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id="toc-Indo-Aryan_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Proto-Indo-Aryan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proto-Indo-Aryan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Proto-Indo-Aryan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proto-Indo-Aryan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Old_Indo-Aryan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Old_Indo-Aryan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Old Indo-Aryan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Old_Indo-Aryan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vedic_Sanskrit" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vedic_Sanskrit"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.1</span> <span>Vedic Sanskrit</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vedic_Sanskrit-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical_Sanskrit" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_Sanskrit"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.2</span> <span>Classical Sanskrit</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_Sanskrit-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_Indo-Aryan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_Indo-Aryan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Middle Indo-Aryan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_Indo-Aryan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Prakrits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prakrits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.1</span> <span>Prakrits</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prakrits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pali" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pali"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.1.1</span> <span>Pali</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pali-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Apabhraṃśa/Apasabda" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Apabhraṃśa/Apasabda"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.2</span> <span>Apabhraṃśa/Apasabda</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Apabhraṃśa/Apasabda-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_Indo-Aryan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_Indo-Aryan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Modern Indo-Aryan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_Indo-Aryan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hindustani" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hindustani"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.1</span> <span>Hindustani</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hindustani-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marathi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marathi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.2</span> <span>Marathi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marathi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dravidian_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dravidian_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Dravidian languages</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Dravidian_languages-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Dravidian languages subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Dravidian_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-History_of_Tamil" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_Tamil"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>History of Tamil</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_of_Tamil-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Old_Tamil" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Old_Tamil"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Old Tamil</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Old_Tamil-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_Tamil" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_Tamil"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Middle Tamil</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_Tamil-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_Tamil" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_Tamil"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.3</span> <span>Modern Tamil</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_Tamil-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.4</span> <span>Literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_of_Kannada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_Kannada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>History of Kannada</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_of_Kannada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Stages_of_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stages_of_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Stages of development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stages_of_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-600_–_1200_AD" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#600_–_1200_AD"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1.1</span> <span>600 – 1200 AD</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-600_–_1200_AD-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1400_–_1600_AD" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1400_–_1600_AD"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1.2</span> <span>1400 – 1600 AD</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1400_–_1600_AD-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stone_inscriptions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stone_inscriptions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Stone inscriptions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stone_inscriptions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Copper_plates_and_manuscripts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Copper_plates_and_manuscripts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.3</span> <span>Copper plates and manuscripts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Copper_plates_and_manuscripts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_of_Telugu" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_Telugu"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>History of Telugu</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_of_Telugu-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Origins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Origins</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span> <span>Stages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-575_–1100" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#575_–1100"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2.1</span> <span>575 –1100</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-575_–1100-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1100_–_1400" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1100_–_1400"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2.2</span> <span>1100 – 1400</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1100_–_1400-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1400–1900" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1400–1900"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2.3</span> <span>1400–1900</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1400–1900-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1900_to_date" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1900_to_date"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2.4</span> <span>1900 to date</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1900_to_date-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Carnatic_music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carnatic_music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.3</span> <span>Carnatic music</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carnatic_music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_of_Malayalam" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_Malayalam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>History of Malayalam</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_of_Malayalam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sino-Tibetan_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sino-Tibetan_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Sino-Tibetan languages</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sino-Tibetan_languages-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Sino-Tibetan languages subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Sino-Tibetan_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Meitei" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Meitei"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Meitei</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Meitei-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Languages_of_other_families_in_India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Languages_of_other_families_in_India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Languages of other families in India</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Languages_of_other_families_in_India-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Languages of other families in India subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Languages_of_other_families_in_India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Austroasiatic_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Austroasiatic_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Austroasiatic languages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Austroasiatic_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Great_Andamanese_and_Ongan_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Great_Andamanese_and_Ongan_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Great Andamanese and Ongan languages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Great_Andamanese_and_Ongan_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Isolates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Isolates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Isolates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Isolates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scripts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scripts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Scripts</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Scripts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Scripts subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Scripts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Indus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Indus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Brāhmī" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brāhmī"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Brāhmī</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brāhmī-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kharosthi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kharosthi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Kharosthi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kharosthi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gupta" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gupta"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Gupta</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gupta-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Siddhaṃ" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Siddhaṃ"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Siddhaṃ</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Siddhaṃ-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nagari" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nagari"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Nagari</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nagari-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Linguistic history of India</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 5 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-5" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">5 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D8%BA%D9%88%D9%8A_%D9%84%D9%84%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF" title="التاريخ اللغوي للهند – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="التاريخ اللغوي للهند" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_ling%C3%BC%C3%ADstica_del_subcontinente_indio" title="Historia lingüística del subcontinente indio – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia lingüística del subcontinente indio" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%88_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="भारत का भाषाई इतिहास – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="भारत का भाषाई इतिहास" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link 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href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Linguistic+history+of+India%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:South_Asian_Language_Families.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/South_Asian_Language_Families.jpg/250px-South_Asian_Language_Families.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="273" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/South_Asian_Language_Families.jpg/375px-South_Asian_Language_Families.jpg 1.5x, 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="padding-bottom:0.5em; font-size:130%;"><a href="/wiki/South_Asia#History" title="South Asia">History of South Asia</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:South_Asia_(orthographic_projection)_without_national_boundaries.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="South Asia (orthographic projection)"><img alt="South Asia (orthographic projection)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/South_Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29_without_national_boundaries.svg/150px-South_Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29_without_national_boundaries.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/South_Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29_without_national_boundaries.svg/225px-South_Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29_without_national_boundaries.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/South_Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29_without_national_boundaries.svg/300px-South_Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29_without_national_boundaries.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_South_Asian_history" title="Outline of South Asian history">Outline</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Stone_Age" title="South Asian Stone Age">Palaeolithic</a> <span class="nobold">(2,500,000–250,000 BC)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Madrasian_culture" title="Madrasian culture">Madrasian culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Soanian" title="Soanian">Soanian culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Stone_Age" title="South Asian Stone Age">Neolithic</a> <span class="nobold">(10,800–3300 BC)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Bhirrana" title="Bhirrana">Bhirrana culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (7570–6200 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mehrgarh" title="Mehrgarh">Mehrgarh culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (7000–3300 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Edakkal_Caves" class="mw-redirect" title="Edakkal Caves">Edakkal culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (5000–3000 BC)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Chalcolithic</a> <span class="nobold">(3500–1500 BC)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Anarta_tradition" title="Anarta tradition">Anarta tradition</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 3950</span>–1900 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ahar%E2%80%93Banas_culture" title="Ahar–Banas culture">Ahar-Banas culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (3000–1500 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Pandu_culture" title="Pandu culture">Pandu culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1600–750 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Malwa_culture" title="Malwa culture">Malwa culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1600–1300 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Jorwe_culture" title="Jorwe culture">Jorwe culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1400–700 BC)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_India" title="Bronze Age India">Bronze Age</a> <span class="nobold">(3300–1300 BC)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley Civilisation</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">(3300–1300 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation#Early_Harappan" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Early Harappan culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">(3300–2600 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation#Mature_Harappan" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Mature Harappan culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">(2600–1900 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Cemetery_H_culture" title="Cemetery H culture">Late Harappan culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">(1900–1300 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic Civilisation</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">(2000–500 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Ochre_Coloured_Pottery_culture" title="Ochre Coloured Pottery culture">Ochre Coloured Pottery culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">(2000–1600 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Gandhara_grave_culture" title="Gandhara grave culture">Swat culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">(1600–500 BC)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_in_India" title="Iron Age in India">Iron Age</a> <span class="nobold">(1500–200 BC)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic Civilisation</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">(1500–500 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Janapada" title="Janapada">Janapadas</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1500–600 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Black_and_red_ware" title="Black and red ware">Black and Red ware culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">(1300–1000 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Painted_Grey_Ware_culture" title="Painted Grey Ware culture">Painted Grey Ware culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1200–600 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Northern_Black_Polished_Ware" title="Northern Black Polished Ware">Northern Black Polished Ware</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (700–200 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Pradyota_dynasty" title="Pradyota dynasty">Pradyota dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (799–684 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Haryanka_dynasty" title="Haryanka dynasty">Haryanka dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (684–424 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Three_Crowned_Kings" title="Three Crowned Kings">Three Crowned Kingdoms</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 600 BC</span> – AD 1600)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mahajanapadas" title="Mahajanapadas">Maha Janapadas</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 600</span>–300 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (550–330 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> Ror Dynasty</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (450 BC – AD 489)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Shaishunaga_dynasty" title="Shaishunaga dynasty">Shaishunaga dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (424–345 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Nanda_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanda Empire">Nanda Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (380–321 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedonian Empire">Macedonian Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (330–323 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (321–184 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid India</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (312–303 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sangam_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Sangam period">Sangam period</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 300 BC</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 300 AD</span>)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Pandya_dynasty" title="Pandya dynasty">Pandya Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 300 BC</span> – AD 1345)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Chera_dynasty" title="Chera dynasty">Chera Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 300 BC</span> – AD 1102)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Chola_dynasty" title="Chola dynasty">Chola Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 300 BC</span> – AD 1279)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Pallava_dynasty" title="Pallava dynasty">Pallava Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 250 AD</span> – AD 800)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mahameghavahana_dynasty" title="Mahameghavahana dynasty">Maha-Megha-Vahana Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 250 BC</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> AD 500</span>)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (247 BC – AD 224)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Middle_kingdoms_of_India" title="Middle kingdoms of India">Middle Kingdoms</a> <span class="nobold">(230 BC – AD 1206)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Satavahana_dynasty" title="Satavahana dynasty">Satavahana Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (230 BC – AD 220)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kuninda_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuninda Kingdom">Kuninda Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (200 BC – AD 300)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mitra_dynasty_(Mathura)" title="Mitra dynasty (Mathura)">Mitra Dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 150</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 50 BC</span>)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Shunga_Empire" title="Shunga Empire">Shunga Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (185–73 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (180 BC – AD 10)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kanva_dynasty" title="Kanva dynasty">Kanva Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (75–26 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Indo-Scythians" title="Indo-Scythians">Indo-Scythian Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (50 BC – AD 400)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Indo-Parthian_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Parthian Kingdom">Indo-Parthian Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (AD 21 – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 130</span>)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Western_Satraps" title="Western Satraps">Western Satrap Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (AD 35–405 )</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (AD 60–240)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Nagas_of_Padmavati" title="Nagas of Padmavati">Bharshiva Dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (170–350)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Nagas_of_Padmavati" title="Nagas of Padmavati">Nagas of Padmavati</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (210–340)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (224–651)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kushano-Sasanian_Kingdom" title="Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom">Indo-Sassanid Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (230–360)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Vakataka_dynasty" title="Vakataka dynasty">Vakataka Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 250</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 500</span>)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kalabhra_dynasty" title="Kalabhra dynasty">Kalabhras Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 250</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 600</span>)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (280–550)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kadamba_dynasty" title="Kadamba dynasty">Kadamba Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (345–525)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Western_Ganga_dynasty" title="Western Ganga dynasty">Western Ganga Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (350–1000)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kamarupa" title="Kamarupa">Kamarupa Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (350–1100)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Vishnukundina_dynasty" title="Vishnukundina dynasty">Vishnukundina Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (420–624)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Maitraka_dynasty" title="Maitraka dynasty">Maitraka Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (475–767)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Huna_people" title="Huna people">Huna Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (475–576)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Rai_dynasty" title="Rai dynasty">Rai Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (489–632)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Hindu_Shahis" title="Hindu Shahis">Kabul Shahi Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 500</span> – 1026)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty" title="Chalukya dynasty">Chalukya Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (543–753)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Maukhari_dynasty" title="Maukhari dynasty">Maukhari Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 550</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 700</span>)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Harsha" title="Harsha">Harsha Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (606–647)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (618–841)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Chalukyas" title="Eastern Chalukyas">Eastern Chalukya Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (624–1075)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (632–661)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Gurjara-Pratihara_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty">Gurjara-Pratihara Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (650–1036)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (661–750)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mallabhum_kingdom" title="Mallabhum kingdom">Mallabhum kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (694–1947)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Bhauma-Kara_dynasty" title="Bhauma-Kara dynasty">Bhauma-Kara Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (736–916)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pala Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (750–1174)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Rashtrakuta_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashtrakuta dynasty">Rashtrakuta Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (753–982)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Paramara_dynasty" title="Paramara dynasty">Paramara Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (800–1327)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Seuna_(Yadava)_dynasty" title="Seuna (Yadava) dynasty">Yadava Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (850–1334)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Somavamshi_dynasty" title="Somavamshi dynasty">Somavamshi Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (882–1110)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Chaulukya_dynasty" title="Chaulukya dynasty">Chaulukya Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (942–1244)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Western_Chalukya_Empire" title="Western Chalukya Empire">Western Chalukya Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (973–1189)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Lohara_dynasty" title="Lohara dynasty">Lohara Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1003–1320)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Hoysala_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoysala Empire">Hoysala Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1040–1347)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sena_dynasty" title="Sena dynasty">Sena Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1070–1230)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Ganga_dynasty" title="Eastern Ganga dynasty">Eastern Ganga Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1078–1434)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kakatiya_dynasty" title="Kakatiya dynasty">Kakatiya Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1083–1323)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Zamorin" title="Zamorin">Zamorin Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1102–1766)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kalachuris_of_Tripuri" title="Kalachuris of Tripuri">Kalachuris of Tripuri</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (675–1210)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kalachuris_of_Kalyani" title="Kalachuris of Kalyani">Kalachuris of Kalyani</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1156–1184)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Chutia_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Chutia Kingdom">Chutiya Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1187–1673)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Deva_dynasty" title="Deva dynasty">Deva Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1200</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1300</span>)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_India" title="Medieval India">Late medieval period</a> <span class="nobold">(1206–1526)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid Dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (977–1186)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ghurid_dynasty" title="Ghurid dynasty">Ghurid Dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1170–1206)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1206–1526)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_dynasty_(Delhi)" title="Mamluk dynasty (Delhi)">Mamluk Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1206–1290)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Khalji_dynasty" title="Khalji dynasty">Khalji Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1290–1320)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Tughlaq_dynasty" title="Tughlaq dynasty">Tughlaq Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1320–1414)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Sayyid_dynasty" title="Sayyid dynasty">Sayyid Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1414–1451)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Lodi_dynasty" title="Lodi dynasty">Lodi Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1451–1526)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ahom_kingdom" title="Ahom kingdom">Ahom Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1228–1826)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Nayakas_of_Chitradurga" title="Nayakas of Chitradurga">Chitradurga Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1300–1779)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Reddi_Kingdom" title="Reddi Kingdom">Reddy Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1325–1448)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1336–1646)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Bengal_Sultanate" title="Bengal Sultanate">Bengal Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1352–1576)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Garhwal_Kingdom" title="Garhwal Kingdom">Garhwal Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1358–1803)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Mysore" title="Kingdom of Mysore">Mysore Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1399–1947)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Gajapati_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Gajapati Empire">Gajapati Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1434–1541)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Namgyal_dynasty_of_Ladakh" title="Namgyal dynasty of Ladakh">Ladakh Kingdom </a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1470–1842)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Deccan_sultanates" title="Deccan sultanates">Deccan sultanates</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1490–1596)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Ahmadnagar_Sultanate" title="Ahmadnagar Sultanate">Ahmadnagar Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1490–1636)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Berar_sultanate" title="Berar sultanate">Berar sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1490–1574)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Bidar_Sultanate" title="Bidar Sultanate">Bidar Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1492–1619)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Bijapur_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Bijapur Sultanate">Bijapur Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1492–1686)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Golkonda_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Golkonda Sultanate">Golkonda Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1518–1687)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Nayakas_of_Keladi" title="Nayakas of Keladi">Keladi Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1499–1763)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Koch_dynasty" title="Koch dynasty">Koch Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1515–1947)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern period</a> <span class="nobold">(1526–1858)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1526–1858)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sur_Empire" title="Sur Empire">Sur Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1540–1556)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Madurai_Nayak_dynasty" title="Madurai Nayak dynasty">Madurai Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1529–1736)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Thanjavur_Nayak_kingdom" title="Thanjavur Nayak kingdom">Thanjavur Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1532–1673)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Bhoi_dynasty" title="Bhoi dynasty">Bhoi dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1541–1804)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Bengal_Subah" title="Bengal Subah">Bengal Subah</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1576–1757)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ramnad_estate" class="mw-redirect" title="Ramnad estate">Marava Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1600–1750)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sikkim" title="Kingdom of Sikkim">Sikkim Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1642–1975)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Tondaiman" title="Tondaiman">Thondaiman Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1650–1948)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Maratha Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1674–1818)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Misl" class="mw-redirect" title="Misl">Sikh Confederacy</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1707–1799)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Travancore" title="Travancore">Travancore Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1729–1947)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sikh_Empire" title="Sikh Empire">Sikh Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1799–1849)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_India" title="Colonial India">Colonial states</a> <span class="nobold">(1510–1961)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_India" title="Portuguese India">Portuguese India</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1510–1961)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Dutch_India" title="Dutch India">Dutch India</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1605–1825)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Danish_India" title="Danish India">Danish India</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1620–1869)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/French_India" title="French India">French India</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1759–1954)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Company_rule_in_India" title="Company rule in India">Company Raj</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1757–1858)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British Raj</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1858–1947)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)">National histories</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Afghanistan" title="History of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bangladesh" title="History of Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bhutan" title="History of Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_India_(1947%E2%80%93present)" title="History of India (1947–present)">India</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Maldives" title="History of the Maldives">Maldives</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nepal" title="History of Nepal">Nepal</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Pakistan" title="History of Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sri_Lanka" title="History of Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)">Regional histories</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Assam" title="History of Assam">Assam</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Balochistan" title="History of Balochistan">Balochistan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bengal" title="History of Bengal">Bengal</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bihar" title="History of Bihar">Bihar</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Gujarat" title="History of Gujarat">Gujarat</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Himachal_Pradesh" title="History of Himachal Pradesh">Himachal Pradesh</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kabul" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Kabul">Kabul</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Karnataka" title="History of Karnataka">Karnataka</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kashmir" title="History of Kashmir">Kashmir</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Khyber_Pakhtunkhwa" title="History of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa">Khyber Pakhtunkhwa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rajasthan" title="History of Rajasthan">Rajasthan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maharashtra" title="History of Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Uttar_Pradesh" title="History of Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Punjab" title="History of Punjab">Punjab</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Odisha" title="History of Odisha">Odisha</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sindh" title="History of Sindh">Sindh</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_India" title="History of South India">South India</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu" title="History of Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tibet" title="History of Tibet">Tibet</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)">Specialised histories</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of agriculture in the Indian subcontinent">Agriculture</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_India" title="Architecture of India">Architecture</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Coinage_of_India" title="Coinage of India">Coinage</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_India#History" title="Demographics of India">Demographics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_monarchs" title="List of Indian monarchs">Dynasties</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_India" title="Economic history of India">Economy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of education in the Indian subcontinent">Education</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Indology" title="Indology">Indology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Indian_influence_on_Southeast_Asia" title="History of Indian influence on Southeast Asia">Influence on Southeast Asia</a></li><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Language</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_literature" title="Indian literature">Literature</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_maritime_history" title="Indian maritime history">Maritime</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_metallurgy_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent">Metallurgy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_India" title="Military history of India">Military</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition of India</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Pakistan_studies" title="Pakistan studies">Pakistan studies</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Philosophy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_religions#History" title="Indian religions">Religion</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent">Science and technology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Indian_history" title="Timeline of Indian history">Timeline</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_South_Asia" title="Template:History of South Asia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_South_Asia" title="Template talk:History of South Asia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_South_Asia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of South Asia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Since the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_in_India" title="Iron Age in India">Iron Age in India</a>, the native <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of the Indian subcontinent">languages of the Indian subcontinent</a> are divided into various <a href="/wiki/Language_families" class="mw-redirect" title="Language families">language families</a>, of which the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a> are the most widely spoken. There are also many languages belonging to unrelated <a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">language families</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Munda_languages" title="Munda languages">Munda</a> (from <a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic family</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Tibeto-Burman_languages" title="Tibeto-Burman languages">Tibeto-Burman</a> (from <a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Trans-Himalayan family</a>), spoken by smaller groups. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Indo-Aryan_languages">Indo-Aryan languages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Indo-Aryan languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan languages</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Proto-Indo-Aryan">Proto-Indo-Aryan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Proto-Indo-Aryan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Aryan_language" title="Proto-Indo-Aryan language">Proto-Indo-Aryan language</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Aryan_language" title="Proto-Indo-Aryan language">Proto-Indo-Aryan</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Proto-language" title="Proto-language">proto-language</a> hypothesized to have been the direct <a href="/wiki/Ancestor" title="Ancestor">ancestor</a> of all Indo-Aryan languages.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It would have had similarities to <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian">Proto-Indo-Iranian</a>, but would ultimately have used <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskritized</a> <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphemes</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Old_Indo-Aryan">Old Indo-Aryan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Old Indo-Aryan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vedic_Sanskrit">Vedic Sanskrit</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Vedic Sanskrit"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit" title="Vedic Sanskrit">Vedic Sanskrit</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_superstrate_in_Mitanni" title="Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni">Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Devimahatmya_Sanskrit_MS_Nepal_11c.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Devimahatmya_Sanskrit_MS_Nepal_11c.jpg/400px-Devimahatmya_Sanskrit_MS_Nepal_11c.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Devimahatmya_Sanskrit_MS_Nepal_11c.jpg/600px-Devimahatmya_Sanskrit_MS_Nepal_11c.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Devimahatmya_Sanskrit_MS_Nepal_11c.jpg/800px-Devimahatmya_Sanskrit_MS_Nepal_11c.jpg 2x" data-file-width="920" data-file-height="312" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Devimahatmya" class="mw-redirect" title="Devimahatmya">Devimahatmya</a> manuscript on <a href="/wiki/Arecaceae" title="Arecaceae">palm</a>-leaf, in an early <a href="/wiki/Bhujimol" class="mw-redirect" title="Bhujimol">Bhujimol</a> script, <a href="/wiki/Bihar,_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Bihar, India">Bihar, India</a> or <a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a>, 11th century</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit" title="Vedic Sanskrit">Vedic Sanskrit</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a>, a large <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/collection" class="extiw" title="wikt:collection">collection</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hymn" title="Hymn">hymns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Incantation" title="Incantation">incantations</a>, and religio-philosophical discussions which form the earliest religious texts in India and the basis for much of the <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a>. Modern linguists consider the metrical hymns of the <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a> to be the earliest. The hymns preserved in the Rigveda were preserved by <a href="/wiki/Oral_tradition" title="Oral tradition">oral tradition</a> alone over several centuries before the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Writing" title="Writing">writing</a>, the oldest Aryan language among them predating the introduction of Brahmi by as much as a millennium.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The end of the Vedic period is marked by the composition of the <a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a>, which form the concluding part of the Vedic corpus in the traditional compilations, dated to roughly 500 BCE. It is around this time that <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> began the transition from a first language to a second language of <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a> and learning, marking the beginning of <a href="/wiki/Classical_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical India">Classical India</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Classical_Sanskrit">Classical Sanskrit</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Classical Sanskrit"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini" title="Pāṇini">Pāṇini</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_epigraphy" title="Sanskrit epigraphy">Sanskrit epigraphy</a></div> <p>Sanskrit grammar is <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini" title="Pāṇini">Panini</a>'s <a href="/wiki/A%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%AD%C4%81dhy%C4%81y%C4%AB" title="Aṣṭādhyāyī">Aṣṭādhyāyī</a> ("Eight-Chapter Grammar") dating to c. the 5th century BCE. It is essentially a prescriptive <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a>, i.e., an <a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">authority</a> that defines (rather than describes) correct Sanskrit, although it contains descriptive parts, mostly to account for Vedic forms that had already passed out of use in Pāṇini's time. </p><p>Knowledge of <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> was a marker of <a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">social class</a> and <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">educational</a> attainment.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit" title="Vedic Sanskrit">Vedic Sanskrit</a> and Classical or "Paninian" Sanskrit, while broadly similar, are separate<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> varieties, which differ in a number of points of <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vocabulary" title="Vocabulary">vocabulary</a>, and grammar. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_Indo-Aryan">Middle Indo-Aryan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Middle Indo-Aryan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Prakrits">Prakrits</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Prakrits"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Prakrit" title="Prakrit">Prakrit</a></div> <p><b>Prakrit</b> (Sanskrit <i>prākṛta</i> प्राकृत, the past participle of प्राकृ, meaning "original, natural, artless, normal, ordinary, usual", i.e. "<a href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">vernacular</a>", in contrast to <i><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">samskrta</a></i> "excellently made",<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> both adjectives elliptically referring to <i>vak</i> "speech") is the broad family of <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan languages</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dialect" title="Dialect">dialects</a> spoken in ancient <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>. Some modern scholars include all Middle Indo-Aryan languages under the <a href="/wiki/Rubric" title="Rubric">rubric</a> of "Prakrits", while others emphasise the independent development of these languages, often separated from the <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a> of Sanskrit by wide divisions of <a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">caste</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">geography</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The Prakrits became literary languages, generally patronized by <a href="/wiki/King" title="King">kings</a> identified with the <a href="/wiki/Kshatriya" title="Kshatriya">kshatriya</a> caste. The earliest inscriptions in Prakrit are those of <a href="/wiki/Ashoka" title="Ashoka">Ashoka</a>, emperor of the <a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya Empire</a>, and while the various Prakrit languages are associated with different patron dynasties, with different religions and different literary traditions. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_drama" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit drama">Sanskrit drama</a>, kings speak in <a href="/wiki/Prakrit" title="Prakrit">Prakrit</a> when addressing women or servants, in contrast to the Sanskrit used in reciting more formal poetic monologues.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The three <a href="/wiki/Dramatic_Prakrit" title="Dramatic Prakrit">Dramatic Prakrits</a> – <a href="/wiki/Sauraseni" class="mw-redirect" title="Sauraseni">Sauraseni</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magadhi_Prakrit" title="Magadhi Prakrit">Magadhi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maharashtri" class="mw-redirect" title="Maharashtri">Maharashtri</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Jain_Prakrit" class="mw-redirect" title="Jain Prakrit">Jain Prakrit</a> each represent a distinct tradition of <a href="/wiki/Indian_literature" title="Indian literature">literature</a> within the history of India. Other Prakrits are reported in historical sources, but have no extant corpus (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Paisaci" class="mw-redirect" title="Paisaci">Paisaci</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Pali">Pali</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Pali"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pali" title="Pali">Pali</a></div> <p>Pali is the Middle Indo-Aryan language in which the <a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a> Buddhist scriptures and commentaries are preserved. Pali is believed by the Theravada tradition to be the same language as Magadhi, but modern scholars believe this to be unlikely.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Pali shows signs of development from several underlying Prakrits as well as some Sanskritisation. </p><p>The Prakrit of the North-western area of India known as <a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gāndhāra</a> has come to be called <a href="/wiki/G%C4%81ndh%C4%81r%C4%AB_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gāndhārī language">Gāndhārī</a>. A few documents are written in the <a href="/wiki/Kharosthi" title="Kharosthi">Kharoṣṭhi</a> script survive including a version of the <a href="/wiki/Dhammapada" title="Dhammapada">Dhammapada</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Apabhraṃśa/Apasabda"><span id="Apabhra.E1.B9.83.C5.9Ba.2FApasabda"></span>Apabhraṃśa/Apasabda</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Apabhraṃśa/Apasabda"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Middle_Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Middle Indo-Aryan languages">Middle Indo-Aryan languages</a> and <a href="/wiki/Apabhra%E1%B9%83%C5%9Ba" title="Apabhraṃśa">Apabhraṃśa</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Prakrit" title="Prakrit">Prakrits</a> (which includes <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81li" class="mw-redirect" title="Pāli">Pali</a>) were gradually transformed into <a href="/wiki/Apabhramsha" class="mw-redirect" title="Apabhramsha">Apabhraṃśas (अपभ्रंश)</a> which were used until about the 13th century CE. The term <b>apabhraṃśa,</b> meaning "fallen away", refers to the dialects of <a href="/wiki/Northern_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern India">Northern India</a> before the rise of modern Northern Indian languages, and implies a corrupt or non-standard language. A significant amount of apabhraṃśa literature has been found in <a href="/wiki/Jain" class="mw-redirect" title="Jain">Jain</a> libraries. While <a href="/wiki/Amir_Khusro" class="mw-redirect" title="Amir Khusro">Amir Khusro</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kabir" title="Kabir">Kabir</a> were writing in a language quite similar to modern <a href="/wiki/Hindi" title="Hindi">Hindi</a>-<a href="/wiki/Urdu" title="Urdu">Urdu</a>, many poets, especially in regions that were still ruled by <a href="/wiki/Hindu_king" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu king">Hindu kings</a>, continued to write in Apabhraṃśa. Apabhraṃśa authors include <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sarahapad&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sarahapad (page does not exist)">Sarahapad</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kamarupa" title="Kamarupa">Kamarupa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Devasena" title="Devasena">Devasena</a> of <a href="/wiki/Dhar" title="Dhar">Dhar</a> (9th century CE), <a href="/wiki/Pushpadanta" title="Pushpadanta">Pushpadanta</a> of <a href="/wiki/Manikhet" class="mw-redirect" title="Manikhet">Manikhet</a> (9th century CE), <a href="/wiki/Dhanapal" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhanapal">Dhanapal</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Muni_Ramsimha&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Muni Ramsimha (page does not exist)">Muni Ramsimha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hemachandra" title="Hemachandra">Hemachandra</a> of <a href="/wiki/Patan,_Gujarat" title="Patan, Gujarat">Patan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Raighu" class="mw-redirect" title="Raighu">Raighu</a> of <a href="/wiki/Gwalior" title="Gwalior">Gwalior</a> (15th century CE). An early example of the use of Apabhraṃśa is in <a href="/wiki/Vikram%C5%8Drva%C5%9B%C4%AByam" title="Vikramōrvaśīyam">Vikramōrvaśīyam</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kalidasa" title="Kalidasa">Kalidasa</a>, when <a href="/wiki/Pururava" class="mw-redirect" title="Pururava">Pururava</a> asks the animals in the forest about his beloved who had disappeared.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_Indo-Aryan">Modern Indo-Aryan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Modern Indo-Aryan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hindustani">Hindustani</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Hindustani"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Hindustani" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Hindustani">History of Hindustani</a></div> <p>Hindustani is right now the most spoken language in the Indian subcontinent and the fourth most spoken language in the world. The development of Hindustani revolves around the various Hindi dialects originating mainly from <a href="/wiki/Sauraseni" class="mw-redirect" title="Sauraseni">Sauraseni</a> <a href="/wiki/Apabhramsha" class="mw-redirect" title="Apabhramsha">Apabhramsha</a>. A Jain text Shravakachar written in 933AD is considered the first Hindi book.<sup id="cite_ref-West2009_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-West2009-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern Hindi is based on the prestigious Khariboli dialect which started to take Persian and Arabic words too with the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate; however, the Arabic-Persian influence was profound mainly on Urdu and to a lesser extent on Hindi. Khadiboli also started to spread across North India as a vernacular form previously commonly known as <a href="/wiki/Hindustani_language" title="Hindustani language">Hindustani</a>. Amir Khusrow wrote poems in Khariboli and Brajbhasha and referred that language as Hindavi. During the Bhakti era, many poems were composed in Khariboli, Brajbhasa, and Awadhi. One such classic is Ramcharitmanas, written by Tulsidas in Awadhi. In 1623 Jatmal wrote a book in Khariboli with the name 'Gora Badal ki Katha'. </p><p>The establishment of British rule in the subcontinent saw the clear division of Hindi and Urdu registers. This period also saw the rise of modern Hindi literature starting with <a href="/wiki/Bharatendu_Harishchandra" title="Bharatendu Harishchandra">Bharatendu Harishchandra</a>. This period also shows further Sanskritization of the Hindi language in literature. Hindi is right now the official language in nine states of India— <a href="/wiki/Uttar_Pradesh" title="Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bihar" title="Bihar">Bihar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rajasthan" title="Rajasthan">Rajasthan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jharkhand" title="Jharkhand">Jharkhand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Madhya_Pradesh" title="Madhya Pradesh">Madhya Pradesh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chhattisgarh" title="Chhattisgarh">Chhattisgarh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uttarakhand" title="Uttarakhand">Uttarakhand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haryana" title="Haryana">Haryana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Himachal_Pradesh" title="Himachal Pradesh">Himachal Pradesh</a>—and the National Capital Territory of <a href="/wiki/Delhi" title="Delhi">Delhi</a>. Post-independence Hindi became the official language of the Central Government of India along with English. Urdu has been the national and official language of Pakistan as well as the <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a> of the country. </p><p>Outside the India, Hindustani is widely understood in other parts of the Indian subcontinent and also used as a lingua franca, and is the main language of <a href="/wiki/Bollywood" class="mw-redirect" title="Bollywood">Bollywood</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Marathi">Marathi</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Marathi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Marathi is one of several languages that further descend from <a href="/wiki/Maharashtri_Prakrit" title="Maharashtri Prakrit">Maharashtri Prakrit</a>. Further change led to the <a href="/wiki/Apabhra%E1%B9%83%C5%9Ba" title="Apabhraṃśa">Apabhraṃśa</a> languages like Old Marathi, however, this is challenged by linguist <a href="/wiki/Jules_Bloch" title="Jules Bloch">Jules Bloch</a>, who stated that Apabhraṃśa was formed after Marathi had already separated from the Middle Indian dialect.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBloch197032_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBloch197032-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest example of Maharashtri as a separate language dates to approximately 3rd century BCE: a stone inscription found in a cave at <a href="/wiki/Naneghat" title="Naneghat">Naneghat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Junnar" title="Junnar">Junnar</a> in <a href="/wiki/Pune_district" title="Pune district">Pune district</a> had been written in Maharashtri using <a href="/wiki/Brahmi_script" title="Brahmi script">Brahmi script</a>. A committee appointed by the Maharashtra State Government to get the <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_India#Classical_languages_of_India" title="Languages of India">Classical</a> status for Marathi has claimed that Marathi existed at least 2300 years ago alongside Sanskrit as a <a href="/wiki/Sister_language" title="Sister language">sister language</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Marathi, a derivative of Maharashtri, is probably first attested in a 739 CE <a href="/wiki/Indian_copper_plate_inscriptions" title="Indian copper plate inscriptions">copper-plate inscription</a> found in <a href="/wiki/Satara_district" title="Satara district">Satara</a> After 1187 CE, the use of Marathi grew substantially in the inscriptions of the <a href="/wiki/Seuna_(Yadava)_dynasty" title="Seuna (Yadava) dynasty">Seuna (Yadava)</a> kings, who earlier used Kannada and Sanskrit in their inscriptions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENovetzke201653–54_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENovetzke201653–54-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Marathi became the dominant language of epigraphy during the last half century of the dynasty's rule (14th century), and may have been a result of the Yadava attempts to connect with their Marathi-speaking subjects and to distinguish themselves from the Kannada-speaking <a href="/wiki/Hoysala" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoysala">Hoysalas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENovetzke201653_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENovetzke201653-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Talbot2001_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Talbot2001-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Marathi gained prominence with the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Maratha Empire</a> beginning with the reign of <a href="/wiki/Shivaji" title="Shivaji">Shivaji</a> (1630–1680). Under him, the language used in administrative documents became less persianised. Whereas in 1630, 80% of the vocabulary was Persian, it dropped to 37% by 1677<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British colonial period</a> starting in early 1800s saw standardisation of Marathi grammar through the efforts of the Christian missionary <a href="/wiki/William_Carey_(missionary)" title="William Carey (missionary)">William Carey</a>. Carey's dictionary had fewer entries and Marathi words were in <a href="/wiki/Devanagari" title="Devanagari">Devanagari</a>. Translations of the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> were first books to be printed in Marathi. These translations by William Carey, the <a href="/wiki/Marathi_Christians" title="Marathi Christians"> American Marathi mission</a> and the Scottish missionaries led to the development of a peculiar pidginized Marathi called "Missionary Marathi" in the early 1800s.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Indian independence</a>, Marathi was accorded the status of a <a href="/wiki/Eighth_Schedule_to_the_Constitution_of_India" title="Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India">scheduled language</a> on the national level. In 1956, the then Bombay state was reorganized which brought most Marathi and Gujarati speaking areas under one state. Further re-organization of the Bombay state on 1 May 1960, created the Marathi speaking Maharashtra and Gujarati speaking Gujarat state respectively. With state and cultural protection, Marathi made great strides by the 1990s. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dravidian_languages">Dravidian languages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Dravidian languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian languages</a></div> <div class="thumb tright" style=""><div class="thumbinner" style="width:400px"><div class="center noresize" style="width:400px;"> <table style="border-spacing: 0px; border-collapse: separate;"> <tbody><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em;background-color: #BDB76B;"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Dravidian_language" title="Proto-Dravidian language">Proto-Dravidian</a></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em">Proto-South-Dravidian</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em"><span class="nowrap">Proto-South-Central</span> Dravidian</td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Tamil%E2%80%93Kannada_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamil–Kannada languages">Proto-Tamil-Kannada</a></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em">Proto-Telugu</td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em">Proto-Tamil-Toda</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em">Proto-Kannada</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em">Proto-Telugu</td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em">Proto-Tamil-Kodagu</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em;background-color: #FA8072;"><i><a href="/wiki/Kannada" title="Kannada">Kannada</a></i></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em;background-color: #00FF00;"><i><a href="/wiki/Telugu_language" title="Telugu language">Telugu</a></i></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em">Proto-Tamil-Malayalam</td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em">Proto-Tamil</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em;background-color: #FFD700;"><i><a href="/wiki/Malayalam" title="Malayalam">Malayalam</a></i></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em;background-color: #9ACD32;"><i><a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a></i></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"></tr> </tbody></table></div><div class="thumbcaption">This tree diagram depicts the <a href="/wiki/Genealogy" title="Genealogy">genealogy</a> of the primary <a href="/wiki/Tamil_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamil languages">tamil languages</a> spoken in <a href="/wiki/South_India" title="South India">South India</a>.</div></div></div> <p>The <b>Dravidian</b> family of languages includes approximately 73 languages<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that are mainly spoken in <a href="/wiki/South_India" title="South India">southern India</a> and northeastern <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka_Tamils_(native)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sri Lanka Tamils (native)">Sri Lanka</a>, as well as certain areas in <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a>, and eastern and central <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, as well as in parts of southern <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, and overseas in other countries such as the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>. </p><p>The origins of the Dravidian languages, as well as their subsequent development and the period of their differentiation, are unclear, and the situation is not helped by the lack of <a href="/wiki/Comparative_linguistics" title="Comparative linguistics">comparative linguistic</a> research into the Dravidian languages. Many linguists, however, tend to favor the theory that speakers of Dravidian languages spread southwards and eastwards through the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>, based on the fact that the southern Dravidian languages show some signs of contact with linguistic groups which the northern Dravidian languages do not. <a href="/wiki/Proto-Dravidian" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Dravidian">Proto-Dravidian</a> is thought to have differentiated into Proto-North Dravidian, Proto-Central Dravidian and Proto-South Dravidian around 1500 BCE, <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>although some linguists have argued that the degree of differentiation between the sub-families points to an earlier split. </p><p>It was not until 1856 that <a href="/wiki/Robert_Caldwell" title="Robert Caldwell">Robert Caldwell</a> published his <i>Comparative grammar of the Dravidian or South-Indian family of languages</i>, which considerably expanded the Dravidian umbrella and established it as one of the major language groups of the world. Caldwell coined the term "Dravidian" from the <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> <i>drāvida</i>, related to the word 'Tamil' or 'Tamilan', which is seen in such forms as into 'Dramila', 'Drami˜a', 'Dramida' and 'Dravida' which was used in a 7th-century text to refer to the languages of the southern India. The <i>Dravidian Etymological Dictionary</i> was published by <a href="/wiki/T._Burrow" class="mw-redirect" title="T. Burrow">T. Burrow</a> and <a href="/wiki/M._B._Emeneau" class="mw-redirect" title="M. B. Emeneau">M. B. Emeneau</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History_of_Tamil">History of Tamil</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: History of Tamil"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Sangam_literature" title="Sangam literature">Sangam literature</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tamil_language#History" title="Tamil language">Tamil language § History</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mangulam_inscription.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Mangulam_inscription.jpg/250px-Mangulam_inscription.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Mangulam_inscription.jpg/375px-Mangulam_inscription.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Mangulam_inscription.jpg/500px-Mangulam_inscription.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>3rd – 2nd century BCE. <a href="/wiki/Tamizhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamizhi">Tamil</a> inscription of <a href="/wiki/Mangulam" title="Mangulam">Mangulam</a></figcaption></figure> <p><br /> </p><p>Linguistic reconstruction suggests that Proto-Dravidian was spoken around the 6th millennium BCE. The material evidence suggests that the speakers of Proto-Dravidian were the culture associated with the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> complexes of <a href="/wiki/South_India" title="South India">South India</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The next phase in the reconstructed proto-history of Tamil is Proto-South Dravidian. The linguistic evidence suggests that Proto-South Dravidian was spoken around the middle of the 2nd millennium BCE and Old Tamil emerged around the 6th century BCE.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The earliest <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Brahmi" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamil Brahmi">epigraphic</a> attestations of Tamil are generally taken to have been written shortly thereafter.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among Indian languages, Tamil has one of the ancient Indian literature besides others.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Scholars categorise the attested history of the language into three periods, Old Tamil (400 BCE – 700 CE), Middle Tamil (700–1600) and Modern Tamil (1600–present).<sup id="cite_ref-Lehmann_1998_75_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lehmann_1998_75-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Old_Tamil">Old Tamil</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Old Tamil"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The earliest records in Old Tamil are short inscriptions from around the 6th century BCE in caves and on pottery. These inscriptions are written in a variant of the <a href="/wiki/Brahmi_script" title="Brahmi script">Brahmi script</a> called <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Brahmi" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamil Brahmi">Tamil Brahmi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest long text in Old Tamil is the <a href="/wiki/Tolk%C4%81ppiyam" title="Tolkāppiyam">Tolkāppiyam</a>, an early work on Tamil grammar and poetics, whose oldest layers could be as old as the 2nd century BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-Lehmann_1998_75_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lehmann_1998_75-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A large number of literary works in Old Tamil have also survived. These include a corpus of 2,381 poems collectively known as <a href="/wiki/Sangam_literature" title="Sangam literature">Sangam literature</a>. These poems are usually dated to between the 1st and 5th centuries CE,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which makes them the oldest extant body of secular literature in India.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other literary works in Old Tamil include two long epics, <a href="/wiki/Cilappatikaram" title="Cilappatikaram">Cilappatikaram</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manimekalai" title="Manimekalai">Manimekalai</a>, and a number of ethical and didactic texts, written between the 5th and 8th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Old Tamil preserved some features of Proto-Dravidian, including the inventory of consonants,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the syllable structure,<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and various grammatical features.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Amongst these was the absence of a distinct present tense – like Proto-Dravidian, Old Tamil only had two tenses, the past and the "non-past". Old Tamil verbs also had a distinct negative conjugation (e.g. <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">kāṇēṉ</i></span></i> (காணேன்) "I do not see", <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">kāṇōm</i></span></i> (காணோம்) "we do not see").<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nouns could take pronominal suffixes like verbs to express ideas: e.g. <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">peṇṭirēm</i></span></i> (பெண்டிரேம்) "we are women" formed from <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">peṇṭir</i></span></i> (பெண்டிர்) "women" + <i>-<span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">ēm</i></span></i> (ஏம்) and the first person plural marker.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite the significant amount of grammatical and syntactical change between Old, Middle and Modern Tamil, Tamil demonstrates grammatical continuity across these stages: many characteristics of the later stages of the language have their roots in features of Old Tamil.<sup id="cite_ref-Lehmann_1998_75_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lehmann_1998_75-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Middle_Tamil">Middle Tamil</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Middle Tamil"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The evolution of Old Tamil into Middle Tamil, which is generally taken to have been completed by the 8th century,<sup id="cite_ref-Lehmann_1998_75_15-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lehmann_1998_75-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was characterised by a number of phonological and grammatical changes. In phonological terms, the most important shifts were the virtual disappearance of the aytam (ஃ), an old phoneme,<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the coalescence of the alveolar and dental nasals,<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the transformation of the alveolar <a href="/wiki/Plosive" title="Plosive">plosive</a> into a <a href="/wiki/Rhotic_consonant" title="Rhotic consonant">rhotic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In grammar, the most important change was the emergence of the present tense. The present tense evolved out of the verb <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">kil</i></span></i> (கில்), meaning "to be possible" or "to befall". In Old Tamil, this verb was used as an <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect">aspect marker</a> to indicate that an action was micro-durative, non-sustained or non-lasting, usually in combination with a time marker such as <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">ṉ</i></span></i> (ன்). In Middle Tamil, this usage evolved into a present tense marker – <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">kiṉṟ</i></span></i> (கின்ற) – which combined the old aspect and time markers.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Middle Tamil also saw a significant increase in the Sanskritisation of Tamil. From the period of the <a href="/wiki/Pallava_dynasty" title="Pallava dynasty">Pallava dynasty</a> onwards, a number of <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> loan-words entered Tamil, particularly in relation to political, religious and philosophical concepts.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sanskrit also influenced Tamil grammar, in the increased use of cases and in declined nouns becoming adjuncts of verbs,<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and phonology.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Tamil script also changed in the period of Middle Tamil. Tamil Brahmi and <a href="/wiki/Va%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADe%E1%B8%BButtu" class="mw-redirect" title="Vaṭṭeḻuttu">Vaṭṭeḻuttu</a>, into which it evolved, were the main scripts used in Old Tamil inscriptions. From the 8th century onwards, however, the Pallavas began using a new script, derived from the <a href="/wiki/Grantha_script" title="Grantha script">Pallava Grantha script</a> which was used to write Sanskrit, which eventually replaced Vaṭṭeḻuttu.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Middle Tamil is attested in a large number of inscriptions, and in a significant body of secular and religious literature.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These include the religious poems and songs of the <a href="/wiki/Bhakti_movement" title="Bhakti movement">Bhakthi</a> poets, such as the <a href="/wiki/T%C4%93v%C4%81ram" class="mw-redirect" title="Tēvāram">Tēvāram</a> verses on <a href="/wiki/Saivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Saivism">Saivism</a> and <a href="/wiki/N%C4%81l%C4%81yira_Tivya_Pirapantam" class="mw-redirect" title="Nālāyira Tivya Pirapantam">Nālāyira Tivya Pirapantam</a> on <a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism" title="Vaishnavism">Vaishnavism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and adaptations of religious legends such as the 12th-century <a href="/wiki/Ramavataram" title="Ramavataram">Tamil Ramayana</a> composed by <a href="/wiki/Kambar_(poet)" title="Kambar (poet)">Kamban</a> and the story of 63 <a href="/wiki/Nayanmars" class="mw-redirect" title="Nayanmars">shaivite devotees</a> known as Periyapurāṇam.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Iraiya%E1%B9%89%C4%81r_Akapporu%E1%B8%B7" class="mw-redirect" title="Iraiyaṉār Akapporuḷ">Iraiyaṉār Akapporuḷ</a>, an early treatise on love poetics, and <a href="/wiki/Na%E1%B9%89%E1%B9%89%C5%ABl" title="Naṉṉūl">Naṉṉūl</a>, a 12th-century grammar that became the standard grammar of literary Tamil, are also from the Middle Tamil period.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Modern_Tamil">Modern Tamil</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Modern Tamil"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Christian_prayers_in_tamil_on_palm_leaves.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Christian_prayers_in_tamil_on_palm_leaves.jpg/250px-Christian_prayers_in_tamil_on_palm_leaves.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Christian_prayers_in_tamil_on_palm_leaves.jpg/375px-Christian_prayers_in_tamil_on_palm_leaves.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/Christian_prayers_in_tamil_on_palm_leaves.jpg 2x" data-file-width="459" data-file-height="341" /></a><figcaption>A set of palm leaf manuscripts from the 15th or 16th century, containing <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> <a href="/wiki/Prayer" title="Prayer">prayers</a> in Tamil</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Nannul" class="mw-redirect" title="Nannul">Nannul</a> remains the standard normative grammar for modern literary Tamil, which therefore continues to be based on Middle Tamil of the 13th century rather than on Modern Tamil.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>In contrast, colloquial spoken Tamil has undergone several changes.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the traditional method of conjugating verbs to express negation has largely fallen out of use. Instead, speakers now often use different words or phrases to indicate negation, which may involve changing the structure of the sentence rather than altering the verb forms. This shift means that negation is no longer marked by specific verb conjugations as it was in earlier forms of Tamil.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern spoken Tamil also shows a number of sound changes, in particular, a tendency to lower high vowels in initial and medial positions,<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the disappearance of vowels between plosives and between a plosive and rhotic.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Contact with European languages also affected both written and spoken Tamil. Changes in written Tamil include the use of European-style punctuation and the use of consonant clusters that were not permitted in Middle Tamil. The syntax of written Tamil has also changed, with the introduction of new aspectual auxiliaries and more complex sentence structures, and with the emergence of a more rigid word order that resembles the <a href="/wiki/Theta_role" title="Theta role">syntactic argument structure</a> of English.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Simultaneously, a strong strain of <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_purism" title="Linguistic purism">linguistic purism</a> emerged in the early 20th century, culminating in the <a href="/wiki/Pure_Tamil_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Pure Tamil Movement">Pure Tamil Movement</a> which called for removal of all Sanskritic and other foreign elements from Tamil.<sup id="cite_ref-thaniththamizh_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thaniththamizh-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It received some support from <a href="/wiki/Dravidian_parties" title="Dravidian parties">Dravidian parties</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tamil_nationalism" title="Tamil nationalism">nationalists</a> who supported <a href="/wiki/Tamil_independence" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamil independence">Tamil independence</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This led to the replacement of a significant number of Sanskrit loanwords by Tamil equivalents, though many others remain.<sup id="cite_ref-Krishnamurti_2003_p=480_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Krishnamurti_2003_p=480-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Literature">Literature</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tamil_literature" title="Tamil literature">Tamil literature</a></div> <p>Tamil literature has a rich and long literary tradition spanning more than two thousand years. The oldest extant works show signs of maturity indicating an even longer period of evolution. Contributors to the Tamil literature are mainly from <a href="/wiki/Tamil_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamil people">Tamil people</a> from <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lankan_Tamil_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Sri Lankan Tamil people">Sri Lankan Tamils</a> from <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a>, and from <a href="/wiki/Tamil_diaspora" title="Tamil diaspora">Tamil diaspora</a>. Also, there have been notable contributions from European authors. The history of Tamil literature follows the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu" title="History of Tamil Nadu">history of Tamil Nadu</a>, closely following the social and political trends of various periods. The <a href="/wiki/Secular" class="mw-redirect" title="Secular">secular</a> nature of the early <a href="/wiki/Sangam_Literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Sangam Literature">Sangam</a> poetry gave way to works of religious and didactic nature during the Middle Ages. <a href="/wiki/Jain" class="mw-redirect" title="Jain">Jain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a> authors during the medieval period and <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> and European authors later, contributed to the growth of Tamil literature. </p><p>A revival of Tamil literature took place from the late 19th century when works of religious and philosophical nature were written in a style that made it easier for the common people to enjoy. Nationalist poets began to utilize the power of poetry in influencing the masses. With the growth of literacy, Tamil prose began to blossom and mature. Short stories and novels began to appear. The popularity of <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Cinema" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamil Cinema">Tamil Cinema</a> has also provided opportunities for modern Tamil poets to emerge. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History_of_Kannada">History of Kannada</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: History of Kannada"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Linguistic_history_of_India" title="Special:EditPage/Linguistic history of India">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Halmidi_file.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Halmidi_file.jpg/175px-Halmidi_file.jpg" decoding="async" width="175" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Halmidi_file.jpg/263px-Halmidi_file.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Halmidi_file.jpg/350px-Halmidi_file.jpg 2x" data-file-width="590" data-file-height="443" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Halmidi" title="Halmidi">Halmidi</a> Inscription replica</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Kannada" title="Kannada">Kannada</a> is one of oldest languages in South India.<sup id="cite_ref-ant_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ant-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-bana_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bana-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-greek_roman_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-greek_roman-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tamil_epigraphy_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tamil_epigraphy-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The spoken language is said to have separated from its proto-language source earlier than Tamil and about the same time as <a href="/wiki/Tulu_language" title="Tulu language">Tulu</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, archaeological evidence would indicate a written tradition for this language of around 1600–1650 years. The initial development of the Kannada language is similar to that of other south Indian languages.<sup id="cite_ref-indi_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-indi-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-influence_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-influence-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Stages_of_development">Stages of development</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Stages of development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By the time Halmidi shasana (stone inscription) Kannada had become an official language. Some of the linguistics suggest that Tamil & HaLegannada are very similar or might have same roots. Ex: For milk in both languages it is 'Haalu', the postfix to the names of elders to show respect is 'avar / avargaL'. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="600_–_1200_AD"><span id="600_.E2.80.93_1200_AD"></span>600 – 1200 AD</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: 600 – 1200 AD"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During this era, language underwent a lot of changes as seen from the literary works of great poets of the era viz Pampa, Ranna, Ponna. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="1400_–_1600_AD"><span id="1400_.E2.80.93_1600_AD"></span>1400 – 1600 AD</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: 1400 – 1600 AD"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Vijayanagar Empire which is called the Golden era in the history of medieval India saw a lot of development in all literary form of both Kannada and Telugu. During the ruling of the King Krishnadevaraya many wonderful works. Poet Kumaravyasa wrote Mahabharata in Kannada in a unique style called "shatpadi" (six lines is a stanza of the poem). This era also saw the origin of Dasa Sahitya, the Carnatic music. Purandaradasa and Kanakadasa wrote several songs praising Lord Krishna. This gave a new dimension to Kannada literature. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Stone_inscriptions">Stone inscriptions</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Stone inscriptions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first written record in the Kannada language is traced to Emperor <a href="/wiki/Ashoka" title="Ashoka">Ashoka</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Brahmagiri_archaeological_site" title="Brahmagiri archaeological site">Brahmagiri edict</a></i> dated 200 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-classical2005_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-classical2005-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-isila_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isila-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first example of a full-length Kannada language stone inscription (<i>shilashaasana</i>) containing Brahmi characters with characteristics attributed to those of protokannada in <i>Hale Kannada</i> (<i>Old Kannada</i>) script can be found in the <a href="/wiki/Halmidi_inscription" title="Halmidi inscription">Halmidi inscription</a>, dated c. 450, indicating that Kannada had become an administrative language by this time.<sup id="cite_ref-admin_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-admin-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Oldest_inscription_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oldest_inscription-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ind_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ind-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over 30,000 inscriptions written in the Kannada language have been discovered so far.<sup id="cite_ref-total_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-total-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Chikkamagaluru inscription of 500 CE is another example.<sup id="cite_ref-chikka_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chikka-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-rice_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rice-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prior to the Halmidi inscription, there is an abundance of inscriptions containing Kannada words, phrases and sentences, proving its antiquity. Badami cliff <i>shilashaasana</i> of <a href="/wiki/Pulakeshin_I" title="Pulakeshin I">Pulakeshin I</a> is an example of a Sanskrit inscription in <i>Hale Kannada</i> script.<sup id="cite_ref-cliff_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cliff-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cliff1_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cliff1-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Copper_plates_and_manuscripts">Copper plates and manuscripts</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Copper plates and manuscripts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Badami_Chalukya_Kannada_Inscription.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Badami_Chalukya_Kannada_Inscription.jpg/200px-Badami_Chalukya_Kannada_Inscription.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Badami_Chalukya_Kannada_Inscription.jpg/300px-Badami_Chalukya_Kannada_Inscription.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Badami_Chalukya_Kannada_Inscription.jpg/400px-Badami_Chalukya_Kannada_Inscription.jpg 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="360" /></a><figcaption>Badami Chalukya inscription in Old Kannada, Virupaksha Temple, 745 <a href="/wiki/Pattadakal" title="Pattadakal">Pattadakal</a></figcaption></figure><p> Examples of early Sanskrit-Kannada bilingual <a href="/wiki/Indian_copper_plate_inscriptions" title="Indian copper plate inscriptions">copper plate inscriptions</a> (<i>tamarashaasana</i>) are the Tumbula inscriptions of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Ganga_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Ganga Dynasty">Western Ganga Dynasty</a> dated 444 AD<sup id="cite_ref-Tumbula1_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tumbula1-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tumbula_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tumbula-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest full-length Kannada <i>tamarashaasana</i> in <i>Old Kannada</i> script (early 8th century) belongs to <a href="/wiki/Alupas" class="mw-redirect" title="Alupas">Alupa</a> King Aluvarasa II from Belmannu, South Kanara district and displays the double crested fish, his royal emblem.<sup id="cite_ref-Kannada_copperplate_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kannada_copperplate-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The oldest well-preserved palm leaf manuscript is in <i>Old Kannada</i> and is that of <i>Dhavala</i>, dated to around the 9th century, preserved in the Jain Bhandar, Mudbidri, <a href="/wiki/Dakshina_Kannada" title="Dakshina Kannada">Dakshina Kannada</a> district.<sup id="cite_ref-Palm_leaf_manuscript_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Palm_leaf_manuscript-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The manuscript contains 1478 leaves written in ink.<sup id="cite_ref-Palm_leaf_manuscript_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Palm_leaf_manuscript-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History_of_Telugu">History of Telugu</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: History of Telugu"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Linguistic_history_of_India" title="Special:EditPage/Linguistic history of India">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Origins">Origins</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Telugu is hypothesised to have originated from a reconstructed <a href="/wiki/Proto-Dravidian" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Dravidian">Proto-Dravidian</a> language. It is a highly Sanskritised language; as Telugu scholar <a href="/wiki/Charles_Philip_Brown" title="Charles Philip Brown">C.P Brown</a> states in page 266 of his book <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=A_Grammar_of_the_Telugu_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="A Grammar of the Telugu language (page does not exist)">A Grammar of the Telugu language</a></i>: "if we ever make any real progress in the language the student will require the aid of the Sanskrit Dictionary".<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prakrit Inscriptions containing Telugu words dated around 400–100 BCE<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="The material near this tag is possibly inaccurate or nonfactual. (September 2012)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Linguistic_history_of_India#Imaginary_early_Telugu_period:" title="Talk:Linguistic history of India">discuss</a></i>]</sup> were discovered in <a href="/wiki/Bhattiprolu" title="Bhattiprolu">Bhattiprolu</a> in District of <a href="/wiki/Guntur" title="Guntur">Guntur</a>. English translation of one inscription as reads: "Gift of the slab by venerable Midikilayakha".<sup id="cite_ref-Hindu_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hindu-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on an unreliable source. (September 2012)">unreliable source?</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Stages">Stages</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Stages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From 575 CE, we begin to find traces of Telugu in inscriptions and literature, it is possible to broadly define four stages in the <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistic</a> history of the Telugu language: </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="575_–1100"><span id="575_.E2.80.931100"></span>575 –1100</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: 575 –1100"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first inscription that is entirely in Telugu corresponds to the second phase of Telugu history. This inscription, dated 575, was found in the districts of <a href="/wiki/Kadapa" title="Kadapa">Kadapa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kurnool" title="Kurnool">Kurnool</a> and is attributed to the <a href="/wiki/Telugu_Cholas" class="mw-redirect" title="Telugu Cholas">Renati Cholas</a>, who broke with the prevailing practice of using Prakrit and began writing royal proclamations in the local language. During the next fifty years, Telugu inscriptions appeared in <a href="/wiki/Anantapur,_Andhra_Pradesh" class="mw-redirect" title="Anantapur, Andhra Pradesh">Anantapuram</a> and other neighboring regions. The earliest dated Telugu inscription from coastal <a href="/wiki/Andhra_Pradesh" title="Andhra Pradesh">Andhra Pradesh</a> comes from about 633 . </p><p>Around the same time, the <a href="/wiki/Chalukya" class="mw-redirect" title="Chalukya">Chalukya</a> kings of <a href="/wiki/Telangana" title="Telangana">Telangana</a> also began using Telugu for inscriptions.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Telugu was more influenced by Sanskrit than Prakrit during this period, which corresponded to the advent of Telugu literature. One of the oldest Telugu stone inscriptions containing literature was the 11-line inscription dated between 946 and 968 found on a hillock known as Bommalagutta in Kurikyala village of <a href="/wiki/Karimnagar_district" title="Karimnagar district">Karimnagar district</a>, Telangana. The sing-song Telugu rhyme was the work of Jinavallabha, the younger brother of <a href="/wiki/Adikavi_Pampa" title="Adikavi Pampa">Pampa</a> who was the court poet of <a href="/wiki/Chalukyas_of_Vemulavada" title="Chalukyas of Vemulavada">Vemulavada Chalukya</a> king <a href="/wiki/Arikesari_III" title="Arikesari III">Arikesari III</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This literature was initially found in inscriptions and poetry in the courts of the rulers, and later in written works such as <a href="/wiki/Nannayya" title="Nannayya">Nannayya</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata"><i>Mahabharatam</i></a> (1022 ). During the time of Nannayya, the literary language diverged from the popular language. This was also a period of phonetic changes in the spoken language. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="1100_–_1400"><span id="1100_.E2.80.93_1400"></span>1100 – 1400</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: 1100 – 1400"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The third phase is marked by further stylization and sophistication of the literary language. <a href="/wiki/Mulaghatika_Ketana" title="Mulaghatika Ketana">Ketana</a> (13th century CE) in fact prohibited the use of the vernacular in poetic works. During this period the divergence of the <a href="/wiki/Telugu_script" title="Telugu script">Telugu script</a> from the common <a href="/wiki/Telugu-Kannada_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Telugu-Kannada script">Telugu-Kannada script</a> took place.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Tikkana" title="Tikkana">Tikkana</a> wrote his works in this script.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2008)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="1400–1900"><span id="1400.E2.80.931900"></span>1400–1900</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: 1400–1900"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Telugu underwent a great deal of change (as did other Indian languages), progressing from medieval to modern. The language of the <a href="/wiki/Telangana" title="Telangana">Telangana</a> region started to split into a distinct <a href="/wiki/Dialect" title="Dialect">dialect</a> due to Muslim influence: <a href="/wiki/Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultanate">Sultanate</a> rule under the <a href="/wiki/Tughlaq_dynasty" title="Tughlaq dynasty">Tughlaq dynasty</a> had been established earlier in the northern <a href="/wiki/Deccan_Plateau" title="Deccan Plateau">Deccan</a> during the 14th century CE. South of the <a href="/wiki/Krishna_River" title="Krishna River">Krishna River</a> (in the <a href="/wiki/Rayalaseema" title="Rayalaseema">Rayalaseema</a> region), however, the <a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara Empire</a> gained dominance from 1336 CE until the late 17th century, reaching its peak during the rule of <a href="/wiki/Krishnadevaraya" title="Krishnadevaraya">Krishnadevaraya</a> in the 16th century, when Telugu literature experienced what is considered to be its <a href="/wiki/Golden_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Golden age">golden age</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-APOnline_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-APOnline-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Padakavithapithamaha</i>, <a href="/wiki/Annamayya" class="mw-redirect" title="Annamayya">Annamayya</a>, contributed many <i>atcha</i> (pristine) Telugu <i>Padaalu</i> to this great language. In the latter half of the 17th century, Muslim rule extended further south, culminating in the establishment of the princely state of <a href="/wiki/Hyderabad_State" title="Hyderabad State">Hyderabad</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Asaf_Jah" class="mw-redirect" title="Asaf Jah">Asaf Jah</a> dynasty in 1724 CE. This heralded an era of <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>/<a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> influence on the Telugu language, especially on that spoken by the inhabitants of <a href="/wiki/Hyderabad_State" title="Hyderabad State">Hyderabad</a>. The effect is also felt in the prose of the early 19th century, as in the <i><a href="/wiki/Kaifiyat" title="Kaifiyat">Kaifiyats</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-APOnline_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-APOnline-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="1900_to_date">1900 to date</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: 1900 to date"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The period of the late 19th and early 20th centuries saw the influence of the English language and modern communication/printing press as an effect of the <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British rule</a>, especially in the areas that were part of the <a href="/wiki/Madras_Presidency" title="Madras Presidency">Madras Presidency</a>. Literature from this time had a mix of classical and modern traditions and included works by scholars like Kandukuri Viresalingam, Gurazada Apparao, and Panuganti Lakshminarasimha Rao.<sup id="cite_ref-APOnline_71-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-APOnline-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since the 1930s, what was considered an elite literary form of the Telugu language has now spread to the common people with the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Mass_media" title="Mass media">mass media</a> like <a href="/wiki/Movies" class="mw-redirect" title="Movies">movies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Television" title="Television">television</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">radio</a> and <a href="/wiki/Newspapers" class="mw-redirect" title="Newspapers">newspapers</a>. This form of the language is also taught in schools as a standard. In the current decade the Telugu language, like other Indian languages, has undergone <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a> due to the increasing settlement of Telugu-speaking people abroad. Modern Telugu movies, although still retaining their dramatic quality, are linguistically separate from post-<a href="/wiki/Indian_Independence_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Independence Movement">Independence</a> films. </p><p>At present, a committee of scholars have approved a <a href="/wiki/Classical_language#Classical_languages_of_India" title="Classical language">classical language</a> tag for Telugu based on its antiquity. The Indian government has also officially designated it as a classical language.<sup id="cite_ref-classical2008_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-classical2008-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Carnatic_music">Carnatic music</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Carnatic music"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Though <a href="/wiki/Carnatic_music" title="Carnatic music">Carnatic music</a>, one of two main subgenres of <a href="/wiki/Indian_classical_music" title="Indian classical music">Indian classical music</a> that evolved from ancient <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> traditions, has a profound cultural influence on all of the <a href="/wiki/South_India" title="South India">South Indian</a> states and their respective languages, most songs (Kirtanas) are in Kannada and Telugu. <a href="/wiki/Purandara_Dasa" title="Purandara Dasa">Purandara Dasa</a>, said to have composed at least a quarter million songs and known as the "father" of Carnatic music composed in Kannada. </p><p>The region to the east of Tamil Nadu stretching from Tanjore in the south to Andhra Pradesh in the north was known as the Carnatic region during 17th and 18th centuries. The Carnatic war in which Robert Clive annexed Trichirapali is relevant. The music that prevailed in this region during the 18th century onwards was known as Carnatic music. This is because the existing tradition is to a great extent an outgrowth of the musical life of the principality of <a href="/wiki/Thanjavur" title="Thanjavur">Thanjavur</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Kaveri" title="Kaveri">Kaveri</a> delta. Thanjavur was the heart of the <a href="/wiki/Chola" class="mw-redirect" title="Chola">Chola</a> dynasty (from the 9th century to the 13th), but in the second quarter of the 16th century a <a href="/wiki/Telugu_people" title="Telugu people">Telugu</a> <a href="/wiki/Nayak_(ethnic_group)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nayak (ethnic group)">Nayak</a> viceroy (Raghunatha Nayaka) was appointed by the <a href="/wiki/Emperor" title="Emperor">emperor</a> of <a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara" title="Vijayanagara">Vijayanagara</a>, thus establishing a court whose language was Telugu. The Nayaks acted as governors of what is present-day <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a> with their headquarters at Thanjavur (1530–1674 CE) and <a href="/wiki/Madurai" title="Madurai">Madurai</a>(1530–1781 CE). After the collapse of <a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagar</a>, Thanjavur and <a href="/wiki/Madurai" title="Madurai">Madurai</a> Nayaks became independent and ruled for the next 150 years until they were replaced by <a href="/wiki/Maratha" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha">Marathas</a>. This was the period when several Telugu families migrated from <a href="/wiki/Andhra_Pradesh" title="Andhra Pradesh">Andhra</a> and settled down in Thanjavur and <a href="/wiki/Madurai" title="Madurai">Madurai</a>. Most great composers of Carnatic music belonged to these Telugu families. </p><p>Telugu words end in vowels which many consider a mellifluous quality and thus suitable for musical expression. Of the trinity of Carnatic music composers, <a href="/wiki/Tyagaraja" title="Tyagaraja">Tyagaraja</a>'s and <a href="/wiki/Syama_Sastri" title="Syama Sastri">Syama Sastri</a>'s compositions were largely in Telugu, while <a href="/w/index.php?title=Muttuswami_Dikshitar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Muttuswami Dikshitar (page does not exist)">Muttuswami Dikshitar</a> is noted for his Sanskrit texts. Tyagaraja is remembered both for his devotion and the bhava of his krithi, a song form consisting of <a href="/wiki/Pallavi" title="Pallavi">pallavi</a>, (the first section of a song) anupallavi (a rhyming section that follows the pallavi) and <a href="/wiki/Charanam" title="Charanam">charanam</a> (a sung <a href="/wiki/Stanza" title="Stanza">stanza</a> which serves as a refrain for several passages in the composition). The texts of his kritis are almost all in Sanskrit, in Telugu (the contemporary language of the court). This use of a living language, as opposed to Sanskrit, the language of ritual, is in keeping with the bhakti ideal of the immediacy of devotion. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sri_Syama_Sastri&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sri Syama Sastri (page does not exist)">Sri Syama Sastri</a>, the oldest of the trinity, was taught Telugu and Sanskrit by his father, who was the <a href="/wiki/Pujari" title="Pujari">pujari</a> (Hindu priest) at the <a href="/wiki/Meenakshi" title="Meenakshi">Meenakshi</a> <a href="/wiki/Temple" title="Temple">temple</a> in Madurai. Syama Sastri's texts were largely composed in Telugu, widening their popular appeal. Some of his most famous compositions include the nine krithis, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Navaratnamaalik%C4%81&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Navaratnamaalikā (page does not exist)">Navaratnamaalikā</a>, in praise of the goddess Meenakshi at <a href="/wiki/Meenakshi_Amman_temple" class="mw-redirect" title="Meenakshi Amman temple">Madurai</a>, and his eighteen krithi in praise of Kamakshi. As well as composing krithi, he is credited with turning the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Svarajati&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Svarajati (page does not exist)">svarajati</a>, originally used for dance, into a purely musical form. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History_of_Malayalam">History of Malayalam</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: History of Malayalam"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Malayalam" title="Malayalam">Malayalam</a> is thought to have diverged from <a href="/wiki/Middle_Tamil" title="Middle Tamil">Middle Tamil</a> approximately the 6th century in the region coinciding with modern <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a>. The development of Malayalam as a separate language was characterized by a moderate influence from Sanskrit, both in lexicon and grammar, which culminated in the <a href="/wiki/Adhyathmaramayanam" class="mw-redirect" title="Adhyathmaramayanam"><i>Aadhyaathma Ramayanam</i></a>, a version of the Ramayana by <a href="/wiki/Thunchaththu_Ezhuthachan" title="Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan">Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan</a> which marked the beginning of modern Malayalam. Ezhuthachan's works also cemented the use of the <a href="/wiki/Malayalam_script" title="Malayalam script">Malayalam script</a>, an alphabet blending the Tamil <a href="/wiki/Vatteluttu_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Vatteluttu alphabet">Vatteluttu alphabet</a> with elements of the <a href="/wiki/Grantha_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Grantha alphabet">Grantha script</a> resulting in a large number of letters capable of representing both Indo-Aryan and Dravidian sounds.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Today, it is considered one of the 22 <a href="/wiki/Languages_with_official_status_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages with official status in India">scheduled languages of India</a> and was declared a <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_India#Classical_languages_of_India" title="Languages of India">classical language</a> by the Government of India in 2013.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sino-Tibetan_languages">Sino-Tibetan languages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Sino-Tibetan languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan languages</a></div> <p>Sino-Tibetan languages are spoken in the western Himalayas (<a href="/wiki/Himachal_Pradesh" title="Himachal Pradesh">Himachal Pradesh</a>) and in the highlands of <a href="/wiki/Northeast_India" title="Northeast India">Northeast India</a>. The Sino-Tibetan family includes such languages as <a href="/wiki/Meitei_language" title="Meitei language">Meitei</a> (officially known as <a href="/wiki/Manipuri_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Manipuri language">Manipuri</a>), <a href="/wiki/Kokborok_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kokborok language">Tripuri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bodo_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Bodo language">Bodo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Garo_language" title="Garo language">Garo</a> and various groups of <a href="/wiki/Naga_languages" title="Naga languages">Naga languages</a>. Some of the languages traditionally included in Sino-Tibetan may actually be language isolates or part of small independent language families.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Meitei">Meitei</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Meitei"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Meitei_language" title="Meitei language">Meitei language</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ANDRO_INSCRIBED_STONE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/ANDRO_INSCRIBED_STONE.jpg/300px-ANDRO_INSCRIBED_STONE.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="401" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/ANDRO_INSCRIBED_STONE.jpg/450px-ANDRO_INSCRIBED_STONE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/ANDRO_INSCRIBED_STONE.jpg/600px-ANDRO_INSCRIBED_STONE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2992" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Meitei_language" title="Meitei language">Meitei language</a> stone inscription in <a href="/wiki/Meitei_script" title="Meitei script">Meitei script</a> about a royal decree of a Meitei king found in the sacred site of God <a href="/wiki/Panam_Ningthou" title="Panam Ningthou">Panam Ningthou</a> in <a href="/wiki/Andro,_Imphal_East" title="Andro, Imphal East">Andro, Imphal East</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manipur" title="Manipur">Manipur</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Meitei_language" title="Meitei language">Meitei language</a> (officially known as <a href="/wiki/Manipuri_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Manipuri language">Manipuri language</a>) was the ancient court language of <a href="/wiki/Manipur_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Manipur Kingdom">Manipur Kingdom</a> (<a href="/wiki/Meitei_language" title="Meitei language">Meitei</a>: <i lang="mni">Meeteileipak</i>), which was used with honour before and during the kingdom's <a href="/wiki/Durbar_(court)" title="Durbar (court)">Durbar (court)</a> sessions, until <a href="/wiki/Manipur" title="Manipur">Manipur</a> was merged into the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of India">Republic of India</a> on 21 September 1949.<sup id="cite_ref-Sanajaoba_1988_290_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sanajaoba_1988_290-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Besides being the native tongue of the <a href="/wiki/Meiteis" class="mw-redirect" title="Meiteis">Meiteis</a>, Meitei language was and is the lingua franca of all the ethnic groups living in <a href="/wiki/Manipur" title="Manipur">Manipur</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ancestor of the present day <a href="/wiki/Meitei_language" title="Meitei language">Meitei language</a> is the <a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Meitei_language" class="extiw" title="simple:Ancient Meitei language">Ancient Meitei</a> (also called <a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Manipuri_language" class="extiw" title="simple:Old Manipuri language">Old Manipuri</a>). <a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Meitei_language" class="extiw" title="simple:Classical Meitei language">Classical Meitei</a> (also called <a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Manipuri" class="extiw" title="simple:Classical Manipuri">Classical Manipuri</a>) is the standardised form of Meitei and is also the liturgical language of <a href="/wiki/Sanamahism" title="Sanamahism">Sanamahism</a> (traditional Meitei religion), serving as the medium of thoughts on the <a href="/wiki/Puya_(Meitei_texts)" title="Puya (Meitei texts)">Puya (Meitei texts)</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Padma_Vibhushan" title="Padma Vibhushan">Padma Vibhushan</a> awardee Indian <a href="/wiki/Bengali_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Bengali people">Bengali</a> scholar <a href="/wiki/Suniti_Kumar_Chatterji" title="Suniti Kumar Chatterji">Suniti Kumar Chatterji</a> wrote about Meitei language: </p> <blockquote> <div class="poem"> <p>"The beginning of this old <a href="/wiki/Manipuri_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Manipuri literature">Manipuri literature</a> (as in the case of <a href="/wiki/Newari_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Newari language">Newari</a>) may go back to 1500 years, or even 2000 years, from now."<sup id="cite_ref-Sanajaoba_1988_290_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sanajaoba_1988_290-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </div> </blockquote> <p>Meitei language has its own script, the <a href="/wiki/Meitei_script" title="Meitei script">Meitei script</a> (<a href="/wiki/Meitei_language" title="Meitei language">Meitei</a>: <i lang="mni"><a href="/wiki/Meitei_Mayek" class="mw-redirect" title="Meitei Mayek">Meitei Mayek</a></i>), often but not officially referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Manipuri_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Manipuri script">Manipuri script</a>. The earliest known coin, having the script engraved on it, dated back to the 6th century CE. Renowned Indian scholar <a href="/wiki/Kalidas_Nag" title="Kalidas Nag">Kalidas Nag</a>, after observing the Meitei writings on the handmade papers and <a href="/wiki/Agar" title="Agar">agar</a> pieces, opined that the <a href="/wiki/Manipuri_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Manipuri script">Manipuri script</a> belongs to the pre-Ashokan period. Ancient and medieval <a href="/wiki/Meitei_literature" title="Meitei literature">Meitei literature</a> are written in this script.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to the "Report on the Archaeological Studies in Manipur, Bulletin No-1", a <a href="/wiki/Meitei_language" title="Meitei language">Meitei language</a> copper plate inscription was found to be dated back to the 8th century CE. It is one of the preserved earliest known written records of Meitei language.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 18th century CE, the usage of <a href="/wiki/Meitei_script" title="Meitei script">Meitei script</a> was officially replaced by the <a href="/wiki/Bengali_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Bengali script">Bengali script</a> for any forms of writings in <a href="/wiki/Meitei_language" title="Meitei language">Meitei language</a> right from the era of Meitei King <a href="/wiki/Gharib_Nawaz_(Manipur)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gharib Nawaz (Manipur)">Gharib Niwaj</a> (<a href="/wiki/Meitei_language" title="Meitei language">Meitei</a>: <i lang="mni"><a href="/wiki/Pamheiba" class="mw-redirect" title="Pamheiba">Pamheiba</a></i>) (1690–1751), the Maharaja of <a href="/wiki/Manipur_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Manipur kingdom">Manipur kingdom</a>. It was during his time <a href="/wiki/Kangleipak" title="Kangleipak">Kangleipak</a>, the Meitei name of the kingdom, was renamed with the Sanskrit name <a href="/wiki/Manipur" title="Manipur">Manipur</a>, thereby creating the mythical connecting legends with that of the <a href="/wiki/Manipur_(Mahabharata)" class="mw-redirect" title="Manipur (Mahabharata)">Manipur (Mahabharata)</a>, which is clarified by the modern Indian Hindu scholars as a coastal region in <a href="/wiki/Odisha" title="Odisha">Odisha</a>, though eponymous with the Meitei kingdom. </p><p>In modern era, the <i>"<a href="/wiki/Manipur_State_Constitution_Act_1947" title="Manipur State Constitution Act 1947">Manipur State Constitution Act 1947</a>"</i> of the once independent <a href="/wiki/Manipur_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Manipur Kingdom">Manipur Kingdom</a> accords <a href="/wiki/Meitei_language" title="Meitei language">Meitei language</a> as the court language of the kingdom (before merging into the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Republic">Indian Republic</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the year 1972, Meitei language was given the recognition by the National <a href="/wiki/Sahitya_Akademi" title="Sahitya Akademi">Sahitya Akademi</a>, the highest Indian body of language and literature, as one of the major Indian languages.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 20 August 1992, <a href="/wiki/Meitei_language" title="Meitei language">Meitei language</a> was included in the <a href="/wiki/Eighth_Schedule_to_the_Constitution_of_India" title="Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India">Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India</a> and made one of the <a href="/wiki/Languages_with_official_status_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages with official status in India">languages with official status in India</a>. The event was commemorated every year as the <a href="/wiki/Meitei_Language_Day" class="mw-redirect" title="Meitei Language Day">Meitei Language Day</a> (officially called <a href="/wiki/Manipuri_Language_Day" title="Manipuri Language Day">Manipuri Language Day</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Starting from the year 2021, <a href="/wiki/Meitei_script" title="Meitei script">Meitei script</a> (officially known as <a href="/wiki/Meetei_Mayek" class="mw-redirect" title="Meetei Mayek">Meetei Mayek</a><sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) was officially used, along with the <a href="/wiki/Bengali_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Bengali script">Bengali script</a>, to write the <a href="/wiki/Meitei_language" title="Meitei language">Meitei language</a>, as per "The Manipur Official Language (Amendment) Act, 2021". It was declared by the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Manipur" title="Government of Manipur">Government of Manipur</a> on 10 March 2021.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In September 2021, the <a href="/wiki/Central_Government_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Government of India">Central Government of India</a> released <span class="nowrap"><span style="white-space: nowrap">₹</span>18 crore</span> (US$2.2 million) as the first instalment for the development and the promotion of the <a href="/wiki/Meitei_language" title="Meitei language">Meitei language</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Meitei_script" title="Meitei script">Meitei script</a> in <a href="/wiki/Manipur" title="Manipur">Manipur</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Languages_of_other_families_in_India">Languages of other families in India</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Languages of other families in India"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Austroasiatic_languages">Austroasiatic languages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Austroasiatic languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic languages</a></div> <p>The Austroasiatic family spoken in East and North-east India. Austroasiatic languages include the <a href="/wiki/Santali_language" title="Santali language">Santal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Munda_languages" title="Munda languages">Munda languages</a> of eastern India, Nepal, and Bangladesh, and the <a href="/wiki/Mon%E2%80%93Khmer_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Mon–Khmer languages">Mon–Khmer languages</a> spoken by the <a href="/wiki/Khasi_people" title="Khasi people">Khasi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nicobarese_people" title="Nicobarese people">Nicobarese</a> in India and in <a href="/wiki/Burma" class="mw-redirect" title="Burma">Burma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laos" title="Laos">Laos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>, and southern <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>. The Austroasiatic languages arrived in east India around 4000-3500 ago from <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Great_Andamanese_and_Ongan_languages">Great Andamanese and Ongan languages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Great Andamanese and Ongan languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On the <a href="/wiki/Andaman_Islands" title="Andaman Islands">Andaman Islands</a>, language from at least two families have spoken: the <a href="/wiki/Great_Andamanese_languages" title="Great Andamanese languages">Great Andamanese languages</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ongan_languages" title="Ongan languages">Ongan languages</a>. The Sentinelese language is spoken on North Sentinel Island, but contact has not been made with the Sentinelis; thus, its language affiliation is unknown. While <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Greenberg" title="Joseph Greenberg">Joseph Greenberg</a> considered the Great Andamanese languages to be part of a larger <a href="/wiki/Indo-Pacific_languages" title="Indo-Pacific languages">Indo-Pacific family</a>, it was not established through the <a href="/wiki/Comparative_method" title="Comparative method">comparative method</a> but considered spurious by historical linguists. Stephen Wurm suggests similarities with <a href="/wiki/Trans-New_Guinea_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Trans-New Guinea languages">Trans-New Guinea languages</a> and others are caused by a <a href="/wiki/Stratum_(linguistics)" title="Stratum (linguistics)">linguistic substrate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Juliette_Blevins" title="Juliette Blevins">Juliette Blevins</a> has suggested that the Ongan languages are the sister branch to the <a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian languages</a> in an Austronesian-Ongan family because of sound correspondences between protolanguages.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Isolates">Isolates</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Isolates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Nihali_language" title="Nihali language">Nihali language</a> is a language isolate spoken in <a href="/wiki/Madhya_Pradesh" title="Madhya Pradesh">Madhya Pradesh</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maharashtra" title="Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a>. Affiliations have been suggested to the <a href="/wiki/Munda_languages" title="Munda languages">Munda languages</a> but they have yet to be demonstrated. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scripts">Scripts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Scripts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indus">Indus</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Indus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Brahmic_script_travel_from_India.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Brahmic_script_travel_from_India.png/350px-Brahmic_script_travel_from_India.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="291" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Brahmic_script_travel_from_India.png/525px-Brahmic_script_travel_from_India.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Brahmic_script_travel_from_India.png/700px-Brahmic_script_travel_from_India.png 2x" data-file-width="919" data-file-height="765" /></a><figcaption>Spread of scripts in <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a> </figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indus_script" title="Indus script">Indus script</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Indus_script" title="Indus script">Indus script</a> is the short strings of symbols associated with the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilization">Harappan civilization</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kingdoms_of_Ancient_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdoms of Ancient India">ancient India</a> (most of the Indus sites are distributed in present-day <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> and northwest <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>) used between 2600 and 1900 BCE, which evolved from an early Indus script attested from around 3500–3300 BCE. Found in at least a dozen types of context, the symbols are most commonly associated with flat, rectangular stone tablets called seals. The first publication of a Harappan seal was a drawing by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Cunningham" title="Alexander Cunningham">Alexander Cunningham</a> in 1875. Since then, well over 4000 symbol-bearing objects have been discovered, some as far afield as Mesopotamia. After 1500 BCE, coinciding with the final stage of Harappan civilization, use of the symbols ends. There are over 400 distinct signs, but many are thought to be slight modifications or combinations of perhaps 200 'basic' signs. The symbols remain undeciphered (in spite of numerous attempts that did not find favour with the academic community), and some scholars classify them as <a href="/wiki/Proto-writing" title="Proto-writing">proto-writing</a> rather than writing proper. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Brāhmī"><span id="Br.C4.81hm.C4.AB"></span>Brāhmī</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Brāhmī"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Brahmi_script" title="Brahmi script">Brahmi script</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tamil-Brahmi" title="Tamil-Brahmi">Tamil-Brahmi</a></div> <p>The best-known inscriptions in Brāhmī are the rock-cut <a href="/wiki/Edicts_of_Ashoka" title="Edicts of Ashoka">Edicts of Ashoka</a>, dating to the 3rd century BCE. These were long considered the earliest examples of Brāhmī writing, but recent archaeological evidence in <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a> suggest the dates for the earliest use of Tamil Brāhmī to be around the 6th century BCE, dated using <a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Radiocarbon dating">radiocarbon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thermoluminescence_dating" title="Thermoluminescence dating">thermoluminescence dating</a> methods. </p><p>This script is ancestral to the <a href="/wiki/Brahmic_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmic family">Brahmic family</a> of scripts, most of which are used in <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>, but which have wider historical use elsewhere, even as far as <a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a> and perhaps even <a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a>, according to one theory of the origin of <a href="/wiki/Hangul" title="Hangul">Hangul</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Brahmi_numeral" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmi numeral">Brāhmī numeral</a> system is the ancestor of the <a href="/wiki/Hindu%E2%80%93Arabic_numeral_system" title="Hindu–Arabic numeral system">Hindu–Arabic numerals</a>, which are now used worldwide. </p><p>Brāhmī is generally believed to be derived from a <a href="/wiki/Semitic_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Semitic script">Semitic script</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Aramaic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Aramaic alphabet">Imperial Aramaic alphabet</a>, as was clearly the case for the contemporary <a href="/wiki/Kharosthi" title="Kharosthi">Kharosthi</a> alphabet that arose in a part of northwest Indian under the control of the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaemenid">Achaemenid</a> Empire. <a href="/wiki/Rhys_Davids" title="Rhys Davids">Rhys Davids</a> suggests that writing may have been introduced to India from the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> by traders. Another possibility is with the Achaemenid conquest in the late 6th century BCE. It was often assumed that it was a planned invention under Ashoka as a prerequisite for his edicts. Compare the much better-documented parallel of the <a href="/wiki/Hangul" title="Hangul">Hangul</a> script. </p><p>Older examples of the Brahmi script appear to be on fragments of pottery from the trading town of <a href="/wiki/Anuradhapura" title="Anuradhapura">Anuradhapura</a> in Sri Lanka, which have been dated to the early 400 BCE. Even earlier evidence of the <a href="/wiki/Tamil-Brahmi" title="Tamil-Brahmi">Tamil -Brahmi</a> script has been discovered on pieces of pottery in <a href="/wiki/Adichanallur" title="Adichanallur">Adichanallur</a>, Tamil Nadu. Radio-carbon dating has established that they belonged to the 6th-century BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The origin of the script is still much debated, with most scholars stating that Brahmi was derived from or at least influenced by one or more contemporary <a href="/wiki/Proto-Sinaitic_script" title="Proto-Sinaitic script">Semitic scripts</a>, while others favor the idea of an indigenous origin or connection to the much older and as yet undeciphered <a href="/wiki/Indus_script" title="Indus script">Indus script</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilisation">Indus Valley civilisation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalomon199820_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalomon199820-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-scharfe391_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scharfe391-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kharosthi">Kharosthi</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Kharosthi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kharosthi" title="Kharosthi">Kharosthi</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:YingpanKharoshthi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/YingpanKharoshthi.jpg/250px-YingpanKharoshthi.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/YingpanKharoshthi.jpg/375px-YingpanKharoshthi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/YingpanKharoshthi.jpg/500px-YingpanKharoshthi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="899" data-file-height="716" /></a><figcaption>Paper strip with writing in <a href="/wiki/Kharo%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%ADh%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Kharoṣṭhī">Kharoṣṭhī</a>. 2nd to 5th century CE, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Yingpan_(archaeological_site)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yingpan (archaeological site) (page does not exist)">Yingpan</a>, Eastern <a href="/wiki/Tarim_Basin" title="Tarim Basin">Tarim Basin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a> Museum.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>Kharoṣṭhī script</b>, also known as the <b>Gāndhārī script</b>, is an ancient <a href="/wiki/Abugida" title="Abugida">abugida</a> (a kind of <a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">alphabetic</a> script) used by the <a href="/wiki/Gandhara_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Gandhara culture">Gandhara culture</a> of ancient northwest <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> to write the <a href="/wiki/G%C4%81ndh%C4%81r%C4%AB_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gāndhārī language">Gāndhārī</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> languages. It was in use from the 4th century BCE until it died out in its homeland around the 3rd century CE. It was also in use along the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a> where there is some evidence it may have survived until the 7th century CE in the remote way stations of <a href="/wiki/Khotan" class="mw-redirect" title="Khotan">Khotan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Niya_ruins" title="Niya ruins">Niya</a>. </p><p>Scholars are not in agreement as to whether the Kharoṣṭhī script evolved gradually, or was the work of a mindful inventor. An analysis of the script forms shows a clear dependency on the <a href="/wiki/Aramaic_alphabet" title="Aramaic alphabet">Aramaic alphabet</a> but with extensive modifications to support the sounds found in Indian languages. One model is that the Aramaic script arrived with the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaemenid">Achaemenid</a> conquest of the region in 500 BCE and evolved over the next 200+ years to reach its final form by the 3rd century BCE. However, no Aramaic documents of any kind have survived from this period. Also intermediate forms have yet been found to confirm this evolutionary model, and rock and <a href="/wiki/Coin" title="Coin">coins</a> <a href="/wiki/Inscription" class="mw-redirect" title="Inscription">inscriptions</a> from the 3rd century BCE onward show a unified and mature form. </p><p>The study of the Kharoṣṭhī script was recently invigorated by the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Gandh%C4%81ran_Buddhist_texts" title="Gandhāran Buddhist texts">Gandhāran Buddhist texts</a>, a set of <a href="/wiki/Birch" title="Birch">birch</a>-<a href="/wiki/Bark_(botany)" title="Bark (botany)">bark</a> manuscripts written in Kharoṣṭhī, discovered near the <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghan</a> city of <a href="/wiki/Hadda,_Afghanistan" title="Hadda, Afghanistan">Haḍḍā</a> (compare <a href="/wiki/Punjabi_language" title="Punjabi language">Panjabi</a> HAḌḌ ਹੱਡ s. m. "A bone, especially a big bone of dead cattle" referring to the famous mortuary grounds if the area): just west of the <a href="/wiki/Khyber_Pass" title="Khyber Pass">Khyber Pass</a>. The manuscripts were donated to the <a href="/wiki/British_Library" title="British Library">British Library</a> in 1994. The entire set of manuscripts are dated to the 1st century CE making them the oldest Buddhist manuscripts in existence. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gupta">Gupta</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Gupta"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gupta_script" title="Gupta script">Gupta script</a></div> <p>The <b>Gupta script</b> was used for writing Sanskrit and is associated with the <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta Empire</a> of India which was a period of material prosperity and great religious and <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">scientific</a> developments. The Gupta script was descended from <a href="/wiki/Br%C4%81hm%C4%AB_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Brāhmī script">Brahmi</a> and gave rise to the <a href="/wiki/Siddha%E1%B9%83_script" title="Siddhaṃ script">Siddham</a> script and then <a href="/wiki/Bengali%E2%80%93Assamese_script" title="Bengali–Assamese script">Bengali–Assamese script</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Siddhaṃ"><span id="Siddha.E1.B9.83"></span>Siddhaṃ</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Siddhaṃ"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Siddha%E1%B9%83_script" title="Siddhaṃ script">Siddhaṃ script</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Falongsibeiye.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Falongsibeiye.png/400px-Falongsibeiye.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Falongsibeiye.png/600px-Falongsibeiye.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Falongsibeiye.png/800px-Falongsibeiye.png 2x" data-file-width="1772" data-file-height="718" /></a><figcaption>A replica of <a href="/wiki/U%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%87%C4%AB%E1%B9%A3a_Vijaya_Dh%C4%81ra%E1%B9%87%C4%AB_S%C5%ABtra" class="mw-redirect" title="Uṣṇīṣa Vijaya Dhāraṇī Sūtra">Uṣṇīṣa Vijaya Dhāraṇī Sūtra</a> manuscript in <a href="/wiki/Siddha%E1%B9%83_script" title="Siddhaṃ script">Siddham</a> on <a href="/wiki/Arecaceae" title="Arecaceae">palm</a>-leaf in 609 CE. <a href="/wiki/H%C5%8Dry%C5%AB-ji" title="Hōryū-ji">Hōryū-ji</a>, Japan. The last line is a complete Sanskrit syllabary in Siddhaṃ script</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Siddhaṃ</b> (Sanskrit, accomplished or perfected), descended from the Brahmi script via the Gupta script, which also gave rise to the <a href="/wiki/Devanagari" title="Devanagari">Devanagari</a> script as well as a number of other Asian scripts such as <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_script" title="Tibetan script">Tibetan script</a>. </p><p>Siddhaṃ is an <a href="/wiki/Abugida" title="Abugida">abugida</a> or alphasyllabary rather than an <a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">alphabet</a> because each character indicates a syllable. If no other mark occurs then the short 'a' is assumed. Diacritic marks indicate the other vowels, the pure nasal (anusvara), and the aspirated vowel (visarga). A special mark (virama), can be used to indicate that the letter stands alone with no vowel which sometimes happens at the end of Sanskrit words. See links below for examples. </p><p>The writing of <a href="/wiki/Mantra" title="Mantra">mantras</a> and copying of <a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">Sutras</a> using the Siddhaṃ script is still practiced in <a href="/wiki/Shingon_Buddhism" title="Shingon Buddhism">Shingon Buddhism</a> in <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> but has died out in other places. It was <a href="/wiki/K%C5%ABkai" title="Kūkai">Kūkai</a> who introduced the Siddham script to Japan when he returned from China in 806, where he studied Sanskrit with <a href="/wiki/Nalanda" class="mw-redirect" title="Nalanda">Nalanda</a> trained monks including one known as Prajñā. Sutras that were taken to China from India were written in a variety of scripts, but Siddham was one of the most important. By the time Kūkai learned this script the trading and pilgrimage routes overland to India, part of the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a>, were closed by the expanding <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islamic empire</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid">Abbasids</a>. Then in the middle of the 9th century, there were a series of purges of "foreign religions" in China. This meant that Japan was cut off from the sources of Siddham texts. In time other scripts, particularly Devanagari replaced it in India, and so Japan was left as the only place where Siddham was preserved, although it was, and is only used for writing mantras and copying sutras. </p><p>Siddhaṃ was influential in the development of the <a href="/wiki/Kana" title="Kana">Kana</a> writing system, which is also associated with Kūkai – while the Kana shapes derive from Chinese characters, the principle of a syllable-based script and their systematic ordering was taken over from Siddham. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nagari">Nagari</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Nagari"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Devanagari" title="Devanagari">Devanagari</a></div> <p>Descended from the <a href="/wiki/Siddha%E1%B9%83_script" title="Siddhaṃ script">Siddham</a> script around the 11th century. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/48px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/64px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:India" title="Portal:India">India portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Substratum_in_Vedic_Sanskrit" title="Substratum in Vedic Sanskrit">Substratum in Vedic Sanskrit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_language_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Persian language in the Indian subcontinent">Persian language in the Indian subcontinent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_loanwords_in_Tamil" title="Indo-Aryan loanwords in Tamil">Indo-Aryan loanwords in Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_Survey_of_India" title="Linguistic Survey of India">Linguistic Survey of India</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The terms, "Meitei", "Meetei" and "Manipuri" are synonymous. While "Meitei" is more popular than "Meetei", "Meetei" is the officially mentioned synonym of the term "Manipuri".</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFTurner" class="citation web cs1">Turner, Sir Ralph Lilley. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/soas/frontmatter/introduction.html">"A Comparative Dictionary of the Indo-Aryan languages"</a>. <i>Digital Dictionaries of South Asia</i>. Oxford University Press (original), University of Chicago (web version)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 November</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Digital+Dictionaries+of+South+Asia&rft.atitle=A+Comparative+Dictionary+of+the+Indo-Aryan+languages&rft.aulast=Turner&rft.aufirst=Sir+Ralph+Lilley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdsal.uchicago.edu%2Fdictionaries%2Fsoas%2Ffrontmatter%2Fintroduction.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+history+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lrc.la.utexas.edu/eieol/vedol/00">"Introduction to Ancient Sanskrit"</a>. <i>lrc.la.utexas.edu</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=lrc.la.utexas.edu&rft.atitle=Introduction+to+Ancient+Sanskrit&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flrc.la.utexas.edu%2Feieol%2Fvedol%2F00&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+history+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-West2009-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-West2009_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarbara_A._West2009" class="citation book cs1">Barbara A. West (1 January 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pCiNqFj3MQsC&pg=PA282"><i>Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania</i></a>. Infobase Publishing. pp. 282–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-1913-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-1913-7"><bdi>978-1-4381-1913-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Peoples+of+Asia+and+Oceania&rft.pages=282-&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2009-01-01&rft.isbn=978-1-4381-1913-7&rft.au=Barbara+A.+West&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpCiNqFj3MQsC%26pg%3DPA282&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+history+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBloch197032-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBloch197032_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBloch1970">Bloch 1970</a>, p. 32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClara_Lewis2018" class="citation web cs1">Clara Lewis (16 April 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/clamour-grows-for-marathi-to-be-given-classical-language-status/articleshow/63776578.cms">"Clamour grows for Marathi to be given classical language status"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Times_of_India" title="The Times of India">The Times of India</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 May</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Times+of+India&rft.atitle=Clamour+grows+for+Marathi+to+be+given+classical+language+status&rft.date=2018-04-16&rft.au=Clara+Lewis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftimesofindia.indiatimes.com%2Fcity%2Fmumbai%2Fclamour-grows-for-marathi-to-be-given-classical-language-status%2Farticleshow%2F63776578.cms&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+history+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENovetzke201653–54-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENovetzke201653–54_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNovetzke2016">Novetzke 2016</a>, pp. 53–54.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENovetzke201653-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENovetzke201653_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNovetzke2016">Novetzke 2016</a>, p. 53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Talbot2001-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Talbot2001_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCynthia_Talbot2001" class="citation book cs1">Cynthia Talbot (20 September 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pfAKljlCJq0C&pg=PR9"><i>Precolonial India in Practice: Society, Region, and Identity in Medieval Andhra</i></a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 211–213. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-803123-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-803123-9"><bdi>978-0-19-803123-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Precolonial+India+in+Practice%3A+Society%2C+Region%2C+and+Identity+in+Medieval+Andhra&rft.pages=211-213&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001-09-20&rft.isbn=978-0-19-803123-9&rft.au=Cynthia+Talbot&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpfAKljlCJq0C%26pg%3DPR9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+history+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEaton2005" class="citation book cs1">Eaton, Richard M. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cGd2huLXEVYC&q=Afanasy+Nikitin+bahamani&pg=PR12"><i>The new Cambridge history of India</i></a> (1. publ. ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 154. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-25484-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-25484-1"><bdi>0-521-25484-1</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 March</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+new+Cambridge+history+of+India&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=154&rft.edition=1.+publ.&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-521-25484-1&rft.aulast=Eaton&rft.aufirst=Richard+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcGd2huLXEVYC%26q%3DAfanasy%2BNikitin%2Bbahamani%26pg%3DPR12&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+history+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSawant2008" class="citation book cs1">Sawant, Sunil R. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Puy3WGwVWXoC&pg=PA133">"Nineteenth Century Marthi Literary Polysystem"</a>. In Ray, Mohit K. (ed.). <i>Studies in translation</i> (2nd rev. and enl. ed.). New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers & Distributors. pp. 134–135. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788126909223" title="Special:BookSources/9788126909223"><bdi>9788126909223</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Nineteenth+Century+Marthi+Literary+Polysystem&rft.btitle=Studies+in+translation&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pages=134-135&rft.edition=2nd+rev.+and+enl.&rft.pub=Atlantic+Publishers+%26+Distributors&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9788126909223&rft.aulast=Sawant&rft.aufirst=Sunil+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPuy3WGwVWXoC%26pg%3DPA133&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+history+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/browse/families">"Browse by Language Family"</a>. <i>Ethnologue</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ethnologue&rft.atitle=Browse+by+Language+Family&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ethnologue.com%2Fbrowse%2Ffamilies&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+history+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSouthworth2005">Southworth 2005</a>, pp. 249–250</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSouthworth2005">Southworth 2005</a>, pp. 250–251</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sivathamby, K (December 1974) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/pss/3516448">Early South Indian Society and Economy: The Tinai Concept</a>, Social Scientist, Vol.3 No.5 December 1974</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lehmann_1998_75-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lehmann_1998_75_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lehmann_1998_75_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lehmann_1998_75_15-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lehmann_1998_75_15-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLehmann1998">Lehmann 1998</a>, p. 75</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMahadevan2003">Mahadevan 2003</a>, pp. 90–95</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLehmann1998">Lehmann 1998</a>, p. 75. The dating of Sangam literature and the identification of its language with Old Tamil have recently been questioned by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Herman_Tieken&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Herman Tieken (page does not exist)">Herman Tieken</a> who argues that the works are better understood as 9th-century <a href="/wiki/Pandyan_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Pandyan dynasty">Pāṇṭiyan dynasty</a> compositions, deliberately written in an archaising style to make them seem older than they were (<a href="#CITEREFTieken2001">Tieken 2001</a>). Tieken's dating has, however, been criticised by reviewers of his work. See e.g. <a href="#CITEREFHart2004">Hart 2004</a>, <a href="#CITEREFFerro-Luzzi2001">Ferro-Luzzi 2001</a>, <a href="#CITEREFMonius2002">Monius 2002</a> and <a href="#CITEREFWilden2002">Wilden 2002</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTharuLalita1991">Tharu & Lalita 1991</a>, p. 70</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLehmann1998">Lehmann 1998</a>, pp. 75–6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKrishnamurti2003">Krishnamurti 2003</a>, p. 53</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKrishnamurti2003">Krishnamurti 2003</a>, p. 92</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKrishnamurti2003">Krishnamurti 2003</a>, pp. 182–193</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSteever1998">Steever 1998</a>, p. 24</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLehmann1998">Lehmann 1998</a>, p. 80</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKuiper1958">Kuiper 1958</a>, p. 194</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMeenakshisundaran1965">Meenakshisundaran 1965</a>, pp. 132–133</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKuiper1958">Kuiper 1958</a>, pp. 213–215</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRajam1985">Rajam 1985</a>, pp. 284–285</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMeenakshisundaran1965">Meenakshisundaran 1965</a>, pp. 173–174</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMeenakshisundaran1965">Meenakshisundaran 1965</a>, pp. 153–154</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMeenakshisundaran1965">Meenakshisundaran 1965</a>, pp. 145–146</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMahadevan2003">Mahadevan 2003</a>, pp. 208–213</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMeenakshisundaran1965">Meenakshisundaran 1965</a>, p. 119</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVaradarajan1988">Varadarajan 1988</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVaradarajan1988">Varadarajan 1988</a>, pp. 155–157</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZvelebil1992">Zvelebil 1992</a>, p. 227</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShapiroSchiffman1983">Shapiro & Schiffman 1983</a>, p. 2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnnamalaiSteever1998">Annamalai & Steever 1998</a>, p. 100</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSteever2005">Steever 2005</a>, pp. 107–8</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMeenakshisundaran1965">Meenakshisundaran 1965</a>, p. 125</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMeenakshisundaran1965">Meenakshisundaran 1965</a>, pp. 122–123</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKandiah1978">Kandiah 1978</a>, pp. 65–69</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-thaniththamizh-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-thaniththamizh_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRamaswamy1997">Ramaswamy 1997</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRamaswamy1997">Ramaswamy 1997</a>: "Dravidianism, too, lent its support to the contestatory classicist project, motivated principally by the political imperative of countering (Sanskritic) Indian nationalism... It was not until the DMK came to power in 1967 that such demands were fulfilled, and the pure Tamil cause received a boost, although purification efforts are not particularly high on the agenda of either the Dravidian movement or the Dravidianist idiom of tamiḻppaṟṟu."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Krishnamurti_2003_p=480-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Krishnamurti_2003_p=480_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKrishnamurti2003">Krishnamurti 2003</a>, p. 480</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ant-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ant_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamath2001">Kamath 2001</a>, pp. 5–6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bana-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-bana_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Purva HaleGannada</i> or Pre-old Kannada was the language of <a href="/wiki/Banavasi" title="Banavasi">Banavasi</a> in the early Christian era, the <a href="/wiki/Satavahana" class="mw-redirect" title="Satavahana">Satavahana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kadamba_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Kadamba Dynasty">Kadamba</a> eras (Wilks in Rice, B.L. (1897), p490)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-greek_roman-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-greek_roman_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSri_K._Appadurai1997" class="citation web cs1">Sri K. Appadurai (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070415154722/http://www.intamm.com/journalism/ta-jour3.htm">"The place of Kannada and Tamil in India's national culture"</a>. INTAMM. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.intamm.com/journalism/ta-jour3.htm">the original</a> on 15 April 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+place+of+Kannada+and+Tamil+in+India%27s+national+culture&rft.pub=INTAMM&rft.date=1997&rft.au=Sri+K.+Appadurai&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.intamm.com%2Fjournalism%2Fta-jour3.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+history+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tamil_epigraphy-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Tamil_epigraphy_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMahadevan2003">Mahadevan 2003</a>, p. 159 "earliest inscriptions in Kannada and Telugu occur more than half a millennium later [than the end of 3rd century or early 2nd century B.C.] ... earliest known literary work in Kannada is the <i>Kavirajamarga</i>, written early in the 9th century A.D."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lrrc3.sas.upenn.edu/popcult/MAPS/soudrav.gif">A family tree of Dravidian languages</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070710055159/http://lrrc3.sas.upenn.edu/popcult/MAPS/soudrav.gif">Archived</a> 10 July 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Sourced from <a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_Britannica" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopaedia Britannica">Encyclopaedia Britannica</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-indi-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-indi_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kittel (1993), p1-2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-influence-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-influence_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Literature in Kannada owes a great deal to Sanskrit, the magic wand whose touch raised Kannada from a level of patois to that of a literary idiom". (Sastri 1955, p309)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-classical2005-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-classical2005_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070105151817/http://www.hindu.com/2005/05/27/stories/2005052703230500.htm">"Declare Kannada a classical language"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Hindu" title="The Hindu">The Hindu</a></i>. Chennai, India. 27 May 2005. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hindu.com/2005/05/27/stories/2005052703230500.htm">the original</a> on 5 January 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Hindu&rft.atitle=Declare+Kannada+a+classical+language&rft.date=2005-05-27&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hindu.com%2F2005%2F05%2F27%2Fstories%2F2005052703230500.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+history+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-isila-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-isila_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The word <i>Isila</i> found in the Ashokan inscription (called the Brahmagiri edict from Karnataka) meaning to <i>shoot an arrow</i> is a Kannada word, indicating that Kannada was a spoken language (D.L. Narasimhachar in <a href="#CITEREFKamath2001">Kamath 2001</a>, p. 5)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-admin-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-admin_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ramesh (1984), p10</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oldest_inscription-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Oldest_inscription_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A report on Halmidi inscription, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMuralidhara_Khajane2003" class="citation news cs1">Muralidhara Khajane (3 November 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20031124063238/http://www.hindu.com/2003/11/03/stories/2003110304550500.htm">"Halmidi village finally on the road to recognition"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Hindu" title="The Hindu">The Hindu</a></i>. Chennai, India. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hindu.com/2003/11/03/stories/2003110304550500.htm">the original</a> on 24 November 2003.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Hindu&rft.atitle=Halmidi+village+finally+on+the+road+to+recognition&rft.date=2003-11-03&rft.au=Muralidhara+Khajane&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hindu.com%2F2003%2F11%2F03%2Fstories%2F2003110304550500.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+history+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ind-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ind_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamath2001">Kamath 2001</a>, p. 10</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-total-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-total_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060524155425/http://www.hindu.com/2006/04/17/stories/2006041707890400.htm">"Press demand for according classical status to Kannada"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Hindu" title="The Hindu">The Hindu</a></i>. Chennai, India. 17 April 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hindu.com/2006/04/17/stories/2006041707890400.htm">the original</a> on 24 May 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Hindu&rft.atitle=Press+demand+for+according+classical+status+to+Kannada&rft.date=2006-04-17&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hindu.com%2F2006%2F04%2F17%2Fstories%2F2006041707890400.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+history+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-chikka-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-chikka_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Narasimhacharya (1988), p6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-rice-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-rice_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rice (1921), p13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cliff-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-cliff_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamath2001">Kamath 2001</a>, p. 58</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cliff1-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-cliff1_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAzmathulla_Shariff2005" class="citation web cs1">Azmathulla Shariff (26 July 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061007040120/http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/jul262005/spectrum1422512005725.asp">"Badami: Chalukyans' magical transformation"</a>. <i>Deccan Herald</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/jul262005/spectrum1422512005725.asp">the original</a> on 7 October 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Deccan+Herald&rft.atitle=Badami%3A+Chalukyans%27+magical+transformation&rft.date=2005-07-26&rft.au=Azmathulla+Shariff&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.deccanherald.com%2Fdeccanherald%2Fjul262005%2Fspectrum1422512005725.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+history+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tumbula1-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Tumbula1_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In bilingual inscriptions the formulaic passages stating origin myths, genealogies, titles of kings and benedictions tended to be in Sanskrit, while the actual terms of the grant such as information on the land or village granted, its boundaries, the participation of local authorities, the rights and obligations of the grantee, taxes and dues and other local concerns were in the local language. The two languages of many such inscriptions were Sanskrit and the regional language such as Tamil or Kannada (Thapar 2003, pp393-394)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tumbula-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Tumbula_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFN._Havalaiah2004" class="citation news cs1">N. Havalaiah (24 January 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040218052747/http://www.hindu.com/2004/01/24/stories/2004012407180300.htm">"Ancient inscriptions unearthed"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Hindu" title="The Hindu">The Hindu</a></i>. Chennai, India. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hindu.com/2004/01/24/stories/2004012407180300.htm">the original</a> on 18 February 2004.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Hindu&rft.atitle=Ancient+inscriptions+unearthed&rft.date=2004-01-24&rft.au=N.+Havalaiah&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hindu.com%2F2004%2F01%2F24%2Fstories%2F2004012407180300.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+history+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kannada_copperplate-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kannada_copperplate_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gururaj Bhat in <a href="#CITEREFKamath2001">Kamath 2001</a>, p. 97</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Palm_leaf_manuscript-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Palm_leaf_manuscript_66-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Palm_leaf_manuscript_66-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMukerjee,_Shruba2005" class="citation web cs1">Mukerjee, Shruba (21 August 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061022233151/http://deccanherald.com/deccanherald/aug212005/sundayherald101012005820.asp">"Preserving voices from the past"</a>. <i>Sunday Herald</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/aug212005/sundayherald101012005820.asp">the original</a> on 22 October 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Sunday+Herald&rft.atitle=Preserving+voices+from+the+past&rft.date=2005-08-21&rft.au=Mukerjee%2C+Shruba&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.deccanherald.com%2Fdeccanherald%2Faug212005%2Fsundayherald101012005820.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+history+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharles_Philip_Brown" class="citation cs2">Charles Philip Brown, <i>A Grammar of the Telugu language</i>, <a href="/wiki/Kessinger_Publishing" title="Kessinger Publishing">Kessinger Publishing</a>, p. 266</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Grammar+of+the+Telugu+language&rft.pages=266&rft.pub=Kessinger+Publishing&rft.au=Charles+Philip+Brown&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+history+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hindu-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hindu_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120530044152/http://www.hindu.com/2007/12/20/stories/2007122054820600.htm">"Telugu is 2,400 years old, says ASI"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Hindu" title="The Hindu">The Hindu</a></i>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hindu.com/2007/12/20/stories/2007122054820600.htm">the original</a> on 30 May 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Hindu&rft.atitle=Telugu+is+2%2C400+years+old%2C+says+ASI&rft.date=2007-12-20&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hindu.com%2F2007%2F12%2F20%2Fstories%2F2007122054820600.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+history+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNanisetti2017" class="citation news cs1">Nanisetti, Serish (14 December 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Hyderabad/bommalagutta-inscription-sheds-light-on-poetic-use-of-telugu/article21665889.ece">"Bommalagutta inscription sheds light on poetic use of Telugu"</a>. <i>The Hindu</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0971-751X">0971-751X</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Mittal Publications. p. 168. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-8324-092-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-8324-092-5"><bdi>978-81-8324-092-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Documents+on+North-East+India%3A+Manipur&rft.pages=168&rft.pub=Mittal+Publications&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-81-8324-092-5&rft.aulast=Sharma&rft.aufirst=Suresh+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdpyeNBqtHlgC%26dq%3DManipuri%2Bcourt%2Blanguage%26pg%3DPA168&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+history+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTarapot2003" class="citation book cs1">Tarapot, Phanjoubam (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FsUJ0E3BXkMC&dq=Manipuri+court+language&pg=PA309"><i>Bleeding Manipur</i></a>. 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Proto-Ongan, Mother of Jarawa and Onge of the Andaman Islands". <i>Oceanic Linguistics</i>. <b>46</b> (1): 154–198. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fol.2007.0015">10.1353/ol.2007.0015</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143141296">143141296</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oceanic+Linguistics&rft.atitle=A+Long+Lost+Sister+of+Proto-Austronesian%3F+Proto-Ongan%2C+Mother+of+Jarawa+and+Onge+of+the+Andaman+Islands&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=154-198&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fol.2007.0015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143141296%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Blevins&rft.aufirst=Juliette&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+history+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.orientalthane.com/archaeology/news_2004_05_31_1.htm">"Skeletons, script found at ancient burial site in Tamil Nadu"</a>. <i>orientalthane.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=orientalthane.com&rft.atitle=Skeletons%2C+script+found+at+ancient+burial+site+in+Tamil+Nadu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.orientalthane.com%2Farchaeology%2Fnews_2004_05_31_1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+history+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESalomon199820-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalomon199820_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSalomon1998">Salomon 1998</a>, p. 20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-scharfe391-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-scharfe391_105-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScharfe2002" class="citation journal cs1">Scharfe, Hartmut (2002). "Kharosti and Brahmi". <i>Journal of the American Oriental Society</i>. <b>122</b> (2): 391–393. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3087634">10.2307/3087634</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3087634">3087634</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Oriental+Society&rft.atitle=Kharosti+and+Brahmi&rft.volume=122&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=391-393&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3087634&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3087634%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Scharfe&rft.aufirst=Hartmut&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+history+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnnamalaiSteever1998" class="citation book cs1">Annamalai, E.; Steever, S.B. (1998). "Modern Tamil". In Steever, Sanford (ed.). <i>The Dravidian Languages</i>. Routledge. pp. 100–128. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-10023-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-10023-6"><bdi>978-0-415-10023-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Modern+Tamil&rft.btitle=The+Dravidian+Languages&rft.pages=100-128&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-415-10023-6&rft.aulast=Annamalai&rft.aufirst=E.&rft.au=Steever%2C+S.B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+history+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBloch1970" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jules_Bloch" title="Jules Bloch">Bloch, J</a> (1970) [First published 1914]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1noaklDiSOEC&pg=PA32"><i>Formation of the Marathi Language</i></a>. Translated by Chanana, Dev Raj. Motilal Banarsidass. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-2322-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-2322-8"><bdi>978-81-208-2322-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Formation+of+the+Marathi+Language&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=978-81-208-2322-8&rft.aulast=Bloch&rft.aufirst=J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1noaklDiSOEC%26pg%3DPA32&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+history+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Steve Farmer, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Sproat" title="Richard Sproat">Richard Sproat</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Michael_Witzel" title="Michael Witzel">Michael Witzel</a>, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061117044253/http://users.primushost.com/~india/ejvs/ejvs1102/ejvs1102article.pdf">The Collapse of the Indus-Script Thesis: The Myth of a Literate Harappan Civilization</a></i>, EVJS, vol. 11 (2004), issue 2 (Dec)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerro-Luzzi2001" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gabriella_Eichinger_Ferro-Luzzi" title="Gabriella Eichinger Ferro-Luzzi">Ferro-Luzzi, G. Eichinger</a> (2001). "Kavya in South India: Old Tamil Cankam Poetry". <i>Asian Folklore Studies</i> (Book Review). <b>60</b> (2): 373–374. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1179075">10.2307/1179075</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1179075">1179075</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Asian+Folklore+Studies&rft.atitle=Kavya+in+South+India%3A+Old+Tamil+Cankam+Poetry&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=373-374&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1179075&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1179075%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Ferro-Luzzi&rft.aufirst=G.+Eichinger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+history+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHart2004" class="citation journal cs1">Hart, George (January–March 2004). "Kavya in South India: Old Tamil Cankam Poetry". <i>The Journal of the American Oriental Society</i> (Book Review). <b>124</b> (1): 180–. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F4132191">10.2307/4132191</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4132191">4132191</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+the+American+Oriental+Society&rft.atitle=Kavya+in+South+India%3A+Old+Tamil+Cankam+Poetry&rft.volume=124&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=180-&rft.date=2004-01%2F2004-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F4132191&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4132191%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Hart&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+history+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKamath2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Suryanath_U._Kamath" title="Suryanath U. Kamath">Kamath, Suryanath U.</a> (2001) [First published 1980]. <i>A Concise History of Karnataka: From Pre-historic Times to the Present</i>. Bangalore: Jupiter books. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/7796041">7796041</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+History+of+Karnataka%3A+From+Pre-historic+Times+to+the+Present&rft.place=Bangalore&rft.pub=Jupiter+books&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F7796041&rft.aulast=Kamath&rft.aufirst=Suryanath+U.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+history+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKandiah1978" class="citation journal cs1">Kandiah, Thiru (1978). "Standard Language and Socio-Historical Parameters: Standard Lankan Tamil". <i>International Journal of the Sociology of Language</i>. <b>1978</b> (16): 59–76. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fijsl.1978.16.59">10.1515/ijsl.1978.16.59</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143499414">143499414</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+the+Sociology+of+Language&rft.atitle=Standard+Language+and+Socio-Historical+Parameters%3A+Standard+Lankan+Tamil&rft.volume=1978&rft.issue=16&rft.pages=59-76&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fijsl.1978.16.59&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143499414%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Kandiah&rft.aufirst=Thiru&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+history+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrishnamurti2003" class="citation book cs1">Krishnamurti, Bhadriraju (2003). <i>The Dravidian Languages</i>. Cambridge Language Surveys. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-77111-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-77111-5"><bdi>978-0-521-77111-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dravidian+Languages&rft.series=Cambridge+Language+Surveys&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-521-77111-5&rft.aulast=Krishnamurti&rft.aufirst=Bhadriraju&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+history+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuiper1958" class="citation journal cs1">Kuiper, F. B. J. (1958). "Two problems of old Tamil phonology I. 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"Old Tamil". In Steever, Sanford (ed.). <i>The Dravidian Languages</i>. Routledge. pp. 75–99. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-10023-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-10023-6"><bdi>978-0-415-10023-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Old+Tamil&rft.btitle=The+Dravidian+Languages&rft.pages=75-99&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-415-10023-6&rft.aulast=Lehmann&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+history+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMahadevan2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Iravatham_Mahadevan" title="Iravatham Mahadevan">Mahadevan, Iravatham</a> (2003). <i>Early Tamil Epigraphy from the Earliest Times to the Sixth Century A.D</i>. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Oriental_Series" title="Harvard Oriental Series">Harvard Oriental Series</a> vol. 62. 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Poona: Linguistic Society of India.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+Tamil+language&rft.place=Poona&rft.pub=Linguistic+Society+of+India&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=Meenakshisundaran&rft.aufirst=TP&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+history+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMonius2002" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Anne_E._Monius" title="Anne E. Monius">Monius, Anne E.</a> (November 2002). "Kavya in South India: Old Tamil Cankam Poetry". <i>The Journal of Asian Studies</i> (Book Review). <b>61</b> (4): 1404–1406. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3096501">10.2307/3096501</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3096501">3096501</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=Kavya+in+South+India%3A+Old+Tamil+Cankam+Poetry&rft.volume=61&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1404-1406&rft.date=2002-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3096501&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3096501%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Monius&rft.aufirst=Anne+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+history+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNovetzke2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Christian_Lee_Novetzke" title="Christian Lee Novetzke">Novetzke, Christian Lee</a> (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z9kbDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA53"><i>The Quotidian Revolution: Vernacularization, Religion, and the Premodern Public Sphere in India</i></a>. Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-54241-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-54241-8"><bdi>978-0-231-54241-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Quotidian+Revolution%3A+Vernacularization%2C+Religion%2C+and+the+Premodern+Public+Sphere+in+India&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-231-54241-8&rft.aulast=Novetzke&rft.aufirst=Christian+Lee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz9kbDQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA53&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+history+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRajam1985" class="citation journal cs1">Rajam, V. S. (1985). "The Duration of an Action-Real or Aspectual? The Evolution of the Present Tense in Tamil". <i>Journal of the American Oriental Society</i>. <b>105</b> (2): 277–291. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F601707">10.2307/601707</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/601707">601707</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Oriental+Society&rft.atitle=The+Duration+of+an+Action-Real+or+Aspectual%3F+The+Evolution+of+the+Present+Tense+in+Tamil&rft.volume=105&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=277-291&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F601707&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F601707%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Rajam&rft.aufirst=V.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+history+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRamaswamy1997" class="citation book cs1">Ramaswamy, Sumathy (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft5199n9v7/"><i>Passions of the Tongue: Language Devotion in Tamil India, 1891–1970</i></a>. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-585-10600-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-585-10600-7"><bdi>978-0-585-10600-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Passions+of+the+Tongue%3A+Language+Devotion+in+Tamil+India%2C+1891%E2%80%931970&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-585-10600-7&rft.aulast=Ramaswamy&rft.aufirst=Sumathy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fark.cdlib.org%2Fark%3A%2F13030%2Fft5199n9v7%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+history+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalomon1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_G._Salomon_(professor_of_Asian_studies)" title="Richard G. Salomon (professor of Asian studies)">Salomon, Richard</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XYrG07qQDxkC"><i>Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-535666-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-535666-3"><bdi>978-0-19-535666-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indian+Epigraphy%3A+A+Guide+to+the+Study+of+Inscriptions+in+Sanskrit%2C+Prakrit%2C+and+the+other+Indo-Aryan+Languages&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-19-535666-3&rft.aulast=Salomon&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXYrG07qQDxkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+history+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Scharfe, Harmut. Kharoṣṭhī and Brāhmī. Journal of the American Oriental Society. 122 (2) 2002, p. 391–3.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShapiroSchiffman1983" class="citation book cs1">Shapiro, Michael C.; Schiffman, Harold F. (1983). <i>Language and society in South Asia</i>. Dordrecht: Foris. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-70176-55-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-70176-55-6"><bdi>978-90-70176-55-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language+and+society+in+South+Asia&rft.place=Dordrecht&rft.pub=Foris&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-90-70176-55-6&rft.aulast=Shapiro&rft.aufirst=Michael+C.&rft.au=Schiffman%2C+Harold+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+history+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSouthworth2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Southworth" title="Franklin Southworth">Southworth, Franklin C.</a> (2005). <i>Linguistic Archaeology of South Asia</i>. RoutledgeCurzon. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-33323-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-33323-8"><bdi>978-0-415-33323-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Linguistic+Archaeology+of+South+Asia&rft.pub=RoutledgeCurzon&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-415-33323-8&rft.aulast=Southworth&rft.aufirst=Franklin+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+history+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Stevens, John. Sacred Calligraphy of the East. [3rd ed. Rev.] (Boston : Shambala, 1995)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteever1998" class="citation book cs1">Steever, Sanford (1998). "Introduction". In Steever, Sanford (ed.). <i>The Dravidian Languages</i>. Routledge. pp. 1–39. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-10023-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-10023-6"><bdi>978-0-415-10023-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=The+Dravidian+Languages&rft.pages=1-39&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-415-10023-6&rft.aulast=Steever&rft.aufirst=Sanford&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+history+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteever2005" class="citation book cs1">Steever, Sanford (2005). <i>The Tamil auxiliary verb system</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-34672-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-34672-6"><bdi>978-0-415-34672-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Tamil+auxiliary+verb+system&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-415-34672-6&rft.aulast=Steever&rft.aufirst=Sanford&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+history+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTharuLalita1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Susie_Tharu" title="Susie Tharu">Tharu, Susie</a>; Lalita, K. (1991). <i>Women writing in India : 600 B.C. to the present</i>. The Feminist Press at the City University of New York. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55861-026-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55861-026-2"><bdi>978-1-55861-026-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+writing+in+India+%3A+600+B.C.+to+the+present&rft.pub=The+Feminist+Press+at+the+City+University+of+New+York&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-1-55861-026-2&rft.aulast=Tharu&rft.aufirst=Susie&rft.au=Lalita%2C+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+history+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTieken2001" class="citation book cs1">Tieken, Herman (2001). <i>Kavya in South India: Old Tamil Cankam Poetry</i>. Gonda Indological Studies, Volume X. Groningen: Egbert Forsten Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-6980-134-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-6980-134-6"><bdi>978-90-6980-134-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kavya+in+South+India%3A+Old+Tamil+Cankam+Poetry&rft.place=Groningen&rft.series=Gonda+Indological+Studies%2C+Volume+X&rft.pub=Egbert+Forsten+Publishing&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-90-6980-134-6&rft.aulast=Tieken&rft.aufirst=Herman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+history+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVaradarajan1988" class="citation book cs1">Varadarajan, Mu. (1988). <i>A History of Tamil Literature</i>. Translated by Viswanathan, E.Sa. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Tamil+Literature&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pub=Sahitya+Akademi&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Varadarajan&rft.aufirst=Mu.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+history+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZvelebil1992" class="citation book cs1">Zvelebil, Kamil (1992). <i>Companion studies to the history of Tamil literature</i>. Leiden: Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09365-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09365-2"><bdi>978-90-04-09365-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Companion+studies+to+the+history+of+Tamil+literature&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-90-04-09365-2&rft.aulast=Zvelebil&rft.aufirst=Kamil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+history+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilden2002" class="citation journal cs1">Wilden, Eva (2002). "Towards an Internal Chronology of Old Tamil Caṅkam Literature Or How to Trace the Laws of a Poetic Universe". <i>Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde Südasiens</i> (Book Review). <b>46</b>: 105–133. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24007685">24007685</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wiener+Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+die+Kunde+S%C3%BCdasiens&rft.atitle=Towards+an+Internal+Chronology+of+Old+Tamil+Ca%E1%B9%85kam+Literature+Or+How+to+Trace+the+Laws+of+a+Poetic+Universe&rft.volume=46&rft.pages=105-133&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24007685%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Wilden&rft.aufirst=Eva&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+history+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.joao-roiz.jp/LSI/">A Database of G.A. Grierson's <i>Linguistic Survey of India</i> (1904–1928, Calcutta).</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrierson1906" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Abraham_Grierson" title="George Abraham Grierson">Grierson, Sir George Abraham</a> (1906). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/pisacalanguageso00grie#page/n5/mode/2up"><i>The Pisaca languages of north-western India</i></a>. The Royal asiatic Society, London.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Pisaca+languages+of+north-western+India&rft.pub=The+Royal+asiatic+Society%2C+London&rft.date=1906&rft.aulast=Grierson&rft.aufirst=Sir+George+Abraham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fpisacalanguageso00grie%23page%2Fn5%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+history+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170704231551/http://dsal.uchicago.edu/lsi/">Gramophone recordings</a> from the <i><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_Survey_of_India" title="Linguistic Survey of India">Linguistic Survey of India</a></i> (1913–1929), <i>Digital South Asia Library</i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_history_of_India&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Omniglot alphabets for <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.omniglot.com/writing/kharosthi.htm">Kharoṣṭhī</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.omniglot.com/writing/brahmi.htm">Brahmi</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.omniglot.com/writing/siddham.htm">Siddham</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.omniglot.com/writing/devanagari.htm">Devanāgarī</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/scripts.html">Indian Scripts and Languages</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output 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.mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Languages_of_India" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Languages_of_India" title="Template:Languages of India"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Languages_of_India" title="Template talk:Languages of India"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Languages_of_India" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Languages of India"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Languages_of_India" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_India" title="Languages of India">Languages of India</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Languages_with_official_status_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages with official status in India">Official<br />languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Union-level</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindi" title="Hindi">Hindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_English" title="Indian English">English</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eighth_Schedule_to_the_Constitution_of_India" title="Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India">8th schedule</a> to the<br /> <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_India" title="Constitution of India">Constitution of India</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Classical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assamese_language" title="Assamese language">Assamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_language" title="Bengali language">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kannada" title="Kannada">Kannada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam" title="Malayalam">Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marathi_language" title="Marathi language">Marathi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odia_language" title="Odia language">Odia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telugu_language" title="Telugu language">Telugu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-classical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boro_language_(India)" title="Boro language (India)">Bodo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogri_language" title="Dogri language">Dogri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_language" title="Gujarati language">Gujarati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindi" title="Hindi">Hindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashmiri_language" title="Kashmiri language">Kashmiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konkani_language" title="Konkani language">Konkani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maithili_language" title="Maithili language">Maithili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meitei_language" title="Meitei language">Meitei</a> (Manipuri)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepali_language" title="Nepali language">Nepali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_language" title="Punjabi language">Punjabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santali_language" title="Santali language">Santali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sindhi_language" title="Sindhi language">Sindhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urdu" title="Urdu">Urdu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">State-level only</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angika" title="Angika">Angika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhojpuri_language" title="Bhojpuri language">Bhojpuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chhattisgarhi_language" title="Chhattisgarhi language">Chhattisgarhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garo_language" title="Garo language">Garo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurung_language" title="Gurung language">Gurung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ho_language" title="Ho language">Ho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KRNB_lects" class="mw-redirect" title="KRNB lects">Kamatapuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharia_language" title="Kharia language">Kharia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khasi_language" title="Khasi language">Khasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khortha_language" title="Khortha language">Khortha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokborok" title="Kokborok">Kokborok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurmali_language" title="Kurmali language">Kurmali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurukh_language" title="Kurukh language">Kurukh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lepcha_language" title="Lepcha language">Lepcha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limbu_language" title="Limbu language">Limbu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magahi_language" title="Magahi language">Magahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magar_language" title="Magar language">Magar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizo_language" title="Mizo language">Mizo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mundari_language" title="Mundari language">Mundari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newar_language" title="Newar language">Newari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rai_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Rai languages">Rai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rangpuri_language" title="Rangpuri language">Rajbangshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sadri_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sadri language">Sadri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherpa_language" title="Sherpa language">Sherpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikkimese_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sikkimese language">Sikkimese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunwar_language" title="Sunwar language">Sunwar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamang_language" title="Tamang language">Tamang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_languages_by_number_of_native_speakers_in_India" title="List of languages by number of native speakers in India">Major<br />unofficial<br />languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_languages_by_number_of_native_speakers_in_India#More_than_one_million_speakers" title="List of languages by number of native speakers in India">Over 1 million<br />speakers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Awadhi_language" title="Awadhi language">Awadhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagheli_language" title="Bagheli language">Bagheli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagri_language" title="Bagri language">Bagri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bajjika" title="Bajjika">Bajjika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhili_language" title="Bhili language">Bhili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bundeli_language" title="Bundeli language">Bundeli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhundari_language" title="Dhundari language">Dhundhari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garhwali_language" title="Garhwali language">Garhwali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gondi_language" title="Gondi language">Gondi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harauti_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Harauti language">Harauti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haryanvi_language" title="Haryanvi language">Haryanvi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kangri_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Kangri dialect">Kangri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khandeshi_language" title="Khandeshi language">Khandeshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumaoni_language" title="Kumaoni language">Kumaoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambadi" title="Lambadi">Lambadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malvi_language" title="Malvi language">Malvi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marwari_language" title="Marwari language">Marwari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mewari_language" title="Mewari language">Mewari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimadi_language" title="Nimadi language">Nimadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajasthani_languages" title="Rajasthani languages">Rajasthani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surjapuri_language" title="Surjapuri language">Surjapuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulu_language" title="Tulu language">Tulu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wagdi" title="Wagdi">Wagdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varhadi_dialect" title="Varhadi dialect">Varhadi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_languages_by_number_of_native_speakers_in_India#100,000_to_one_million_speakers" title="List of languages by number of native speakers in India">100,000 – 1 million<br />speakers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Adi language">Adi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angami_language" title="Angami language">Angami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongsen_Ao_language" title="Mongsen Ao language">Ao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Badaga_language" title="Badaga language">Badaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dimasa_language" title="Dimasa language">Dimasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halbi_language" title="Halbi language">Halbi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karbi_language" title="Karbi language">Karbi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khotta_Bhasha" title="Khotta Bhasha">Khotta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kodava_language" title="Kodava language">Kodava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kolami_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kolami language">Kolami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konyak_language" title="Konyak language">Konyak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korku_language" title="Korku language">Korku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koya_language" title="Koya language">Koya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kui_language_(India)" title="Kui language (India)">Kui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuvi_language" title="Kuvi language">Kuvi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ladakhi_language" title="Ladakhi language">Ladakhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotha_language" title="Lotha language">Lotha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malto_language" title="Malto language">Malto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mising_language" title="Mising language">Mising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nishi_language" title="Nishi language">Nishi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phom_language" title="Phom language">Phom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabha_language" title="Rabha language">Rabha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sema_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sema language">Sema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sora_language" title="Sora language">Sora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangkhul_language" title="Tangkhul language">Tangkhul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thadou_language" title="Thadou language">Thadou</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Linguistic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Languages_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Languages of India">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multilingualism_in_India" title="Multilingualism in India">Multilingualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_endangered_languages_in_India" title="List of endangered languages in India">Endangered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_states_by_most_spoken_scheduled_languages" title="Indian states by most spoken scheduled languages">Scheduled languages in states</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Major_languages_of_South_Asia" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Languages_of_South_Asia" title="Template:Languages of South Asia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Languages_of_South_Asia" title="Template talk:Languages of South Asia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Languages_of_South_Asia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Languages of South Asia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Major_languages_of_South_Asia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Major <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_South_Asia" title="Languages of South Asia">languages of South Asia</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Languages of</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Afghanistan" title="Languages of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Bangladesh" title="Languages of Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Bhutan" title="Languages of Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_India" title="Languages of India">India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_languages_by_number_of_native_speakers_in_India" title="List of languages by number of native speakers in India">list by number of speakers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_with_official_status_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages with official status in India">scheduled</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Languages_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Languages of India">classical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maldives#Languages" title="Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Nepal" title="Languages of Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Pakistan" title="Languages of Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Sri_Lanka" title="Languages of Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary<br />languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Great_Andamanese_languages" title="Great Andamanese languages">Great Andamanese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aka-Jeru_language" title="Aka-Jeru language">Aka-Jeru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aka-Bo_language" title="Aka-Bo language">Aka-Bo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahui_language" title="Brahui language">Brahui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kannada" title="Kannada">Kannada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam" title="Malayalam">Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telugu_language" title="Telugu language">Telugu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulu_language" title="Tulu language">Tulu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_English" title="South Asian English">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bangladeshi_English" title="Bangladeshi English">Bangladeshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_English" title="Indian English">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepalese_English" title="Nepalese English">Nepalese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_English" title="Pakistani English">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lankan_English" title="Sri Lankan English">Sri Lankan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angika" title="Angika">Angika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assamese_language" title="Assamese language">Assamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhojpuri_language" title="Bhojpuri language">Bhojpuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_language" title="Bengali language">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chakma_language" title="Chakma language">Chakma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chittagonian_language" title="Chittagonian language">Chittagonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maldivian_language" title="Maldivian language">Dhivehi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogri_language" title="Dogri language">Dogri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_language" title="Gujarati language">Gujarati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindustani_language" title="Hindustani language">Hindustani</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindi" title="Hindi">Hindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urdu" title="Urdu">Urdu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinglish" title="Hinglish">Hinglish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindko" title="Hindko">Hindko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashmiri_language" title="Kashmiri language">Kashmiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konkani_language" title="Konkani language">Konkani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumaoni_language" title="Kumaoni language">Kumaoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magahi_language" title="Magahi language">Magahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maldivian_language" title="Maldivian language">Mahal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maithili_language" title="Maithili language">Maithili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marathi_language" title="Marathi language">Marathi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepali_language" title="Nepali language">Nepali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odia_language" title="Odia language">Odia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_language" title="Punjabi language">Punjabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajasthani_languages" title="Rajasthani languages">Rajasthani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rangpuri_language" title="Rangpuri language">Rangpuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saraiki_language" title="Saraiki language">Saraiki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sindhi_language" title="Sindhi language">Sindhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinhala_language" title="Sinhala language">Sinhala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylheti_language" title="Sylheti language">Sylheti</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balochi_language" title="Balochi language">Balochi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dari" title="Dari">Dari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashto" title="Pashto">Pashto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wakhi_language" title="Wakhi language">Wakhi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Language_isolate" title="Language isolate">Isolates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burushaski" title="Burushaski">Burushaski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihali_language" title="Nihali language">Nihali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kusunda_language" title="Kusunda language">Kusunda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Khasic_languages" title="Khasic languages">Khasic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khasi_language" title="Khasi language">Khasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyngngam_language" title="Lyngngam language">Lyngngam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pnar_language" title="Pnar language">Pnar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_language" title="War language">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Malay_trade_and_creole_languages" title="Malay trade and creole languages">Malay creoles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lankan_Creole_Malay" class="mw-redirect" title="Sri Lankan Creole Malay">Sri Lankan Creole Malay</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Munda_languages" title="Munda languages">Munda</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ho_language" title="Ho language">Ho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korku_language" title="Korku language">Korku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mundari_language" title="Mundari language">Mundari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santali_language" title="Santali language">Santali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sora_language" title="Sora language">Sora</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Nicobarese_languages" title="Nicobarese languages">Nicobaric</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Car_language" title="Car language">Car</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Nicobarese_languages" title="Central Nicobarese languages">Central Nicobarese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaura_language" title="Chaura language">Chaura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Nicobarese_language" title="Southern Nicobarese language">Southern Nicobarese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teressa_language" title="Teressa language">Teressa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ongan_languages" title="Ongan languages">Ongan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%96nge_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Önge language">Önge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarawa_language_(Andaman_Islands)" title="Jarawa language (Andaman Islands)">Jarawa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_people_in_India#Indian_French" title="French people in India">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Portuguese_creoles" title="Indo-Portuguese creoles">Portuguese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ao_language" title="Ao language">Ao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balti_language" title="Balti language">Balti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodo_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Bodo language">Bodo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzongkha" title="Dzongkha">Dzongkha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garo_language" title="Garo language">Garo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hajong_language" title="Hajong language">Hajong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ladakhi_language" title="Ladakhi language">Ladakhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limbu_language" title="Limbu language">Limbu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meitei_language" title="Meitei language">Meitei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizo_language" title="Mizo language">Mizo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepal_Bhasa" class="mw-redirect" title="Nepal Bhasa">Nepal Bhasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikkimese_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sikkimese language">Sikkimese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenyidie_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Tenyidie language">Tenyidie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Tibetan" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Tibetan">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripuri_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Tripuri language">Tripuri</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turkmen_language" title="Turkmen language">Turkmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzbek_language" title="Uzbek language">Uzbek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahmi_script" title="Brahmi script">Brahmi</a> (Abugida)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_script" title="Indus script">Indus</a> (Undeciphered)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharosthi" title="Kharosthi">Kharosthi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabi_Malayalam" title="Arabi Malayalam">Arabi Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arwi" title="Arwi">Arwi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nastaliq" title="Nastaliq">Nastaliq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shahmukhi_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Shahmukhi alphabet">Shahmukhi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Brahmic_scripts" title="Brahmic scripts">Brahmic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Devanagari" title="Devanagari">Devanagari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_alphabet" title="Bengali alphabet">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_script" title="Gujarati script">Gujarati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurmukhi" title="Gurmukhi">Gurmukhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_script" title="Malayalam script">Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kannada_script" title="Kannada script">Kannada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odia_script" title="Odia script">Odia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ranjana_script" title="Ranjana script">Ranjana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinhala_script" title="Sinhala script">Sinhala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_script" title="Tamil script">Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telugu_script" title="Telugu script">Telugu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Old_Italic_scripts" title="Old Italic scripts">Old Italic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thaana" title="Thaana">Thaana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Prestige language-<br /><br />influence</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Englishisation" title="Englishisation">Englishisation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hinglish" title="Hinglish">Hinglish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perso-Arabization" class="mw-redirect" title="Perso-Arabization">Perso-Arabization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urdu" title="Urdu">Urdu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskritisation_(language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskritisation (language)">Sanskritisation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Activism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_language_movement" title="Bengali language movement">Bengali movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hela_Havula" title="Hela Havula">Hela Havula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meitei_associate_official_language_movement" title="Meitei associate official language movement">Meitei associate official language movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meitei_classical_language_movement" title="Meitei classical language movement">Meitei classical language movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meitei_linguistic_purism_movement" title="Meitei linguistic purism movement">Meitei linguistic purism movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepal_Bhasa_movement" title="Nepal Bhasa movement">Newar movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepali_Language_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Nepali Language Movement">Nepali movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_Language_Movement" title="Punjabi Language Movement">Punjabi Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_Tamil_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Pure Tamil movement">Pure Tamil movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_revival" title="Sanskrit revival">Sanskrit revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urdu_movement" title="Urdu movement">Urdu movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="India_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:India_topics" title="Template:India topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:India_topics" title="Template talk:India topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:India_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:India topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="India_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">India topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_India" title="History of India">History</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Indian_history" title="Timeline of Indian history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_India" title="List of years in India">Years</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_astronomy" title="Indian astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_clothing_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of clothing in the Indian subcontinent">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coinage_of_India" title="Coinage of India">Coinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_India" title="Economic history of India">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_history_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT history in India">LGBT</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_maritime_history" title="Indian maritime history">Maritime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_mathematics" title="Indian mathematics">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_metallurgy_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_India" title="Military history of India">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_paper_currency_in_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of paper currency in Indian subcontinent">Paper currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_India" title="Postage stamps and postal history of India">Postal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_on_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of science and technology on the Indian subcontinent">Science and technology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient </a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Stone_Age" title="South Asian Stone Age">Stone Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley Civilisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahajanapadas" title="Mahajanapadas">Mahajanapadas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Mauryas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yavana_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Yavana Kingdom">Yavana Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_conquest_of_the_Indus_Valley" title="Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley">Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Parthian_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Parthian Kingdom">Indo-Parthian Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alchon_Huns" title="Alchon Huns">Alchon Huns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid%E2%80%93Mauryan_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Seleucid–Mauryan war">Seleucid–Mauryan war</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle Kingdoms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_kingdoms_of_India" title="Middle kingdoms of India">Middle kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chola_dynasty" title="Chola dynasty">Chola</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_India" title="Medieval India">Medieval India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoysala_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoysala Empire">Hoysala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kakatiya_dynasty" title="Kakatiya dynasty">Kakatiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Modern">Early Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Marathas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">European trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_War" title="Bengal War">Bengal War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Late_modern" class="mw-redirect" title="Late modern">Late modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_India" title="Colonial India">Colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princely_state" title="Princely state">Princely state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">East India Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Plassey" title="Battle of Plassey">Plassey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857" title="Indian Rebellion of 1857">1857 rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British Raj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_India#History" title="Rail transport in India">Railways</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_India_under_the_British_Raj" title="Economy of India under the British Raj">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Indian_Army" title="British Indian Army">Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commander-in-Chief,_India" title="Commander-in-Chief, India">Commander-in-Chief</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zamindar#British_era" title="Zamindar">Zamindari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_Renaissance" title="Bengal Renaissance">Bengal Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Councils_Act_1909" title="Indian Councils Act 1909">Political reforms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Bengal_(1905)" title="Partition of Bengal (1905)">Partition of Bengal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_independence_movement" title="Indian independence movement">Independence movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_famine_of_1943" title="Bengal famine of 1943">1943 famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India_in_World_War_II" title="India in World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Republic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_integration_of_India" title="Political integration of India">Integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India_and_the_Non-Aligned_Movement" title="India and the Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five-Year_Plans_of_India" title="Five-Year Plans of India">Five-Year Plans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Indian_War" title="Sino-Indian War">Sino-Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Pakistani_wars_and_conflicts" title="Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts">Indo-Pakistani wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Revolution_in_India" title="Green Revolution in India">Green Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Flood" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Flood">White Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naxalite" class="mw-redirect" title="Naxalite">Naxal Insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smiling_Buddha" title="Smiling Buddha">Smiling Buddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Space_Research_Organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Space Research Organisation">Space programme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Emergency_(India)" title="The Emergency (India)">The Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Peace_Keeping_Force" title="Indian Peace Keeping Force">Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_India_(1947%E2%80%93present)" title="History of India (1947–present)">History of India (1947–present)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalisation_in_India" title="Economic liberalisation in India">Economic liberalisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pokhran-II" title="Pokhran-II">Pokhran-II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_India" title="COVID-19 pandemic in India">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Geography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_India" title="Geography of India">Geography</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Geology_of_India" title="Category:Geology of India">Geology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_Parks_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil Parks of India">Fossil Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_India" title="Geology of India">Geology of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Plate">Indian Plate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Heritage</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Geological_Monuments_of_India" title="National Geological Monuments of India">National Geological Monuments of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_groves_of_India" title="Sacred groves of India">Sacred groves of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_mountains#India" title="Sacred mountains">Sacred mountains of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River#Sacred" title="River">Sacred rivers of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stones_of_India" title="Stones of India">Stones of India</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Environment_of_India" title="Environment of India">Environment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeographic_classification_of_India" title="Biogeographic classification of India">Biogeographic classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosphere_reserves_of_India" title="Biosphere reserves of India">Biosphere reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_India" title="Climate of India">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_India" title="Climate change in India">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_India" title="List of earthquakes in India">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ecoregions_in_India" title="List of ecoregions in India">Ecoregions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_India" title="Environmental issues in India">Environmental issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_of_India" title="Fauna of India">Fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_forests_in_India" title="List of forests in India">Forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_India" title="Flora of India">Flora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_India" title="Geology of India">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_India" title="List of national parks of India">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protected_areas_of_India" title="Protected areas of India">Protected areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_India" title="Wildlife of India">Wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wildlife_sanctuaries_of_India" title="List of wildlife sanctuaries of India">sanctuaries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Landforms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_beaches_in_India" title="List of beaches in India">Beaches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_canals_in_India" title="List of canals in India">Canals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_India" title="Coastal India">Coasts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thar_Desert" title="Thar Desert">Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusive_economic_zone_of_India" title="Exclusive economic zone of India">ECZ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extreme_points_of_India" title="List of extreme points of India">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_glaciers_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="List of glaciers of India">Glaciers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_states_and_union_territories_by_highest_point" title="List of Indian states and union territories by highest point">Highest point by states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_India" title="List of islands of India">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_India" title="List of lakes of India">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_in_India" title="List of mountains in India">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountain_passes_of_India" title="List of mountain passes of India">Mountain passes</a></li> <li>Plains <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Gangetic_Plain" title="Indo-Gangetic Plain">Indo-Gangetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Coastal_Plains" title="Eastern Coastal Plains">Eastern coastal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Coastal_Plains" title="Western Coastal Plains">Western coastal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_India" title="List of rivers of India">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_valleys_in_India" title="List of valleys in India">Valleys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_India" title="List of volcanoes in India">Volcanoes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_waterfalls_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="List of waterfalls of India">Waterfalls</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_India" title="Administrative divisions of India">Regions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_India" title="Central India">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_India" title="East India">East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_India" title="North India">North</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_India" title="Northwest India">Northwest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_India" title="Northeast India">Northeast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_India" title="South India">South</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southwest_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Southwest India">Southwest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Southeast India">Southeast</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_India" title="Western India">West</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_India" title="Administrative divisions of India">Subdivisions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_administrative_divisions_of_India" title="Autonomous administrative divisions of India">Autonomous administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Borders_of_India" title="Template:Borders of India">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_towns_in_India_by_population" title="List of towns in India by population">Towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_India_by_population" title="List of cities in India by population">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_districts_in_India" title="List of districts in India">Districts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_governance_in_India" title="Municipal governance in India">Municipalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/States_and_union_territories_of_India" title="States and union territories of India">States and union territories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monuments_of_National_Importance_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Monuments of National Importance of India">National monuments of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_India" title="List of national parks of India">National parks of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_worship" title="Nature worship">Nature worship</a> in <a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indian-origin religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Sites_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="World Heritage Sites in India">World Heritage Sites in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_India" title="Culture of India">Culture of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_India" title="History of India">History of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_India" title="Tourism in India">Tourism in India</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Politics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_India" title="Politics of India">Politics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_India" title="Government of India">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_agencies_of_the_government_of_India" title="List of agencies of the government of India">Agencies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_India" title="Energy policy of India">Energy policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_India" title="Foreign relations of India">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_India" title="Parliament of India">Parliament</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lok_Sabha" title="Lok Sabha">Lok Sabha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajya_Sabha" title="Rajya Sabha">Rajya Sabha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_India" title="President of India">President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_India" title="Vice President of India">Vice President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_India" title="Prime Minister of India">Prime Minister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_Council_of_Ministers" title="Union Council of Ministers">Union Council of Ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Services_of_India" title="Civil Services of India">Civil Services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_Secretary_(India)" title="Cabinet Secretary (India)">Cabinet Secretary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_governments_of_India" title="State governments of India">State governments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_legislative_assemblies_of_India" title="State legislative assemblies of India">State legislative assemblies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_legislative_councils_of_India" title="State legislative councils of India">State legislative councils</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governor_(India)" title="Governor (India)">Governors, Lieutenant Governors and Administrators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_minister_(India)" title="Chief minister (India)">Chief Ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_secretary_(India)" title="Chief secretary (India)">Chief Secretaries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Law_of_India" title="Law of India">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_India" title="Constitution of India">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Penal_Code" title="Indian Penal Code">Penal Code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India" title="Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles and Fundamental Duties of India">Fundamental rights, principles and duties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_India" title="Human rights in India">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in India">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_India" title="Supreme Court of India">Supreme Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_India" title="Chief Justice of India">Chief Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_courts_of_India" title="High courts of India">High Courts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_courts_of_India" title="District courts of India">District Courts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_India" title="Law enforcement in India">Enforcement</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Federal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Border_Security_Force" title="Border Security Force">Border Security Force (BSF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Industrial_Security_Force" title="Central Industrial Security Force">Central Industrial Security Force (CISF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Reserve_Police_Force" title="Central Reserve Police Force">Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Tibetan_Border_Police" title="Indo-Tibetan Border Police">Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Security_Guard" title="National Security Guard">National Security Guard (NSG)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Railway_Protection_Force" title="Railway Protection Force">Railway Protection Force (RPF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sashastra_Seema_Bal" title="Sashastra Seema Bal">Sashastra Seema Bal (SSB)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Protection_Group" title="Special Protection Group">Special Protection Group (SPG)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_intelligence_agencies" title="List of Indian intelligence agencies">Intelligence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Police_Research_and_Development" title="Bureau of Police Research and Development">Bureau of Police Research and Development (BPR&D)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Central Bureau of Investigation">Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Directorate_of_Revenue_Intelligence" title="Directorate of Revenue Intelligence">Directorate of Revenue Intelligence (DRI)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Directorate" title="Enforcement Directorate">Enforcement Directorate (ED)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence_Bureau_(India)" title="Intelligence Bureau (India)">Intelligence Bureau (IB)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Security_Council_(India)" title="National Security Council (India)">Joint Intelligence Committee (JIC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narcotics_Control_Bureau" title="Narcotics Control Bureau">Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Investigation_Agency" title="National Investigation Agency">National Investigation Agency (NIA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_and_Analysis_Wing" title="Research and Analysis Wing">Research and Analysis Wing (R&AW)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indian_Armed_Forces" title="Indian Armed Forces">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Army" title="Indian Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Navy" title="Indian Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Air_Force" title="Indian Air Force">Air Force</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_India" title="Politics of India">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_India" title="Censorship in India">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_nationality_law" title="Indian nationality law">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_India" title="Elections in India">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_India" title="Democracy in India">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_nationalism" title="Indian nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_India" title="List of political parties in India">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reservation_in_India" title="Reservation in India">Reservations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_scandals_in_India" title="List of scandals in India">Scandals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scheduled_Castes_and_Scheduled_Tribes" title="Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes">Scheduled groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism_in_India" title="Secularism in India">Secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_political_participation_in_India" title="Women's political participation in India">Women in politics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Economy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_India" title="Economy of India">Economy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_India" title="List of companies of India">Companies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BSE_SENSEX" title="BSE SENSEX">BSE SENSEX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NIFTY_50" title="NIFTY 50">NIFTY 50</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Governance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Finance_(India)" title="Ministry of Finance (India)">Ministry of Finance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minister_of_Finance_(India)" title="Minister of Finance (India)">Finance ministers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Commerce_and_Industry_(India)" title="Ministry of Commerce and Industry (India)">Ministry of Commerce and Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finance_Commission" title="Finance Commission">Finance Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_Advisory_Council" title="Economic Advisory Council">Economic Advisory Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Statistics_Office_(India)" title="Central Statistics Office (India)">Central Statistical Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Securities_and_Exchange_Board_of_India" title="Securities and Exchange Board of India">Securities and Exchange Board of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Directorate" title="Enforcement Directorate">Enforcement Directorate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/External_debt_of_India" title="External debt of India">External debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_trade_of_India" title="Foreign trade of India">Foreign trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_direct_investment_in_India" title="Foreign direct investment in India">Foreign direct investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign-exchange_reserves_of_India" title="Foreign-exchange reserves of India">Foreign exchange reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remittances_to_India" title="Remittances to India">Remittances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_India" title="Taxation in India">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsidies_in_India" title="Subsidies in India">Subsidies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_licensing_in_India" title="Industrial licensing in India">Industrial licensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Voluntary_Guidelines_on_Social,_Environmental_and_Economic_Responsibilities_of_Business" title="National Voluntary Guidelines on Social, Environmental and Economic Responsibilities of Business">Voluntary guidelines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NITI_Aayog" title="NITI Aayog">NITI Aayog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Make_in_India" title="Make in India">Make in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmanirbhar_Bharat" title="Atmanirbhar Bharat">Atmanirbhar Bharat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Currency</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_rupee" title="Indian rupee">Indian rupee</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_rupee_sign" title="Indian rupee sign">Sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_rupee" title="History of the rupee">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exchange_rate_history_of_the_Indian_rupee" title="Exchange rate history of the Indian rupee">Historical Forex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_rupee" title="Digital rupee">Digital rupee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coinage_of_India" title="Coinage of India">Coinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_paisa" title="Indian paisa">Paisa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reserve_Bank_of_India" title="Reserve Bank of India">Reserve Bank of India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_governors_of_the_Reserve_Bank_of_India" title="List of governors of the Reserve Bank of India">Governor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India_Government_Mint" title="India Government Mint">Mint</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflation_in_India" title="Inflation in India">Inflation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Financial services</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_India" title="Banking in India">Banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_in_India" title="Insurance in India">Insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi_Commodity_Exchange" title="Multi Commodity Exchange">Multi Commodity Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Gold_(Control)_Act,_1968" title="The Gold (Control) Act, 1968">Bullion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_black_money" title="Indian black money">Black money</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bombay_Stock_Exchange" title="Bombay Stock Exchange">Bombay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Stock_Exchange_of_India" title="National Stock Exchange of India">National</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_India" title="Economic history of India">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_India" title="Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in India">COVID-19 impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_development_in_India" title="Economic development in India">Economic development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalisation_in_India" title="Economic liberalisation in India">Liberalisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Licence_Raj" title="Licence Raj">Licence Raj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Revolution_in_India" title="Green Revolution in India">Green revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_schemes_of_the_government_of_India" title="List of schemes of the government of India">Government initiatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_numbering_system" title="Indian numbering system">Numbering system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indians_by_net_worth" title="List of Indians by net worth">By net worth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_India" title="Demographics of India">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_in_India" title="Income in India">Income</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_India" title="Poverty in India">Poverty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_labour_law" title="Indian labour law">Labour law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pensions_in_India" title="Pensions in India">Pensions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Employees%27_Provident_Fund_Organisation" title="Employees' Provident Fund Organisation">EPFO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Pension_Scheme" class="mw-redirect" title="National Pension Scheme">NPS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Provident_Fund_(India)" title="Public Provident Fund (India)">PPF</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Andhra_Pradesh" title="Economy of Andhra Pradesh">Andhra Pradesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Assam" title="Economy of Assam">Assam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Bihar" title="Economy of Bihar">Bihar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Delhi" title="Economy of Delhi">Delhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Goa" class="mw-redirect" title="Economy of Goa">Goa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Gujarat" title="Economy of Gujarat">Gujarat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Haryana" title="Economy of Haryana">Haryana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Himachal_Pradesh" title="Economy of Himachal Pradesh">Himachal Pradesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Jammu_and_Kashmir" class="mw-redirect" title="Economy of Jammu and Kashmir">Jammu and Kashmir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Jharkhand" class="mw-redirect" title="Economy of Jharkhand">Jharkhand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Karnataka" title="Economy of Karnataka">Karnataka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Kerala" title="Economy of Kerala">Kerala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Ladakh" class="mw-redirect" title="Economy of Ladakh">Ladakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Madhya_Pradesh" title="Economy of Madhya Pradesh">Madhya Pradesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Maharashtra" title="Economy of Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Mizoram" title="Economy of Mizoram">Mizoram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Odisha" title="Economy of Odisha">Odisha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Punjab,_India" title="Economy of Punjab, India">Punjab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Rajasthan" title="Economy of Rajasthan">Rajasthan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Tamil_Nadu" title="Economy of Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Telangana" title="Economy of Telangana">Telangana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Uttarakhand" title="Economy of Uttarakhand">Uttarakhand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Uttar_Pradesh" title="Economy of Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_West_Bengal" title="Economy of West Bengal">West Bengal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sectors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_India" title="Agriculture in India">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_husbandry_in_India" title="Animal husbandry in India">Livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_in_India" title="Fishing in India">Fishing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_India" title="Automotive industry in India">Automotive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_industry_in_India" title="Chemical industry in India">Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_industry_of_India" title="Construction industry of India">Construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defence_industry_of_India" title="Defence industry of India">Defence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_India" title="Education in India">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_India" title="Energy in India">Energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electricity_sector_in_India" title="Electricity sector in India">Electricity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_India" title="Nuclear power in India">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_and_gas_industry_in_India" title="Oil and gas industry in India">Oil and gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_India" title="Solar power in India">Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power_in_India" title="Wind power in India">Wind</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronics_and_semiconductor_manufacturing_industry_in_India" title="Electronics and semiconductor manufacturing industry in India">Electronics and semiconductor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entertainment_industry_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Entertainment industry in India">Entertainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_India" title="Forestry in India">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambling_in_India" title="Gambling in India">Gambling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_India" title="Healthcare in India">Healthcare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_hospitals_in_India" title="List of hospitals in India">Hospitals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_technology_in_India" title="Information technology in India">Information technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of India">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_India" title="Cinema of India">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FM_broadcasting_in_India" title="FM broadcasting in India">FM Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_India" title="Television in India">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printing_industry_in_India" title="Printing industry in India">Printing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_in_India" title="Mining in India">Mining</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coal_in_India" title="Coal in India">Coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_and_steel_industry_in_India" title="Iron and steel industry in India">Iron and Steel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_industry_in_India" title="Pharmaceutical industry in India">Pharmaceuticals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulp_and_paper_industry_in_India" title="Pulp and paper industry in India">Pulp and paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retailing_in_India" title="Retailing in India">Retail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_India" title="Science and technology in India">Science and technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology_in_India" title="Biotechnology in India">Biotechnology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_industry_of_India" title="Space industry of India">Space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_India" title="Telecommunications in India">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textile_industry_in_India" title="Textile industry in India">Textiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_India" title="Tourism in India">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_India" title="Transport in India">Transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_in_India" title="Aviation in India">Aviation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_aviation_in_India" title="Civil aviation in India">Civil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ports_in_India" title="List of ports in India">Ports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_India" title="Rail transport in India">Rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roads_in_India" title="Roads in India">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_electricity_organisations_in_India" title="List of electricity organisations in India">Electricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_India" title="Water supply and sanitation in India">Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_sector_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Power sector in India">Power</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regulator</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_Regulatory_and_Development_Authority" title="Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority">IRDAI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reserve_Bank_of_India" title="Reserve Bank of India">RBI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SEBI" class="mw-redirect" title="SEBI">SEBI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insolvency_and_Bankruptcy_Board_of_India" title="Insolvency and Bankruptcy Board of India">IBBI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pension_Fund_Regulatory_and_Development_Authority" title="Pension Fund Regulatory and Development Authority">PFRDA</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Company_Law_Tribunal" title="National Company Law Tribunal">NCLT</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Company_Law_Appellate_Tribunal" title="National Company Law Appellate Tribunal">NCLAT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Board_for_Industrial_and_Financial_Reconstruction" title="Board for Industrial and Financial Reconstruction">BIFR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insolvency_and_Bankruptcy_Board_of_India" title="Insolvency and Bankruptcy Board of India">IBBI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insolvency_and_Bankruptcy_Code,_2016" title="Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code, 2016">IBC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Securitisation_and_Reconstruction_of_Financial_Assets_and_Enforcement_of_Security_Interest_Act,_2002" title="Securitisation and Reconstruction of Financial Assets and Enforcement of Security Interest Act, 2002">SARFESI Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income-tax_Act,_1961" class="mw-redirect" title="Income-tax Act, 1961">Income Tax Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Companies_Act,_2013" class="mw-redirect" title="Companies Act, 2013">Companies Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_Regulation_Act,_1949" title="Banking Regulation Act, 1949">Banking Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_Act,_1938" title="Insurance Act, 1938">Insurance Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_Exchange_Management_Act" title="Foreign Exchange Management Act">FEMA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mumbai_Consensus" title="Mumbai Consensus">Mumbai Consensus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Society_and_culture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Society and <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_India" title="Culture of India">culture</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caste_system_in_India" title="Caste system in India">Caste system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_India" title="Corruption in India">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_India" title="Crime in India">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_India" title="Demographics of India">Demographics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_people" title="Indian people">Indians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_India" title="Education in India">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_universities_in_India" title="List of universities in India">Universities in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medical_colleges_in_India" title="List of medical colleges in India">Medical colleges in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_law_schools_in_India" title="List of law schools in India">Law colleges in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_education_in_India" title="Engineering education in India">Engineering colleges in India</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_relations_in_India" title="Ethnic relations in India">Ethnic relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_India" title="Health in India">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_India" title="Languages of India">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_states_by_life_expectancy_at_birth" title="List of Indian states by life expectancy at birth">Life expectancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literacy_in_India" title="Literacy in India">Literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_India" title="Poverty in India">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisons_in_India" title="Prisons in India">Prisons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_India" title="Religion in India">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_issue#India" title="Social issue">Socio-economic issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_India" title="Standard of living in India">Standard of living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_India" title="Water supply and sanitation in India">Water supply and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_India" title="Women in India">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_India" title="Sexuality in India">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youth_in_India" title="Youth in India">Youth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_India" title="Culture of India">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arts_and_entertainment_in_India" title="Arts and entertainment in India">Arts and entertainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_India" title="Architecture of India">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_blogosphere" title="Indian blogosphere">Blogging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_India" title="Cinema of India">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_comics" title="Indian comics">Comics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Webcomics_in_India" title="Webcomics in India">Webcomics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_cuisine" title="Indian cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_wine" title="Indian wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_classical_dance" title="Indian classical dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_India" title="Clothing in India">Dress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folklore_of_India" title="Folklore of India">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_festivals_in_India" title="List of festivals in India">Festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_literature" title="Indian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_India" title="Mass media in India">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_India" title="Television in India">television</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_martial_arts" title="Indian martial arts">Martial arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_India" title="Music of India">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_painting" title="Indian painting">Painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_physical_culture" title="Indian physical culture">Physical culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_India" title="Public holidays in India">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sculpture_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Sculpture in the Indian subcontinent">Sculpture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_tallest_statues_in_India" title="List of the tallest statues in India">tallest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_India" title="Sport in India">Sport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_games_of_India" title="Traditional games of India">Traditional</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Pakistan_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pakistan_topics" title="Template:Pakistan topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pakistan_topics" title="Template talk:Pakistan topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pakistan_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pakistan topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Pakistan_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> articles</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Pakistan" title="History of Pakistan">History</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Stone_Age" title="South Asian Stone Age">Stone age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soanian" title="Soanian">Soanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mehrgarh" title="Mehrgarh">Mehrgarh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranians" title="Indo-Iranians">Indo-Iranics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Indo-Aryan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Greco-Bactrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandhara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Scythians" title="Indo-Scythians">Indo-Scythians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Parthian_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Parthian Kingdom">Indo-Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushano-Sasanian_Kingdom" title="Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom">Indo-Sassanid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">Indo-Hephthalite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kambojas" title="Kambojas">Kambojas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rai_dynasty" title="Rai dynasty">Rai dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turk_Shahis" title="Turk Shahis">Shahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaulukya_dynasty" title="Chaulukya dynasty">Solanki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_al-Qasim" title="Muhammad ibn al-Qasim">Muhammad ibn al-Qasim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghurid_dynasty" title="Ghurid dynasty">Ghurid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk_dynasty_(Delhi)" title="Mamluk dynasty (Delhi)">Mamluk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khalji_dynasty" title="Khalji dynasty">Khalji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tughlaq_dynasty" title="Tughlaq dynasty">Tughlaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_dynasty" title="Sayyid dynasty">Sayyid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lodi_dynasty" title="Lodi dynasty">Lodi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Pre-colonial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Company_rule_in_India" title="Company rule in India">East India Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Durrani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misl" class="mw-redirect" title="Misl">Sikh Confederacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikh_Empire" title="Sikh Empire">Sikh Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Anglo-Afghan_War" title="First Anglo-Afghan War">First Anglo-Afghan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Anglo-Sikh_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First Anglo-Sikh War">First Anglo-Sikh War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Anglo-Sikh_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Anglo-Sikh War">Second Anglo-Sikh War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857" title="Indian Rebellion of 1857">Rebellion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Colonial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_British_Raj" title="History of the British Raj">British Raj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Anglo-Afghan_War" title="Second Anglo-Afghan War">Second Anglo-Afghan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durand_Line" title="Durand Line">Durand Line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Anglo-Afghan_War" title="Third Anglo-Afghan War">Third Anglo-Afghan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aligarh_Movement" title="Aligarh Movement">Aligarh Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindi%E2%80%93Urdu_controversy" title="Hindi–Urdu controversy">Hindi–Urdu controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistan_Movement" title="Pakistan Movement">Pakistan Movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/All-India_Muslim_League" title="All-India Muslim League">Muslim League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-nation_theory_(Pakistan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Two-nation theory (Pakistan)">Two nation theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourteen_Points_of_Jinnah" title="Fourteen Points of Jinnah">Jinnah's 14 Points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lahore_Resolution" title="Lahore Resolution">Lahore Resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_Action_Day" title="Direct Action Day">Direct Action Day</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Independence_Act_1947" title="Indian Independence Act 1947">Independence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Dominion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dominion_of_Pakistan" title="Dominion of Pakistan">Dominion of Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Pakistan" title="Monarchy of Pakistan">Monarchy of Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governor-General_of_Pakistan" title="Governor-General of Pakistan">Governor-General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princely_states_of_Pakistan" title="Princely states of Pakistan">Princely states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Pakistani_War_of_1947%E2%80%931948" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948">1947 War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liaquat%E2%80%93Nehru_Pact" title="Liaquat–Nehru Pact">Liaquat–Nehru Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Pact" class="mw-redirect" title="Baghdad Pact">Baghdad Pact</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Republic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Pakistan_(1947%E2%80%93present)" title="History of Pakistan (1947–present)">1947–present</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Waters_Treaty" title="Indus Waters Treaty">Indus Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Pakistani_War_of_1965" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Pakistani War of 1965">1965 War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-cooperation_movement_(1971)" title="Non-cooperation movement (1971)">1971 Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh_Liberation_War" title="Bangladesh Liberation War">1971 War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project-706" title="Project-706">Project-706</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamization_in_Pakistan" title="Islamization in Pakistan">Islamisation</a></li> <li>Insurgencies <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Insurgency_in_Balochistan" title="Insurgency in Balochistan">Balochistan insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurgency_in_Khyber_Pakhtunkhwa" title="Insurgency in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa">KPK insurgency</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kargil_War" title="Kargil War">Kargil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1999_Pakistani_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1999 Pakistani coup d'état">Liberalization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Geography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Pakistan" title="Geography of Pakistan">Geography</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_beaches_in_Pakistan" title="List of beaches in Pakistan">Beaches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_deserts_of_Pakistan" title="List of deserts of Pakistan">Deserts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_glaciers_of_Pakistan" class="mw-redirect" title="List of glaciers of Pakistan">Glaciers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Pakistan" title="List of islands of Pakistan">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_Pakistan" title="List of lakes of Pakistan">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountain_ranges_of_Pakistan" title="List of mountain ranges of Pakistan">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountain_passes#Pakistan" title="List of mountain passes">Passes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Pakistan" title="List of rivers of Pakistan">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topography_of_Pakistan" title="Topography of Pakistan">Topography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_valleys_in_Pakistan" title="List of valleys in Pakistan">Valleys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_waterfalls_of_Pakistan" class="mw-redirect" title="List of waterfalls of Pakistan">Waterfalls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Ramsar_wetland_sites_in_Pakistan" title="List of Ramsar wetland sites in Pakistan">Wetlands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabian_Sea" title="Arabian Sea">Arabian Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwatar_Bay" title="Gwatar Bay">Gwatar Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Gangetic_Plain" title="Indo-Gangetic Plain">Indus Plain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pothohar_Plateau" title="Pothohar Plateau">Pothohar Plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_Range" title="Salt Range">Salt Range</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sistan_Basin" title="Sistan Basin">Sistan Basin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Pakistan" title="Geology of Pakistan">Geology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Coal_mines_in_Pakistan" title="Category:Coal mines in Pakistan">Coal fields</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Natural_gas_fields_in_Pakistan" title="Category:Natural gas fields in Pakistan">Gas fields</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_minerals_of_Pakistan" title="List of minerals of Pakistan">Minerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Oil_fields_of_Pakistan" title="Category:Oil fields of Pakistan">Oil fields</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_Pakistan" title="List of volcanoes in Pakistan">Volcanoes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_floods_in_Pakistan" title="List of floods in Pakistan">Floods</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Environment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_botanical_gardens_in_Pakistan" title="List of botanical gardens in Pakistan">Botanical gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ecoregions_in_Pakistan" title="List of ecoregions in Pakistan">Ecoregions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Pakistan" title="Climate change in Pakistan">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_Pakistan" title="Environmental issues in Pakistan">Environmental issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_Pakistan" title="Forestry in Pakistan">Forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protected_areas_of_Pakistan" title="Protected areas of Pakistan">Protected areas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_Pakistan" title="List of national parks of Pakistan">national parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_game_reserves_of_Pakistan" title="List of game reserves of Pakistan">game reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wildlife_sanctuaries_in_Pakistan" title="List of wildlife sanctuaries in Pakistan">sanctuaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Pakistan" title="Wildlife of Pakistan">Wildlife</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Pakistan" title="Flora of Pakistan">flora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_of_Pakistan" title="Fauna of Pakistan">fauna</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_zoos_in_Pakistan" title="List of zoos in Pakistan">Zoos</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_sites_in_Pakistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeological sites in Pakistan">Archaeological sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Borders_of_Pakistan" title="Template:Borders of Pakistan">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Pakistan" title="Climate of Pakistan">Climate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extreme_weather_records_in_Pakistan" title="List of extreme weather records in Pakistan">weather records</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Borders_of_Pakistan" title="Category:Borders of Pakistan">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_natural_disasters_in_Pakistan" title="List of natural disasters in Pakistan">Natural disasters</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Pakistan" title="List of earthquakes in Pakistan">earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_floods#Pakistan" title="List of floods">floods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_units_of_Pakistan" title="Administrative units of Pakistan">Subdivisions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_units_of_Pakistan" title="Administrative units of Pakistan">provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Districts_of_Pakistan" title="Districts of Pakistan">districts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Pakistan" class="mw-redirect" title="List of cities in Pakistan">cities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Pakistan" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Pakistan">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Governance" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Pakistan" title="Government of Pakistan">Governance</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">State</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Pakistan" title="President of Pakistan">President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Security_Council_(Pakistan)" title="National Security Council (Pakistan)">National Security Council</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_Committee_on_National_Security_(Pakistan)" title="Cabinet Committee on National Security (Pakistan)">C<sup>2</sup>NS</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Command_Authority_(Pakistan)" title="National Command Authority (Pakistan)">NCA</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Pakistan" title="Government of Pakistan">National government</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_Pakistan" title="Cabinet of Pakistan">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Pakistan" title="Government of Pakistan">Ministries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Pakistan" title="Prime Minister of Pakistan">Prime Minister</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_provincial_governments_of_Pakistan" class="mw-redirect" title="List of provincial governments of Pakistan">Provincial governments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_Pakistani_governors" class="mw-redirect" title="List of current Pakistani governors">Governors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_Pakistani_chief_ministers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of current Pakistani chief ministers">Chief Ministers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_Pakistan" title="Local government in Pakistan">Local government</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Union_councils_of_Pakistan" title="Union councils of Pakistan">Union councils</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legislative</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Pakistan" title="Parliament of Pakistan">Parliament <span style="font-size:85%;">(<i>Majlis-e-Shoora</i>)</span></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Senate_of_Pakistan" title="Senate of Pakistan">Senate <span style="font-size:85%;">(upper house)</span></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chairman_of_the_Senate_of_Pakistan" title="Chairman of the Senate of Pakistan">Chairman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_of_Pakistan" title="National Assembly of Pakistan">National Assembly <span style="font-size:85%;">(lower house)</span></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Speaker_of_the_National_Assembly_of_Pakistan" title="Speaker of the National Assembly of Pakistan">Speaker</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Provincial_Assemblies_of_Pakistan" title="Category:Provincial Assemblies of Pakistan">Provincial assemblies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Pakistan" title="Judiciary of Pakistan">Judicial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Judicial_Council_of_Pakistan" title="Supreme Judicial Council of Pakistan">Supreme Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Pakistan" title="Supreme Court of Pakistan">Supreme Court</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_Pakistan" title="Chief Justice of Pakistan">Chief Justice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Shariat_Court" title="Federal Shariat Court">Federal Shariat Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Courts_of_Pakistan" class="mw-redirect" title="High Courts of Pakistan">High Courts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_Courts_of_Pakistan" class="mw-redirect" title="District Courts of Pakistan">District Courts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Pakistan" title="Politics of Pakistan">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Pakistan" title="Elections in Pakistan">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Pakistan" title="Foreign relations of Pakistan">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism_in_Pakistan" title="Feudalism in Pakistan">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Pakistan" title="List of political parties in Pakistan">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_coups_in_Pakistan" title="Military coups in Pakistan">Martial law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Pakistan" title="Law of Pakistan">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Pakistan" title="Constitution of Pakistan">Constitution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legal_Framework_Order,_2002" title="Legal Framework Order, 2002">LFO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistan_Penal_Code" title="Pakistan Penal Code">PPC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_Protection_Bill" title="Women's Protection Bill">WPB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provisional_Constitutional_Order" title="Provisional Constitutional Order">PCO</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Pakistan" title="Human rights in Pakistan">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enforced_disappearances_in_Pakistan" title="Enforced disappearances in Pakistan">Enforced disappearance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Pakistan" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Pakistan">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Pakistan" title="Law enforcement in Pakistan">Law enforcement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Pakistan" title="Law enforcement in Pakistan">Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter_Terrorism_Department_(Pakistan)" title="Counter Terrorism Department (Pakistan)">Counter Terrorism Department (CTD)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_Intelligence_community" title="Pakistani Intelligence community">Pakistani Intelligence community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_Pakistan" title="Capital punishment in Pakistan">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_Pakistan" title="Terrorism in Pakistan">Terrorism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pakistan_Armed_Forces" title="Pakistan Armed Forces">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Pakistan" title="Military history of Pakistan">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistan_Army" title="Pakistan Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistan_Navy" title="Pakistan Navy">Navy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pakistan_Marines" title="Pakistan Marines">Marines</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistan_Air_Force" title="Pakistan Air Force">Air force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Armed_Forces" title="Civil Armed Forces">Civil Armed Forces</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Economy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Pakistan" title="Economy of Pakistan">Economy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Infrastructure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electricity_sector_in_Pakistan" title="Electricity sector in Pakistan">Electricity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_power_stations_in_Pakistan#Thermal" title="List of power stations in Pakistan">Thermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_power_stations_in_Pakistan#Hydroelectricity" title="List of power stations in Pakistan">Hydro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Pakistan" title="Nuclear power in Pakistan">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Pakistan" title="Solar power in Pakistan">Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power_in_Pakistan" title="Wind power in Pakistan">Wind</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_aid_to_Pakistan" title="Foreign aid to Pakistan">Foreign aid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_Pakistan" title="Petroleum industry in Pakistan">Fuel extraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_in_Pakistan" title="Housing in Pakistan">Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planning_Commission_(Pakistan)" title="Planning Commission (Pakistan)">Planning Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistan_Post" title="Pakistan Post">Post</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Pakistan" title="Poverty in Pakistan">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Pakistan" title="List of tallest buildings in Pakistan">Tallest buildings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Pakistan" title="Telecommunications in Pakistan">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Pakistan" title="Transport in Pakistan">Transportation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_bridges_in_Pakistan" title="List of bridges in Pakistan">Bridges</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_resources_management_in_Pakistan" title="Water resources management in Pakistan">Water management</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Pakistan" title="Water supply and sanitation in Pakistan">Water supply and sanitation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Industry_of_Pakistan" title="Industry of Pakistan">Industry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pakistan_Aeronautical_Complex" title="Pakistan Aeronautical Complex">Aerospace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Pakistan" title="Agriculture in Pakistan">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defence_industry_of_Pakistan" title="Defence industry of Pakistan">Defence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_Pakistan" title="Automotive industry in Pakistan">Automotive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_in_Pakistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Fishing in Pakistan">Fishery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_Pakistan" title="Forestry in Pakistan">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_husbandry_in_Pakistan" title="Animal husbandry in Pakistan">Husbandry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_in_Pakistan" title="Labour in Pakistan">Labour</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Child_labour_in_Pakistan" title="Child labour in Pakistan">Child</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Pakistan" title="Mass media in Pakistan">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_in_Pakistan" title="Mining in Pakistan">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_industry_in_Pakistan" title="Pharmaceutical industry in Pakistan">Pharmaceuticals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textile_industry_in_Pakistan" title="Textile industry in Pakistan">Textiles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Silk_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Silk in the Indian subcontinent">Silk</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Pakistan" title="Tourism in Pakistan">Tourism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Commerce</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_Pakistan" title="Banking in Pakistan">Banking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_Pakistan" title="List of banks in Pakistan">Banks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Pakistan" title="List of companies of Pakistan">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Board_of_Investment_(Pakistan)" title="Board of Investment (Pakistan)">Investment board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_rupee" title="Pakistani rupee">Rupee <span style="font-size:85%;">(currency)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Securities_%26_Exchange_Commission_of_Pakistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Securities & Exchange Commission of Pakistan">Securities & Exchange Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_stock_exchanges#Pakistan" class="mw-redirect" title="List of stock exchanges">Stock markets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trading_Corporation_of_Pakistan" title="Trading Corporation of Pakistan">Trading Corporation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Policy programmes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_sector_of_Pakistan" title="Corporate sector of Pakistan">Corporatisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Pakistan" title="Economy of Pakistan">Directive investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistan#Economy" title="Pakistan">Industrialisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fauji_Foundation" title="Fauji Foundation">Military economisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalisation_in_Pakistan" title="Nationalisation in Pakistan">Nationalisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privatisation_in_Pakistan" title="Privatisation in Pakistan">Privatisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yousaf_Raza_Gillani#Financial_and_economic_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="Yousaf Raza Gillani">Public-private partnering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_economics_in_the_world#Contemporary_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic economics in the world">Redundant Islamic economisation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Society_and_Culture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Society_of_Pakistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Pakistan">Society and Culture</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Pakistan" title="Category:Society of Pakistan">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aurat_March" title="Aurat March">Aurat March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_heritage_of_Pakistan" class="mw-redirect" title="British heritage of Pakistan">British heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Pakistan" title="Crime in Pakistan">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Pakistan" title="Culture of Pakistan">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divorce_in_Pakistan" title="Divorce in Pakistan">Divorce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Pakistan" title="Education in Pakistan">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_educational_institutions_in_Pakistan" title="Lists of educational institutions in Pakistan">Institutions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism_in_Pakistan" title="Feudalism in Pakistan">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Pakistan" title="Feminism in Pakistan">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Pakistan" title="Women in Pakistan">Gender discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Pakistan" title="Healthcare in Pakistan">Healthcare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_hospitals_in_Pakistan" title="List of hospitals in Pakistan">Hospitals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Pakistan" title="Human rights in Pakistan">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Pakistan" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Pakistan">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_Pakistan" title="Marriage in Pakistan">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Pakistan" title="Mass media in Pakistan">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Me_Too_movement_(Pakistan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Me Too movement (Pakistan)">Me Too</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_name" title="Pakistani name">Naming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistanis" title="Pakistanis">Pakistanis</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Pakistanis" title="List of Pakistanis">list</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Pakistan" title="Prostitution in Pakistan">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Pakistan" title="Religion in Pakistan">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_in_Pakistan" title="Time in Pakistan">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanisation_in_Pakistan" title="Urbanisation in Pakistan">Urbanisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Pakistan" title="Women in Pakistan">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Pakistan" title="Demographics of Pakistan">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overseas_Pakistani" class="mw-redirect" title="Overseas Pakistani">Diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Pakistan" title="Ethnic groups in Pakistan">Ethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_Pakistan" title="Immigration to Pakistan">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Pakistan" title="Languages of Pakistan">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urdu" title="Urdu">Urdu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youth_in_Pakistan" title="Youth in Pakistan">Youth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Arts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_architecture" title="Pakistani architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Pakistan" title="Cinema of Pakistan">Cinema</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Pakistani_films" title="Lists of Pakistani films">Films</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Dance_in_Pakistan" title="Category:Dance in Pakistan">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_festivals_in_Pakistan" title="List of festivals in Pakistan">Festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_folklore" title="Pakistani folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_literature" title="Pakistani literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Mushaira" title="Mushaira">Mushaira</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Pakistan" title="Music of Pakistan">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_philosophy" title="Pakistani philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textiles_of_Pakistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Textiles of Pakistan">Textiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Pakistan" title="Theatre of Pakistan">Theatre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lifestyle</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_clothing" title="Pakistani clothing">Clothing</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Shalwar_kameez" title="Shalwar kameez">Shalwar kameez</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mehndi" title="Mehndi">Mehndi</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_cuisine" title="Pakistani cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etiquette_in_Pakistan" title="Etiquette in Pakistan">Etiquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_law_in_Pakistan" title="Gun law in Pakistan">Gun culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_nationalism" title="Pakistani nationalism">Nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Pakistani_flags" title="List of Pakistani flags">Flags</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Pakistan" title="Public holidays in Pakistan">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_songs_about_Pakistan" title="List of songs about Pakistan">Songs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_Pakistan" title="National symbols of Pakistan">Symbols</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Pakistan" title="Sport in Pakistan">Sports</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Athletics_in_Pakistan" title="Category:Athletics in Pakistan">Athletics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Baseball_in_Pakistan" title="Category:Baseball in Pakistan">Baseball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Boxing_in_Pakistan" title="Category:Boxing in Pakistan">Boxing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cricket_in_Pakistan" title="Cricket in Pakistan">Cricket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cycle_racing_in_Pakistan" title="Category:Cycle racing in Pakistan">Cycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistan_Hockey_Federation" title="Pakistan Hockey Federation">Field hockey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Football_in_Pakistan" title="Football in Pakistan">Football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gillidanda" title="Gillidanda">Gillidanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Golf_in_Pakistan" title="Category:Golf in Pakistan">Golf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabaddi" title="Kabaddi">Kabaddi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Motorsport_in_Pakistan" title="Category:Motorsport in Pakistan">Motorsport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lahore_Marathon" title="Lahore Marathon">Marathon (Lahore)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistan_at_the_Olympics" title="Pakistan at the Olympics">Olympics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistan_at_the_Paralympics" title="Pakistan at the Paralympics">Paralympics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Polo_in_Pakistan" title="Category:Polo in Pakistan">Polo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Rugby_union_in_Pakistan" title="Category:Rugby union in Pakistan">Rugby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squash_in_Pakistan" title="Squash in Pakistan">Squash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Swimming_in_Pakistan" title="Category:Swimming in Pakistan">Swimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Tennis_in_Pakistan" title="Category:Tennis in Pakistan">Tennis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_botanical_gardens_in_Pakistan" title="List of botanical gardens in Pakistan">Botanical gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cemeteries_in_Pakistan" title="List of cemeteries in Pakistan">Cemeteries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_churches_in_Pakistan" title="List of churches in Pakistan">Churches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_forts_in_Pakistan" title="List of forts in Pakistan">Forts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Gurdwaras#Pakistan" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Gurdwaras">Gurdwaras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_temples_in_Pakistan" title="List of Hindu temples in Pakistan">Hindu temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_libraries_in_Pakistan" title="List of libraries in Pakistan">Libraries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mausolea_and_shrines_in_Pakistan" title="List of mausolea and shrines in Pakistan">Mausolea and shrines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mosques_in_Pakistan" title="List of mosques in Pakistan">Mosques</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_in_Pakistan" title="List of museums in Pakistan">Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_parks_and_gardens_in_Pakistan" title="List of parks and gardens in Pakistan">Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_stadiums#Pakistan" class="mw-redirect" title="List of stadiums">Stadiums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Pakistan" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Pakistan">World Heritage Sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_zoos_in_Pakistan" title="List of zoos in Pakistan">Zoos</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Pakistan" title="Outline of Pakistan">Basic topics</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Pakistan" title="Category:Pakistan">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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