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class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Public+policy" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" 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[o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Varying_conceptions_of_public_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Varying_conceptions_of_public_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Varying conceptions of public policy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Varying_conceptions_of_public_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_policy_making_and_implementation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_policy_making_and_implementation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Public policy making and implementation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Public_policy_making_and_implementation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Public policy making and implementation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Public_policy_making_and_implementation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Public_policy_visualization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_policy_visualization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Public policy visualization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_policy_visualization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_policy_making" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_policy_making"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Public policy making</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_policy_making-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Agenda_setting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agenda_setting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Agenda setting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agenda_setting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Social_construction_of_problems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_construction_of_problems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1.1</span> <span>Social construction of problems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_construction_of_problems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Policy_stream" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Policy_stream"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1.2</span> <span>Policy stream</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Policy_stream-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Problem_stream" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Problem_stream"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1.3</span> <span>Problem stream</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Problem_stream-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Issue_attention_cycle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Issue_attention_cycle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1.4</span> <span>Issue attention cycle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Issue_attention_cycle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Policy_formulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Policy_formulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Policy formulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Policy_formulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legitimation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legitimation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.3</span> <span>Legitimation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legitimation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Implementation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Implementation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.4</span> <span>Implementation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Implementation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Enforcement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Enforcement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.4.1</span> <span>Enforcement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Enforcement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Implementation_gap" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Implementation_gap"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.5</span> <span>Implementation gap</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Implementation_gap-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Top-down_and_bottom-up_implementation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Top-down_and_bottom-up_implementation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.6</span> <span>Top-down and bottom-up implementation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Top-down_and_bottom-up_implementation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evaluation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evaluation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.7</span> <span>Evaluation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evaluation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Policy_maintenance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Policy_maintenance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.8</span> <span>Policy maintenance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Policy_maintenance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Composition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Composition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.9</span> <span>Composition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Composition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism_of_the_"policy_studies"_approach" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism_of_the_"policy_studies"_approach"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.10</span> <span>Criticism of the "policy studies" approach</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism_of_the_"policy_studies"_approach-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Responsibility_of_policymakers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Responsibility_of_policymakers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Responsibility of policymakers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Responsibility_of_policymakers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Policy_analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Policy_analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Policy analysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Policy_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Policy_design" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Policy_design"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Policy design</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Policy_design-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Policy design subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Policy_design-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Data-driven_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Data-driven_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Data-driven policy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Data-driven_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-User-centered_policy_design" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#User-centered_policy_design"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>User-centered policy design</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-User-centered_policy_design-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Small_system_dynamics_model" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Small_system_dynamics_model"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Small system dynamics model</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Small_system_dynamics_model-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evidence-based_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evidence-based_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Evidence-based policy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evidence-based_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_the_U.S." class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_the_U.S."> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.1</span> <span>In the U.S.</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_the_U.S.-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Academic_discipline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Academic_discipline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Academic discipline</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Academic_discipline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Controversies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Controversies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Controversies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Controversies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Public policy</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 44 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-44" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">44 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A9_%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A9" title="سياسة عامة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="سياسة عامة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pol%C3%ADtiques_p%C3%BAbliques" title="Polítiques públiques – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Polítiques públiques" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0ctimai_Politika" title="İctimai Politika – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İctimai Politika" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF" title="জননীতি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="জননীতি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kong-ki%C5%8Dng_ch%C3%A8ng-chhek" title="Kong-kiōng chèng-chhek – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Kong-kiōng chèng-chhek" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%8A%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Държавна политика – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Държавна политика" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pol%C3%ADtica_p%C3%BAblica" title="Política pública – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Política pública" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ve%C5%99ejn%C3%A1_politika" title="Veřejná politika – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Veřejná politika" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polisi_cyhoeddus" title="Polisi cyhoeddus – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Polisi cyhoeddus" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offentlig_politik" title="Offentlig politik – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Offentlig politik" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_Policy" title="Public Policy – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Public Policy" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pol%C3%ADticas_p%C3%BAblicas" title="Políticas públicas – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Políticas públicas" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politika_publiko" title="Politika publiko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Politika publiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA_%D8%B9%D9%85%D9%88%D9%85%DB%8C" title="سیاست عمومی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سیاست عمومی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politique_publique" title="Politique publique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Politique publique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%B5%EA%B3%B5_%EC%A0%95%EC%B1%85" title="공공 정책 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="공공 정책" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8A%D5%A5%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D6%84%D5%A1%D5%B2%D5%A1%D6%84%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Պետական քաղաքականություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Պետական քաղաքականություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="लोकनीति – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="लोकनीति" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kebijakan_publik" title="Kebijakan publik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kebijakan publik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politica_pubblica" title="Politica pubblica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Politica pubblica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%93%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%91%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA" title="מדיניות ציבורית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מדיניות ציבורית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politik_piblik" title="Politik piblik – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Politik piblik" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vie%C5%A1oji_politika" title="Viešoji politika – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Viešoji politika" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6zpolitika" title="Közpolitika – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Közpolitika" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%88%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Јавна политика – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Јавна политика" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E5%85%B1%E6%94%BF%E7%AD%96" title="公共政策 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="公共政策" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offentlig_politikk" title="Offentlig politikk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Offentlig politikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%82%E1%9F%84%E1%9E%9B%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%99%E1%9F%84%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%99%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%92%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%8E%E1%9F%88" title="គោលនយោបាយសាធារណៈ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="គោលនយោបាយសាធារណៈ" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polityka_publiczna" title="Polityka publiczna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Polityka publiczna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pol%C3%ADtica_p%C3%BAblica" title="Política pública – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Política pública" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politic%C4%83_public%C4%83" title="Politică publică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Politică publică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pol%C3%ADtica_p%C3%BAblica_nisqa" title="Política pública nisqa – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Política pública nisqa" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Государственная политика – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Государственная политика" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politika_publike" title="Politika publike – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Politika publike" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Javna_politika" title="Javna politika – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Javna politika" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%95%D8%AA_%DA%95%DB%8E%DA%98%DB%8C%DB%8C_%DA%AF%D8%B4%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="سیاسەت ڕێژیی گشتی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="سیاسەت ڕێژیی گشتی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Javna_politika" title="Javna politika – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Javna politika" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julkinen_valta" title="Julkinen valta – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Julkinen valta" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patakarang_pampubliko" title="Patakarang pampubliko – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Patakarang pampubliko" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%93%E0%B8%B0" title="นโยบายสาธารณะ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="นโยบายสาธารณะ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamu_politikas%C4%B1" title="Kamu politikası – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kamu politikası" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Державна політика – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Державна політика" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%ADnh_s%C3%A1ch_c%C3%B4ng" title="Chính sách công – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Chính sách công" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E5%85%B1%E6%94%BF%E7%AD%96" title="公共政策 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="公共政策" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Government proposals, principles and actions</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about government action. 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Category:Politics" title="Category:Politics">Politics series</a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="border-top:1px #fafafa solid; border-bottom:1px #fafafa solid; background:#efefef; background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">Politics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="display:block; margin-bottom:0.5em; background:transparent;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_political_science" title="Outline of political science">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_politics_articles" title="Index of politics articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Politics" title="Category:Politics">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Primary topics</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_political_science" title="Outline of political science">Outline of political science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_politics_articles" title="Index of politics articles">Index of politics articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_by_country" class="mw-redirect" title="Politics by country">Politics by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_country_subdivisions" title="Politics of country subdivisions">Politics by subdivision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">Political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history" title="Political history">Political history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_world" title="Political history of the world">Political history of the world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Political_system" title="Political system">Political systems</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchy" title="Anarchy">Anarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">City-state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_leadership" title="Collective leadership">Collective leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confessional_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Confessional system">Confessional system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Directorial_system" title="Directorial system">Directorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federacy" title="Federacy">Federacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_regime" title="Hybrid regime">Hybrid regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_system" title="Parliamentary system">Parliamentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_system" title="Presidential system">Presidential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic" title="Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semi-parliamentary_system" title="Semi-parliamentary system">Semi-parliamentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semi-presidential_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Semi-presidential system">Semi-presidential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Academic disciplines</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em; line-height:1.15em;"><a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">Political science</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/List_of_political_scientists" title="List of political scientists">political scientists</a>)</span></div></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em; line-height:1.15em;"><a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">International relations</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/International_relations_theory" title="International relations theory">theory</a>)</span></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_politics" title="Comparative politics">Comparative politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_science" title="Election science">Election science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psephology" title="Psephology">Political analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Policy_studies" title="Policy studies">Policy studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_psychology" title="Political psychology">Political psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">Political sociology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">Public administration</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Street-level_bureaucracy" title="Street-level bureaucracy">street-level</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adhocracy" title="Adhocracy">Adhocracy</a></li> <li>Service <ul><li>(<a href="/wiki/Public_service" title="Public service">Public</a> / <a href="/wiki/Civil_service" title="Civil service">Civil</a>)</li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Policy" title="Policy">Policy</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Public policy</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Public_policy_doctrine" title="Public policy doctrine">doctrine</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_policy" title="Domestic policy">Domestic policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy" title="Foreign policy">Foreign policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_society" title="Civil society">Civil society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_interest" title="Public interest">Public interest</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Government branches</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legislature" title="Legislature">Legislature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">Executive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary" title="Judiciary">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_commission" title="Election commission">Election commission</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Related topics</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polity" title="Polity">Polity</a> / <a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a> / <a href="/wiki/Country" title="Country">Country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_political_behavior" title="Theories of political behavior">Theories of political behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biology_and_political_orientation" title="Biology and political orientation">Biology and political orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_organisation" title="Political organisation">Political organisations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Subseries</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_system" title="Electoral system">Electoral systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election" title="Election">Elections</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Voting" title="Voting">voting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_unitarism" title="Political unitarism">Unitarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalism" title="Federalism">Federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">Government</a> <ul><li>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_forms_of_government" title="List of forms of government">forms</a> / <a href="/wiki/Governance" title="Governance">Governance</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_culture" title="Political culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_campaign" title="Political campaign">Political campaigning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_party" title="Political party">Political parties</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="background:#efefef;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/16px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/24px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/32px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Politics_sidebar" title="Template:Politics sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Politics_sidebar" title="Template talk:Politics sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Politics_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Politics sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Public policy</b> is an institutionalized proposal or a <a href="/wiki/Group_decision-making" title="Group decision-making">decided</a> set of elements like laws, regulations, guidelines, and actions<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to <a href="/wiki/Problem_solving" title="Problem solving">solve</a> or address relevant and <a href="/wiki/Social_issue" title="Social issue">real-world problems</a>, guided by a conception<sup id="cite_ref-Lassance_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lassance-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and often implemented by programs. These policies govern and include various aspects of life such as education, health care, employment, finance, economics, transportation, and all over elements of society.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Implementation" title="Implementation">implementation</a> of public policy is known as <a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">public administration</a>. Public policy can be considered the sum of a government's direct and indirect activities<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and has been conceptualized in a variety of ways. </p><p>They are created and/or enacted on behalf of the <a href="/wiki/Public" title="Public">public</a>, typically by a <a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">government</a>. Sometimes they are made by <a href="/wiki/Nonprofit_organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonprofit organisation">nonprofit organizations</a><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or are made in <a href="/wiki/Co-production_(public_services)" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-production (public services)">co-production</a> with communities or citizens,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which can include potential experts,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> scientists, engineers and stakeholders or scientific data, or sometimes use<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> some of their results. They are typically made<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Please clarify the preceding statement or statements with a good explanation from a reliable source. (October 2022)">how?</span></a></i>]</sup> by policy-makers affiliated with (in democratic <a href="/wiki/Polity" title="Polity">polities</a>) currently <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">elected politicians</a>. Therefore, the "policy process is a complex political process in which there are many actors: elected politicians, political party leaders, pressure groups, civil servants, publicly employed professionals, judges, non-governmental organizations, international agencies, academic experts, journalists and even sometimes citizens who see themselves as the passive recipients of policy."<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A popular way of understanding and engaging in public policy is through a series of stages known as "the policy cycle", which was first discussed by the political scientist <a href="/wiki/Harold_Lasswell" title="Harold Lasswell">Harold Laswell</a> in his book <i>The Decision Process: Seven Categories of Functional Analysis</i>, published in 1956. The characterization of particular stages can vary, but a basic sequence is agenda setting, policy formulation, <a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(political)" title="Legitimacy (political)">legitimation</a>, implementation, and evaluation. "It divides the policy process into a series of stages, from a notional starting point at which policymakers begin to think about a policy problem to a notional end point at which a policy has been implemented, and policymakers think about how successful it has been before deciding what to do next."<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Officials considered policymakers bear the responsibility to advance the interests of various stakeholders. <a href="/wiki/Policy" title="Policy">Policy</a> design entails conscious and deliberate effort to define policy aims and map them instrumentally. Academics and other experts in <a href="/wiki/Policy_studies" title="Policy studies">policy studies</a> have developed a range of tools and approaches to help in this task. Government action is the decisions, policies, and actions taken by governments, which can have a significant impact on individuals, organizations, and society at large. Regulations, subsidies, taxes, and spending plans are just a few of the various shapes it might take. Achieving certain social or economic objectives, such as fostering economic expansion, lowering inequality, or safeguarding the environment, is the aim of government action. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Varying_conceptions_of_public_policy">Varying conceptions of public policy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_policy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Varying conceptions of public policy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Public policy can be conceptualized in varying ways, according to the purposes of the speaker or author, and the characteristics of the situation they are concerned with. </p><p>One dividing line in conceptions of public policy is between those that see it primarily in terms of ideas (principles and plans of action) and those that see it as a collection of empirical phenomena (the things that are done, and their outcomes). The first of these conceptualizations is suitable when the matter of concern is relatively simple and unambiguous, and the means of enactment are expected to be highly disciplined. But where the matter is complex and/or contested – where intentions are confused and/or disguised – it may not be possible to define the policy ideas clearly and unambiguously. In this case it may be useful to identify a policy in terms of what actually happens.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/David_Easton" title="David Easton">David Easton</a> in the USA of the 1950s provided an illustration of the need he found to broaden his conceptualization of public policy beyond stated ideas: "If the formal policy of an educational system forbids discrimination against Negroes but local school boards or administrators so zone school attendance that Negroes are segregated in a few schools, both the impartial law and discriminatory practices must be considered part of the policy." Easton characterized public policy as "a web of decisions and actions that allocates values".<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other definitions of public policy in terms of a broad range of empirical phenomena include that of Paul Cairney: "the sum total of government action from signals of intent to the final outcomes".<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An example of conceiving public policy as ideas is a definition by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Titmuss" title="Richard Titmuss">Richard Titmuss</a>: "the principles that govern action directed towards given ends".<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Titmuss' perspective was particularly one of social contract ethics. </p><p>More recently, Antonio Lassance has defined public policy as "an institutionalized proposal to solve a central problem, guided by a conception" (Lassance, 2020: 7).<sup id="cite_ref-Lassance_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lassance-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lassance's perspective and concerns are grounded in a <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of change">theory of change</a> or program theory<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which he believes can be empirically tested. </p><p>One of the most known and controversial concepts of public policy is that of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_R._Dye" title="Thomas R. Dye">Thomas R. Dye</a>, according to whom "public policy is whatever governments choose to do or not to do" (Dye, 1972: 2).<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although widely used, Dye's concept is also criticized as being an empty concept.<sup id="cite_ref-Lassance_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lassance-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dye himself admitted that his concept "discourages elaborate academic discussions of the definition of public policy - we say simply that public policy is whatever governments choose to do or not to do".<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In an institutionalist view, the foundation of public policy is composed of national constitutional laws and regulations. Further foundational aspects include both <a href="/wiki/Judicial" class="mw-redirect" title="Judicial">judicial</a> interpretations and regulations which are generally authorized by legislation. Public policy is considered strong when it solves problems efficiently and effectively, serves and supports governmental institutions and policies, and encourages active citizenship.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In his book <i>Advanced Introduction to Public Policy</i>, B. Guy Peters defines public policy as "the set of activities that governments engage in for the purpose of changing their economy and society", effectively saying that public policy is legislation brought in with the aim of benefiting or impacting the electorate in some way.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In another definition, author B. Dente in his book <i>Understanding Policy Decisions</i> explains public policy as "a set of actions that affect the solution of a policy problem, i.e. a dissatisfaction regarding a certain need, demand or opportunity for public intervention. Its quality is measured by the capacity to create <a href="/wiki/Public_value" title="Public value">public value</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other scholars define public policy as a system of "courses of action, regulatory measures, laws, and funding priorities concerning a given topic promulgated by a governmental entity or its representatives".<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Public policy is commonly embodied in "constitutions, legislative acts, and judicial decisions".<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Transformative constitutions of Global South considers judicial actions for Public policy as paramount, since the political forces that facilitate legislative decisions may run counter to the will of the people.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Public policy focuses on the decisions that create the outputs of a political system, such as transport policies, the management of a public health service, the administration of a system schooling and the organization of a defense force.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The directly measurable policy outputs, "actions actually taken in pursuance of policy decisions and statements," can be differentiated from the broader policy outcomes, "focus[ing] on a policy's societal consequences."<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the United States, this concept refers not only to the result of policies, but more broadly to the decision-making and analysis of governmental decisions. As an academic discipline, public policy is studied by professors and students at <a href="/wiki/Public_policy_schools" class="mw-redirect" title="Public policy schools">public policy schools</a> of major <a href="/wiki/Universities" class="mw-redirect" title="Universities">universities</a> throughout the country. The U.S. professional association of public policy practitioners, researchers, scholars, and students is the <a href="/wiki/Association_for_Public_Policy_Analysis_and_Management" title="Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management">Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management</a>. </p><p>Much of public policy is concerned with evaluating decision-making in governments and public bureaucracies.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Public_policy_making_and_implementation">Public policy making and implementation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_policy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Public policy making and implementation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Public policy making can be characterized as a dynamic, complex, and interactive system through which public problems are identified and resolved through the creation of new <a href="/wiki/Policy" title="Policy">policy</a> or reform of existing policy.<sup id="cite_ref-Analysing_Public_Policy_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Analysing_Public_Policy-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Public problems can originate in endless ways and require different policy responses (such as regulations, subsidies, import quotas, and laws) on the local, national, or international level. The public problems that influence public policy making can be of economic, social, or political nature.<sup id="cite_ref-Dimensions_of_State_Politics,_Economics,_and_Public_Policy_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dimensions_of_State_Politics,_Economics,_and_Public_Policy-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A government holds a legal monopoly to initiate or threaten physical force to achieve its ends when necessary. For instance, in times of chaos when quick decision making is needed.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_policy_visualization">Public policy visualization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_policy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Public policy visualization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A topology model can be used to demonstrate the types of and implementation of public policy: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>The Types of Government Action<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th></th> <th>Direct</th> <th>Indirect </th></tr> <tr> <td>Money</td> <td>Trade: Make and Buy</td> <td>Transfer: Tax and Subsidize </td></tr> <tr> <td>Other</td> <td>Regulation: Oblige and Prohibit</td> <td>Knowledge: Inform and Implore </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p>The direct section of money explains that a form of direct action is either using the resources already publicly available (Make) or contracting the private sector to address the issue (Buy). </p><p>The indirect section of money explains means to dissuade or encourage behavior using money. Literally through taxing the undesired behavior and subsidizing the desired behavior. </p><p>The direct section of Other echoes the direct section of Money. However, instead of using fiscal power, the state uses authoritative power to enforce this. This comes in ways of making an action mandatory (Oblige) or prohibiting the behavior by threatening of law (Prohibit). </p><p>The indirect section of Other is spreading information on an issue to the public (Inform) and making calls to action on an issue (Implore) </p><p>It is through a combined effort of these means that a state addresses and works on any given issue. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_policy_making">Public policy making</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_policy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Public policy making"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Public policy making is a time-consuming '<a href="/wiki/Policy_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Policy cycle">policy cycle</a>'. </p><p>The policy cycle as set out in <i>Understanding Public Policy: Theories and Issues</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Agenda_setting">Agenda setting</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_policy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Agenda setting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Agenda_setting" class="mw-redirect" title="Agenda setting">Agenda setting</a> identifies problems that require government attention, deciding which issue deserve the most attention and defining the nature of the problem. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Social_construction_of_problems">Social construction of problems</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_policy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Social construction of problems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most public problems are made through the reflection of social and ideological values. As societies and communities evolve over time, the nature in which norms, customs and morals are proven acceptable, unacceptable, desirable or undesirable changes as well.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, the search of crucial problems to solve becomes difficult to distinguish within 'top-down' governmental bodies. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Policy_stream">Policy stream</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_policy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Policy stream"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The policy stream is a concept developed by John Kingdon as a model proposed to show compelling problems need to be conjoined with two other factors: appropriate political climate and favorable and feasible solutions (attached to problems) that flow together to move onto policy agenda. This reinforces the <i>policy window</i>, another concept demonstrating the critical moment within a time and situation that a new policy could be motivated.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Problem_stream">Problem stream</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_policy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Problem stream"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Because the definition of public problems are not obvious, they are most often denied and not acted upon. The problem stream represents a policy process to compromise for how worthy problems are to create policies and solutions.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is represented in five discrete factors: </p> <ul><li><i>Indicators</i>: Scientific measurements, qualitative, statistical data using empirical evidence is used to bring relevance to particular phenomena.</li> <li><i>Interpretation</i>: Policymakers make judgements whether an issue constitutes a problem worthy of action.</li> <li><i>Ideology</i>: Elements of dominant values, customs, beliefs are crucial to devising problems needed for attention.</li> <li><i>Instances</i>: Media coverage supports by drawing attention to issues, thus prompting policymakers to respond and address changes.</li></ul> <p>Therefore, John Kingdon's model<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> suggests the policy window appears through the emergence and connection of problems, politics and policies, emphasizing an opportunity to stimulate and initiate new policies.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Issue_attention_cycle">Issue attention cycle</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_policy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Issue attention cycle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i>issue attention cycle</i> is a concept developed by Anthony Downs (1972) where problems progress through five distinct stages.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This reinforces how the policy agenda does not necessarily lead to policy change, as public interest dissipates, most problems end up resolving themselves or get ignored by policymakers.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_37-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its key stages include: </p> <ol><li><i>Pre-problem stage</i>: The problem is not recognized by the public, media or policy makers.</li> <li><i>Alarmed discovery and euphoric enthusiasm</i>: Something is identified as a problem, supported awareness by media to pursue seriousness of problem</li> <li><i>Realization of costs which will be incurred by the solutions</i>: Investigating through cost-benefit analysis, bringing awareness of financial, environmental, structural curbs to consider solutions and what makes for their consequences.</li> <li><i>Decline in public interest in issue</i>: Citizens acquire acceptance of the problem and it becomes normalized. Newer issues attract the attention of the public. Limited attention span encourages policymakers to delay developing policy to see which public troubles demand necessary and worthwhile solving.</li> <li><i>Issue slips off, or back down, the policy agenda</i>: The issue effectively disappears, although it has the possibility to re-emerge in other pressing circumstances.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Policy_formulation">Policy formulation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_policy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Policy formulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This is the setting of the objectives for the policy, along with identifying the cost and effect of solutions that could be proposed from policy instruments. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Legitimation">Legitimation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_policy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Legitimation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Legitimation is when approval/ support for the policy instruments is gathered, involving one of or a combination of executive approval, legislative approval, and seeking consent through consultation or referendums. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Implementation">Implementation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_policy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Implementation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Policy implementation is establishing or employing an organization to take responsibility for the policy, making sure the organization has the resources/legal authority to do so, in addition to making sure the policy is carried out as planned. An example of this would be the department of education being set up. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Enforcement">Enforcement</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_policy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Enforcement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Enforcement" title="Enforcement">Enforcement</a></div> <p>Enforcement mechanisms are a central part of various policies.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs additional references to reliable sources. (October 2022)">additional citation(s) needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Enforcement mechanisms co-determine natural resource governance outcomes<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">pollution</a>-related policies may require proper enforcement mechanisms (and often substitutes) to have a positive effect.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Enforcement may include <a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement" title="Law enforcement">law enforcement</a> or combine incentive and disincentive-based policy instruments.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Meta-analysis" title="Meta-analysis">meta-analysis</a> of <a href="/wiki/Policy_studies" title="Policy studies">policy studies</a> across multiple policy domains suggests enforcement mechanisms are the "only modifiable treaty design choice" with the potential to improve the mostly low <a href="/wiki/Effectiveness" title="Effectiveness">effectiveness</a> of <a href="/wiki/International_treaties" class="mw-redirect" title="International treaties">international treaties</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Implementation_gap">Implementation gap</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_policy&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Implementation gap"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As stated by Paul Cairney, the implementation gap are the stages a policy must go through before an authoritative decision is made and carried out. As an example, the agenda setting stage is followed by the policy formulation, this will continue until the policy is implemented. <sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Top-down_and_bottom-up_implementation">Top-down and bottom-up implementation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_policy&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Top-down and bottom-up implementation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>"Top-down" and "bottom-up" describe the process of policy implementation. Top-down implementation means the carrying out of a policy at the top i.e. central government or legislature. The bottom-up approach suggests that the implementation should start with the target group, as they are seen as the actual implementers of policy.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Evaluation">Evaluation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_policy&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Evaluation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Evaluation is the process of assessing the extent to which the policy has been successful, or if this was the right policy to begin with/ was it implemented correctly and if so, did it go as expected. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Policy_maintenance">Policy maintenance</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_policy&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Policy maintenance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Maintenance is when the policy makers decide to either terminate or continue the policy. The policy is usually either continued as is, modified, or discontinued. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Composition">Composition</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_policy&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Composition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This cycle will unless discontinued go back to the agenda-setting phase and the cycle will commence again. However, the policy cycle is illustrated in a chronological and cyclical structure which could be misleading as in actuality, policymaking would include overlapping stages between the multiple interactions of policy proposals, adjustments, decision-making amongst multiple government institutions and respective authoritative actors.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Likewise, although its heuristic model is straightforward and easy to understand, the cycle is not totally applicable in all situations of policymaking due to it being far too simple as there are more crucial steps that should go into more complex real life scenarios.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Criticism_of_the_"policy_studies"_approach"><span id="Criticism_of_the_.22policy_studies.22_approach"></span>Criticism of the "policy studies" approach</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_policy&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Criticism of the "policy studies" approach"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The mainstream tradition of <a href="/wiki/Policy_studies" title="Policy studies">policy studies</a> has been criticized for oversimplifying the processes of public policy, particularly in use of models based on <a href="/wiki/Rational_choice_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Rational choice theory">rational choice theory</a>, failing to capture the current dynamics in today's society as well as sustaining ambiguities and misunderstandings. In contrast, an anthropological approach to studying public policy deconstructs many of the categories and concepts that are currently used, seeking to gain a deeper understanding of the configurations of actors, activities, and influences that go into shaping policy decisions, implementations and results.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Responsibility_of_policymakers">Responsibility of policymakers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_policy&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Responsibility of policymakers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Each system is influenced by different public problems and issues, and has different stakeholders; as such, each requires different public policy.<sup id="cite_ref-Public_Policy:_The_21st_Century_Perspective_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Public_Policy:_The_21st_Century_Perspective-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In public policy making, numerous individuals, corporations, non-profit organizations and interest groups compete and collaborate to influence policymakers to act in a particular way.<sup id="cite_ref-Kilpatrick_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kilpatrick-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, "the failure [of public policies] is possibly not only the politician's fault because he/she is never the lone player in the field of decision making. There is a multitude of actors pursuing their goals, sometimes complementary, often competing or contradictory ones."<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this sense, public policies can be the result of actors involved, such as interest organization's, and not necessarily the will of the public.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, public policy is also affected by social and economic conditions, prevailing political values, the publics mood and the structure of government<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which all play a role in the complexity of public policy making. </p><p>The large set of actors in the public policy process, such as politicians, civil servants, lobbyists, domain experts, and industry or sector representatives, use a variety of tactics and tools to advance their aims, including advocating their positions publicly, attempting to educate supporters and opponents, and mobilizing allies on a particular issue.<sup id="cite_ref-Dimensions_of_State_Politics,_Economics,_and_Public_Policy_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dimensions_of_State_Politics,_Economics,_and_Public_Policy-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The use of effective tools and instruments determines the outcome of a policy.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many actors can be important in the public policy process, but government officials ultimately choose public policy in response to the public issue or problem at hand. In doing so, government officials are expected to meet <a href="/wiki/Public_sector" title="Public sector">public sector</a> ethics and take the needs of all project stakeholders into account.<sup id="cite_ref-Public_Policy:_The_21st_Century_Perspective_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Public_Policy:_The_21st_Century_Perspective-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is however worth noting that what public policy is put forward can be influenced by the political stance of the party in power. Following the 2008/2009 financial crisis, David Cameron's Conservative party looked to implement a policy of austerity in 2010 after winning the general election that year, to shore up the economy and diminish the UK's national debt.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whilst the Conservatives saw reducing the national debt as an absolute priority, the Labour Party, since the effects of Conservative austerity became apparent, have slated the policy for its 'needless' pressure on the working classes and those reliant on welfare, their 2019 election manifesto stating "Tory cuts [have] pushed our public services to breaking point" and that "the Conservatives have starved our education system of funding".<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, in the US, Members of Congress have observed that partisan rancour, ideological disputes, and decreased willingness to compromise on policies have made policy making far more difficult than it was only a decade ago<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>.These are good examples of how varying political beliefs can impact what is perceived as paramount for the electorate. </p><p>Since societies have changed in the past decades, the public policy making system changed too. In the 2010s, public policy making is increasingly goal-oriented, aiming for measurable results and goals, and decision-centric, focusing on decisions that must be taken immediately.<sup id="cite_ref-Public_Policy:_The_21st_Century_Perspective_51-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Public_Policy:_The_21st_Century_Perspective-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Furthermore, mass communications and technological changes such as the widespread availability of the Internet have caused the public policy system to become more complex and interconnected.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Process_and_Effects_of_mass_communication_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Process_and_Effects_of_mass_communication-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is because there is a new level of scrutiny which the ‘tabloid society’ provides of the decisions made by politicians and policy makers, often concentrating on the ‘people story’ side of these decisions<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>.The changes pose new challenges to the current public policy systems and pressures leaders to evolve to remain effective and efficient.<sup id="cite_ref-Public_Policy:_The_21st_Century_Perspective_51-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Public_Policy:_The_21st_Century_Perspective-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Public policies come from all governmental entities and at all levels: legislatures, courts, bureaucratic agencies, and executive offices at national, local and state levels. On the federal level, public policies are laws enacted by Congress, executive orders issued by the president, decisions handed down by the US Supreme Court, and regulations issued by bureaucratic agencies.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the local, public policies include city ordinances, fire codes, and traffic regulations. They also take the form of written rules and regulations of city governmental departments: the police, fire departments, street repair, or building inspection. On the state level, public policies involve laws enacted by the state legislatures, decisions made by state courts, rules developed by state bureaucratic agencies, and decisions made by governors.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Policy_analysis">Policy analysis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_policy&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Policy analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the contemporary era, there has been a massive influx of <a href="/wiki/Policy_analysis" title="Policy analysis">policy analysis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:Shu_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:Shu-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, there is no evidence to suggest that this influx has aided to solving policy issues. Distributive theory claims that legislatures in reality have little use for information that pertains to the policies they vote on. </p><p>It has been determined that instead of certain fields having a higher concentration of information and analysis, it is rather competitive issues that are focused on more.<sup id="cite_ref-:Shu_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:Shu-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The same report this was determined from also reported that information and analysis only seemed to affect issues over a long-term period and thusly ineffective at reactionary action. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Policy_design">Policy design</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_policy&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Policy design"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Policy design entails conscious and deliberate effort to define policy aims and map them instrumentally.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Policy design proposes critical analysis of policy instruments and their implementation. Uncertainties policy designers face include (in brief): </p> <ul><li>Technical difficulties: mechanism, design, constituency, environment of public policies</li> <li>Cost issues: resources, materials, products, etc.</li> <li>Political problems: selection process of solutions and decision making. Policies require tedious and rigorous research on advice for its feasibility, legitimacy and choice.</li> <li>Compliance: Understanding the target market and discovering data for those dependent, disadvantaged or deviant on policy change.</li> <li>Effectiveness: There is a possibility of spillovers, complementariness and inconsistencies.</li></ul> <p>Nevertheless, policy design is elemental for the succession of public policy, with it comes intricate and multi-level approaches but it is necessary for good, careful policy design to be considered before implementing the policy.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Data-driven_policy">Data-driven policy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_policy&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Data-driven policy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Data-driven policy is a policy designed by a government based on existing data, evidence, rational analysis and use of information technology to crystallize problems and highlight effective solutions.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Data-driven policy making aims to make use of data and collaborate with citizens to co-create policy.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Policy makers can now make use of new data sources and technological developments like <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence_in_healthcare" title="Artificial intelligence in healthcare">Artificial Intelligence</a> to gain new insights and make policy decisions which contribute to societal development. </p><p>In the 2020s, policymakers will use data for policies and public service design, while responding to citizen engagement demands. The <a href="/wiki/Anticipatory_governance" title="Anticipatory governance">Anticipatory Governance</a> model is particularly important when considering the sheer amount of data available. In terms of using new technology to collect, analyze, and disseminate data, governments are only just beginning to utilize data science for policy implementation.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With new technologies implemented in government administration, a more complete visualization of current problems will emerge, allowing for more precision in targeted policy-making.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Data science involves the transformation, analysis, visualization, and presentation of data, and potentially improve the quality of life and society by providing a more informational environment for public debate and political decision-making. Some examples of utilizing data science in public policy making are resource optimization, improving current public services, and fraud and error mitigation.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Data sets rarely merge between government agencies or within agencies or countries' governments. This is beginning to change with the <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a> spreading globally in early 2020.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Forecasting and creating data models to prevent the propagation of the virus has become a vital approach for policy makers in governments around the world.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="User-centered_policy_design">User-centered policy design</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_policy&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: User-centered policy design"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>User-centered policies are policies that are designed and implemented with the end-users, or those who are impacted by the policy, as co-designers.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Policymakers using this design process utilize users' knowledge of their lived experiences.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This can allow for policymakers focus on including both comprehensiveness and comprehension within policies to aid in clarity for end-users, such as workers or organizations.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_73-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Small_system_dynamics_model">Small system dynamics model</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_policy&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Small system dynamics model"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The small system dynamics model is a method of condensing and simplifying the understanding of complex issues related to overall productivity.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evidence-based_policy">Evidence-based policy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_policy&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Evidence-based policy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_policy" title="Evidence-based policy">Evidence-based policy</a> is associated with <a href="/wiki/Adrian_Smith_(statistician)" title="Adrian Smith (statistician)">Adrian Smith</a> because in his 1996 presidential address to the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Statistical_Society" title="Royal Statistical Society">Royal Statistical Society</a>, Smith questioned the current process of policy making and urged for a more "evidence-based approach" commenting that it has "valuable lessons to offer".<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some policy scholars now avoid using the term <i>evidence-based</i> policy, using others such as <i>evidence informed</i>. This language shift allows continued thinking about the underlying desire to <i>improve</i> evidence use in terms of its rigor or quality, while avoiding some of the key limitations or reductionist ideas at times seen with the evidence-based language. Still, the language of evidence-based policy is widely used and, as such, can be interpreted to reflect a desire for evidence to be used well or appropriately in one way or another – such as by ensuring systematic consideration of rigorous and high quality policy relevant evidence, or by avoiding biased and erroneous applications of evidence for political ends.<sup id="cite_ref-Routledge_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Routledge-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The development and analysis of evidence based / evidence informed policy are supported by multidisciplinary <a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_policy_research&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Public policy research (page does not exist)">public policy research</a> and <a href="/wiki/Policy_analysis" title="Policy analysis">policy analysis</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="In_the_U.S.">In the U.S.</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_policy&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: In the U.S."><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Unlike the UK, the U.S. has a largely devolved government, with power at local, state and federal level. Due to these various levels of governance, it can often be difficult to coordinate passing bills and legislation, and there is often disagreement. Despite this, the system allows citizens to be relatively involved in inputting legislation. Furthermore, each level of government is set up in a similar way with similar rules, and all pump money into creating what is hoped to be effective legislation. Policy creation in America is often seen as unique to other countries.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Academic_discipline">Academic discipline</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_policy&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Academic discipline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Policy_studies" title="Policy studies">Policy studies</a></div> <p>As an academic discipline, public policy brings in elements of many <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social science</a> fields and concepts, including <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">political economy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_policy" title="Social policy">social policy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Program_evaluation" title="Program evaluation">program evaluation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Policy_analysis" title="Policy analysis">policy analysis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Public_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Public management">public management</a>, all as applied to problems of governmental administration, management, and operations.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the same time, the study of public policy is distinct from political science or economics, in its focus on the application of theory to practice. While the majority of <a href="/wiki/Public_policy_degrees" title="Public policy degrees">public policy degrees</a> are <a href="/wiki/Master%27s_degree" title="Master's degree">master's</a> and <a href="/wiki/Doctorate" title="Doctorate">doctoral</a> degrees, there are several universities that offer undergraduate education in public policy. Notable institutions include: </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Centre_for_International_Governance_Innovation_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Centre_for_International_Governance_Innovation_1.jpg/220px-Centre_for_International_Governance_Innovation_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Centre_for_International_Governance_Innovation_1.jpg/330px-Centre_for_International_Governance_Innovation_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Centre_for_International_Governance_Innovation_1.jpg/440px-Centre_for_International_Governance_Innovation_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/CIGI_Campus" title="CIGI Campus">CIGI Campus</a>, home to the <a href="/wiki/Balsillie_School_of_International_Affairs" title="Balsillie School of International Affairs">Balsillie School of International Affairs</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blavatnik_School_of_Government,_Oxford.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Blavatnik_School_of_Government%2C_Oxford.JPG/220px-Blavatnik_School_of_Government%2C_Oxford.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Blavatnik_School_of_Government%2C_Oxford.JPG/330px-Blavatnik_School_of_Government%2C_Oxford.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Blavatnik_School_of_Government%2C_Oxford.JPG/440px-Blavatnik_School_of_Government%2C_Oxford.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Blavatnik_School_of_Government" title="Blavatnik School of Government">Blavatnik School of Government</a> building on Walton Street</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balsillie_School_of_International_Affairs" title="Balsillie School of International Affairs">Balsillie School of International Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blavatnik_School_of_Government" title="Blavatnik School of Government">Blavatnik School of Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durham_University" title="Durham University">Durham University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Kuan_Yew_School_of_Public_Policy" title="Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy">Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy</a>, NUS</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leiden_University" title="Leiden University">Leiden University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hertie_School" title="Hertie School">Hertie School</a>, Berlin</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graduate_Institute_of_International_and_Development_Studies" title="Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies">Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies</a>, Geneva</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_School_of_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="John F. Kennedy School of Government">John F. Kennedy School of Government</a>, Harvard</li> <li><a href="/wiki/London_School_of_Economics" title="London School of Economics">London School of Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sciences_Po" title="Sciences Po">Sciences Po</a>, Paris</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Defence_University,_Pakistan" title="National Defence University, Pakistan">National Defence University, Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamia_Hamdard" title="Jamia Hamdard">Jamia Hamdard </a></li></ul> <p>Traditionally, the academic field of public policy focused on <a href="/wiki/Domestic_policy" title="Domestic policy">domestic policy</a>. However, the wave of <a href="/wiki/Economic_globalization" title="Economic globalization">economic globalization</a> that occurred in the late 20th and early 21st centuries created a need for a subset of public policy that focused on <a href="/wiki/Global_governance" title="Global governance">global governance</a>, especially as it relates to issues that transcend <a href="/wiki/National_borders" class="mw-redirect" title="National borders">national borders</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>, <a href="/wiki/Terrorism" title="Terrorism">terrorism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_proliferation" title="Nuclear proliferation">nuclear proliferation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Economic_development" title="Economic development">economic development</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consequently, many traditional public policy schools had to adjust their curricula to better suit this new policy landscape, as well as develop entirely new curricula altogether.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Controversies">Controversies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_policy&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Controversies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Austrian_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Austrian School">Austrian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_of_economics" title="Chicago school of economics">Chicago school of economics</a> criticise public policymakers for not "understanding basic economics". In particular, a member of the Chicago school of economics, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Thomas Sowell</a> writes "Under popularly elected government, the political incentives are to do what is popular, even if the consequences are worse than the consequences of doing nothing, or doing something that is less popular".<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, since "Economics studies the consequences of decisions that are made about the use of land, labour, capital and other resources that go into producing the volume of output which determines a country's <a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living" title="Standard of living">standard of living</a>";<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this means that artificially tampering with the allocation of scarce resources such as implementing certain public policies such as price controls will cause inefficiency in the economy and decline in the standard of living within society.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the biggest controversies of public policy is that policy making is often influenced by lobbyists such as big corporations in order to sway policies in their favour. The <a href="/wiki/National_Rifle_Association_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="National Rifle Association of America">National Rifle Association of America</a> (NRA) is an organisation that lobbies United States lawmakers to oppose stricter gun laws.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another controversy surrounding public policy is that much like anyone, policymakers can sometimes hold bias and end up looking for facts that can prove their preconceptions to be true.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a study of politicians in Denmark, which was published in the British Journal of Political Science, it was established that they interpreted data between two groups in a case study more successfully when there was no labeling based on class or status as opposed to when they were labeled according to their class or status; their preconceptions affected how they viewed data.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_policy&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output 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typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Public_policy" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Public policy">Public policy</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advocacy" title="Advocacy">Advocacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advocacy_evaluation" title="Advocacy evaluation">Advocacy evaluation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence_in_government" title="Artificial intelligence in government">Artificial intelligence in government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eightfold_path_(policy_analysis)" title="Eightfold path (policy analysis)">Eightfold path (policy analysis)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Lasswell" title="Harold Lasswell">Harold Lasswell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_public_policy_topics_by_country" title="List of public policy topics by country">List of public policy topics by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_public_administration_schools" title="List of public administration schools">List of public administration schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandate_(politics)" title="Mandate (politics)">Mandate (politics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overton_window" title="Overton window">Overton window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Policy" title="Policy">Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Policy_analysis" title="Policy analysis">Policy analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_comment" class="mw-redirect" title="Public comment">Public comment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_criminology" title="Public criminology">Public criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_policy_school" title="Public policy school">Public policy school</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_policy&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMartinez" class="citation web cs1">Martinez, Jessica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://civiced.org/project-citizen/what-is-public-policy">"What is Public Policy?"</a>. <i>civiced.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221012114314/https://civiced.org/project-citizen/what-is-public-policy">Archived</a> from the original on 12 October 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 October</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=civiced.org&rft.atitle=What+is+Public+Policy%3F&rft.aulast=Martinez&rft.aufirst=Jessica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciviced.org%2Fproject-citizen%2Fwhat-is-public-policy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+policy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uopeople.edu/blog/what-is-public-policy/">"What is Public Policy? 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 October</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+the+People&rft.atitle=What+is+Public+Policy%3F+Why+It%27s+Important%3F+%7C+UoPeople&rft.date=2021-06-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.uopeople.edu%2Fblog%2Fwhat-is-public-policy%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+policy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lassance-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lassance_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lassance_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lassance_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLassance2020" class="citation journal cs1">Lassance, Antonio (2020-11-10). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=3727996">"What Is a Policy and What Is a Government Program? 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Rochester, NY. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2139%2Fssrn.3727996">10.2139/ssrn.3727996</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:234600314">234600314</a>. <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3727996">3727996</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=What+Is+a+Policy+and+What+Is+a+Government+Program%3F+A+Simple+Question+With+No+Clear+Answer%2C+Until+Now&rft.date=2020-11-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A234600314%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D3727996%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2139%2Fssrn.3727996&rft.aulast=Lassance&rft.aufirst=Antonio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fabstract%3D3727996&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+policy" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoffman-Miller, Patricia, MPA. “Public Policy.” Salem Press Encyclopedia, 2022</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeters2018" class="citation book cs1">Peters, B. 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New York: Alfred A. Knopf. p. 130.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+political+system%3A+An+enquiry+into+the+state+of+political+science&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=130&rft.pub=Alfred+A.+Knopf&rft.date=1953&rft.aulast=Easton&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fpoliticalsystemi0000east&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+policy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCairney2012" class="citation book cs1">Cairney, Paul (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/politicalsystemi0000east"><i>Understanding public policy: Theories and issues</i></a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-01-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CBC+%28Canadian+Broadcasting+Corporation%29&rft.atitle=How+the+NRA%2C+a+powerful+influence+on+American+politics%2C+found+itself+under+attack&rft.date=2020-09-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbc.ca%2Fdocumentaries%2Fthe-passionate-eye%2Fhow-the-nra-a-powerful-influence-on-american-politics-found-itself-under-attack-1.5711235&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+policy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tom Sasse, 2018, ‘Government must tackle bias in decision making’, Institute for Government</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Baekgaard, M., Christensen, J., Dahlmann, C., Mathiasen, A., & Petersen, N. (2019). The Role of Evidence in Politics: Motivated Reasoning and Persuasion among Politicians. British Journal of Political Science, 49(3), 1117-1140. doi:10.1017/S0007123417000084</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_policy&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Bueno de Mesquita, Ethan. 2017. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://press.princeton.edu/books/hardcover/9780691168739/political-economy-for-public-policy">Political Economy for Public Policy</a></i>. Princeton University Press</li> <li>Gilbert, Brett Anitra; <a href="/wiki/David_B._Audretsch" title="David B. Audretsch">David B. Audretsch</a>, McDougall, Patricia P. (2004), The Emergence of Entrepreneurship Policy, Small Business Economics 22</li> <li>Cohen, Nissim (2012) “<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=sites&srcid=ZGVmYXVsdGRvbWFpbnxqcnNwb25lfGd4OjVkMGQ2ODZkZTNmZWY4MTM">Policy entrepreneurs and the design of public policy: Conceptual framework and the case of the National Health Insurance Law in Israel</a>” Journal of Social Research & Policy, 3 (1): 5–26.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_B._Audretsch" title="David B. Audretsch">David B. Audretsch</a>; Grilo, Isabel; Thurik, A. Roy (2007), Explaining entrepreneurship and the role of policy: a framework, in: David Audretsch, Isabel Grilo and A. Roy Thurik (eds.), Handbook of Research on Entrepreneurship Policy, Edward Elgar Publishing</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_B._Audretsch" title="David B. Audretsch">David B. Audretsch</a> and Beckmann, Iris A.M. (2007), From Small Business to Entrepreneurship Policy, in: David Audretsch, Isabel Grilo and A. Roy Thurik (eds.), Handbook of Research on Entrepreneurship Policy, Edward Elgar Publishing</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Considine" title="Mark Considine">Considine, Mark</a> (2005). <i>Making Public Policy</i>. Polity Press</li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: 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broadcasting">Public broadcasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_transport" title="Public transport">Public transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_basic_services" title="Universal basic services">Universal basic services</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Public_utility" title="Public utility">Public utility</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electric_utility" title="Electric utility">Electric utility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_oil_company" title="National oil company">Oil & gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postal,_telegraph_and_telephone_service" title="Postal, telegraph and telephone service">Telecommunication</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_broadband" title="Municipal broadband">Municipal broadband</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_infrastructure" class="mw-redirect" title="Public infrastructure">Public infrastructure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_water_system" title="Public water system">Public water system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management" title="Waste management">Waste management</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Public_works" title="Public works">Public works</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drinking_fountain" title="Drinking fountain">Drinking fountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_clinic" title="Free clinic">Free clinic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_education" title="Free education">Free education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrastructure" title="Infrastructure">Infrastructure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Needle_and_syringe_programmes" title="Needle and syringe programmes">Needle and syringe programmes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_art" title="Public art">Public art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_bank" title="Public bank">Public bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_bookcase" title="Public bookcase">Public bookcase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_computer" title="Public computer">Public computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_hospital" title="Public hospital">Public hospital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_library" title="Public library">Public library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_open_space" title="Public open space">Public open space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_school" title="State school">Public school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_space" title="Public space">Public space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_toilet" title="Public toilet">Public toilet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_university" title="Public university">Public university</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supervised_injection_site" title="Supervised injection site">Supervised injection site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_park" title="Urban park">Urban park</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_services" title="Social services">Social services</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Publicly_funded_health_care" title="Publicly funded health care">Publicly funded health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_housing" title="Public housing">Public housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Job_creation" class="mw-redirect" title="Job creation">Job creation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Job_guarantee" title="Job guarantee">Job guarantee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-payer_health_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Single-payer health care">Single-payer health care</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_health_insurance" title="National health insurance">National health insurance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_insurance" title="Social insurance">Social insurance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_pension" title="Social pension">Social pension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_security" class="mw-redirect" title="Social security">Social security</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youth_services" title="Youth services">Youth services</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commons" title="Commons">Commons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_auction" title="Government auction">Government auction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_float" title="Public float">Public float</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holiday" title="Public holiday">Public holiday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_offering" title="Public offering">Public offering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_sector" title="Public sector">Public sector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_security" title="Public security">Public security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_use" title="Public use">Public use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_viewing_area" title="Public viewing area">Public viewing area</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Public_services" title="Category:Public services">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Public_services" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Public services">Commons</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Civil_service" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Civil_service" title="Template:Civil service"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Civil_service" title="Template talk:Civil service"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Civil_service" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Civil service"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Civil_service" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Civil_service" title="Civil service">Civil service</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_sector" title="Public sector">Public sector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_agency" title="Government agency">Government agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucrat" title="Bureaucrat">Bureaucrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merit_system" title="Merit system">Merit system</a> / <a href="/wiki/Spoils_system" title="Spoils system">Spoils system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomat" title="Diplomat">Diplomat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">Public administration</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Public policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_service" title="Public service">Public service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulatory_agency" title="Regulatory agency">Regulatory agency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By country/territory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Public_Service" title="Australian Public Service">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh_Civil_Service" title="Bangladesh Civil Service">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazilian_Civil_Service" title="Brazilian Civil Service">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Service_of_Canada" title="Public Service of Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Service_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Service of China">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Civil_Service" title="Hong Kong Civil Service">Hong Kong</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Civil_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="French Civil Service">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beamter" title="Beamter">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Civil_Service" title="Greek Civil Service">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Services_of_India" title="Civil Services of India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Service_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Civil Service of the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Senior_Civil_Service" title="Italian Senior Civil Service">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_service_of_Japan" title="Civil service of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_service_in_Malaysia" title="Civil service in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_sector_organisations_in_New_Zealand#Public_service_departments" class="mw-redirect" title="Public sector organisations in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Civil_Service" title="Nigerian Civil Service">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Superior_Services" title="Central Superior Services">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Service_of_the_Russian_Federation" title="Civil Service of the Russian Federation">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singapore_Civil_Service" title="Singapore Civil Service">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka_Administrative_Service" title="Sri Lanka Administrative Service">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Service_(United_Kingdom)" title="Civil Service (United Kingdom)">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Civil_Service" title="Northern Ireland Civil Service">Northern Ireland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_civil_service" title="United States federal civil service">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Civil_Service" title="European Civil Service">European Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Categories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:National_civil_service_commissions" title="Category:National civil service commissions">National civil service commissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Government_occupations" title="Category:Government occupations">Government occupations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Civil_service_by_country" title="Category:Civil service by country">Civil service by country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><i>See also:</i> <a href="/wiki/Civil_service_reform_in_developing_countries" title="Civil service reform in developing countries">Civil service reform in developing countries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_sciences" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_sciences" title="Template:Social sciences"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_sciences" title="Template talk:Social sciences"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_sciences" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social sciences"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_sciences" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social sciences</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_social_science" title="Outline of social science">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_social_sciences" title="History of the social sciences">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles" title="Index of sociology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Primary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical anthropology">physical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">microeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">macroeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Econometrics" title="Econometrics">econometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_economics" title="Mathematical economics">mathematical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">Geography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">physical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_geography" title="Technical geography">technical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_geography" title="Integrated geography">integrated</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history" title="Cultural history">cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_sciences_of_history" title="Auxiliary sciences of history">auxiliary sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_history_(field)" title="World history (field)">human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history" title="Political history">political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_history" title="Social history">social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">legal history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_legal_systems" title="List of national legal systems">legal systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_law" title="Public law">public law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_law" title="Private law">private law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">semiotics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">Political science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">international relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_politics" title="Comparative politics">comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">philosophy</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">public policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">public administration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abnormal_psychology" title="Abnormal psychology">abnormal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">developmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_psychology" title="Personality psychology">personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_Internet" title="Sociology of the Internet">internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_sociology" title="Rural sociology">rural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sociology" title="Urban sociology">urban</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interdisciplinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Administration <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_administration" title="Business administration">business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Area_studies" title="Area studies">Area studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_studies" title="Business studies">Business studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication_studies" title="Communication studies">Communication studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_studies" title="Community studies">Community studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_studies" title="Cultural studies">Cultural studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_studies" title="Development studies">Development studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">Education</a></li> <li>Environmental <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_social_science" title="Environmental social science">social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_studies" title="Food studies">Food studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_studies" title="Gender studies">Gender studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_studies" title="Global studies">Global studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Historical sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_ecology" title="Human ecology">Human ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_science" title="Information science">Information science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">International studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management" title="Management">Management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li> <li>Philosophies <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics" title="Philosophy and economics"> economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">social science</a></li></ul></li> <li>Planning <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land-use_planning" title="Land-use planning">land use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_planning" title="Regional planning">regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">urban</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ecology" title="Political ecology">Political ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">Political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">Political sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_science" title="Regional science">Regional science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies" title="Science and technology studies">Science and technology studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_social_science" title="Quantum social science">Quantum social science</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_work" title="Social work">Social work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegan_studies" title="Vegan studies">Vegan studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">List</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_social_science_journals" title="List of social science journals">List of social science journals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other categorizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a 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