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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Causes of the decline</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Causes_of_the_decline-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Causes of the decline subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Causes_of_the_decline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Civil_wars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civil_wars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Civil wars</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civil_wars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fall_of_the_theme_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fall_of_the_theme_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Fall of the theme system</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fall_of_the_theme_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Increasing_reliance_on_mercenaries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Increasing_reliance_on_mercenaries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Increasing reliance on mercenaries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Increasing_reliance_on_mercenaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Loss_of_control_over_revenue" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Loss_of_control_over_revenue"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Loss of control over revenue</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Loss_of_control_over_revenue-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_failed_Union_of_the_Churches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_failed_Union_of_the_Churches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>The failed Union of the Churches</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_failed_Union_of_the_Churches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Persecution_of_the_Armenians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Persecution_of_the_Armenians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Persecution of the Armenians</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Persecution_of_the_Armenians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neglect_of_the_Army_and_Border_defence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neglect_of_the_Army_and_Border_defence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Neglect of the Army and Border defence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neglect_of_the_Army_and_Border_defence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conflict_with_Crusaders_and_Turks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conflict_with_Crusaders_and_Turks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Conflict with Crusaders and Turks</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Conflict_with_Crusaders_and_Turks-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Conflict with Crusaders and Turks subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Conflict_with_Crusaders_and_Turks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Crusaders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crusaders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Crusaders</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crusaders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rise_of_the_Seljuks_and_Ottomans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rise_of_the_Seljuks_and_Ottomans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Rise of the Seljuks and Ottomans</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rise_of_the_Seljuks_and_Ottomans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Devastation_of_Anatolia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Devastation_of_Anatolia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Devastation of Anatolia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Devastation_of_Anatolia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> 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class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Category:History of the Byzantine Empire">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="History of the Byzantine Empire">History of the Byzantine Empire</a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Byzantine_Empire_animated.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="Territorial development of the Byzantine Empire (330–1453)"><img alt="Territorial development of the Byzantine Empire (330–1453)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Byzantine_Empire_animated.gif/250px-Byzantine_Empire_animated.gif" decoding="async" width="250" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Byzantine_Empire_animated.gif/375px-Byzantine_Empire_animated.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Byzantine_Empire_animated.gif/500px-Byzantine_Empire_animated.gif 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="370" /></a><figcaption>Territorial development of the Byzantine Empire (330–1453)</figcaption></figure></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#eee"> Preceding</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dominate_(Roman_Empire)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dominate (Roman Empire)">Dominate</a></i></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#eee"> Early period (330–717)</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarchy era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Constantinian_and_Valentinianic_dynasties" title="Byzantine Empire under the Constantinian and Valentinianic dynasties">Constantinian–Valentinianic era</a> (<a href="/wiki/Constantinian_dynasty" title="Constantinian dynasty">Constantinian dynasty</a> – <a href="/wiki/Valentinianic_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Valentinianic dynasty">Valentinianic dynasty</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Theodosian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Theodosian dynasty">Theodosian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Leonid_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Leonid dynasty">Leonid era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Justinian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty">Justinian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Heraclian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty">Heraclian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty_Years%27_Anarchy" title="Twenty Years' Anarchy">Twenty Years' Anarchy</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#eee"> Middle period (717–1204)</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Isaurian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Isaurian dynasty">Isaurian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Nikephorian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Nikephorian dynasty">Nikephorian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Amorian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Amorian dynasty">Amorian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Macedonian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty">Macedonian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Doukas_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Doukas dynasty">Doukid era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Komnenos_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty">Komnenian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Angelos_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Angelos dynasty">Angelid era</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#eee"> Late period (1204–1453)</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Crusade" title="Fourth Crusade">Fourth Crusade</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frankokratia" title="Frankokratia">Latin rule</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Achaea" title="Principality of Achaea">Principality of Achaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankokratia#Latin_states" title="Frankokratia">others</a></li></ul></li> <li>Byzantine successor states <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Nicaea" title="Empire of Nicaea">Nicaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_Epirus" title="Despotate of Epirus">Epirus</a>/<a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Thessalonica" title="Empire of Thessalonica">Thessalonica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond" title="Empire of Trebizond">Trebizond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Theodoro" title="Principality of Theodoro">Theodoro</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Palaiologos_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty">Palaiologan era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_the_Morea" title="Despotate of the Morea">Despotate of the Morea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Decline of the Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#eee"> <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Roman_history" title="Timeline of Roman history">Timeline</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#eee"> By topic</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_art" title="Byzantine art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_bureaucracy_and_aristocracy" title="Byzantine bureaucracy and aristocracy">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_economy" title="Byzantine economy">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_army" title="Byzantine army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_navy" title="Byzantine navy">Navy</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:#aaa 1px solid; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Byzantine_imperial_flag%2C_14th_century%2C_square.svg/16px-Byzantine_imperial_flag%2C_14th_century%2C_square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Byzantine_imperial_flag%2C_14th_century%2C_square.svg/24px-Byzantine_imperial_flag%2C_14th_century%2C_square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Byzantine_imperial_flag%2C_14th_century%2C_square.svg/32px-Byzantine_imperial_flag%2C_14th_century%2C_square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="700" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Byzantine_Empire" title="Portal:Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_the_Byzantine_Empire_sidebar" title="Template:History of the Byzantine Empire sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_the_Byzantine_Empire_sidebar" title="Template talk:History of the Byzantine Empire sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_the_Byzantine_Empire_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of the Byzantine Empire sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> experienced cycles of growth and decay over the course of nearly a thousand years, including major losses during the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">early Muslim conquests</a> of the 7th century. </p><p>In the 11th century the empire experienced a major catastrophe in which most of its distant territories in <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> were lost to the <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuks</a> following the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manzikert" title="Battle of Manzikert">Battle of Manzikert</a> and ensuing civil war. At the same time, the empire lost its last territory in Italy to the <a href="/wiki/Normans" title="Normans">Norman</a> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Kingdom of Sicily</a> and faced repeated attacks on its territory in the Balkans. These events created the context for Emperor <a href="/wiki/Alexios_I_Komnenos" title="Alexios I Komnenos">Alexios I Komnenos</a> to call to the West for help, which led to the <a href="/wiki/First_Crusade" title="First Crusade">First Crusade</a>. However, economic concessions to the Italian Republics of <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a> and <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a> weakened the empire's control over its own finances, especially from the 13th century onward, while tensions with the West led to the <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Constantinople" title="Sack of Constantinople">Sack of Constantinople</a> by the forces of the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Crusade" title="Fourth Crusade">Fourth Crusade</a> in 1204 and the <a href="/wiki/Frankokratia" title="Frankokratia">dismemberment</a> of the empire. </p><p>Although a number of small Byzantine successor states survived, one of which eventually reclaimed Constantinople in 1261, the empire had been severely weakened. The Byzantines had withdrawn to <a href="/wiki/Bithynia" title="Bithynia">Bithynia</a> relocating their capital to <a href="/wiki/Nicaea" title="Nicaea">Nicaea</a> (present-day Iznik) during the Fourth Crusade. It would be nearly 60 years before they returned to the capital, leaving Bithynia weak and vulnerable. The early history of the eventual rise of Ottoman power remains shrouded in obscurity. One Byzantine chronicle refers to a skirmish between "Othman" and Byzantine forces in 1302 in the Marmara region near present day <a href="/wiki/Yalova" title="Yalova">Yalova</a>. What historians can agree on is that by the early 1330s Ottomans had taken Byzantine towns in <a href="/wiki/Prusa_(Bithynia)" title="Prusa (Bithynia)">Prusa</a> (Bursa), Nicaea (Iznik) and <a href="/wiki/Nicomedia" title="Nicomedia">Nicomedia</a> (Izmit). </p><p>Constantinople was left isolated as the Islamic empire gained a foothold in the Balkans under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Orhan_Gazi" class="mw-redirect" title="Orhan Gazi">Orhan Gazi</a> and his son <a href="/wiki/Murad_I" title="Murad I">Murad I</a>. They rapidly conquered the Byzantine heartland over the course of the 14th century leading to the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Trebizond" class="mw-redirect" title="Fall of Trebizond">Fall of Trebizond</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a> by the army of Sultan <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_the_Conqueror" class="mw-redirect" title="Mehmed the Conqueror">Mehmed the Conqueror</a> in the 15th century. While internal struggles continued between the Ottomans and other Turkish rulers in Anatolia, with the fall of Trebizond the last truly Byzantine outpost in Anatolia was lost.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While conflict continued between the Ottomans and other Muslims in Anatolia, the Ottomans mostly ignored them to focus on westward expansion into the Christian lands of southeastern Europe. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Timeline_of_decline">Timeline of decline</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Timeline of decline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Special:EditPage/Decline of the Byzantine Empire">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2013</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="History of the Byzantine Empire">History of the Byzantine Empire</a></div> <p>The most significant events generally agreed by historians to have played a role in the decline of the Byzantine Empire are summarised below: </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manzikert" title="Battle of Manzikert">Battle of Manzikert</a> in 1071, which saw emperor <a href="/wiki/Romanos_IV_Diogenes" title="Romanos IV Diogenes">Romanos IV Diogenes</a> captured by the army of Seljuk Sultan <a href="/wiki/Alp_Arslan" title="Alp Arslan">Alp Arslan</a>. The defeat led to a Byzantine civil war lasting ten years, in which eight different revolts took place. The damage was increased by the use of Turkish mercenaries by the various factions, which in some cases led to Turkish occupation of entire cities and regions. A notable example is the revolt of <a href="/wiki/Nikephoros_Melissenos" title="Nikephoros Melissenos">Nikephoros Melissenos</a> in 1080, in which the towns he had occupied and garrisoned with Turkish soldiers in Ionia, Phrygia, Galatia, and Bithynia remained in their hands even after the revolt ended, including <a href="/wiki/Nicaea" title="Nicaea">Nicaea</a>, which for a time became the capital of the Seljuk <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Rum" title="Sultanate of Rum">Sultanate of Rum</a>.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Myriokephalon" title="Battle of Myriokephalon">Battle of Myriokephalon</a> in 1176, in which an army led by emperor <a href="/wiki/Manuel_I_Komnenos" title="Manuel I Komnenos">Manuel I Komnenos</a> attempted to capture the Seljuk capital at <a href="/wiki/Konya" title="Konya">Konya</a>, but was ambushed in a narrow mountain pass and defeated by the army of Sultan <a href="/wiki/Kilij_Arslan_II" title="Kilij Arslan II">Kilij Arslan II</a>. The battle is generally considered significant both because it put an end to Byzantine plans to recover central Anatolia, and because of the psychological effect it had both on the emperor himself, and the empire's international reputation. In the years after Manuel's death in 1180, the Seljuks built on their victory by expanding their control at the expense of the Byzantines, while Manuel's teenage successor <a href="/wiki/Alexios_II_Komnenos" title="Alexios II Komnenos">Alexios II</a> was overthrown in a coup.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Constantinople" title="Sack of Constantinople">Sack of Constantinople</a> in 1204 saw the weakened empire partitioned between the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Republic of Venice</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Crusade" title="Fourth Crusade">Crusader army</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Boniface_I,_Marquess_of_Montferrat" class="mw-redirect" title="Boniface I, Marquess of Montferrat">Boniface I, Marquess of Montferrat</a>. A new <a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin Empire</a> was established, led by <a href="/wiki/Baldwin_I,_Latin_Emperor" title="Baldwin I, Latin Emperor">Baldwin I, Latin Emperor</a>. Although Byzantine successor states emerged in <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Nicaea" title="Empire of Nicaea">Nicaea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond" title="Empire of Trebizond">Trebizond</a> and <a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_Epirus" title="Despotate of Epirus">Epirus</a>, and went on to reclaim the capital in 1261, many historians cite the loss of the capital as a fatal blow to the Byzantine Empire. Furthermore, Latin Empire claimants continued to harass the Byzantine Empire in the hundred years following the 1261 reconquest.</li> <li>The Byzantine civil wars of the 14th century, including the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_civil_war_of_1321%E2%80%931328" title="Byzantine civil war of 1321–1328">Byzantine civil war of 1321–1328</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_civil_war_of_1341%E2%80%931347" title="Byzantine civil war of 1341–1347">Byzantine civil war of 1341–1347</a>, caused unnecessary infighting which delayed the empire from responding to its nearby powerful neighbors and further destabilized the empire.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Gallipoli" title="Fall of Gallipoli">Fall of Gallipoli</a> in 1354 saw the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turks" title="Ottoman Turks">Ottoman Turks</a> cross into Europe, while the empire was powerless to stop them. This event has been seen by modern historians such as Donald M. Nicol to be the point of no return for the Byzantine Empire, after which its fall was virtually inevitable.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes_of_the_decline">Causes of the decline</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Causes of the decline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Civil_wars">Civil wars</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Civil wars"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The period from 1071 to 1081 saw eight revolts: </p> <ul><li>1071–1072: The civil war between <a href="/wiki/Romanos_IV_Diogenes" title="Romanos IV Diogenes">Romanos IV Diogenes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Andronikos_Doukas_(cousin_of_Michael_VII)" title="Andronikos Doukas (cousin of Michael VII)">Andronikos Doukas</a>.</li> <li>1072: <a href="/wiki/Uprising_of_Georgi_Voiteh" class="mw-redirect" title="Uprising of Georgi Voiteh">Uprising of Georgi Voiteh</a></li> <li>1073–1074: Revolt of <a href="/wiki/Roussel_de_Bailleul" title="Roussel de Bailleul">Roussel de Bailleul</a> proclaims Caesar <a href="/wiki/John_Doukas_(Caesar)" title="John Doukas (Caesar)">John Doukas</a> Emperor.</li> <li>1077–1078: Revolt and successful usurpation by <a href="/wiki/Nikephoros_III_Botaneiates" title="Nikephoros III Botaneiates">Nikephoros III Botaneiates</a>.</li> <li>1077–1078: Revolt of <a href="/wiki/Nikephoros_Bryennios_the_Elder" title="Nikephoros Bryennios the Elder">Nikephoros Bryennios the Elder</a> against <a href="/wiki/Michael_VII_Doukas" title="Michael VII Doukas">Michael VII Doukas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nikephoros_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikephoros III">Nikephoros III</a>, defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kalavrye" title="Battle of Kalavrye">Battle of Kalavrye</a>.</li> <li>1078: Revolt of <a href="/wiki/Philaretos_Brachamios" title="Philaretos Brachamios">Philaretos Brachamios</a> against <a href="/wiki/Michael_VII_Doukas" title="Michael VII Doukas">Michael VII Doukas</a>.</li> <li>1078: Revolt of <a href="/wiki/Nikephoros_Basilakes" title="Nikephoros Basilakes">Nikephoros Basilakes</a> against <a href="/wiki/Nikephoros_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikephoros III">Nikephoros III</a>.</li> <li>1080–1081: Revolt of <a href="/wiki/Nikephoros_Melissenos" title="Nikephoros Melissenos">Nikephoros Melissenos</a> against <a href="/wiki/Nikephoros_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikephoros III">Nikephoros III</a>.</li> <li>1081: Revolt and successful usurpation by <a href="/wiki/Alexios_I_Komnenos" title="Alexios I Komnenos">Alexios I Komnenos</a>.</li></ul> <p>This was followed by a period of secure dynastic rule by the Komnenos dynasty, under Alexios I (1081–1118), <a href="/wiki/John_II_Komnenos" title="John II Komnenos">John II Komnenos</a> (1118–43) and <a href="/wiki/Manuel_I_Komnenos" title="Manuel I Komnenos">Manuel I Komnenos</a> (1143–1180). Cumulatively, these three emperors were able to <a href="/wiki/Komnenian_restoration" title="Komnenian restoration">partially restore the empire's fortunes</a>, but they never were able to fully undo the damage caused by the instability at the end of the 11th century, nor return the empire's frontiers to those of 1071. </p><p>The second period of civil war and collapse took place after Manuel's death in 1180. Manuel's son <a href="/wiki/Alexios_II_Komnenos" title="Alexios II Komnenos">Alexios II Komnenos</a> was overthrown in 1183 by <a href="/wiki/Andronikos_I_Komnenos" title="Andronikos I Komnenos">Andronikos I Komnenos</a>, whose reign of terror destabilised the empire internally and led to his overthrow and death in Constantinople in 1185. The <a href="/wiki/Byzantium_under_the_Angeloi" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantium under the Angeloi">Angelos dynasty</a> which ruled Byzantium from 1185 to 1204 has been considered one of the most unsuccessful and ineffectual administrations in the empire's history. During this period, Bulgaria and Serbia broke away from the empire, further land was lost to the Seljuk Turks. In 1203, the imprisoned former emperor <a href="/wiki/Alexios_IV_Angelos" title="Alexios IV Angelos">Alexios IV Angelos</a> escaped jail and fled to the west, where he promised the leaders of the Fourth Crusade generous payment if they would help him regain the throne. These promises later proved to be impossible to keep; in the event, the dynastic squabbling between the weak and ineffectual members of the Angelid dynasty brought about the <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Constantinople" title="Sack of Constantinople">Sack of Constantinople</a>; Constantinople was burned, pillaged and destroyed, thousands of its citizens were killed, many of the surviving inhabitants fled, and much of the city became a depopulated ruin. The damage to Byzantium was incalculable; many historians point to this moment as a fatal blow in the empire's history. Although the empire was reformed in 1261 by the recapture of the city by forces from the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Nicaea" title="Empire of Nicaea">Empire of Nicaea</a>, the damage was never reversed and the empire never returned to anywhere near its former territorial extent, wealth and military power. </p><p>The third period of civil war took place in the 14th century. Two separate periods of civil war, again making extensive use of Turkish, Serbian and even <a href="/wiki/Catalan_Company" title="Catalan Company">Catalan</a> troops, often operating independently under their own commanders, and often raiding and destroying Byzantine lands in the process, ruined the domestic economy and left the state virtually powerless and overrun by its enemies. Conflicts between <a href="/wiki/Andronikos_II_Palaiologos" title="Andronikos II Palaiologos">Andronikos II</a> and <a href="/wiki/Andronikos_III_Palaiologos" title="Andronikos III Palaiologos">Andronikos III</a>, and then later between <a href="/wiki/John_VI_Kantakouzenos" title="John VI Kantakouzenos">John VI Kantakouzenos</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_V_Palaiologos" title="John V Palaiologos">John V Palaiologos</a>, marked the final ruin of Byzantium. The Byzantine civil war of 1321–1328 allowed the Turks to make notable gains in Anatolia and set up their capital in <a href="/wiki/Bursa" title="Bursa">Prusa</a> 100 kilometers from <a href="/wiki/Istanbul" title="Istanbul">Constantinople</a>. The civil war of 1341–1347 saw exploitation of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> by the Serbs, whose ruler took advantage of the chaos to proclaim himself emperor of the Serbs and Greeks. The Serbian king <a href="/wiki/Stefan_Uro%C5%A1_IV_Du%C5%A1an" class="mw-redirect" title="Stefan Uroš IV Dušan">Stefan Uroš IV Dušan</a> made significant territorial gains in Byzantine Macedonia in 1345 and conquered large swathes of <a href="/wiki/Thessaly" title="Thessaly">Thessaly</a> and <a href="/wiki/Epirus" title="Epirus">Epirus</a> in 1348.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In order to secure his authority during the civil war, Kantakouzenos hired Turkish mercenaries. Although these <a href="/wiki/Mercenaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Mercenaries">mercenaries</a> were of some use, in 1352 they seized <a href="/wiki/Gallipoli" title="Gallipoli">Gallipoli</a> from the Byzantines.<sup id="cite_ref-Robert_Browning_1992_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robert_Browning_1992-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1354, the empire's territory consisted of Constantinople and <a href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thrace</a>, the city of <a href="/wiki/Thessaloniki" title="Thessaloniki">Thessalonica</a>, and some territory in the <a href="/wiki/Morea" title="Morea">Morea</a>. “At that time,” writes Nicephorus Gregoras, “the inhabitants of Constaninople, as well as the population of most of the Byzantine towns of Thrace, suffered from a lack of victuals. While civil war was exhausting Byzantium, the Turks conducted frequent [naval] incursions from Asia with the help of monemes and <a href="/wiki/Trireme" title="Trireme">triremes</a> [galley ships], making their way with impunity into Thrace, especially during harvest season, seizing livestock, carrying off women and children into slavery, and causing such evils that these regions afterward remained depopulated and uncultivated. That was one of the reasons for the famine that the Byzantines had to endure.”<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fall_of_the_theme_system">Fall of the theme system</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Fall of the theme system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_army" title="Byzantine army">Byzantine army</a> and <a href="/wiki/Komnenian_army" class="mw-redirect" title="Komnenian army">Komnenian army</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Special:EditPage/Decline of the Byzantine Empire">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2013</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The disintegration of the Byzantine Empire's traditional military organization, the <a href="/wiki/Theme_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Theme system">theme system</a>, played a role in its decline. Under this arrangement, which was in its heyday from about 650 to 1025, the empire was divided into several regions which contributed locally raised troops to the imperial armies. The system provided an effective means of cheaply mobilizing large numbers of men, and the result was a comparatively large and powerful force – the army of the theme of Thrakesion alone had provided about 9,600 men in the period 902–936, for example. But from the 11th century onwards, the theme system was allowed to decay. This played a major role in the loss of Anatolia to the Turks at the end of that century. </p><p>In the 12th century, the Komnenian dynasty re-established an effective military <a href="/wiki/Komnenian_army" class="mw-redirect" title="Komnenian army">force</a>. <a href="/wiki/Manuel_I_Komnenos" title="Manuel I Komnenos">Manuel I Komnenos</a>, for example, was able to muster an army of over 40,000 men. However, the theme system was never replaced by a viable long-term alternative, and the result was an empire that depended more than ever before on the strengths of each individual emperor or dynasty. The collapse of imperial power and authority after 1185 revealed the inadequacy of this approach. After the deposition of <a href="/wiki/Andronikos_I_Komnenos" title="Andronikos I Komnenos">Andronikos I Komnenos</a> in 1185, the dynasty of the Angeloi oversaw a period of military decline. From 1185 onwards, Byzantine emperors found it increasingly difficult to muster and pay for sufficient military forces, while the failure of their efforts to sustain their empire exposed the limitations of the entire Byzantine military system, dependent as it was on competent personal direction from the emperor. </p><p>Despite the restoration under the <a href="/wiki/Palaiologoi" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaiologoi">Palaiologoi</a>, Byzantium never reached the heights of its pre-1204 past. By the 13th century, the imperial army numbered a mere 6,000 men. As one of the main institutional strengths of the Byzantine state, the demise of the theme system left the empire lacking in underlying structural strengths. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Increasing_reliance_on_mercenaries">Increasing reliance on mercenaries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Increasing reliance on mercenaries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As far back as the invasion of Africa by the general <a href="/wiki/Belisarius" title="Belisarius">Belisarius</a>, foreign soldiers were used in war.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the foreign military intervention was not an altogether new occurrence,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the reliance on it, and its ability to damage political, social, and economic institutions were dramatically increased in the 11th, 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries. The 11th century saw increasing tensions between Courtly, and Military factions.<sup id="cite_ref-Chronographia_Michael_Psellos_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chronographia_Michael_Psellos-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Until the 11th century, the empire had long been under the control of the military factions with leaders such as <a href="/wiki/Basil_II" title="Basil II">Basil II</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_I_Tzimiskes" title="John I Tzimiskes">John I Tzimiskes</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, the crisis of Basil II's succession led to increasing uncertainty in the future of politics.<sup id="cite_ref-Chronographia_Michael_Psellos_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chronographia_Michael_Psellos-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The army demanded Constantine VIII's daughters ascend to the throne of their relation to Basil II, leading several marriages, and increasing power for the courtly faction.<sup id="cite_ref-Chronographia_Michael_Psellos_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chronographia_Michael_Psellos-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This culminated after the failed Battle of Manzikert. As civil wars broke out, and tensions between courtly and military factions reached a zenith, the demand for soldiers led to the hiring of Turkish mercenaries.<sup id="cite_ref-reference_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reference-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These mercenaries aided in the Byzantine loss of Anatolia by drawing more Turkish soldiers into the interior of the empire, and by giving the Turks an increasing presence in Byzantine politics. These interventions also led to further destabilization of the political system.<sup id="cite_ref-reference_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reference-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-The_Alexiad_Anna_Komnene_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Alexiad_Anna_Komnene-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Reliance on foreign military intervention, and sponsorship for political motives, continued even during the Komnenian Restoration, <a href="/wiki/Alexius_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexius I">Alexius I</a> used Turkish mercenaries in the civil wars he participated in with <a href="/wiki/Nikephoros_III_Botaneiates" title="Nikephoros III Botaneiates">Nikephoros III Botaneiates</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Alexiad_Anna_Komnene_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Alexiad_Anna_Komnene-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1204, <a href="/wiki/Alexios_IV_Angelos" title="Alexios IV Angelos">Alexios IV Angelos</a> relied on Latin soldiers to claim the throne of Byzantium, leading to the sack of Constantinople, and the creation of the successor states. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Loss_of_control_over_revenue">Loss of control over revenue</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Loss of control over revenue"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Economic concessions to the Italian Republics of Venice and Genoa weakened the empire's control over its finances, especially from the ascension of <a href="/wiki/Michael_VIII_Palaiologos" title="Michael VIII Palaiologos">Michael VIII Palaiologos</a> in the 13th century onward. At this time it was common for emperors to seek sponsorship from <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genoa" title="Genoa">Genoa</a>, and the Turks. This led to a series of disastrous trade deals with the Italian states; drying up one of the empire's final sources of revenue.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This further led to competition between Venice, and Genoa to get emperors on the throne who supported their respective trade agenda to the detriment of the other, adding another level of instability to the Byzantine political process.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the time of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Genoese_War_(1348%E2%80%9349)" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine–Genoese War (1348–49)">Byzantine–Genoese War (1348–49)</a>, only thirteen percent of custom dues passing through the Bosporus strait were going to the Empire. The remaining 87 percent was collected by the Genoese from their colony of <a href="/wiki/Galata" title="Galata">Galata</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ostrogorsky,_p.528_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ostrogorsky,_p.528-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Genoa collected 200,000 <i><a href="/wiki/Hyperpyra" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyperpyra">hyperpyra</a></i> from annual custom revenues from Galata, while Constantinople collected a mere 30,000.<sup id="cite_ref-Ostrogorsky,_p.526_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ostrogorsky,_p.526-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The loss of control over its revenue sources drastically weakened the Byzantine Empire, hastening its decline. At the same time, the system of Pronoia (land grants in exchange for military service), became increasingly corrupt and dysfunctional by the later empire, and by the 14th century many of the empire's nobles were not paying any tax, nor were they serving in the empire's armies. This further undermined the financial basis of the state and placed further reliance on unreliable mercenaries, which only hasted the empire's demise. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_failed_Union_of_the_Churches">The failed Union of the Churches</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: The failed Union of the Churches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_VI_Kantakouzenos.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/John_VI_Kantakouzenos.jpg/200px-John_VI_Kantakouzenos.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="262" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/John_VI_Kantakouzenos.jpg/300px-John_VI_Kantakouzenos.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/John_VI_Kantakouzenos.jpg/400px-John_VI_Kantakouzenos.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1275" data-file-height="1670" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_VI_Kantakouzenos" title="John VI Kantakouzenos">John VI Kantakouzenos</a> presiding over a synod of <a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Church" title="Greek Orthodox Church">Orthodox</a> clergy in 1351. Despite the return to Orthodoxy after 1282, Byzantium was unable to restore harmony. John VI abdicated in 1354; the civil war with <a href="/wiki/John_V_Palaiologos" title="John V Palaiologos">John V Palaiologos</a> weakened the empire</figcaption></figure> <p>Emperor <a href="/wiki/Michael_VIII_Palaiologos" title="Michael VIII Palaiologos">Michael VIII Palaiologos</a> signed a union with the <a href="/wiki/Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic">Catholic</a> church in the 13th century in the hope of staving off the Western attack, but the policy had mixed results. The empire's Western enemies attempted to reclaim the Latin Empire in spite of the union, while the social divisions the deeply unpopular union created inside the empire were damaging to Byzantine society.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Byzantine envoys presented themselves at the <a href="/wiki/Second_Council_of_Lyons" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Council of Lyons">Second Council of Lyons</a> on 24 June 1274. On the fourth session of the Council the formal act of union was performed,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However with Pope Gregory's death (January 1276), the hoped-for gains did not materialize.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the union was opposed at all levels of society, it was especially opposed by the greater populace, led by the monks and the adherents of the deposed Patriarch Arsenios, known as the Arsenites. One of the chief anti-unionist leaders was Michael's sister Eulogia (aka Irene), who fled to the court of her daughter <a href="/wiki/Maria_Palaiologina_Kantakouzene" title="Maria Palaiologina Kantakouzene">Maria Palaiologina Kantakouzene</a>, Tsarina of the Bulgars, from where she intrigued unsuccessfully against Michael. More serious was the opposition of the sons of Michael of Epirus, <a href="/wiki/Nikephoros_I_Komnenos_Doukas" title="Nikephoros I Komnenos Doukas">Nikephoros I Komnenos Doukas</a> and his half-brother <a href="/wiki/John_I_Doukas_of_Thessaly" title="John I Doukas of Thessaly">John the Bastard</a>: they posed as the defenders of Orthodoxy and gave support to the anti-unionists fleeing Constantinople. Michael at first responded with comparative leniency, hoping to win the anti-unionists through persuasion, but eventually, the virulence of the protests led him to resort to force. Many anti-unionists were blinded or exiled. Two prominent monks, Meletios and Ignatios, were punished: the first had his tongue cut out, and the second was blinded. Even imperial officials were harshly treated, and the death penalty was decreed even for simply reading or possessing pamphlets directed against the Emperor.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "From the intensity of these disorders, tantamount almost to civil wars," concludes Geanakoplos, "it might appear that too great a price had been paid for the sake of union."<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The religious situation only worsened for Michael. The Arsenite party found widespread support amongst the discontented in the Anatolian provinces, and Michael responded there with similar viciousness: according to Vryonis, "These elements were either removed from the armies or else, alienated, they deserted to the Turks".<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another attempt to clear the encroaching Turkmen from the Meaender valley in 1278 found limited success, but <a href="/wiki/Antioch_on_the_Maeander" title="Antioch on the Maeander">Antioch on the Maeander</a> was irretrievably lost as were <a href="/wiki/Tralles" class="mw-redirect" title="Tralles">Tralles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nyssa_(Caria)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nyssa (Caria)">Nyssa</a> four years later.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 1 May 1277, John the Bastard convoked a synod at <a href="/wiki/Neopatras" class="mw-redirect" title="Neopatras">Neopatras</a> that <a href="/wiki/Anathematized" class="mw-redirect" title="Anathematized">anathematized</a> the Emperor, Patriarch, and Pope as heretics.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In response, a synod was convoked at the <a href="/wiki/Hagia_Sophia" title="Hagia Sophia">Hagia Sophia</a> on 16 July where both Nikephoros and John were anathematized in return. John called a final synod at Neopatras in December 1277, where an anti-unionist council of eight bishops, a few abbots, and one hundred monks, again anathematized the Emperor, Patriarch, and Pope.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Persecution_of_the_Armenians">Persecution of the Armenians</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Persecution of the Armenians"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Armenians were persecuted due to their belief in Monophysite Christianity which the Byzantines saw as a heresy. The Persecution of Armenians had enormous consequences for the eastern defenses of the Byzantine empire. The Conquests of the Seljuk turks was made much easier than it otherwise would have been due to the Christian peoples fighting among themselves. Byzantine Emperor <a href="/wiki/Constantine_IX_Monomachos" title="Constantine IX Monomachos">Constantine IX Monomachos</a> was frustrated with the continued resistance of the Armenians and so secretly contacted the Seljuk sultan Tugrul Beg in 1044 and urged him to attack the Armenian capital of Ani, in an effort to destabilise them.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-auto1_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When the Turks invaded their land, the Armenians doggedly resisted and likely would have continued to defend themselves, but in 1045 Emperor <a href="/wiki/Constantine_IX_Monomachos" title="Constantine IX Monomachos">Constantine IX Monomachos</a>, (believing that this mountainous region would serve as an effective barrier against any eastern powers) annexed and disarmed significant areas of their kingdom, and took much of its wealth back to Constantinople. An Armenian Chronicler explains that in this manner, “the sterile, effeminate and ignoble nation the Greeks, delivered up [Armenia] to the Turks,”<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the middle of the eleventh century, The Armenian historian Aristakes Lastivertsi recounts the Byzantine campaigns in Armenia:<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In these days Byzantine armies entered the land of Armenia four times in succession until they had rendered the whole country uninhabited through sword, fire, and captive-taking. When I think about these calamities my senses take leave of me, my brain becomes befuddled, and terror makes my hands tremble so that I cannot continue my composition. For it is a bitter narration, worthy of copious tears.</p></blockquote> <p>The persecution that the Armenians suffered at the hands of the Byzantine government became so bad that many Armenian troops upon which the Byzantines were relying to man the border defenses deserted their posts, leading Lastivertsi to lament: “The cavalry wanders about lordlessly, some in Persia, some in Greece, some in Georgia.” Some Armenians even joined the Seljuks in their jihad raids into Byzantine territory.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-auto1_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While all of this was happening, a portion of the Byzantine army rebelled against the emperor Michael VI. The Turks were well aware of the infighting among the Christians and took full advantage of the situation. Lastivertsi says: “As soon as the Persians [Turks] realized that [the Byzantine nobles] were fighting and opposing one another, they boldly arose and came against us, ceaselessly raiding, destructively ravaging.”<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since the 10th century the Byzantine Empire had followed a policy of removing prominent nakharars (Armenian lords) from their native lands, absorbing those lands in the structure of the empire, and giving the nakharars in exchange lands and titles elsewhere. The Byzantine policy of removing important lords from their Armenian lands and settling them elsewhere (principally on imperial territory, in Cappadocia and northern Mesopotamia) proved to be extremely shortsighted in two ways. First, it left eastern Asia Minor devoid of its native defenders. Second, it worsened the ethnic tensions between the Greeks and the Armenians due to the introduction of thousands of Armenian newcomers into Cappadocia. The Byzantine empire worsened this error by disbanding a 50,000-man local Armenian army, ostensibly to save money. As a result, the land was left defenseless as well as leaderless in the face of the Turkish invasions that came soon after.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The second wave of Armenians that moved westwards was after the battle of Manzikert (to flee the brutal Turkic raids). After severe persecutions of the Armenian and Syrian Monophysite non-Calcedonian communities, several Armenian royal families, which included Adom and Abucahl of Vaspuracan and <a href="/wiki/Gagik_II_of_Armenia" title="Gagik II of Armenia">Gagik</a> of Ani, used the opportunity provided by the invasion of the Seljuk Turks to seek vengeance upon the local Greek Orthodox population. This included the pillage of wealthy estates and the torture and assassination of the Orthodox metropolitan of <a href="/wiki/Caesarea_(Mazaca)" title="Caesarea (Mazaca)">Ceasarea</a>. <a href="/wiki/Gagik_II_of_Armenia" title="Gagik II of Armenia">Gagik</a> was eventually killed by the local Greek landowners.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Annexation of Armenia ultimately proved to be a strategic disaster for the Byzantines. The Armenian Princes provided a secure buffer zone on the Byzantines eastern border. The overextended Byzantines had found themselves sharing a wide border with a large and powerful empire of Nomadic horse archers whose style of fighting they were not used to, and they could no longer rely on the Armenians (who they had disarmed and persecuted) for assistance.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neglect_of_the_Army_and_Border_defence">Neglect of the Army and Border defence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Neglect of the Army and Border defence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After a century of successful expansions due to the competent warrior Emperors Basil I and Basil II, a false sense of security seemed to have prevailed among the new Byzantine leadership. Rule “passed into the hands of a series of dotards, sensualists and courtesans—female rule once again predominated.” During her 29-year reign Empress <a href="/wiki/Zoe_Porphyrogenita" title="Zoe Porphyrogenita">Zoe Porphyrogenita</a> married and divorced (often by blinding or murdering) several men. Concern for the frontier and its defence was largely dropped; the empire’s resources were spent on the luxuries of the civil bureaucracy, which came to dominate the byzantine government and ruled in all but name. <sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While Armenia was being ravaged by the Seljuks, Byzantine rulers showed little interest in what was happening along its eastern borders. The indifferent and “squanderous” lifestyle of Empress <a href="/wiki/Zoe_Porphyrogenita" title="Zoe Porphyrogenita">Zoe Porphyrogenita</a> was the beginning of the "utter decline in our national affairs and the cause of our subsequent humiliation,” says <a href="/wiki/Michael_Psellus" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Psellus">Michael Psellus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Her successors were not much better. Alfred Friendly reports that "Neither <a href="/wiki/Constantine_IX_Monomachos" title="Constantine IX Monomachos">Constantine IX</a> nor his advisers gave any evidence that they appreciated at the time the danger of the Seljuk raids, mounting in frequency, extent and success during his reign.” The most they did was make treaties with Sultan <a href="/wiki/Tughril" class="mw-redirect" title="Tughril">Tughril</a>; and when roaming bands of Turks broke the treaty by raiding and pillaging Byzantine territory, and Constantinople objected, Sultan <a href="/wiki/Tughril" class="mw-redirect" title="Tughril">Tughril</a> feigned innocence by claiming he was unable to control these “lone wolves,” even as they continued raiding deeper and deeper into western Anatolia.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During this time, recruitment of the Anatolian peasants whom the Byzantines relied on for many centuries drastically fell; “indifferent foreigners were enlisted, arms, artillery and warlike stores neglected, and castles and fortresses allowed to fall in ruin.”<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In short, “the legacy of the civilian bureaucrats and of the emperors who were their nominees and puppets—profligate spenders on their own ostentations and miserly providers for their armies—was a defenseless Asia Minor. Turks raided at will, ever further to the west.”<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conflict_with_Crusaders_and_Turks">Conflict with Crusaders and Turks</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Conflict with Crusaders and Turks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Crusaders">Crusaders</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Crusaders"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Though the Crusades assisted Byzantium in driving back some of the Turks, they went far beyond the military assistance envisaged by Alexios I. Instead of following the strategic necessities of the war against the Turks, the Crusaders were focussed on the quest of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem" title="Kingdom of Jerusalem">re-conquering Jerusalem</a>, and instead of returning territory to Byzantium, the Crusaders established <a href="/wiki/Crusader_states" title="Crusader states">their own principalities</a>, becoming a territorial rival to Byzantine interests in their own right. </p><p>This was true already during the <a href="/wiki/Third_Crusade" title="Third Crusade">Third Crusade</a>, which induced emperor <a href="/wiki/Isaac_II_Angelos" title="Isaac II Angelos">Isaac II Angelos</a> to make a secret alliance with <a href="/wiki/Saladin" title="Saladin">Saladin</a> to impede the progress of <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Barbarossa" title="Frederick Barbarossa">Frederick Barbarossa</a>, but open conflict between Crusaders and Byzantium erupted in the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Crusade" title="Fourth Crusade">Fourth Crusade</a>, resulting in the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(1204)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Constantinople (1204)">Sack of Constantinople</a> in 1204. Constantinople was now itself a <a href="/wiki/Crusader_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Crusader state">Crusader state</a>, known as the <a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin Empire</a> in historiography, but from the Greek perspective as <i><a href="/wiki/Frankokratia" title="Frankokratia">Frankokratia</a></i> or "rule of the Franks". Vestiges of imperial power were preserved in regional realms, the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Nicaea" title="Empire of Nicaea">Nicaean Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond" title="Empire of Trebizond">Trebizond</a> and <a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_Epirus" title="Despotate of Epirus">Epirus</a>. Much of the Nicaean Emperors' efforts now went into combating the Latins, and even after Constantinople was returned to Greek rule <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Palaiologos_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty">under the Palaiologoi</a> in 1261, the Empire exerted much of its efforts into defeating its Latin neighbours, contributing to the eventual failure of the Crusades by 1291. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rise_of_the_Seljuks_and_Ottomans">Rise of the Seljuks and Ottomans</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Rise of the Seljuks and Ottomans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Seljuq_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine–Seljuq wars">Byzantine–Seljuq wars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine-Ottoman_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine-Ottoman wars">Byzantine-Ottoman wars</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_claim_to_Roman_succession" title="Ottoman claim to Roman succession">Ottoman claim to Roman succession</a></div> <p>No emperor after the Komnenian period was in a position to expel the Turks from Asia Minor, while the preoccupation of the Nicaean emperors with the attempt to recover Constantinople meant that resources were diverted away from Asia Minor and towards the west. The result was a weakening of the Byzantine defenses in the region, which, when combined with insufficient resources and incompetent leadership, led to the complete loss of all the empire's Asian territory to the Turks by 1338. </p><p>The disintegration of the Seljuk Turks led to the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turks" title="Ottoman Turks">Ottoman Turks</a>. Their first important leader was <a href="/wiki/Osman_I" title="Osman I">Osman I</a> Bey, who attracted <a href="/wiki/Ghazi_warriors" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghazi warriors">Ghazi warriors</a> and carved out a domain in north-western Asia Minor.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Attempts by the Byzantine Emperors to drive back the Ottomans were unsuccessful, and ceased in 1329 with the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pelekanon" title="Battle of Pelekanon">Battle of Pelekanon</a>. Following a number of civil disputes in the Byzantine Empire, the Ottomans subjugated the Byzantines as vassals in the late 14th century and attempts to relieve this vassal status culminated in the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a> in 1453. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Devastation_of_Anatolia">Devastation of Anatolia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Devastation of Anatolia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Apostolos_Vakalopoulos" class="mw-redirect" title="Apostolos Vakalopoulos">Apostolos Vakalopoulos</a> Describes the Devastation the seljuk raids had on Anatolia: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p> At the beginning of the eleventh century, the Seljuk Turks forced their way into Armenia and there crushed the armies of several petty Armenian states. No fewer than forty thousand souls fled before the organized pillage of the Seljuk host to the western part of Asia Minor…. From the middle of the eleventh century, and especially after the battle of Malazgirt [Manzikurt] (1071), the Seljuks spread throughout the whole Asia Minor peninsula, leaving terror, panic and destruction in their wake. Byzantine, Turkish and other contemporary sources are unanimous in their agreement on the extent of havoc wrought and the protracted anguish of the local population…evidence as we have proves that the Hellenic population of Asia Minor, whose very vigor had so long sustained the Empire and might indeed be said to have constituted its greatest strength, succumbed so rapidly to Turkish pressure that by the fourteenth century, it was confined to a few limited areas. By that time, Asia Minor was already being called Turkey…one after another, bishoprics and metropolitan sees which once throbbed with Christian vitality became vacant and ecclesiastical buildings fell into ruins. The metropolitan see of Chalcedon, for example, disappeared in the fourteenth century, and the sees of Laodicea, Kotyaeon (now Kutahya) and Synada in the fifteenth…. With the extermination of local populations or their precipitate flight, entire villages, cities, and sometimes whole provinces fell into decay. There were some fertile districts like the valley of the Maeander River, once stocked with thousands of sheep and cattle, which were laid waste and thereafter ceased to be in any way productive. Other districts were literally transformed into wildernesses. Impenetrable thickets sprang up in places where once there had been luxuriant fields and pastures. This is what happened to the district of Sangarius, for example, which Michael VIII Palaeologus had known formerly as a prosperous, cultivated land, but whose utter desolation he afterwards surveyed in utmost despair…. The mountainous region between Nicaea and Nicomedia, opposite Constantinople, once clustered with castles, cities, and villages, was depopulated. A few towns escaped total destruction—Laodicea, Iconium, Bursa (then Prusa), and Sinope, for example—but the extent of devastation elsewhere was such as to make a profound impression on visitors for may years to come. The fate of Antioch provides a graphic illustration of the kind of havoc wrought by the Turkish invaders: in 1432, only three hundred dwellings could be counted inside its walls, and its predominantly Turkish or Arab inhabitants subsisted by raising camels, goats, cattle, and sheep. Other cities in the southeastern part of Asia Minor fell into similar decay.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Quoting contemporary authorities, J. Laurent writes: “It is difficult even to imagine the complete ruin the Turks left behind them. Whatever they could reach, men or crops, nothing remained alive; and a week was sufficient under dread of famine to force them to abandon the most prosperous areas. On their departure all that was left were devastated fields, trees cut down, mutilated corpses and towns driven mad by fear or in flames.’”’ At Armorium, it is said, 100,000 people perished, and at Touch 120,000 were massacred and 150,000 sold into slavery—thus the destruction went on. Whole districts were depopulated. ‘When the Turks had passed by, such as were left alive feared to return...trusting in neither the walls of their cities, nor the crags of the mountains, they crowded into Constantinople where they were decimated by plague. In a few years Cappadocia, Phrygia, Bithynia, and Paphlagonia lost the greater part of their <a href="/wiki/Greek_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek people">Greek</a> population.” J. Laurent writes further:“In brief, the population of Asia Minor vanished before the Turks. The people fled far away, or shut themselves up in their Cities, or sought refuge in the mountains which border the central plateau of the peninsula. The valleys and the plains which stretch from Caesarea and Sebaste to Nicaea and Sardes remained all but empty. And as they fell fallow, the Turks with their tents and their flocks wandered over them contentedly, as they had done in the deserts out of which they had come"<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Demetrios_Cydones" class="mw-redirect" title="Demetrios Cydones">Demetrios Cydones</a> on the Turkish depredations in Anatolia:<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>They took from us all the lands which we enjoyed from the Hellespont eastward to the mountains of Armenia. The cities they razed to the ground, pillaged the religious sanctuaries, broke open the graves, and filled all with blood and corpses. They outraged the souls of the inhabitants, forcing them to deny God and giving to them their own defiled mysteries. They abused their [Christians’] souls, alas, with wanton outrage! Denuding them of all property and their freedom, they left the [Christians as] weak images of slaves, exploiting the remaining strength of the wretched ones for their own prosperity.</p></blockquote> <p>According to <a href="/wiki/Speros_Vryonis" title="Speros Vryonis">Speros Vryonis</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The conquest, or should I say the conquests of Asia Minor were in operation over a period of four centuries. Thus the Christian societies of Asia Minor were submitted to extensive periods of intense warfare, incursions, and destructions which undermined the existence of the Christian church. In the first century of Turkish conquests and invasions from the mid-eleventh to the late twelfth century, the sources reveal that some 63 towns and villages were destroyed. The inhabitants of other towns and villages were enslaved and taken off to the Muslim slave markets.</p></blockquote> <p>Byzantine princess <a href="/wiki/Anna_Komnene" title="Anna Komnene">Anna Komnene</a> says:<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>And since the succession of Diogenes the barbarians tread upon the boundaries of the empire of the Rhomaioi…the barbarian hand was not restricted until the reign of my father. Swords and spears were whetted against the Christians, and also battles, wars, and massacres. Cities were obliterated, lands were plundered, and the whole land of the Rhomaioi was stained by blood of Christians. Some fell piteously [the victims] of arrows and spears, other being driven away from their homes were carried off captive to the cities of Persia. Terror reigned over all and they hastened to hide in the caves, forests, mountains, and hills. Among them some cried aloud in horror at those things which they suffered, being led off to Persia; and others who yet survived (if some did remain within the Rhomaic boundaries), lamenting, cried, the one for his son, the other for his daughter. One bewailed his brother, another his cousin who had died previously, and like women shed hot tears. And there was at that time not one relationship which was without tears and without sadness.</p></blockquote> <p>A Letter written by <a href="/wiki/Manuel_II_Palaiologos" title="Manuel II Palaiologos">Manuel II Palaiologos</a> in 1391 to <a href="/wiki/Demetrios_Kydones" title="Demetrios Kydones">Demetrios Kydones</a> makes specific reference to the Turkish threat to the Byzantine Empire, noting how the Greek Christian inhabitants of Anatolia "have fled to the clefts in the rocks, to the forests, and to the mountain heights in an effort to escape a death from which there is no escape, a very cruel and inhuman death without any semblance of justice…. Nobody is spared, neither very young children nor defenseless women. For those whom old age or illness prevents from running away there is no hope of escaping the murderous blade."<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historian Warren Treadgold gives a summary on the historical background highlighting the cumulative effects of the relentless Turkish Muslim depredations against the Byzantine Empire in its Anatolian heartland by the late 14th century:<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>As the Turks raided and conquered, they enslaved many Christians, selling some in other Muslim regions and hindering the rest from practicing their faith. Conversions [to islam], Turkish migration, and Greek outmigration increasingly endangered the Greek minority in central Asia Minor. When the Turks overran Western Anatolia, they occupied the countryside first, driving the Greeks into the cities, or away to Europe, or the islands. By the time the Anatolian cities fell, the land around them was already largely Turkish [and Islamic].</p></blockquote> <p>In contrast, the Ottoman beylik of Osman, whose territory faced the Sea of Bosporus facing Constantinople, used a strategy of accommodation and incorporation. The Byzantine inhabitants of Asia Minor were tolerated by the Ottomans, many of which would rather accept Ottoman security over the militarily declining Byzantine Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Byzantine_imperial_flag%2C_14th_century%2C_square.svg/28px-Byzantine_imperial_flag%2C_14th_century%2C_square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Byzantine_imperial_flag%2C_14th_century%2C_square.svg/42px-Byzantine_imperial_flag%2C_14th_century%2C_square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Byzantine_imperial_flag%2C_14th_century%2C_square.svg/56px-Byzantine_imperial_flag%2C_14th_century%2C_square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="700" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Byzantine_Empire" title="Portal:Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Dark_Ages" title="Byzantine Dark Ages">Byzantine Dark Ages</a> in the 7th–8th centuries</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine-Lombard_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine-Lombard Wars">Byzantine-Lombard Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Seljuq_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine–Seljuq wars">Byzantine–Seljuq wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Doukas_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Doukas dynasty">Byzantine Empire under the Doukas dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Angelos_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Angelos dynasty">Byzantine Empire under the Angelos dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Palaiologos_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty">Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_revolts_and_civil_wars" title="List of Byzantine revolts and civil wars">List of Byzantine revolts and civil wars</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLowry" class="citation book cs1">Lowry, Heath. "Early Ottoman Period". In Heper, Metin; Sayari, Sabri (eds.). <i>The Routledge Handbook of Modern Turkey</i>. Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Early+Ottoman+Period&rft.btitle=The+Routledge+Handbook+of+Modern+Turkey&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.aulast=Lowry&rft.aufirst=Heath&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecline+of+the+Byzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert Browning, The Byzantine Empire (Washington D. C. :The Catholic U of America P, 1992), 240.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Robert_Browning_1992-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Robert_Browning_1992_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert Browning, The Byzantine Empire (Washington D. C. :The Catholic U of America P, 1992), 241.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oXG-oAEACAAJ"><i>Nicephori Gregorae Byzantina Historia: Graece Et Latine, Volume 2</i></a>. Creative Media Partners, LLC. February 2014. p. 683. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781293648346" title="Special:BookSources/9781293648346"><bdi>9781293648346</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nicephori+Gregorae+Byzantina+Historia%3A+Graece+Et+Latine%2C+Volume+2&rft.pages=683&rft.pub=Creative+Media+Partners%2C+LLC&rft.date=2014-02&rft.isbn=9781293648346&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoXG-oAEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecline+of+the+Byzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAngelov1978" class="citation book cs1">Angelov, Dimitŭr Simeonov (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UPTYAAAAMAAJ"><i>Les Balkans au Moyen Age: la Bulgarie des Bogomils aux Turcs</i></a>. Variorum Reprints. p. 242. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780860780199" title="Special:BookSources/9780860780199"><bdi>9780860780199</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Les+Balkans+au+Moyen+Age%3A+la+Bulgarie+des+Bogomils+aux+Turcs&rft.pages=242&rft.pub=Variorum+Reprints&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=9780860780199&rft.aulast=Angelov&rft.aufirst=Dimit%C5%ADr+Simeonov&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUPTYAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecline+of+the+Byzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Procopius History of the Wars Book III</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Justinian II Constance Head</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chronographia_Michael_Psellos-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chronographia_Michael_Psellos_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chronographia_Michael_Psellos_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chronographia_Michael_Psellos_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Chronographia Michael Psellos</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Histories Michael Attaleiites</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A Synopsis of Byzantine History John Skylitzes</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-reference-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-reference_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-reference_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">The Grand Byzantine Strategy Edward Luttwak</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Alexiad_Anna_Komnene-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-The_Alexiad_Anna_Komnene_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Alexiad_Anna_Komnene_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">The Alexiad Anna Komnene</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceB-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">City of Fortune: How Venice Ruled the Seas Roger Crowley</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ostrogorsky,_p.528-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ostrogorsky,_p.528_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ostrogorsky, p.528.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ostrogorsky,_p.526-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ostrogorsky,_p.526_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ostrogorsky, p.526.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicol1993" class="citation book cs1">Nicol, Donald M. (14 October 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y2d6OHLqwEsC"><i>The Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261-1453</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-43991-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-43991-6"><bdi>978-0-521-43991-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Last+Centuries+of+Byzantium%2C+1261-1453&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1993-10-14&rft.isbn=978-0-521-43991-6&rft.aulast=Nicol&rft.aufirst=Donald+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dy2d6OHLqwEsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecline+of+the+Byzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Geanakoplos, <i>Michael Palaeologus</i>, pp. 258–264</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Geanakoplos, <i>Michael Palaeologus</i>, pp. 286–290</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Geanakoplos, <i>Michael Palaeologus</i>, pp. 264–275</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Geanakoplos, <i>Michael Palaeologus</i>, p. 276</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vryonis, <i>Decline of medieval Hellenism</i>, p. 136</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vryonis, <i>Decline of medieval Hellenism</i>, p. 137</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Geanakoplos, <i>Michael Palaeologus</i>, p. 275</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Geanakoplos, <i>Michael Palaeologus</i>, p. 309</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLastivertc'i2021" class="citation book cs1">Lastivertc'i, Aristakes (26 October 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fHSZzgEACAAJ"><i>Aristakes Lastivertc'i's</i></a>. Sophene. p. 57. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781925937558" title="Special:BookSources/9781925937558"><bdi>9781925937558</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aristakes+Lastivertc%27i%27s&rft.pages=57&rft.pub=Sophene&rft.date=2021-10-26&rft.isbn=9781925937558&rft.aulast=Lastivertc%27i&rft.aufirst=Aristakes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfHSZzgEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecline+of+the+Byzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto1-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_26-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://deremilitari.org/2013/09/the-battle-of-manzikert-military-disaster-or-political-failure/">"The Battle of Manzikert: Military Disaster or Political Failure? » De Re Militari"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Battle+of+Manzikert%3A+Military+Disaster+or+Political+Failure%3F+%C2%BB+De+Re+Militari&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fderemilitari.org%2F2013%2F09%2Fthe-battle-of-manzikert-military-disaster-or-political-failure%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecline+of+the+Byzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFuller1987" class="citation book cs1">Fuller, J. F. C. (22 August 1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xNXZAAAAMAAJ"><i>A Military History of the Western World: From the Earliest Times to the Battle of Lepanto</i></a>. Hachette Books. p. 391. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780306803048" title="Special:BookSources/9780306803048"><bdi>9780306803048</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Military+History+of+the+Western+World%3A+From+the+Earliest+Times+to+the+Battle+of+Lepanto&rft.pages=391&rft.pub=Hachette+Books&rft.date=1987-08-22&rft.isbn=9780306803048&rft.aulast=Fuller&rft.aufirst=J.+F.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxNXZAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecline+of+the+Byzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLastivertc'i2021" class="citation book cs1">Lastivertc'i, Aristakes (26 October 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fHSZzgEACAAJ"><i>Aristakes Lastivertc'i's</i></a>. Sophene. p. 55. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781925937558" title="Special:BookSources/9781925937558"><bdi>9781925937558</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aristakes+Lastivertc%27i%27s&rft.pages=55&rft.pub=Sophene&rft.date=2021-10-26&rft.isbn=9781925937558&rft.aulast=Lastivertc%27i&rft.aufirst=Aristakes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfHSZzgEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecline+of+the+Byzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLastivertc'i2021" class="citation book cs1">Lastivertc'i, Aristakes (26 October 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fHSZzgEACAAJ"><i>Aristakes Lastivertc'i's</i></a>. Sophene. p. 121. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781925937558" title="Special:BookSources/9781925937558"><bdi>9781925937558</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aristakes+Lastivertc%27i%27s&rft.pages=121&rft.pub=Sophene&rft.date=2021-10-26&rft.isbn=9781925937558&rft.aulast=Lastivertc%27i&rft.aufirst=Aristakes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfHSZzgEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecline+of+the+Byzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHovannisian2004" class="citation book cs1">Hovannisian, Richard G. (27 January 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Px_NwAEACAAJ"><i>The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times: Volume I: The Dynastic Periods: From Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century</i></a>. Palgrave Macmillan US. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781403964212" title="Special:BookSources/9781403964212"><bdi>9781403964212</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Armenian+People+from+Ancient+to+Modern+Times%3A+Volume+I%3A+The+Dynastic+Periods%3A+From+Antiquity+to+the+Fourteenth+Century&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan+US&rft.date=2004-01-27&rft.isbn=9781403964212&rft.aulast=Hovannisian&rft.aufirst=Richard+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPx_NwAEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecline+of+the+Byzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/747992800">"The decoration of cave churches in Cappadocia under Selçuk rule | WorldCat.org"</a>. <i>www.worldcat.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.worldcat.org&rft.atitle=The+decoration+of+cave+churches+in+Cappadocia+under+Sel%C3%A7uk+rule+%26%23124%3B+WorldCat.org&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Ftitle%2F747992800&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecline+of+the+Byzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriendly1981" class="citation book cs1">Friendly, Alfred (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rPpfQgAACAAJ"><i>The Dreadful Day: The Battle of Manzikert, 1071</i></a>. Hutchinson. pp. 56, 389. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780091435707" title="Special:BookSources/9780091435707"><bdi>9780091435707</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dreadful+Day%3A+The+Battle+of+Manzikert%2C+1071&rft.pages=56%2C+389&rft.pub=Hutchinson&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=9780091435707&rft.aulast=Friendly&rft.aufirst=Alfred&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrPpfQgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecline+of+the+Byzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosenwein2018" class="citation book cs1">Rosenwein, Barbara H. (3 May 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=e8dtDwAAQBAJ"><i>Reading the Middle Ages Volume I: From C.300 to C.1150</i></a>. University of Toronto Press. p. 202. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781442636798" title="Special:BookSources/9781442636798"><bdi>9781442636798</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reading+the+Middle+Ages+Volume+I%3A+From+C.300+to+C.1150&rft.pages=202&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2018-05-03&rft.isbn=9781442636798&rft.aulast=Rosenwein&rft.aufirst=Barbara+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3De8dtDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecline+of+the+Byzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriendly1981" class="citation book cs1">Friendly, Alfred (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rPpfQgAACAAJ"><i>The Dreadful Day: The Battle of Manzikert, 1071</i></a>. Hutchinson. p. 95. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780091435707" title="Special:BookSources/9780091435707"><bdi>9780091435707</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dreadful+Day%3A+The+Battle+of+Manzikert%2C+1071&rft.pages=95&rft.pub=Hutchinson&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=9780091435707&rft.aulast=Friendly&rft.aufirst=Alfred&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrPpfQgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecline+of+the+Byzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFuller1987" class="citation book cs1">Fuller, J. F. C. (22 August 1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xNXZAAAAMAAJ"><i>A Military History of the Western World: From the Earliest Times to the Battle of Lepanto</i></a>. Hachette Books. p. 339. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780306803048" title="Special:BookSources/9780306803048"><bdi>9780306803048</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Military+History+of+the+Western+World%3A+From+the+Earliest+Times+to+the+Battle+of+Lepanto&rft.pages=339&rft.pub=Hachette+Books&rft.date=1987-08-22&rft.isbn=9780306803048&rft.aulast=Fuller&rft.aufirst=J.+F.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxNXZAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecline+of+the+Byzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriendly1981" class="citation book cs1">Friendly, Alfred (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rPpfQgAACAAJ"><i>The Dreadful Day: The Battle of Manzikert, 1071</i></a>. Hutchinson. p. 149. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780091435707" title="Special:BookSources/9780091435707"><bdi>9780091435707</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dreadful+Day%3A+The+Battle+of+Manzikert%2C+1071&rft.pages=149&rft.pub=Hutchinson&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=9780091435707&rft.aulast=Friendly&rft.aufirst=Alfred&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrPpfQgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecline+of+the+Byzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stanford Shaw, <i>History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey</i> (Cambridge: University Press, 1976), vol. 1 pp. 13f</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVakalopoulos1970" class="citation book cs1">Vakalopoulos, Apostolos Euangelou (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0fkcAAAAYAAJ"><i>Origins of the Greek Nation: The Byzantine Period, 1204-1461</i></a>. Rutgers University Press. pp. 61–62. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780813506593" title="Special:BookSources/9780813506593"><bdi>9780813506593</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Origins+of+the+Greek+Nation%3A+The+Byzantine+Period%2C+1204-1461&rft.pages=61-62&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=9780813506593&rft.aulast=Vakalopoulos&rft.aufirst=Apostolos+Euangelou&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0fkcAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecline+of+the+Byzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaurent1913" class="citation book cs1">Laurent, Joseph (1913). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m2y-eBZUMWgC"><i>Byzance et les Turcs Seldjoucides dans l'Asie occidentale jusqu'en 1081</i></a>. pp. 106–109.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byzance+et+les+Turcs+Seldjoucides+dans+l%27Asie+occidentale+jusqu%27en+1081&rft.pages=106-109&rft.date=1913&rft.aulast=Laurent&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dm2y-eBZUMWgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecline+of+the+Byzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVryonis2008" class="citation book cs1">Vryonis, Speros (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0lxHPgAACAAJ"><i>The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the Process of Islamization from the Eleventh through the Fifteenth Century</i></a>. American Council of Learned Societies. p. 286. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781597404761" title="Special:BookSources/9781597404761"><bdi>9781597404761</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Decline+of+Medieval+Hellenism+in+Asia+Minor+and+the+Process+of+Islamization+from+the+Eleventh+through+the+Fifteenth+Century&rft.pages=286&rft.pub=American+Council+of+Learned+Societies&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9781597404761&rft.aulast=Vryonis&rft.aufirst=Speros&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0lxHPgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecline+of+the+Byzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=te2Jg-RTi4YC"><i>Conversion and Continuity: Indigenous Christian Communities in Islamic Lands, Eighth to Eighteenth Centuries</i></a>. 1990. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780888448095" title="Special:BookSources/9780888448095"><bdi>9780888448095</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conversion+and+Continuity%3A+Indigenous+Christian+Communities+in+Islamic+Lands%2C+Eighth+to+Eighteenth+Centuries&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=9780888448095&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dte2Jg-RTi4YC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecline+of+the+Byzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVryonis2008" class="citation book cs1">Vryonis, Speros (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0lxHPgAACAAJ"><i>The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the Process of Islamization from the Eleventh through the Fifteenth Century</i></a>. p. 164. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781597404761" title="Special:BookSources/9781597404761"><bdi>9781597404761</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Decline+of+Medieval+Hellenism+in+Asia+Minor+and+the+Process+of+Islamization+from+the+Eleventh+through+the+Fifteenth+Century&rft.pages=164&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9781597404761&rft.aulast=Vryonis&rft.aufirst=Speros&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0lxHPgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecline+of+the+Byzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDennis1977" class="citation book cs1">Dennis, George T. (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AdbgOudLnj4C"><i>The Letters of Manuel II Palaeologus</i></a>. p. 42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780884020684" title="Special:BookSources/9780884020684"><bdi>9780884020684</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Letters+of+Manuel+II+Palaeologus&rft.pages=42&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=9780884020684&rft.aulast=Dennis&rft.aufirst=George+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAdbgOudLnj4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecline+of+the+Byzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gXCl9P0vKS4C"><i>A History of Byzantium</i></a>. p. 353.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Byzantium&rft.pages=353&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgXCl9P0vKS4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecline+of+the+Byzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTreadgold1997" class="citation book cs1">Treadgold, Warren T. (October 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nYbnr5XVbzUC"><i>A History of the Byzantine State and Society</i></a>. pp. 813–814. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780804726306" title="Special:BookSources/9780804726306"><bdi>9780804726306</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Byzantine+State+and+Society&rft.pages=813-814&rft.date=1997-10&rft.isbn=9780804726306&rft.aulast=Treadgold&rft.aufirst=Warren+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnYbnr5XVbzUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecline+of+the+Byzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicol1993" class="citation book cs1">Nicol, Donald M. (14 October 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y2d6OHLqwEsC"><i>The Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261-1453</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-43991-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-43991-6"><bdi>978-0-521-43991-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Last+Centuries+of+Byzantium%2C+1261-1453&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1993-10-14&rft.isbn=978-0-521-43991-6&rft.aulast=Nicol&rft.aufirst=Donald+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dy2d6OHLqwEsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecline+of+the+Byzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAngold,_Michael1997" class="citation book cs1">Angold, Michael (1997). <i>The Byzantine Empire, 1025–1204</i>. Longman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-29468-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-29468-1"><bdi>0-582-29468-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Byzantine+Empire%2C+1025%E2%80%931204&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-582-29468-1&rft.au=Angold%2C+Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecline+of+the+Byzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaldon,_John2002" class="citation book cs1">Haldon, John (2002). <i>Byzantium – A History</i>. Tempus. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7524-2343-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7524-2343-6"><bdi>0-7524-2343-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byzantium+%E2%80%93+A+History&rft.pub=Tempus&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-7524-2343-6&rft.au=Haldon%2C+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecline+of+the+Byzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris,_Jonathan2003" class="citation book cs1">Harris, Jonathan (2003). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/byzantiumcrusade0000harr"><i>Byzantium and the Crusades</i></a></span>. Hambledon and London. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85285-298-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-85285-298-4"><bdi>1-85285-298-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byzantium+and+the+Crusades&rft.pub=Hambledon+and+London&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=1-85285-298-4&rft.au=Harris%2C+Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbyzantiumcrusade0000harr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecline+of+the+Byzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Alan Harvey, "Economic expansion in the Byzantine empire, 900–1200"</li> <li>John Haldon, "The Byzantine Wars"</li> <li>J.W. Birkenmeier, <i>The Development of the Komnenian Army 1081–1180</i></li> <li>Magdalino, Paul, <i>The empire of Manuel I Komnenos 1143–1180</i></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorwich,_John_Julius1998" class="citation book cs1">Norwich, John Julius (1998). <i>A Short History of Byzantium</i>. Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-025960-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-025960-0"><bdi>0-14-025960-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+Byzantium&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-14-025960-0&rft.au=Norwich%2C+John+Julius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecline+of+the+Byzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Runciman, Steven. <i>The Fall of Constantinople 1453</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1965.</li> <li>Vryonis, Speros. <i>The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the Process of Islamization from the Eleventh through the Fifteenth Century</i>. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output 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aria-labelledby="Byzantine_Empire_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks plainlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Byzantine_Empire_topics" title="Template:Byzantine Empire topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Byzantine_Empire_topics" title="Template talk:Byzantine Empire topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Byzantine_Empire_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Byzantine Empire topics"><abbr title="Edit this 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right;"><b>Preceding</b></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Later_Roman_Empire" title="Later Roman Empire">Later Roman Empire</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em;text-align:left; font-weight:normal"><div style="float: right;"><b>Early</b> <span style="font-size:85%;">(330–717)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Constantinian_and_Valentinianic_dynasties" title="Byzantine Empire under the Constantinian and Valentinianic dynasties">Constantinian–Valentinianic era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantinian_dynasty" title="Constantinian dynasty">Constantinian dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valentinianic_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Valentinianic dynasty">Valentinianic dynasty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Theodosian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Theodosian dynasty">Theodosian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Leonid_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Leonid dynasty">Leonid era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Justinian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty">Justinian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Heraclian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty">Heraclian era</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Dark_Ages" title="Byzantine Dark Ages">Byzantine Dark Ages</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty_Years%27_Anarchy" title="Twenty Years' Anarchy">Twenty Years' Anarchy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em;text-align:left; font-weight:normal"><div style="float: right;"><b>Middle</b> <span style="font-size:85%;">(717–1204)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Isaurian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Isaurian dynasty">Isaurian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Nikephorian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Nikephorian dynasty">Nikephorian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Amorian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Amorian dynasty">Amorian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Macedonian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty">Macedonian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Doukas_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Doukas dynasty">Doukid era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Komnenos_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty">Komnenian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Angelos_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Angelos dynasty">Angelid era</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em;text-align:left; font-weight:normal"><div style="float: right;"><b>Late</b> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1204–1453)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Constantinople" title="Sack of Constantinople">Sack of Constantinople</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Crusade" title="Fourth Crusade">Fourth Crusade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankokratia" title="Frankokratia">Frankokratia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin Empire</a></li></ul></li> <li>Byzantine successor states (<a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Nicaea" title="Empire of Nicaea">Nicaea</a> / <a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_Epirus" title="Despotate of Epirus">Epirus</a>–<a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Thessalonica" title="Empire of Thessalonica">Thessalonica</a> / <a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_the_Morea" title="Despotate of the Morea">Morea</a> / <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond" title="Empire of Trebizond">Trebizond</a>–<a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Theodoro" title="Principality of Theodoro">Theodoro</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Palaiologos_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty">Palaiologan era</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Decline of the Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em;text-align:left; font-weight:normal"><div style="float: right;">By modern region<br />or territory</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Albania" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Anatolia" title="Byzantine Anatolia">Anatolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Armenia" title="Byzantine Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Bulgaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Corsica" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Corsica">Corsica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Crete" title="Byzantine Crete">Crete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Cyprus" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Dalmatia" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Dalmatia">Dalmatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Greece" title="Byzantine Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Italy" title="Byzantine Italy">Italy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Sardinia" title="Byzantine Sardinia">Sardinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Sicily" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Sicily">Sicily</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Maghreb" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Maghreb">Maghreb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Malta" title="Byzantine Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Serbia" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Spain">Spain (Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands)</a></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Thrace" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Thrace">Thrace</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Governance" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Governance</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em">Central</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_emperors" title="List of Byzantine emperors">Emperors</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coronation_of_the_Byzantine_emperor" title="Coronation of the Byzantine emperor">Coronation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Byzantine_emperors" title="Family tree of Byzantine emperors">Family tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_empresses" title="List of Roman and Byzantine empresses">Empresses</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_bureaucracy_and_aristocracy" title="Byzantine bureaucracy and aristocracy">Imperial bureaucracy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Greek" title="Medieval Greek">Medieval Greek</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Senate" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Senate">Senate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Early</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefecture" title="Praetorian prefecture">Praetorian prefects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_officiorum" title="Magister officiorum">Magister officiorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comes_sacrarum_largitionum" title="Comes sacrarum largitionum">Comes sacrarum largitionum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comes_rerum_privatarum" title="Comes rerum privatarum">Comes rerum privatarum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestor_sacri_palatii" title="Quaestor sacri palatii">Quaestor sacri palatii</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Middle</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Logothetes_tou_dromou" title="Logothetes tou dromou">Logothetes tou dromou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakellarios" title="Sakellarios">Sakellarios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logothetes_tou_genikou" title="Logothetes tou genikou">Logothetes tou genikou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logothetes_tou_stratiotikou" title="Logothetes tou stratiotikou">Logothetes tou stratiotikou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakellarios" title="Sakellarios">Chartoularios tou sakelliou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vestiarion" title="Vestiarion">Chartoularios tou vestiariou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epi_tou_eidikou" title="Epi tou eidikou">Epi tou eidikou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protasekretis" title="Protasekretis">Protasekretis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epi_ton_deeseon" title="Epi ton deeseon">Epi ton deeseon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Late</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megas_logothetes" title="Megas logothetes">Megas logothetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesazon" title="Mesazon">Mesazon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Subdivisions_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Subdivisions of the Byzantine Empire">Provincial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Early</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefecture" title="Praetorian prefecture">Praetorian prefectures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_diocese" title="Roman diocese">Dioceses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_province#List_of_Late_Roman_provinces" title="Roman province">Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestura_exercitus" title="Quaestura exercitus">Quaestura exercitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exarchate_of_Ravenna" title="Exarchate of Ravenna">Exarchate of Ravenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exarchate_of_Africa" title="Exarchate of Africa">Exarchate of Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Middle</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theme_(Byzantine_district)" title="Theme (Byzantine district)">Themata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleisoura_(Byzantine_district)" title="Kleisoura (Byzantine district)">Kleisourai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bandon_(Byzantine_Empire)" title="Bandon (Byzantine Empire)">Bandon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katepano" title="Katepano">Catepanates</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Late</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kephale_(Byzantine_Empire)" title="Kephale (Byzantine Empire)">Kephale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despot_(court_title)" title="Despot (court title)">Despotates</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign relations of the Byzantine Empire">Foreign relations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Treaties_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Category:Treaties of the Byzantine Empire">Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_diplomats" title="Category:Byzantine diplomats">Diplomats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_diplomacy" title="Byzantine diplomacy">Diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_wars" title="List of Byzantine wars">Wars</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Military" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Military</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Army" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_army" title="Byzantine army">Army</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_battle_tactics" title="Byzantine battle tactics">Battle tactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_battles" title="List of Byzantine battles">Battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_beacon_system" title="Byzantine beacon system">Beacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_generals" title="Category:Byzantine generals">Generals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_mercenaries" title="Category:Byzantine mercenaries">Mercenaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_military_manuals" title="Byzantine military manuals">Military manuals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_units_and_formations_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Category:Military units and formations of the Byzantine Empire">Military units</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_revolts_and_civil_wars" title="List of Byzantine revolts and civil wars">Revolts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Early</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Roman_army" title="Late Roman army">Late Roman army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Roman_army" class="mw-redirect" title="East Roman army">East Roman army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foederati" title="Foederati">Foederati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bucellarii" title="Bucellarii">Bucellarii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholae_Palatinae" title="Scholae Palatinae">Scholae Palatinae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excubitors" title="Excubitors">Excubitors</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Middle</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theme_(Byzantine_district)" title="Theme (Byzantine district)">Themata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleisoura_(Byzantine_district)" title="Kleisoura (Byzantine district)">Kleisourai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourma" class="mw-redirect" title="Tourma">Tourma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Droungos" title="Droungos">Droungos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bandon_(Byzantine_Empire)" title="Bandon (Byzantine Empire)">Bandon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagma_(military)" title="Tagma (military)">Tagmata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_of_the_Schools" title="Domestic of the Schools">Domestic of the Schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hetaireia" title="Hetaireia">Hetaireia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akritai" title="Akritai">Akritai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varangian_Guard" title="Varangian Guard">Varangian Guard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Late</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_army_(Komnenian_era)" title="Byzantine army (Komnenian era)">Komnenian army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pronoia" title="Pronoia">Pronoia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vestiaritai" title="Vestiaritai">Vestiaritai</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_army_(Palaiologan_era)" title="Byzantine army (Palaiologan era)">Palaiologan army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allagion" title="Allagion">Allagion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paramonai" title="Paramonai">Paramonai</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_domestic" title="Grand domestic">Grand domestic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_navy" title="Byzantine navy">Navy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karabisianoi" title="Karabisianoi">Karabisianoi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theme_(Byzantine_district)" title="Theme (Byzantine district)">Maritime themata</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cibyrrhaeot_Theme" title="Cibyrrhaeot Theme">Cibyrrhaeot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea_(theme)" title="Aegean Sea (theme)">Aegean Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samos_(theme)" title="Samos (theme)">Samos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dromon" title="Dromon">Dromon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_fire" title="Greek fire">Greek fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Droungarios_of_the_Fleet" title="Droungarios of the Fleet">Droungarios of the Fleet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megas_doux" title="Megas doux">Megas doux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_admirals" title="Category:Byzantine admirals">Admirals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Naval_battles_involving_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Category:Naval battles involving the Byzantine Empire">Naval battles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Religion_and_law" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Religion and law</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Religion_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Category:Religion in the Byzantine Empire">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodoxy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Rite" title="Byzantine Rite">Byzantine Rite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hesychasm" title="Hesychasm">Hesychasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hayhurum" title="Hayhurum">Hayhurum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenical_Patriarchate_of_Constantinople" title="Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople">Patriarchate of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_saints" title="Category:Byzantine saints">Saints</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodox_Churches" title="Oriental Orthodox Churches">Oriental Orthodoxy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexandrian_Rite" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexandrian Rite">Alexandrian Rite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Rite" title="Armenian Rite">Armenian Rite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Syriac_Rite" title="West Syriac Rite">West Syriac Rite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miaphysitism" title="Miaphysitism">Miaphysitism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenical_council" title="Ecumenical council">Ecumenical councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monophysitism" title="Monophysitism">Monophysitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paulicianism" title="Paulicianism">Paulicianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Iconoclasm" title="Byzantine Iconoclasm">Iconoclasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">Great Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogomilism" title="Bogomilism">Bogomilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Athos" title="Mount Athos">Mount Athos</a></li> <li>Missionary activity <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Bulgaria" title="Christianization of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Moravia" title="Christianization of Moravia">Moravia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_the_Serbs" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianization of the Serbs">Serbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Christianization of Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire">Jews</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_law" title="Byzantine law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Codex_Theodosianus" title="Codex Theodosianus">Codex Theodosianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corpus_Juris_Civilis" title="Corpus Juris Civilis">Corpus Juris Civilis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_Justinian" title="Code of Justinian">Code of Justinian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecloga" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecloga">Ecloga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basilika" title="Basilika">Basilika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_Harmenopoulos" title="Constantine Harmenopoulos">Hexabiblos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_mutilation_in_Byzantine_culture" title="Political mutilation in Byzantine culture">Mutilation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Culture_and_society" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Culture and society</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_architecture" title="Byzantine architecture">Architecture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_secular_architecture" title="Category:Byzantine secular architecture">Secular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_sacred_architecture" title="Category:Byzantine sacred architecture">Sacred</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cross-in-square" title="Cross-in-square">Cross-in-square</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_domes" title="History of Roman and Byzantine domes">Domes</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basilica_Cistern" title="Basilica Cistern">Basilica Cistern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baths_of_Zeuxippus" title="Baths of Zeuxippus">Baths of Zeuxippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Blachernae" title="Palace of Blachernae">Blachernae Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chora_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Chora Church">Chora Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walls_of_Constantinople" title="Walls of Constantinople">City Walls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Palace_of_Constantinople" title="Great Palace of Constantinople">Great Palace of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hagia_Irene" title="Hagia Irene">Hagia Irene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hagia_Sophia" title="Hagia Sophia">Hagia Sophia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippodrome_of_Constantinople" title="Hippodrome of Constantinople">Hippodrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pammakaristos_Church" title="Pammakaristos Church">Pammakaristos Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_of_Anemas" title="Prison of Anemas">Prison of Anemas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Thessaloniki" title="Thessaloniki">Thessalonica</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Galerius_and_Rotunda" title="Arch of Galerius and Rotunda">Arch of Galerius and Rotunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Bath_(Thessaloniki)" title="Byzantine Bath (Thessaloniki)">Byzantine Bath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hagia_Sophia,_Thessaloniki" title="Hagia Sophia, Thessaloniki">Hagia Sophia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hagios_Demetrios" title="Hagios Demetrios">Hagios Demetrios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_Panagia_Chalkeon" title="Church of Panagia Chalkeon">Panagia Chalkeon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walls_of_Thessaloniki" title="Walls of Thessaloniki">Walls of Thessaloniki</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_San_Vitale" title="Basilica of San Vitale">San Vitale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_Sant%27Apollinare_in_Classe" title="Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe">Sant'Apollinare in Classe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_Sant%27Apollinare_Nuovo" title="Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo">Sant'Apollinare Nuovo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Other locations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Daphni_Monastery" title="Daphni Monastery">Daphni Monastery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hosios_Loukas" title="Hosios Loukas">Hosios Loukas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nea_Moni_of_Chios" title="Nea Moni of Chios">Nea Moni of Chios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Metropolis" title="Little Metropolis">Panagia Gorgoepikoos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Catherine%27s_Monastery" title="Saint Catherine's Monastery">Saint Catherine's Monastery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mystras" title="Mystras">Mystras</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_art" title="Byzantine art">Art</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Icon" title="Icon">Icons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_enamel" title="Byzantine enamel">Enamel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_glass" title="Byzantine glass">Glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosaic#Byzantine_mosaics" title="Mosaic">Mosaics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Byzantine_mosaics_in_the_Middle_East" title="Early Byzantine mosaics in the Middle East">Early Byzantine mosaics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_painters" title="Category:Byzantine painters">Painters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_art_(Byzantine)" title="Macedonian art (Byzantine)">Macedonian period art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_civilisation_in_the_12th_century" title="Byzantine civilisation in the 12th century">Komnenian renaissance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_economy" title="Byzantine economy">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_agriculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine agriculture">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_coinage" title="Byzantine coinage">Coinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_mints" title="Byzantine mints">Mints</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine trade">Trade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_silk" title="Byzantine silk">silk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_route_from_the_Varangians_to_the_Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks">Varangians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynatoi" title="Dynatoi">Dynatoi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_literature" title="Byzantine literature">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_novel" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine novel">Novel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acritic_songs" title="Acritic songs">Acritic songs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digenes_Akritas" title="Digenes Akritas">Digenes Akritas</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Romance" title="Alexander Romance">Alexander Romance</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_historians" title="Category:Byzantine historians">Historians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em">Everyday life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_calendar" title="Byzantine calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cities_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Cities in the Byzantine Empire">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_cuisine" title="Byzantine cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_dance" title="Byzantine dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_dress" title="Byzantine dress">Dress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_flags_and_insignia" title="Byzantine flags and insignia">Flags and insignia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_gardens" title="Byzantine gardens">Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenization_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Hellenization in the Byzantine Empire">Hellenization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_music" title="Byzantine music">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_lyra" title="Byzantine lyra">Lyra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Octoechos" title="Octoechos">Octoechos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_people" title="Category:Byzantine people">People</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Greeks" title="Byzantine Greeks">Byzantine Greeks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Women in the Byzantine Empire">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Slavery in the Byzantine Empire">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Death in the Byzantine Empire">Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_units_of_measurement" title="Byzantine units of measurement">Units of measurement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_science" title="Byzantine science">Science</a></li><li>Learning</li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_Greek_encyclopedias" title="Category:Byzantine Greek encyclopedias">Encyclopedias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Library_of_Constantinople" title="Imperial Library of Constantinople">Imperial Library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_inventions" title="List of Byzantine inventions">Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_medicine" title="Byzantine medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_philosophy" title="Byzantine philosophy">Philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_rhetoric" title="Byzantine rhetoric">Rhetoric</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_scholars" title="List of Byzantine scholars">Scholars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_university" title="Byzantine university">University</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Constantinople" title="University of Constantinople">University of Constantinople</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Impact" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Impact</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_commonwealth" title="Byzantine commonwealth">Byzantine commonwealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_studies" title="Byzantine studies">Byzantine studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_museums" title="Category:Byzantine museums">Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantinism" title="Byzantinism">Byzantinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Revival_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Revival architecture">Neo-Byzantine architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_scholars_in_the_Renaissance" title="Greek scholars in the Renaissance">Greek scholars in the Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succession_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Succession of the Roman Empire">Third Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megali_Idea" title="Megali Idea">Megali Idea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Byzantine_Empire%E2%80%93related_articles" class="mw-redirect" title="Index of Byzantine Empire–related articles">Index</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Outline of the Byzantine Empire">Outline</a></li><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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