virtue, and holiday/working day. Linda Waugh extended this to oppositions like male/female, white/black, sighted/blind, hearing/deaf, heterosexual/homosexual, right/left, fertility/barrenness, clothed/nude, and spoken language/written language.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Battistella expanded this with the demonstration of how cultures align markedness values to create cohesive symbol systems, illustrating with examples based on <a href="/wiki/Rodney_Needham" title="Rodney Needham">Rodney Needham</a>'s work.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other work has applied markedness to stylistics, music, and myth.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Local_markedness_and_markedness_reversals">Local markedness and markedness reversals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Markedness&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Local markedness and markedness reversals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Markedness depends on <a href="/wiki/Context_(language_use)" class="mw-redirect" title="Context (language use)">context</a>. What is more marked in some general contexts may be less marked in other local contexts. Thus, "ant" is less marked than "ants" on the morphological level, but on the semantic (and frequency) levels it may be more marked since ants are more often encountered many at once than one at a time. Often a more general markedness relation may be reversed in a particular context. Thus, voicelessness of <a href="/wiki/Consonant" title="Consonant">consonants</a> is typically unmarked. But between <a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">vowels</a> or in the neighborhood of voiced consonants, voicing may be the expected or unmarked value. </p><p>Reversal is reflected in certain <a href="/wiki/West_Frisian_language" title="West Frisian language">West Frisian</a> words' plural and singular forms:<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In West Frisian, nouns with irregular singular-plural stem variations are undergoing regularization.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Usually this means that the plural is reformed to be a regular form of the singular: </p> <ul><li><b>Old paradigm</b>: "koal" (coal), "kwallen" (coals) → <b>regularized forms</b>: "Koal" (coal), "Koalen" (coals).</li></ul> <p>However, a number of words instead reform the singular by extending the form of the plural: </p> <ul><li><b>Old paradigm</b>: "earm" (arm), "jermen" (arms) → <b>regularized forms</b>: "jerm" (arm), "jermen" (arms)</li></ul> <p>The common feature of the nouns that regularize the singular to match the plural is that they occur more often in pairs or groups than singly; they are said to be semantically (but not morphologically) locally unmarked in the plural. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Universals_and_frequency">Universals and frequency</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Markedness&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Universals and frequency"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Greenberg" title="Joseph Greenberg">Joseph Greenberg</a>'s 1966 book <i>Language Universals</i> was an influential application of markedness to typological linguistics and a break from the tradition of Jakobson and Trubetzkoy. Greenberg took frequency to be the primary determining factor of markedness in grammar and suggested that unmarked categories could be determined by "the frequency of association of things in the real world". </p><p>Greenberg also applied frequency cross-linguistically, suggesting that unmarked categories would be those that are unmarked in a wide number of languages. However, critics have argued that frequency is problematic because categories that are cross-linguistically infrequent may have a high distribution in a particular language.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>More recently the insights related to frequency have been formalized as chance-corrected conditional probabilities, with <a href="/wiki/Informedness" class="mw-redirect" title="Informedness">Informedness</a> (Δp') and Markedness (Δp) corresponding to the different directions of prediction in human association research (binary associations or distinctions)<sup id="cite_ref-Perruchet2004_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perruchet2004-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and more generally (including features with more than two distinctions).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Language_universals" class="mw-redirect" title="Language universals">Universals</a> have also been connected to <a href="/wiki/Implicational_universal" class="mw-redirect" title="Implicational universal">implicational laws</a>. This entails that a category is taken as marked if every language that has the marked category also has the unmarked one but not vice versa. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Diagnostics">Diagnostics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Markedness&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Diagnostics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Markedness has been extended and reshaped over the past century and reflects a range of loosely connected theoretical approaches. From emerging in the analysis of binary oppositions, it has become a global semiotic principle, a means of encoding naturalness and language universals, and a terminology for studying defaults and preferences in language acquisition. What connects various approaches is a concern for the evaluation of linguistic structure, though the details of how markedness is determined and what its implications and diagnostics are varies widely. Other approaches to universal markedness relations focus on functional economic and iconic motivations, tying recurring symmetries to properties of communication channels and communication events. Croft (1990), for example, notes that asymmetries among linguistic elements may be explainable in terms economy of form, in terms of iconism between the structure of language and conceptualization of the world. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_generative_grammar">In generative grammar</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Markedness&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: In generative grammar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Markedness entered generative linguistic theory through <a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a> and <a href="/wiki/Morris_Halle" title="Morris Halle">Morris Halle</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Sound_Pattern_of_English" title="The Sound Pattern of English">The Sound Pattern of English</a></i>. For Chomsky and Halle, phonological features went beyond a universal phonetic vocabulary to encompass an 'evaluation metric', a means of selecting the most highly valued adequate grammar. In <i>The Sound Pattern of English</i>, the value of a grammar was the inverse of the number of features required in that grammar. However, Chomsky and Halle realized that their initial approach to phonological features made implausible rules and segment inventories as highly valued as natural ones. The unmarked value of a feature was cost-free with respect to the evaluation metric, while the marked feature values were counted by the metric. Segment inventories could also be evaluated according to the number of marked features. However, the use of phonological markedness as part of the evaluation metric was never able to fully account for the fact that some features are more likely than others or for the fact that phonological systems must have a certain minimal complexity and symmetry.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Generative_syntax" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative syntax">generative syntax</a>, markedness as feature-evaluation did not receive the same attention that it did in phonology. Chomsky came to view unmarked properties as an innate preference structure based first in constraints and later in parameters of <a href="/wiki/Universal_grammar" title="Universal grammar">universal grammar</a>. In their 1977 article "Filters and Control", Chomsky and <a href="/wiki/Howard_Lasnik" title="Howard Lasnik">Howard Lasnik</a> extended this to view markedness as part of a theory of 'core grammar': </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>We will assume that [Universal Grammar] is not an 'undifferentiated' system, but rather incorporates something analogous to a 'theory of markedness' Specifically, there is a theory of core grammar with highly restricted options, limited expressive power, and a few parameters. Systems that fall within core grammar constitute 'the unmarked case'; we may think of them as optimal in terms of the evaluation metric. An actual language is determined by fixing the parameters of core grammar and then adding rules or conditions, using much richer resources, ... These added properties of grammars we may think of as the syntactic analogue of irregular verbs.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>A few years later, Chomsky describes it thus: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The distinction between core and periphery leaves us with three notions of markedness: core versus periphery, internal to the core, and internal to the periphery. The second has to do with the way parameters are set in the absence of evidence. As for the third, there are, no doubt, significant regularities even in departures from the core principles (for example, in irregular verb morphology in English), and it may be that peripheral constructions are related to the core in systematic ways, say by relaxing certain conditions of core grammar.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Some generative researchers have applied markedness to <a href="/wiki/Second-language_acquisition" title="Second-language acquisition">second-language acquisition</a> theory, treating it as an inherent learning hierarchy which reflects the sequence in which constructions are acquired, the difficulty of acquiring certain constructions, and the transferability of rules across languages.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More recently, <a href="/wiki/Optimality_theory" title="Optimality theory">optimality theory</a> approaches emerging in the 1990s have incorporated markedness in the ranking of constraints.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Markedness&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/markedness" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/markedness">markedness</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">Inflection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemma_(morphology)" title="Lemma (morphology)">Lemma (morphology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexeme" title="Lexeme">Lexeme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_as_norm" title="Male as norm">Male as norm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marker_(linguistics)" title="Marker (linguistics)">Marker (linguistics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthews_correlation_coefficient" class="mw-redirect" title="Matthews correlation coefficient">Matthews correlation coefficient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Null_morpheme" title="Null morpheme">Null morpheme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Other_(philosophy)" title="Other (philosophy)">Other (philosophy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underlying_representation" title="Underlying representation">Underlying representation</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Markedness&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Andersen, Henning (1989). "Markedness—The First 150 Years". In <i>Markedness in Synchrony and Diachrony</i>. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Battistella, Edwin (1990). <i>Markedness: The Evaluative Superstructure of Language</i>. State University of New York Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jakobson, R. (1932). "The Structure of the Russian Verb". Reprinted in <i>Russian and Slavic Grammar Studies, 1931–1981</i>. Mouton, 1984.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jakobson, R. (1972). "Verbal Communication". <i>Scientific American</i> 227: 72–80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Battistella, Edwin (1996). <i>The Logic of Markedness</i>. New York: Oxford University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Givón, T. <i>Syntax: A Functional-Typological Introduction</i>, vol. 2, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1990.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mayerthaler Willi <i>Morphological Naturalness</i>. Ann Arbor: Karoma, 1988.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Battistella, Markedness, 1990.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Powers2007-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Powers2007_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFPowers2011" class="citation journal cs1">Powers, David M W (2011). "Evaluation: From Precision, Recall and F-Score to ROC, Informedness, Markedness & Correlation". <i>Journal of Machine Learning Technologies</i>. <b>2</b> (1): 37–63. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2328%2F27165">2328/27165</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Machine+Learning+Technologies&rft.atitle=Evaluation%3A+From+Precision%2C+Recall+and+F-Score+to+ROC%2C+Informedness%2C+Markedness+%26+Correlation&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=37-63&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2328%2F27165&rft.aulast=Powers&rft.aufirst=David+M+W&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMarkedness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Waugh, Linda "Marked and Unmarked: A Choice Between Unequals in Semiotic Structure". <i>Semiotica</i>; 38: 299–318, 1982</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Battistella, Edwin <i>Markedness</i>, 1990, pp. 188–189.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Myers-Scotton, Carol (ed.) <i>Codes and Consequences: Choosing Linguistic Varieties</i>. Oxford, 1998</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hatten, Robert <i>Musical Meaning in Beethoven: Markedness, Correlation, and Interpretation</i>. Indiana University Press, 1994</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Liszka, James J. <i>The Semiotic of Myth</i>. Indiana University Press, 1989</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tiersma, Peter. "Local and General Markedness", <i>Language</i>, 1982.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Battistella, Edwin <i>The Logic of Markedness</i>, 1996, p. 51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Perruchet2004-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Perruchet2004_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerruchetPeereman2004" class="citation journal cs1">Perruchet, P.; Peereman, R. (2004). "The exploitation of distributional information in syllable processing". <i>J. Neurolinguistics</i>. <b>17</b> (2–3): 97–119. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0911-6044%2803%2900059-9">10.1016/s0911-6044(03)00059-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17104364">17104364</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J.+Neurolinguistics&rft.atitle=The+exploitation+of+distributional+information+in+syllable+processing&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=2%E2%80%933&rft.pages=97-119&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fs0911-6044%2803%2900059-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A17104364%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Perruchet&rft.aufirst=P.&rft.au=Peereman%2C+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMarkedness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kean, Mary-Louise (1980). <i>The Theory of Markedness in Generative Grammar</i>. Bloomington: Indiana University Linguistics Club.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chomsky, Noam and Lasnik, Howard (1977). "Filters and Control". <i>Linguistic Inquiry</i> 8.3: 425–504.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chomsky, Noam (1986). <i>Knowledge of Language: Its Nature, Origin and Use</i>. Praeger.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eckman, F. R. (1991). "The Structural Conformity Hypothesis and the Acquisition of Consonantal Clusters in the Interlanguage of Learners". <i>Studies in Second Language Acquisition</i> 13(1), 23–41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Archangeli 1997.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Markedness&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Andersen, Henning 1989 "Markedness—The First 150 Years", In <i>Markedness in Synchrony and Diachrony</i>. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.</li> <li>Andrews, Edna 1990 <i>Markedness Theory: The Union of Asymmetry and Semiosis in Language</i>, Durham, NC: Duke University Press.</li> <li>Archangeli, Diana 1997 "Optimality Theory: An Introduction to Linguistics in the 1990s", In <i>Optimality Theory: An Overview</i>. Malden, MA: Blackwell.</li> <li>Battistella, Edwin 1990 <i>Markedness: The Evaluative Superstructure of Language</i>, Albany, NY: SUNY Press.</li> <li>Battistella, Edwin 1996 <i>The Logic of Markedness</i>, New York: Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Chandler, Daniel 2002/2007 <i>Semiotics: The Basics</i>, London: Routledge.</li> <li>Chandler, Daniel 2005 Entry on markedness. In John Protevi (ed.) (2005) <i>Edinburgh Dictionary of Continental Philosophy</i>, Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh Press.</li> <li>Chomsky, Noam & Halle, Morris 1968 <i>The Sound Pattern of English</i>, New York: Harper and Row.</li> <li>Greenberg, Joseph <i>Language Universals</i>, The Hague: Mouton, 1966.</li> <li>Trask, R. L. 1999 <i>Key Concepts in Language and Linguistics</i>, London and New York: Routledge.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1897166#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85081324">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007553094505171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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