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subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Old_Babylonian_astronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Planetary_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Planetary_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Planetary theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Planetary_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cosmology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cosmology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Cosmology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cosmology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Omens" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Omens"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Omens</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Omens-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Astrolabes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Astrolabes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Astrolabes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Astrolabes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-MUL.APIN" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#MUL.APIN"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>MUL.APIN</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-MUL.APIN-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relationship_of_calendar,_mathematics_and_astronomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relationship_of_calendar,_mathematics_and_astronomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Relationship of calendar, mathematics and astronomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relationship_of_calendar,_mathematics_and_astronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aurorae" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aurorae"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>Aurorae</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aurorae-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neo-Babylonian_astronomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neo-Babylonian_astronomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Neo-Babylonian astronomy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Neo-Babylonian_astronomy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Neo-Babylonian astronomy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Neo-Babylonian_astronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Arithmetical_and_geometrical_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arithmetical_and_geometrical_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Arithmetical and geometrical methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arithmetical_and_geometrical_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Heliocentric_astronomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heliocentric_astronomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Heliocentric astronomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Heliocentric_astronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Babylonian_influence_on_Hellenistic_astronomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Babylonian_influence_on_Hellenistic_astronomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Babylonian influence on Hellenistic astronomy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Babylonian_influence_on_Hellenistic_astronomy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Babylonian influence on Hellenistic astronomy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Babylonian_influence_on_Hellenistic_astronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Influence_on_Hipparchus_and_Ptolemy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influence_on_Hipparchus_and_Ptolemy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Influence on Hipparchus and Ptolemy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Influence_on_Hipparchus_and_Ptolemy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Means_of_transmission" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Means_of_transmission"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Means of transmission</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Means_of_transmission-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span 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Available in 22 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-22" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">22 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D9%84%D9%83_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%84%D9%8A" title="علم الفلك البابلي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم الفلك البابلي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="ব্যাবিলনীয় জ্যোতির্বিজ্ঞান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ব্যাবিলনীয় জ্যোতির্বিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_babil%C3%B2nica" title="Astronomia babilònica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Astronomia babilònica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronom%C3%ADa_babil%C3%B3nica" title="Astronomía babilónica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Astronomía babilónica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babiloniar_astronomia" title="Babiloniar astronomia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Babiloniar astronomia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomie_m%C3%A9sopotamienne" title="Astronomie mésopotamienne – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Astronomie mésopotamienne" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%B2%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%A8_%D4%B2%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A5%D5%AC%D5%B8%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Աստղագիտությունը Բաբելոնում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Աստղագիտությունը Բաբելոնում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babilonska_astronomija" title="Babilonska astronomija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Babilonska astronomija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomi_Babilonia" title="Astronomi Babilonia – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Astronomi Babilonia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_babilonese" title="Astronomia babilonese – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Astronomia babilonese" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babiloni_csillag%C3%A1szat" title="Babiloni csillagászat – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Babiloni csillagászat" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Вавилонска астрономија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Вавилонска астрономија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylonsk_astronomi" title="Babylonsk astronomi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Babylonsk astronomi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_babil%C3%B4nica" title="Astronomia babilônica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Astronomia babilônica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_babilonian%C4%83" title="Astronomia babiloniană – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Astronomia babiloniană" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Вавилонская астрономия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Вавилонская астрономия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylonsk%C3%A1_astron%C3%B3mia" title="Babylonská astronómia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Babylonská astronómia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vavilonska_astronomija" title="Vavilonska astronomija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Vavilonska astronomija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babil_astronomisi" title="Babil astronomisi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Babil astronomisi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Вавилонська астрономія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Вавилонська астрономія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thi%C3%AAn_v%C4%83n_h%E1%BB%8Dc_Babylon" title="Thiên văn học Babylon – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Thiên văn học Babylon" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E6%AF%94%E4%BC%A6%E5%A4%A9%E6%96%87%E5%AD%A6" title="巴比伦天文学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="巴比伦天文学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q787929#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Babylonian_tablet_recording_Halley%27s_comet.jpg/300px-Babylonian_tablet_recording_Halley%27s_comet.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="484" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Babylonian_tablet_recording_Halley%27s_comet.jpg/450px-Babylonian_tablet_recording_Halley%27s_comet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Babylonian_tablet_recording_Halley%27s_comet.jpg/600px-Babylonian_tablet_recording_Halley%27s_comet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="912" data-file-height="1470" /></a><figcaption> A <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylonian</a> tablet recording <a href="/wiki/Halley%27s_comet" class="mw-redirect" title="Halley's comet">Halley's comet</a> in 164 BC</figcaption></figure><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about ancient astronomy from Babylonian civilization. For information about Babylonian cosmology, see <a href="/wiki/Ancient_near_eastern_cosmology" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient near eastern cosmology">Ancient near eastern cosmology</a>.</div> <p><b>Babylonian astronomy</b> was the study or recording of <a href="/wiki/Celestial_object" class="mw-redirect" title="Celestial object">celestial objects</a> during the early history of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Numeral_system" title="Numeral system">numeral system</a> used, <a href="/wiki/Sexagesimal" title="Sexagesimal">sexagesimal</a>, was based on sixty, as opposed to ten in the modern <a href="/wiki/Decimal" title="Decimal">decimal system</a>. This system simplified the calculating and recording of unusually great and small numbers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFriberg2019_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFriberg2019-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the 8th and 7th centuries BC, Babylonian astronomers developed a new <a href="/wiki/Empirical" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical">empirical</a> approach to astronomy. They began studying and recording their <a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">belief</a> system and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophies</a> dealing with an ideal nature of the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a> and began employing an <a href="/wiki/Consistency_proof" class="mw-redirect" title="Consistency proof">internal logic</a> within their predictive planetary systems. This was an important contribution to astronomy and the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">philosophy of science</a>, and some modern scholars have thus referred to this approach as a scientific revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrown20005–6,_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown20005–6,-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This approach to astronomy was adopted and further developed in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_astronomy" title="Ancient Greek astronomy">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_astrology" title="Hellenistic astrology">Hellenistic astrology</a>. Classical <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> sources frequently use the term <a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chaldeans</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophers">philosophers</a>, who were considered as <a href="/wiki/Priest" title="Priest">priest</a>-<a href="/wiki/Scribes" class="mw-redirect" title="Scribes">scribes</a> specializing in <a href="/wiki/Astronomical" class="mw-redirect" title="Astronomical">astronomical</a> and other forms of <a href="/wiki/Divination" title="Divination">divination</a>. Babylonian astronomy paved the way for modern astrology and is responsible for its spread across the Graeco-Roman empire during the 2nd Century, <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic Period">Hellenistic Period</a>. The Babylonians used the sexagesimal system to trace the planets transits, by dividing the 360 degree sky into 30 degrees, they assigned 12 zodiacal signs to the stars along the ecliptic. </p><p>Only fragments of Babylonian astronomy have survived, consisting largely of contemporary clay tablets containing <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomical_diaries" title="Babylonian astronomical diaries">astronomical diaries</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ephemerides" class="mw-redirect" title="Ephemerides">ephemerides</a> and procedure texts, hence current knowledge of Babylonian planetary theory is in a fragmentary state.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAaboe1958209_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAaboe1958209-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, the surviving fragments show that Babylonian astronomy was the first "successful attempt at giving a refined mathematical description of astronomical phenomena" and that "all subsequent varieties of scientific astronomy, in the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_astronomy#Hellenistic_astronomy" title="Ancient Greek astronomy">Hellenistic world</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Indian_astronomy" title="Indian astronomy">India</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Islam</a>, and in the West … depend upon Babylonian astronomy in decisive and fundamental ways."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAaboe197421_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAaboe197421-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Old_Babylonian_astronomy">Old Babylonian astronomy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylonian_astronomy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Old Babylonian astronomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_star_catalogues" title="Babylonian star catalogues">Babylonian star catalogues</a></div> <p>An object labelled the ivory prism was recovered from the ruins of <a href="/wiki/Nineveh" title="Nineveh">Nineveh</a>. First presumed to be describing rules to a game, its use was later deciphered to be a unit converter for calculating the movement of <a href="/wiki/Celestial_bodies" class="mw-redirect" title="Celestial bodies">celestial bodies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Constellation" title="Constellation">constellations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_der_Waerden1951_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_der_Waerden1951-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Babylonian astronomers developed zodiacal signs. They are made up of the division of the sky into three sets of thirty degrees and the constellations that inhabit each sector.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERochberg-Halton1983_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERochberg-Halton1983-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/MUL.APIN" title="MUL.APIN">MUL.APIN</a> contains <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_star_catalogues" title="Babylonian star catalogues">catalogues of stars and constellations</a> as well as schemes for predicting <a href="/wiki/Heliacal_rising" title="Heliacal rising">heliacal risings</a> and settings of the planets, and lengths of daylight as measured by a <a href="/wiki/Water_clock" title="Water clock">water clock</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gnomon" title="Gnomon">gnomon</a>, shadows, and <a href="/wiki/Intercalation_(timekeeping)" title="Intercalation (timekeeping)">intercalations</a>. The Babylonian GU text arranges stars in 'strings' that lie along declination circles and thus measure right-ascensions or time intervals, and also employs the stars of the zenith, which are also separated by given right-ascensional differences.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPingree1998_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPingree1998-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERochberg2004_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERochberg2004-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvans1998296–297_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans1998296–297-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Planetary_theory">Planetary theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylonian_astronomy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Planetary theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Babylonians were the first civilization known to possess a functional theory of the planets.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvans1998296–297_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans1998296–297-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The oldest surviving planetary astronomical text is the Babylonian <a href="/wiki/Venus_tablet_of_Ammisaduqa" title="Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa">Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa</a>, a 7th-century BC copy of a list of observations of the motions of the planet Venus that probably dates as early as the second millennium BC. The <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astrology" title="Babylonian astrology">Babylonian astrologers</a> also laid the foundations of what would eventually become <a href="/wiki/Western_astrology" title="Western astrology">Western astrology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolden20061_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolden20061-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i><a href="/wiki/Enuma_anu_enlil" class="mw-redirect" title="Enuma anu enlil">Enuma anu enlil</a></i>, written during the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Assyrian">Neo-Assyrian</a> period in the 7th century BC,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> comprises a list of <a href="/wiki/Omen" title="Omen">omens</a> and their relationships with various celestial phenomena including the motions of the planets.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELambert198793_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELambert198793-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cosmology">Cosmology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylonian_astronomy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Cosmology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_near_eastern_cosmology" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient near eastern cosmology">Ancient near eastern cosmology</a></div> <p>In contrast to the <a href="/wiki/World_view" class="mw-redirect" title="World view">world view</a> presented in Mesopotamian and <a href="/wiki/Assyro-Babylonian_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyro-Babylonian literature">Assyro-Babylonian literature</a>, particularly <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_mythology" title="Mesopotamian mythology">in Mesopotamian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonian mythology">Babylonian mythology</a>, very little is known about the <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmology</a> and world view of the ancient Babylonian astrologers and astronomers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERochberg-Halton1983_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERochberg-Halton1983-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is largely due to the current fragmentary state of Babylonian planetary theory,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAaboe1958_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAaboe1958-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and also due to Babylonian astronomy and cosmology largely being separate endeavors. Nevertheless, traces of cosmology can be found in Babylonian literature and mythology.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERochberg2002679_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERochberg2002679-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Omens">Omens</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylonian_astronomy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Omens"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It was a common Mesopotamian belief that <a href="/wiki/Gods" class="mw-redirect" title="Gods">gods</a> could and did indicate future events to mankind through omens; sometimes through animal entrails, but most often they believed omens could be read through <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">astrology</a>. Since omens via the planets were produced without any human action, they were seen as more powerful. But they believed the events these omens foretold were also avoidable. The relationship Mesopotamians had with omens can be seen in the Omen Compendia, a Babylonian text composed starting from the beginning of the second millennium on-wards.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHungerPingree1999_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHungerPingree1999-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is the primary source text that tells us that ancient Mesopotamians saw omens as preventable. The text also contains information on <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumerian</a> rites to avert evil, or “nam-bur-bi”, a term later adopted by the <a href="/wiki/Akkadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Akkadians">Akkadians</a> as “namburbu”, meaning roughly, “[the evil] loosening”. The god Ea was the one believed to send the omens. Concerning the severity of omens, eclipses were seen as the most dangerous.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHungerPingree19991–33_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHungerPingree19991–33-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Enuma_Anu_Enlil" title="Enuma Anu Enlil">Enuma Anu Enlil</a> is a series of cuneiform tablets that gives insight on different sky omens Babylonian astronomers observed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHungerPingree199912–20_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHungerPingree199912–20-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Celestial bodies such as the Sun and Moon were given significant power as omens. Reports from <a href="/wiki/Nineveh" title="Nineveh">Nineveh</a> and <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a>, circa 2500-670 B.C., show lunar omens observed by the Mesopotamians. "When the moon disappears, evil will befall the land. When the moon disappears out of its reckoning, an eclipse will take place".<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Astrolabes">Astrolabes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylonian_astronomy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Astrolabes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The astrolabes (not to be mistaken for the later <a href="/wiki/Astrolabe" title="Astrolabe">astronomical measurement device</a> of the same name) are one of the earliest documented <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">cuneiform</a> tablets that discuss <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a> and date back to the Old Babylonian Kingdom. They are a list of thirty-six stars connected with the months in a year,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERochberg-Halton1983_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERochberg-Halton1983-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> generally considered to be written between 1800 and 1100 B.C. No complete texts have been found, but there is a modern compilation by Pinches, assembled from texts housed in the <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a> that is considered excellent by other historians who specialize in Babylonian astronomy. Two other texts concerning the astrolabes that should be mentioned are the Brussels and Berlin compilations. They offer similar information to the Pinches anthology, but do contain some differing information from each other.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_der_Waerden1949_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_der_Waerden1949-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The thirty-six stars that make up the astrolabes are believed to be derived from the astronomical traditions from three Mesopotamian city-states, <a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkad</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Amurru_kingdom" title="Amurru kingdom">Amurru</a>. The stars followed and possibly charted by these city-states are identical stars to the ones in the astrolabes. Each region had a set of twelve stars it followed, which combined equals the thirty-six stars in the astrolabes. The twelve stars of each region also correspond to the months of the year. The two cuneiform texts that provide the information for this claim are the large star list “K 250” and “K 8067”. Both of these tablets were translated and transcribed by Weidner. During the reign of <a href="/wiki/Hammurabi" title="Hammurabi">Hammurabi</a> these three separate traditions were combined. This combining also ushered in a more scientific approach to astronomy as connections to the original three traditions weakened. The increased use of science in astronomy is evidenced by the traditions from these three regions being arranged in accordance to the paths of the stars of <a href="/wiki/Ea_(Babylonian_god)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ea (Babylonian god)">Ea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anu" title="Anu">Anu</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Enlil" title="Enlil">Enlil</a>, an astronomical system contained and discussed in the MUL.APIN.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_der_Waerden1949_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_der_Waerden1949-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="MUL.APIN">MUL.APIN</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylonian_astronomy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: MUL.APIN"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MulApin-BritishMuseum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/MulApin-BritishMuseum.jpg/220px-MulApin-BritishMuseum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="306" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/MulApin-BritishMuseum.jpg/330px-MulApin-BritishMuseum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/MulApin-BritishMuseum.jpg/440px-MulApin-BritishMuseum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1795" data-file-height="2500" /></a><figcaption>Mul.apin cuneiform tablet</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/MUL.APIN" title="MUL.APIN">MUL.APIN</a></div> <p>MUL.APIN is a collection of two cuneiform tablets (Tablet 1 and Tablet 2) that document aspects of Babylonian astronomy such as the movement of <a href="/wiki/Celestial_bodies" class="mw-redirect" title="Celestial bodies">celestial bodies</a> and records of <a href="/wiki/Solstices" class="mw-redirect" title="Solstices">solstices</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eclipses" class="mw-redirect" title="Eclipses">eclipses</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-BA3_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BA3-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each tablet is also split into smaller sections called Lists. It was comprised in the general time frame of the astrolabes and <a href="/wiki/Enuma_Anu_Enlil" title="Enuma Anu Enlil">Enuma Anu Enlil</a>, evidenced by similar themes, mathematical principles, and occurrences.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHungerPingree199957–65_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHungerPingree199957–65-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Tablet 1 houses information that closely parallels information contained in astrolabe B. The similarities between Tablet 1 and astrolabe B show that the authors were inspired by the same source for at least some of the information. There are six lists of stars on this tablet that relate to sixty constellations in charted paths of the three groups of Babylonian star paths, Ea, Anu, and Enlil. There are also additions to the paths of both Anu and Enlil that are not found in astrolabe B.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHungerPingree199957–65_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHungerPingree199957–65-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relationship_of_calendar,_mathematics_and_astronomy"><span id="Relationship_of_calendar.2C_mathematics_and_astronomy"></span>Relationship of calendar, mathematics and astronomy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylonian_astronomy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Relationship of calendar, mathematics and astronomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The exploration of the Sun, Moon, and other celestial bodies affected the development of Mesopotamian culture. The study of the sky led to the development of a calendar and advanced mathematics in these societies. The Babylonians were not the first complex society to develop a calendar globally and nearby in North Africa, the Egyptians developed a calendar of their own. The Egyptian calendar was solar based, while the Babylonian calendar was lunar based. A potential blend between the two that has been noted by some historians is the adoption of a crude leap year by the Babylonians after the Egyptians developed one. The Babylonian leap year shares no similarities with the leap year practiced today. It involved the addition of a thirteenth month as a means to re-calibrate the calendar to better match the growing season.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlmstead1938_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlmstead1938-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Babylonian priests were the ones responsible for developing new forms of mathematics and did so to better calculate the movements of celestial bodies. One such priest, Nabu-rimanni, is the first documented Babylonian astronomer. He was a priest for the moon god and is credited with writing lunar and eclipse computation tables as well as other elaborate mathematical calculations. The computation tables are organized in seventeen or eighteen tables that document the orbiting speeds of planets and the Moon. His work was later recounted by astronomers during the Seleucid dynasty.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlmstead1938_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlmstead1938-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aurorae">Aurorae</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylonian_astronomy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Aurorae"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A team of scientists at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Tsukuba" title="University of Tsukuba">University of Tsukuba</a> studied Assyrian cuneiform tablets, reporting unusual red skies which might be <a href="/wiki/Aurora" title="Aurora">aurorae</a> incidents, caused by <a href="/wiki/Geomagnetic_storm" title="Geomagnetic storm">geomagnetic storms</a> between 680 and 650 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHayakawaMitsumaEbiharaMiyake2019_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayakawaMitsumaEbiharaMiyake2019-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Neo-Babylonian_astronomy">Neo-Babylonian astronomy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylonian_astronomy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Neo-Babylonian astronomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Neo-Babylonian astronomy refers to the astronomy developed by <a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chaldean</a> astronomers during the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Assyria" title="Achaemenid Assyria">Achaemenid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Parthia" title="Parthia">Parthian</a> periods of Mesopotamian history. The systematic records in <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomical_diaries" title="Babylonian astronomical diaries">Babylonian astronomical diaries</a> allowed for the observation of a repeating 18-year <a href="/wiki/Saros_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Saros cycle">Saros cycle</a> of lunar eclipses.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAaboeBrittonHendersonNeugebauer1991_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAaboeBrittonHendersonNeugebauer1991-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arithmetical_and_geometrical_methods">Arithmetical and geometrical methods</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylonian_astronomy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Arithmetical and geometrical methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Though there is a lack of surviving material on Babylonian planetary theory,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAaboe1958_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAaboe1958-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it appears most of the Chaldean astronomers were concerned mainly with <a href="/wiki/Ephemeris" title="Ephemeris">ephemerides</a> and not with theory. It had been thought that most of the predictive Babylonian planetary models that have survived were usually strictly <a href="/wiki/Empirical" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical">empirical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arithmetic" title="Arithmetic">arithmetical</a>, and usually did not involve <a href="/wiki/Geometry" title="Geometry">geometry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmology</a>, or speculative <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> like that of the later <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic astronomy">Hellenistic models</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESarton1955_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESarton1955-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though the Babylonian astronomers were concerned with the philosophy dealing with the ideal nature of the early <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrown2000_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2000-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Babylonian procedure texts describe, and ephemerides employ, arithmetical procedures to compute the time and place of significant astronomical events.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAaboe200140–62_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAaboe200140–62-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More recent analysis of previously unpublished <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuneiform script">cuneiform tablets</a> in the <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a>, dated between 350 and 50 BC, demonstrates that Babylonian astronomers sometimes used geometrical methods, prefiguring the methods of the <a href="/wiki/Oxford_Calculators" title="Oxford Calculators">Oxford Calculators</a>, to describe the motion of <a href="/wiki/Jupiter" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a> over time in an abstract mathematical space.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOssendrijver2016_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOssendrijver2016-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aside from occasional interactions between the two, Babylonian astronomy was largely independent from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_near_eastern_cosmology" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient near eastern cosmology">Babylonian cosmology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERochberg2002679_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERochberg2002679-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whereas Greek astronomers expressed "prejudice in favor of circles or spheres rotating with uniform motion", such a preference did not exist for Babylonian astronomers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPingree1992557_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPingree1992557-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Contributions made by the Chaldean astronomers during this period include the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Eclipse_cycle" title="Eclipse cycle">eclipse cycles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saros_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Saros cycle">saros cycles</a>, and many accurate astronomical observations. For example, they observed that the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a>'s motion along the <a href="/wiki/Ecliptic" title="Ecliptic">ecliptic</a> was not uniform, though they were unaware of why this was; it is today known that this is due to the Earth moving in an <a href="/wiki/Elliptic_orbit" title="Elliptic orbit">elliptic orbit</a> around the Sun, with the Earth moving swifter when it is nearer to the Sun at <a href="/wiki/Perihelion" class="mw-redirect" title="Perihelion">perihelion</a> and moving slower when it is farther away at <a href="/wiki/Aphelion" class="mw-redirect" title="Aphelion">aphelion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeverington20036–7_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeverington20036–7-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Heliocentric_astronomy">Heliocentric astronomy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylonian_astronomy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Heliocentric astronomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_of_Seleucia" title="Seleucus of Seleucia">Seleucus of Seleucia</a></div> <p>The only surviving planetary model from among the Chaldean astronomers is that of the Hellenistic <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_of_Seleucia" title="Seleucus of Seleucia">Seleucus of Seleucia</a> (b. 190 BC), who supported the Greek <a href="/wiki/Aristarchus_of_Samos" title="Aristarchus of Samos">Aristarchus of Samos</a>' <a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism" title="Heliocentrism">heliocentric</a> model.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESarton1955169_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESarton1955169-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Seleucus is known from the writings of <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aetius_(philosopher)" title="Aetius (philosopher)">Aetius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Zakariya_al-Razi" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi">Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi</a>. The Greek geographer Strabo lists Seleucus as one of the four most influential astronomers, who came from Hellenistic Seleuceia on the Tigris, alongside <a href="/wiki/Kidenas" class="mw-redirect" title="Kidenas">Kidenas</a> (Kidinnu), <a href="/wiki/Naburimannu" title="Naburimannu">Naburianos</a> (Naburimannu), and <a href="/wiki/Sudines" title="Sudines">Sudines</a>. Their works were originally written in the <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian language</a> and later translated into <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_der_Waerden1987_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_der_Waerden1987-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Seleucus, however, was unique among them in that he was the only one known to have supported the heliocentric theory of planetary motion proposed by Aristarchus,<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_rotation" title="Earth's rotation">Earth rotated</a> around its own axis which in turn revolved around the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a>. According to Plutarch, Seleucus even proved the heliocentric system through <a href="/wiki/Reasoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Reasoning">reasoning</a>, though it is not known what arguments he used.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_der_Waerden1987_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_der_Waerden1987-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Lucio_Russo" title="Lucio Russo">Lucio Russo</a>, his arguments were probably related to the phenomenon of <a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">tides</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Seleucus correctly theorized that tides were caused by the <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a>, although he believed that the interaction was mediated by the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's atmosphere">Earth's atmosphere</a>. He noted that the tides varied in time and strength in different parts of the world. According to <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a> (1.1.9), Seleucus was the first to state that the <a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">tides</a> are due to the attraction of the Moon, and that the height of the tides depends on the Moon's position relative to the Sun.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_der_Waerden1987527_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_der_Waerden1987527-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Bartel_Leendert_van_der_Waerden" title="Bartel Leendert van der Waerden">Bartel Leendert van der Waerden</a>, Seleucus may have proved the heliocentric theory by determining the constants of a <a href="/wiki/Geometry" title="Geometry">geometric</a> model for the heliocentric theory and by developing methods to compute planetary positions using this model. He may have used <a href="/wiki/Trigonometry" title="Trigonometry">trigonometric</a> methods that were available in his time, as he was a contemporary of <a href="/wiki/Hipparchus" title="Hipparchus">Hipparchus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_der_Waerden1987_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_der_Waerden1987-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>None of his original writings or Greek translations have survived, though a fragment of his work has survived only in <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a> translation, which was later referred to by the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian philosopher</a> <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Zakariya_al-Razi" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi">Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi</a> (865-925).<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Babylonian_influence_on_Hellenistic_astronomy">Babylonian influence on Hellenistic astronomy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylonian_astronomy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Babylonian influence on Hellenistic astronomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Babylonian_astronomy" title="Special:EditPage/Babylonian astronomy">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2012</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Many of the works of ancient <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic civilization">Hellenistic</a> writers (including <a href="/wiki/Greek_mathematics" title="Greek mathematics">mathematicians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greek_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek astronomy">astronomers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Geographers" class="mw-redirect" title="Geographers">geographers</a>) have been preserved up to the present time, or some aspects of their work and thought are still known through later references. However, achievements in these fields by earlier <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">ancient Near Eastern</a> civilizations, notably those in <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a>, were forgotten for a long time. Since the discovery of key archaeological sites in the 19th century, many <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuneiform script">cuneiform</a> writings on <a href="/wiki/Clay_tablet" title="Clay tablet">clay tablets</a> have been found, some of them related to <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>. Most known astronomical tablets have been described by <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Sachs" title="Abraham Sachs">Abraham Sachs</a> and later published by <a href="/wiki/Otto_Neugebauer" class="mw-redirect" title="Otto Neugebauer">Otto Neugebauer</a> in the <i>Astronomical Cuneiform Texts</i> (<i>ACT</i>). Herodotus writes that the Greeks learned such aspects of astronomy as the <a href="/wiki/Gnomon" title="Gnomon">gnomon</a> and the idea of the day being split into two halves of twelve from the Babylonians.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_der_Waerden1949_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_der_Waerden1949-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other sources point to Greek pardegms, a stone with 365-366 holes carved into it to represent the days in a year, from the Babylonians as well.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_der_Waerden1951_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_der_Waerden1951-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Influence_on_Hipparchus_and_Ptolemy">Influence on Hipparchus and Ptolemy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylonian_astronomy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Influence on Hipparchus and Ptolemy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1900, Franz Xaver Kugler demonstrated that Ptolemy had stated in his <i><a href="/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest">Almagest</a></i> IV.2 that Hipparchus improved the values for the Moon's periods known to him from "even more ancient astronomers" by comparing eclipse observations made earlier by "the Chaldeans", and by himself. However Kugler found that the periods that Ptolemy attributes to Hipparchus had already been used in Babylonian <a href="/wiki/Ephemerides" class="mw-redirect" title="Ephemerides">ephemerides</a>, specifically the collection of texts nowadays called "<b>System B</b>" (sometimes attributed to <a href="/wiki/Kidinnu" title="Kidinnu">Kidinnu</a>). Apparently Hipparchus only confirmed the validity of the periods he learned from the Chaldeans by his newer observations. Later Greek knowledge of this specific Babylonian theory is confirmed by 2nd-century <a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">papyrus</a>, which contains 32 lines of a single column of calculations for the Moon using this same "System B", but written in Greek on papyrus rather than in cuneiform on clay tablets.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAaboe200162–65_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAaboe200162–65-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Means_of_transmission">Means of transmission</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylonian_astronomy&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Means of transmission"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Historians have found evidence that Athens during the late 5th century may have been aware of Babylonian astronomy. astronomers, or astronomical concepts and practices through the documentation by Xenophon of Socrates telling his students to study astronomy to the extent of being able to tell the time of night from the stars. This skill is referenced in the poem of Aratos, which discusses telling the time of night from the zodiacal signs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_der_Waerden1951_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_der_Waerden1951-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylonian_astronomy&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astrology" title="Babylonian astrology">Babylonian astrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_calendar" title="Babylonian calendar">Babylonian calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_mathematics" title="Babylonian mathematics">Babylonian mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_star_catalogues" title="Babylonian star catalogues">Babylonian star catalogues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_astronomy" title="Egyptian astronomy">Egyptian astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_astronomy#Mesopotamia" title="History of astronomy">History of astronomy</a> (Section on <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayan_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mayan astronomy">Mayan astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MUL.APIN" title="MUL.APIN">MUL.APIN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pleiades" title="Pleiades">Pleiades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venus_tablet_of_Ammisaduqa" title="Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa">Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylonian_astronomy&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylonian_astronomy&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFriberg2019-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFriberg2019_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFriberg2019">Friberg 2019</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown20005–6,-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrown20005–6,_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrown2000">Brown 2000</a>, p. 5–6,.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAaboe1958209-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAaboe1958209_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAaboe1958">Aaboe 1958</a>, p. 209.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAaboe197421-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAaboe197421_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAaboe1974">Aaboe 1974</a>, p. 21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_der_Waerden1951-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_der_Waerden1951_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_der_Waerden1951_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_der_Waerden1951_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVan_der_Waerden1951">Van der Waerden 1951</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERochberg-Halton1983-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERochberg-Halton1983_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERochberg-Halton1983_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERochberg-Halton1983_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRochberg-Halton1983">Rochberg-Halton 1983</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPingree1998-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPingree1998_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPingree1998">Pingree 1998</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERochberg2004-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERochberg2004_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRochberg2004">Rochberg 2004</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans1998296–297-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvans1998296–297_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvans1998296–297_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEvans1998">Evans 1998</a>, p. 296–297.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolden20061-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolden20061_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolden2006">Holden 2006</a>, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHermann_Hunger1992" class="citation book cs1">Hermann Hunger, ed. (1992). <i>Astrological reports to Assyrian kings</i>. State Archives of Assyria. Vol. 8. Helsinki University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-951-570-130-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-951-570-130-5"><bdi>978-951-570-130-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Astrological+reports+to+Assyrian+kings&rft.series=State+Archives+of+Assyria&rft.pub=Helsinki+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-951-570-130-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylonian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELambert198793-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELambert198793_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLambert1987">Lambert 1987</a>, p. 93.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAaboe1958-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAaboe1958_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAaboe1958_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAaboe1958">Aaboe 1958</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERochberg2002679-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERochberg2002679_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERochberg2002679_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRochberg2002">Rochberg 2002</a>, p. 679.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHungerPingree1999-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHungerPingree1999_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHungerPingree1999">Hunger & Pingree 1999</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHungerPingree19991–33-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHungerPingree19991–33_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHungerPingree1999">Hunger & Pingree 1999</a>, p. 1–33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHungerPingree199912–20-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHungerPingree199912–20_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHungerPingree1999">Hunger & Pingree 1999</a>, p. 12–20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson1904" class="citation book cs1">Thompson, R. Campbell (1904). <i>The Reports of the Magicians and Astrologers of Nineveh and Babylon</i>. New York: D. Appleton & Company. pp. 451–460.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Reports+of+the+Magicians+and+Astrologers+of+Nineveh+and+Babylon&rft.pages=451-460&rft.pub=New+York%3A+D.+Appleton+%26+Company&rft.date=1904&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=R.+Campbell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylonian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_der_Waerden1949-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_der_Waerden1949_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_der_Waerden1949_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_der_Waerden1949_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVan_der_Waerden1949">Van der Waerden 1949</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BA3-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BA3_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_der_Waerden1951" class="citation journal cs1">van der Waerden, B. L. (1951). "Babylonian Astronomy. III. The Earliest Astronomical Computations". <i>Journal of Near Eastern Studies</i>. <b>10</b> (1): 20–34. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F371009">10.1086/371009</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/542419">542419</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:222450259">222450259</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Near+Eastern+Studies&rft.atitle=Babylonian+Astronomy.+III.+The+Earliest+Astronomical+Computations&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=20-34&rft.date=1951&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A222450259%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F542419%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F371009&rft.aulast=van+der+Waerden&rft.aufirst=B.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylonian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHungerPingree199957–65-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHungerPingree199957–65_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHungerPingree199957–65_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHungerPingree1999">Hunger & Pingree 1999</a>, p. 57–65.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlmstead1938-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlmstead1938_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlmstead1938_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOlmstead1938">Olmstead 1938</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayakawaMitsumaEbiharaMiyake2019-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHayakawaMitsumaEbiharaMiyake2019_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHayakawaMitsumaEbiharaMiyake2019">Hayakawa et al. 2019</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAaboeBrittonHendersonNeugebauer1991-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAaboeBrittonHendersonNeugebauer1991_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAaboeBrittonHendersonNeugebauer1991">Aaboe et al. 1991</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESarton1955-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESarton1955_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSarton1955">Sarton 1955</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2000-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrown2000_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrown2000">Brown 2000</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAaboe200140–62-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAaboe200140–62_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAaboe2001">Aaboe 2001</a>, p. 40–62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOssendrijver2016-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOssendrijver2016_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOssendrijver2016">Ossendrijver 2016</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPingree1992557-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPingree1992557_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPingree1992">Pingree 1992</a>, p. 557.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeverington20036–7-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeverington20036–7_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLeverington2003">Leverington 2003</a>, p. 6–7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESarton1955169-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESarton1955169_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSarton1955">Sarton 1955</a>, p. 169.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_der_Waerden1987-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_der_Waerden1987_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_der_Waerden1987_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_der_Waerden1987_32-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVan_der_Waerden1987">Van der Waerden 1987</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaul_Murdin2001" class="citation book cs1">Paul Murdin, ed. (2001). "Seleucus of Seleucia (c. 190 BCE?)". <i>The Encyclopedia of Astronomy and Astrophysics</i>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000eaa..bookE3998.">2000eaa..bookE3998.</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1888%2F0333750888%2F3998">10.1888/0333750888/3998</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0333750889" title="Special:BookSources/978-0333750889"><bdi>978-0333750889</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Seleucus+of+Seleucia+%28c.+190+BCE%3F%29&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Astronomy+and+Astrophysics&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1888%2F0333750888%2F3998&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000eaa..bookE3998.&rft.isbn=978-0333750889&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylonian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Lucio_Russo" title="Lucio Russo">Lucio Russo</a>, <i>Flussi e riflussi</i>, Feltrinelli, Milano, 2003, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/88-07-10349-4" title="Special:BookSources/88-07-10349-4">88-07-10349-4</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_der_Waerden1987527-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_der_Waerden1987527_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVan_der_Waerden1987">Van der Waerden 1987</a>, p. 527.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShlomo_Pines1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Shlomo_Pines" title="Shlomo Pines">Shlomo Pines</a> (1986). <i>Studies in Arabic versions of Greek texts and in mediaeval science</i>. Vol. 2. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>. pp. viii & 201–17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-965-223-626-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-965-223-626-5"><bdi>978-965-223-626-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+Arabic+versions+of+Greek+texts+and+in+mediaeval+science&rft.pages=viii+%26+201-17&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-965-223-626-5&rft.au=Shlomo+Pines&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylonian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAaboe200162–65-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAaboe200162–65_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAaboe2001">Aaboe 2001</a>, p. 62–65.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylonian_astronomy&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAaboe1958" class="citation journal cs1">Aaboe, Asger (1958). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1600-0498.1958.tb00499.x">"On Babylonian Planetary Theories"</a>. <i>Centaurus</i>. <b>5</b> (3–4): 209–277. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1600-0498.1958.tb00499.x">10.1111/j.1600-0498.1958.tb00499.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Centaurus&rft.atitle=On+Babylonian+Planetary+Theories&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=3%E2%80%934&rft.pages=209-277&rft.date=1958&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1600-0498.1958.tb00499.x&rft.aulast=Aaboe&rft.aufirst=Asger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1111%2Fj.1600-0498.1958.tb00499.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylonian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAaboe1974" class="citation journal cs1">Aaboe, Asger (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/74272">"Scientific Astronomy in Antiquity"</a>. <i>Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences</i>. <b>276</b> (1257): 21–42. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1974RSPTA.276...21A">1974RSPTA.276...21A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsta.1974.0007">10.1098/rsta.1974.0007</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/74272">74272</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London.+Series+A%2C+Mathematical+and+Physical+Sciences&rft.atitle=Scientific+Astronomy+in+Antiquity&rft.volume=276&rft.issue=1257&rft.pages=21-42&rft.date=1974&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F74272%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsta.1974.0007&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1974RSPTA.276...21A&rft.aulast=Aaboe&rft.aufirst=Asger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F74272&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylonian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAaboe2001" class="citation book cs1">Aaboe, Asger (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-1-4613-0109-7"><i>Episodes From the Early History of Astronomy</i></a>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4613-0109-7">10.1007/978-1-4613-0109-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-95136-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-95136-2"><bdi>978-0-387-95136-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Episodes+From+the+Early+History+of+Astronomy&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4613-0109-7&rft.isbn=978-0-387-95136-2&rft.aulast=Aaboe&rft.aufirst=Asger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Fbook%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4613-0109-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylonian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAaboeBrittonHendersonNeugebauer1991" class="citation journal cs1">Aaboe, A.; Britton, J.P.; Henderson, J.A.; Neugebauer, O.; Sachs, A.J. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1006543">"Saros Cycle Dates and Related Babylonian Astronomical Texts"</a>. <i>Transactions of the American Philosophical Society</i>. <b>81</b> (6): 1–75. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1006543">10.2307/1006543</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1006543">1006543</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+American+Philosophical+Society&rft.atitle=Saros+Cycle+Dates+and+Related+Babylonian+Astronomical+Texts&rft.volume=81&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1-75&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1006543&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1006543%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Aaboe&rft.aufirst=A.&rft.au=Britton%2C+J.P.&rft.au=Henderson%2C+J.A.&rft.au=Neugebauer%2C+O.&rft.au=Sachs%2C+A.J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1006543&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylonian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown2000" class="citation book cs1">Brown, David (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/display/title/7384"><i>Mesopotamian Planetary Astronomy-Astrology</i></a>. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-45332-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-45332-6"><bdi>978-90-04-45332-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mesopotamian+Planetary+Astronomy-Astrology&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-90-04-45332-6&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrill.com%2Fdisplay%2Ftitle%2F7384&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylonian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvans1998" class="citation book cs1">Evans, James (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-history-and-practice-of-ancient-astronomy-9780195095395"><i>The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy</i></a>. 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(1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/545074">"Stellar Distances in Early Babylonian Astronomy: A New Perspective on the Hilprecht Text (HS 229)"</a>. <i>Journal of Near Eastern Studies</i>. <b>43</b> (3): 209–217. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F373020">10.1086/373020</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/545074">545074</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Near+Eastern+Studies&rft.atitle=Stellar+Distances+in+Early+Babylonian+Astronomy%3A+A+New+Perspective+on+the+Hilprecht+Text+%28HS+229%29&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=209-217&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F373020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F545074%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Rochberg-Halton&rft.aufirst=F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F545074&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylonian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSarton1955" class="citation journal cs1">Sarton, George (1955). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/595168">"Chaldaean Astronomy of the Last Three Centuries B. C."</a> <i>Journal of the American Oriental Society</i>. <b>55</b> (3): 166–173. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F595168">10.2307/595168</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/595168">595168</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Oriental+Society&rft.atitle=Chaldaean+Astronomy+of+the+Last+Three+Centuries+B.+C.&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=166-173&rft.date=1955&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F595168&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F595168%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Sarton&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F595168&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylonian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteele2019" class="citation journal cs1">Steele, John (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/full/10.1086/703532">"Explaining Babylonian Astronomy"</a>. <i>Isis</i>. <b>110</b> (2): 292–295. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F703532">10.1086/703532</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Isis&rft.atitle=Explaining+Babylonian+Astronomy&rft.volume=110&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=292-295&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F703532&rft.aulast=Steele&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.journals.uchicago.edu%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.1086%2F703532&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylonian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_der_Waerden1949" class="citation journal cs1">Van der Waerden, B.L. (1949). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/370901">"Babylonian Astronomy. II. The Thirty-Six Stars"</a>. <i>Journal of Near Eastern Studies</i>. <b>8</b> (1): 6–26. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F370901">10.1086/370901</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Near+Eastern+Studies&rft.atitle=Babylonian+Astronomy.+II.+The+Thirty-Six+Stars&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=6-26&rft.date=1949&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F370901&rft.aulast=Van+der+Waerden&rft.aufirst=B.L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.journals.uchicago.edu%2Fdoi%2F10.1086%2F370901&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylonian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_der_Waerden1951" class="citation journal cs1">Van der Waerden, B.L. (1951). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/371009">"Babylonian Astronomy. III. The Earliest Astronomical Computations"</a>. <i>Journal of Near Eastern Studies</i>. <b>10</b> (1): 20–34. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F371009">10.1086/371009</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Near+Eastern+Studies&rft.atitle=Babylonian+Astronomy.+III.+The+Earliest+Astronomical+Computations&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=20-34&rft.date=1951&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F371009&rft.aulast=Van+der+Waerden&rft.aufirst=B.L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.journals.uchicago.edu%2Fdoi%2F10.1086%2F371009&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylonian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_der_Waerden1987" class="citation journal cs1">Van der Waerden, B.L. (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nyaspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1987.tb37224.x">"Babylonian Astronomy. III. The Earliest Astronomical Computations"</a>. <i>Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>500</b> (1): 525–545. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1749-6632.1987.tb37224.x">10.1111/j.1749-6632.1987.tb37224.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+the+New+York+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Babylonian+Astronomy.+III.+The+Earliest+Astronomical+Computations&rft.volume=500&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=525-545&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1749-6632.1987.tb37224.x&rft.aulast=Van+der+Waerden&rft.aufirst=B.L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnyaspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1111%2Fj.1749-6632.1987.tb37224.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylonian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatsonHorowitz,_Wayne2011" class="citation book cs1">Watson, Rita; Horowitz, Wayne (2011). <i>Writing Science Before the Greeks: A Naturalistic Analysis of the Babylonian Astronomical Treatise MUL.APIN</i>. Leiden: Brill Academic Pub. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-20230-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-20230-6"><bdi>978-90-04-20230-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Writing+Science+Before+the+Greeks%3A+A+Naturalistic+Analysis+of+the+Babylonian+Astronomical+Treatise+MUL.APIN&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=Brill+Academic+Pub&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-90-04-20230-6&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=Rita&rft.au=Horowitz%2C+Wayne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylonian+astronomy" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylonian_astronomy&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Babylonian_astronomy" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Babylonian astronomy">Babylonian astronomy</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li>Jones, Alexander. "The Adaptation of Babylonian Methods in Greek Numerical Astronomy." <i>Isis</i>, 82(1991): 441-453; reprinted in Michael Shank, ed. <i>The Scientific Enterprise in Antiquity and the Middle Ages</i>. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 2000. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-74951-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-74951-7">0-226-74951-7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_E._Neugebauer" title="Otto E. Neugebauer">Neugebauer</a>, Otto. <i>Astronomical Cuneiform Texts</i>. 3 volumes. London:1956; 2nd edition, New York: Springer, 1983. (Commonly abbreviated as <i>ACT</i>).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerald_J._Toomer" title="Gerald J. Toomer">Toomer, G. J.</a> "Hipparchus and Babylonian Astronomy." In <i>A Scientific Humanist: Studies in Memory of Abraham Sachs</i>, ed. Erle Leichty, Maria deJ. Ellis, and Pamela Gerardi, pp. 353–362. Philadelphia: Occasional Publications of the Samuel Noah Kramer Fund 9, 1988.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · 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center;"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_astronomy" title="Outline of astronomy">Outline</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/History_of_astronomy" title="History of astronomy">History</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_astronomy" title="Timeline of astronomy">Timeline</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astronomer" title="Astronomer">Astronomer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astronomical_symbols" title="Astronomical symbols">Astronomical symbols</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astronomical_object" title="Astronomical object">Astronomical object</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy" title="Glossary of astronomy">Glossary</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_in_space" title="List of topics in space">... in space</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Astronomy by</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Manner</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Amateur_astronomy" title="Amateur astronomy">Amateur</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Observational_astronomy" title="Observational astronomy">Observational</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sidewalk_astronomy" title="Sidewalk astronomy">Sidewalk</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Space_telescope" title="Space telescope">Space telescope</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Celestial subject</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Galactic_astronomy" title="Galactic astronomy">Galactic</a> / <a href="/wiki/Extragalactic_astronomy" title="Extragalactic astronomy">Extragalactic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Local system</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Solar</a></span></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">EM methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Radio_astronomy" title="Radio astronomy">Radio</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Submillimetre_astronomy" title="Submillimetre astronomy">Submillimetre</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Infrared_astronomy" title="Infrared astronomy">Infrared</a> (<span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Far-infrared_astronomy" title="Far-infrared astronomy">Far-infrared</a></span>)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Visible-light_astronomy" title="Visible-light astronomy">Visible-light <span style="font-size:85%;">(optical)</span></a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_astronomy" title="Ultraviolet astronomy">Ultraviolet</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/X-ray_astronomy" title="X-ray astronomy">X-ray</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/History_of_X-ray_astronomy" title="History of X-ray astronomy">History</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gamma-ray_astronomy" title="Gamma-ray astronomy">Gamma-ray</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Other methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Neutrino_astronomy" title="Neutrino astronomy">Neutrino</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray_astronomy" title="Cosmic ray astronomy">Cosmic rays</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gravitational-wave_astronomy" title="Gravitational-wave astronomy">Gravitational radiation</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/High-energy_astronomy" title="High-energy astronomy">High-energy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Radar_astronomy" title="Radar astronomy">Radar</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Spherical_astronomy" title="Spherical astronomy">Spherical</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Multi-messenger_astronomy" title="Multi-messenger astronomy">Multi-messenger</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Cultural_astronomy" title="Cultural astronomy">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_astronomy" title="Australian Aboriginal astronomy">Australian Aboriginal</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Babylonian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_astronomy" title="Chinese astronomy">Chinese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_astronomy" title="Egyptian astronomy">Egyptian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_astronomy" title="Ancient Greek astronomy">Greek</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_astronomy" title="Hebrew astronomy">Hebrew</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Indian_astronomy" title="Indian astronomy">Indian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Inuit_astronomy" title="Inuit astronomy">Inuit</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Maya_astronomy" title="Maya astronomy">Maya</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islamic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Persian_astronomy" title="Persian astronomy">Persian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_Serbia" title="Astronomy in Serbia">Serbian</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Serbian_folk_astronomy" title="Serbian folk astronomy">folk</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_astronomy" title="Tibetan astronomy">Tibetan</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Optical_telescope" title="Optical telescope">Optical<br />telescopes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_optical_telescopes" title="List of optical telescopes">List</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Category:Telescopes" title="Category:Telescopes">Category</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Extremely_large_telescope" title="Extremely large telescope">Extremely large telescope</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Extremely_Large_Telescope" title="Extremely Large Telescope">Extremely Large Telescope</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gran_Telescopio_Canarias" title="Gran Telescopio Canarias">Gran Telescopio Canarias</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hale_Telescope" title="Hale Telescope">Hale Telescope</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hubble_Space_Telescope" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble Space Telescope</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/W._M._Keck_Observatory" title="W. M. Keck Observatory">Keck Observatory</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Large_Binocular_Telescope" title="Large Binocular Telescope">Large Binocular Telescope</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Southern_African_Large_Telescope" title="Southern African Large Telescope">Southern African Large Telescope</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Very_Large_Telescope" title="Very Large Telescope">Very Large Telescope</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Archaeoastronomy" title="Archaeoastronomy">Archaeoastronomy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astrochemistry" title="Astrochemistry">Astrochemistry</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astroinformatics" title="Astroinformatics">Astroinformatics</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">Astrophysics</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astrology_and_astronomy" title="Astrology and astronomy">Astrology and astronomy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astrometry" title="Astrometry">Astrometry</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Astronomers_Monument" title="Astronomers Monument">Astronomers Monument</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astroparticle_physics" title="Astroparticle physics">Astroparticle physics</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Binoculars" title="Binoculars">Binoculars</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Constellation" title="Constellation">Constellation</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/IAU_designated_constellations" title="IAU designated constellations">IAU</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Photometry_(astronomy)" title="Photometry (astronomy)">Photometry</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Planetarium" title="Planetarium">Planetarium</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Planetary_geology" title="Planetary geology">Planetary geology</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Physical_cosmology" title="Physical cosmology">Physical cosmology</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Quantum_cosmology" title="Quantum cosmology">Quantum cosmology</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_astronomers" title="List of astronomers">List of astronomers</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_astronomers" title="List of French astronomers">French</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world#Notable_astronomers" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islamic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Russian_astronomers_and_astrophysicists" title="List of Russian astronomers and astrophysicists">Russian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_women_astronomers" title="List of women astronomers">Women</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">Telescope</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/X-ray_telescope" title="X-ray telescope">X-ray telescope</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_telescope" title="History of the telescope">history</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_telescopes" title="Lists of telescopes">lists</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Zodiac" title="Zodiac">Zodiac</a></span></li></ul> 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