CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Western literature - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"18aea881-a940-44d0-b459-ba24242130cd","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Western_literature","wgTitle":"Western literature","wgCurRevisionId":1258957752,"wgRevisionId":1258957752,"wgArticleId":2406845,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list","CS1 maint: location missing publisher","CS1 errors: unsupported parameter","CS1 errors: missing periodical","Articles with short description","Short description matches Wikidata","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from June 2022","Commons category link is on Wikidata","Western culture","Literature by continent","European literature"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en", "wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Western_literature","wgRelevantArticleId":2406845,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":30000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q2731060","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":[ "brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP", "ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Western literature - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_literature"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_literature&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_literature"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Western_literature rootpage-Western_literature skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Western+literature" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Western+literature" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Western+literature" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Western+literature" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-16th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#16th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>16th century</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-16th_century-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle 16th century subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-16th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Renaissance_and_Reformation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Renaissance_and_Reformation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Renaissance and Reformation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Renaissance_and_Reformation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-England" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#England"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>England</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-England-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Golden_Age" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Golden_Age"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Golden Age</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Golden_Age-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Spain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.1</span> <span>Spain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-17th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#17th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>17th century</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-17th_century-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle 17th century subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-17th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Jacobean_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jacobean_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Jacobean era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jacobean_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-England_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#England_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>England</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-England_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-18th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#18th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>18th century</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-18th_century-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle 18th century subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-18th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Enlightenment_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Enlightenment_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Enlightenment era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Enlightenment_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Netherlands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Netherlands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Netherlands</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Netherlands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>France</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spain_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spain_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3</span> <span>Spain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spain_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.4</span> <span>Russia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sublime_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sublime_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Sublime era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sublime_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Spain_3" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spain_3"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Spain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spain_3-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>19th century</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-19th_century-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle 19th century subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Romantic_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Romantic_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Romantic era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Romantic_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Italy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Italy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.1</span> <span>Italy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Italy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Britain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Britain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.2</span> <span>Britain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Britain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Western literature</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 22 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-22" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">22 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geskiedenis_van_Westerse_literatuur" title="Geskiedenis van Westerse literatuur – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Geskiedenis van Westerse literatuur" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%A8%E1%8A%A0%E1%8B%8D%E1%88%AE%E1%8D%93_%E1%88%A5%E1%8A%90%E1%8D%85%E1%88%81%E1%8D%8D" title="የአውሮፓ ሥነፅሁፍ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="የአውሮፓ ሥነፅሁፍ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%AF%D8%A8_%D8%A3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%8A" title="أدب أوروبي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أدب أوروبي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q%C9%99rb_%C9%99d%C9%99biyyat%C4%B1" title="Qərb ədəbiyyatı – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Qərb ədəbiyyatı" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literatura_europea" title="Literatura europea – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Literatura europea" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literatura_europea" title="Literatura europea – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Literatura europea" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/E%C5%ADropa_literaturo" title="Eŭropa literaturo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Eŭropa literaturo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europako_literatura" title="Europako literatura – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Europako literatura" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litt%C3%A9rature_europ%C3%A9enne" title="Littérature européenne – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Littérature européenne" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literatura_europea" title="Literatura europea – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Literatura europea" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D6%80%D6%87%D5%B4%D5%BF%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A3%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Արևմտյան գրականություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Արևմտյան գրականություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rietumu_literat%C5%ABra" title="Rietumu literatūra – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Rietumu literatūra" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europeisk_litteratur" title="Europeisk litteratur – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Europeisk litteratur" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literatura_da_Europa" title="Literatura da Europa – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Literatura da Europa" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Западная литература – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Западная литература" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Let%C3%ABrsia_per%C3%ABndimore" title="Letërsia perëndimore – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Letërsia perëndimore" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B6%E0%B6%A7%E0%B7%84%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BB_%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%84%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B6%BA" title="බටහිර සාහිත්‍යය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="බටහිර සාහිත්‍යය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eur%C3%B3pska_literat%C3%BAra" title="Európska literatúra – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Európska literatúra" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panitikang_Kanluranin" title="Panitikang Kanluranin – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Panitikang Kanluranin" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bat%C4%B1_edebiyat%C4%B1" title="Batı edebiyatı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Batı edebiyatı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C4%83n_h%E1%BB%8Dc_ph%C6%B0%C6%A1ng_T%C3%A2y" title="Văn học phương Tây – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Văn học phương Tây" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E6%96%B9%E6%96%87%E5%AD%B8%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96" title="西方文學理論 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="西方文學理論" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q2731060#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Western_literature" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Western_literature" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Western_literature"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_literature&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_literature&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Western_literature"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_literature&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_literature&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Western_literature" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Western_literature" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_literature&oldid=1258957752" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_literature&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Western_literature&id=1258957752&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FWestern_literature"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FWestern_literature"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Western_literature&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_literature&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Literature_of_Europe" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q2731060" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Literature written in the context of Western culture in the languages of Europe</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the literary genre featuring stories set on the <a href="/wiki/American_frontier" title="American frontier">American frontier</a>, see <a href="/wiki/Western_fiction" title="Western fiction">Western fiction</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#ccccff;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_literature" title="History of literature">History of literature</a><br /><span class="nobold">by region or country</span></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> General topics</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.8em;"> <table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_basic_literature_topics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of basic literature topics">Basic topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_literary_terms" class="mw-redirect" title="List of literary terms">Literary terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_criticism" title="Literary criticism">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_theory" title="Literary theory">Theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_literature" title="World literature">World literature</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-top:1px #aaa solid; font-weight:normal; font-style:italic"> Types</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">Epic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novel" title="Novel">Novel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prose" title="Prose">Prose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance_(heroic_literature)" class="mw-redirect" title="Romance (heroic literature)">Romance</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-top:1px #aaa solid; font-weight:normal; font-style:italic"> Lists</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_books" class="mw-redirect" title="List of books">Books</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_authors" class="mw-redirect" title="List of authors">Authors</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Middle Eastern</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.8em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_literature" title="Ancient literature">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_literature" title="Sumerian literature">Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonian literature">Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_literature" title="Hebrew literature">Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Pahlavi literature">Pahlavi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_literature" title="Persian literature">Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_literature" title="Arabic literature">Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_literature" title="Israeli literature">Israeli</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">European</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.8em;"> <table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_literature" title="Armenian literature">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_literature" title="Greek literature">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Medieval_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Medieval literature">Early Medieval</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matter_of_Rome" title="Matter of Rome">Matter of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matter_of_France" title="Matter of France">Matter of France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matter_of_Britain" title="Matter of Britain">Matter of Britain</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_literature" title="Medieval literature">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_literature" title="Renaissance literature">Renaissance</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-top:1px #aaa solid; font-weight:normal; font-style:italic"> Modern</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poststructuralism" class="mw-redirect" title="Poststructuralism">Poststructuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-colonialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-colonialism">Post-colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypertext_fiction" title="Hypertext fiction">Hypertexts</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> North and South American</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.8em;"> <table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_literature" title="American literature">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_literature" title="Canadian literature">Canadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamaican_literature" title="Jamaican literature">Jamaican</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-top:1px #aaa solid; font-weight:normal; font-style:italic"> <a href="/wiki/Latin_American_literature" title="Latin American literature">Latin American</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argentine_literature" title="Argentine literature">Argentine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazilian_literature" title="Brazilian literature">Brazilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilean_literature" title="Chilean literature">Chilean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colombian_literature" title="Colombian literature">Colombian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_literature" title="Cuban literature">Cuban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_literature" title="Mexican literature">Mexican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peruvian_literature" title="Peruvian literature">Peruvian</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Oceanian_literature" title="Oceanian literature">Oceanian</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.8em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_literature" title="Australian literature">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_literature" title="New Zealand literature">New Zealand</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Asian_literature" title="Asian literature">Asian</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.8em;"> <table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal; font-style:italic"> East</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_literature" title="Chinese literature">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_literature" title="Japanese literature">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_literature" title="Korean literature">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_literature" title="Mongolian literature">Mongolian</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal; font-style:italic;border-top:1px #aaa solid;"> Southeast</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_literature" title="Burmese literature">Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_literature" title="Philippine literature">Philippine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_literature" title="Thai literature">Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_literature" title="Vietnamese literature">Vietnamese</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal; font-style:italic;border-top:1px #aaa solid;"> South</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Meitei_literature" title="Ancient Meitei literature">Ancient Meitei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telugu_literature" title="Telugu literature">Telugu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_literature" title="Tamil literature">Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_literature" title="Sanskrit literature">Sanskrit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_literature" title="Indian literature">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_literature" title="Pakistani literature">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assamese_literature" title="Assamese literature">Assamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_literature" title="Bengali literature">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_literature" title="Gujarati literature">Gujarati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindi_literature" title="Hindi literature">Hindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kannada_literature" title="Kannada literature">Kannada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashmiri_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Kashmiri literature">Kashmiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_literature" title="Malayalam literature">Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marathi_literature" title="Marathi literature">Marathi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meitei_literature" title="Meitei literature">Modern Meitei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepali_literature" title="Nepali literature">Nepali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajasthani_literature" title="Rajasthani literature">Rajasthani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sindhi_literature" title="Sindhi literature">Sindhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urdu_literature" title="Urdu literature">Urdu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_writing_in_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian writing in English">Indian writing in English</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/African_literature" title="African literature">African</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.8em;"> <table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal; font-style:italic"> North</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_literature" title="Egyptian literature">Egyptian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_literature" title="Ancient Egyptian literature">Ancient Egyptian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moroccan_literature" title="Moroccan literature">Moroccan</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal; font-style:italic;border-top:1px #aaa solid;"> Sub-Saharan</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_literature" title="Nigerian literature">Nigerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_literature" title="South African literature">South African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swahili_literature" title="Swahili literature">Swahili</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Related topics</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.8em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_fiction" title="History of science fiction">History of science fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_literature" title="List of years in literature">List of years in literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Literature_by_country" title="Category:Literature by country">Literature by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_theatre" title="History of theatre">History of theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ideas" class="mw-redirect" title="History of ideas">History of ideas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_history" title="Intellectual history">Intellectual history</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="background:#ddddff;"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg/16px-Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg/24px-Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg/32px-Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="309" data-file-height="274" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Literature" title="Portal:Literature">Literature portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_literature_by_region_or_country" title="Template:History of literature by region or country"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_literature_by_region_or_country" title="Template talk:History of literature by region or country"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_literature_by_region_or_country" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of literature by region or country"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Western literature</b>, also known as <b>European literature</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-EB_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is the <a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">literature</a> written in the context of <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western culture</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">languages of Europe</a>, and is shaped by the periods in which they were conceived, with each period containing prominent western authors, poets, and pieces of literature. </p><p>The best of Western literature is considered to be the <a href="/wiki/Western_canon" title="Western canon">Western canon</a>. The list of works in the Western canon varies according to the critic's opinions on <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western culture</a> and the relative importance of its defining characteristics. Different literary periods held great influence on the literature of Western and European countries, with movements and political changes impacting the prose and poetry of the period. The 16th Century is known for the creation of Renaissance literature,<sup id="cite_ref-:13_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while the 17th century was influenced by both Baroque and Jacobean forms.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 18th century progressed into a period known as the Enlightenment Era for many western countries.<sup id="cite_ref-:19_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:19-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This period of military and political advancement influenced the style of literature created by French, Russian and Spanish literary figures.<sup id="cite_ref-:19_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:19-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 19th century was known as the Romantic era, in which the style of writing was influenced by the political issues of the century, and differed from the previous classicist form.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Western literature includes written works in many languages: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_literature" title="Albanian literature">Albanian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_literature" title="Armenian literature">Armenian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_literature" title="American literature">American literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aromanian_literature" title="Aromanian literature">Aromanian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_literature" title="Australian literature">Australian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_literature" title="Austrian literature">Austrian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_literature" title="Basque literature">Basque literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_literature" title="Belarusian literature">Belarusian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_literature" title="Belgian literature">Belgian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Bosnian literature">Bosnian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_literature" title="British literature">British literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_literature" title="Bulgarian literature">Bulgarian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_literature" title="Canadian literature">Canadian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalan_literature" title="Catalan literature">Catalan literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatian_literature" title="Croatian literature">Croatian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_literature" title="Cypriot literature">Cypriot literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_literature" title="Czech literature">Czech literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_literature" title="Danish literature">Danish literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch literature">Dutch literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_literature" title="English literature">English literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_literature" title="Estonian literature">Estonian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faroese_literature" title="Faroese literature">Faroese literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_literature" title="Finnish literature">Finnish literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_literature" title="French literature">French literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_literature" title="Gaelic literature">Gaelic literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_literature" title="German literature">German literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_literature" title="Greek literature">Greek literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Ancient Greek literature</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_literature" title="Georgian literature">Georgian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_literature" title="Hungarian literature">Hungarian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_literature" title="Icelandic literature">Icelandic literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_literature" title="Irish literature">Irish literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_literature" title="Italian literature">Italian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashubian_literature" title="Kashubian literature">Kashubian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_literature" title="Latvian literature">Latvian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_literature" title="Lithuanian literature">Lithuanian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourgian_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Luxembourgian literature">Luxembourgian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_literature" title="Macedonian literature">Macedonian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_literature" title="Maltese literature">Maltese literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moldovan_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Moldovan literature">Moldovan literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_literature" title="New Zealand literature">New Zealand literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Northern_Ireland" title="Literature of Northern Ireland">Northern Irish literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_literature" title="Norwegian literature">Norwegian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_literature" title="Polish literature">Polish literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_literature" title="Portuguese literature">Portuguese literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_literature" title="Romanian literature">Romanian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_literature" title="Russian literature">Russian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_literature" title="Scottish literature">Scottish literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_literature" title="Serbian literature">Serbian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_literature" title="Slovak literature">Slovak literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovene_literature" title="Slovene literature">Slovene literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorbian_literature" title="Sorbian literature">Sorbian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_literature" title="Spanish literature">Spanish literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_literature" title="Swedish literature">Swedish literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_literature" title="Swiss literature">Swiss literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_literature" title="Ukrainian literature">Ukrainian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh-language_literature" title="Welsh-language literature">Welsh literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_literature" title="Yiddish literature">Yiddish literature</a></li></ul> </div> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="16th_century">16th century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_literature&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: 16th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Renaissance_and_Reformation">Renaissance and Reformation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_literature&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Renaissance and Reformation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="England">England</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_literature&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: England"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Britain" title="Early modern Britain">Early modern England</a> was the time of reformation, in which a "<a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestant</a> aesthetic" was developed, while the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a> attempted to separate their notoriety with the <a href="/wiki/Pope" title="Pope">Pope</a> and move away from the teachings of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Johannine_literature" title="Johannine literature">Johannine</a> literature, being "hymnic, densely troped and symbolic, structured, inspired",<sup id="cite_ref-:13_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> became the inspiration for many poets of the period. A group of poets bloomed from this reformation, the rejection of the Pope and moving away from Roman Catholic Church.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Amongst these were the most significant <a href="/wiki/John_Donne" title="John Donne">John Donne</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Herbert" title="George Herbert">George Herbert</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Traherne" title="Thomas Traherne">Thomas Traherne</a>, and constituted a group of poets known as "revelatory poetics".<sup id="cite_ref-:13_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Book_of_Common_Prayer,_1549_(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Book_of_Common_Prayer%2C_1549_%282%29.jpg/198px-Book_of_Common_Prayer%2C_1549_%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="198" height="306" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Book_of_Common_Prayer%2C_1549_%282%29.jpg/297px-Book_of_Common_Prayer%2C_1549_%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Book_of_Common_Prayer%2C_1549_%282%29.jpg/396px-Book_of_Common_Prayer%2C_1549_%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1296" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>The first <i>Book of Common Prayer</i>, published 1549</figcaption></figure> <p>The narrative which grew more prominent in English literature due to this movement towards Johannine theology incorporated an increase of spiritual themes, with "supernatural forces" and an "enchantment narrative" guiding the writings of the time.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Johannine_literature" title="Johannine literature">Johannine</a> theology focused on the "divine" nature of <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Christ</a> and disregards the materialistic and human aspect acknowledged in Catholic texts.<sup id="cite_ref-:14_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:14-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been argued that the writings of Saint John the Evangelist, which was considered an integral part of Johannine theology, coincided with <a href="/wiki/Pauline_Christianity" title="Pauline Christianity">Pauline theology</a> during the early modern era to hold influence over the English literature of the time.<sup id="cite_ref-:14_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:14-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Author Paul Cefalu claims this form of "high Christology" was seen in the writings of John Donne, when he states that the "Gospel of Saint John containes all Divinity".<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, it is argued by author P. M. Oliver that the theology which was indoctrinated in the poetry of revelatory poets including John Donne was expanded on and created by the poets themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Prominent forms of literature which shaped and contributed to this era of Reformation include significantly structured prose and poetry, including the <a href="/wiki/Spenserian_stanza" title="Spenserian stanza">Spenserian stanza</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-:15_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Sonnet" title="Sonnet">sonnet</a>, which is a form of poem easily distinguishable by its fourteen-line form with a structured rhyme format;<sup id="cite_ref-:15_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the pastoral mode, a genre of literature which is significantly attributed to English poet <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Spenser" title="Edmund Spenser">Edmund Spenser</a>, who created collections of poetry which portrays an idealistic version of rural living.<sup id="cite_ref-:16_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:16-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Spenser has been "dubbed 'the English <a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Virgil</a>'" due to his influence on this particular genre.<sup id="cite_ref-:16_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:16-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Significant texts from 16th-century early modern England were primarily religious in context and include: </p> <ul><li>The Great Bible, edited by Myles Coverdale.<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Obras_de_Bosc%C3%A1n_y_Garcilaso_de_la_Vega.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Obras_de_Bosc%C3%A1n_y_Garcilaso_de_la_Vega.jpeg/220px-Obras_de_Bosc%C3%A1n_y_Garcilaso_de_la_Vega.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="289" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Obras_de_Bosc%C3%A1n_y_Garcilaso_de_la_Vega.jpeg/330px-Obras_de_Bosc%C3%A1n_y_Garcilaso_de_la_Vega.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Obras_de_Bosc%C3%A1n_y_Garcilaso_de_la_Vega.jpeg/440px-Obras_de_Bosc%C3%A1n_y_Garcilaso_de_la_Vega.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="659" data-file-height="866" /></a><figcaption>Cover of <i>The works of Boscán and Garcilaso de la Vega in 4 books</i>, published in 1543</figcaption></figure></li> <li>The first <i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Common_Prayer_(1549)" title="Book of Common Prayer (1549)">Book of Common Prayer</a></i>, published on January 15, 1549, after being accepted by the House of Lords.<sup id="cite_ref-:17_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:17-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The book, due to the political and authoritative changes of the time of the reformation, attempted to provide a "compromise" between Protestant and Roman Catholic beliefs.<sup id="cite_ref-:17_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:17-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The author of the book, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cranmer" title="Thomas Cranmer">Thomas Cranmer</a>, assisted in creating a standard version of the modern English language.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Golden_Age">Golden Age</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_literature&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Golden Age"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Spain">Spain</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_literature&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Spain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Golden_Age" title="Spanish Golden Age">Spanish Golden Age</a> spanned over the course of the 16th century and was a time of development and acceleration in the arts and literature in Spain. This acceleration of <a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">poetry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Drama" title="Drama">drama</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prose" title="Prose">prose</a> forms of literature was partly due to the increase in contact that Spain gained to other European nations including Italy.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this time, a prominent Spanish poet arose named <a href="/wiki/Garcilaso_de_la_Vega_(poet)" title="Garcilaso de la Vega (poet)">Garcilaso de la Vega</a>. He utilised <a href="/wiki/List_of_narrative_techniques" title="List of narrative techniques">literary devices</a> seen in foreign nations within his work, and was able to, therefore, replace the <a href="/wiki/Stanza" title="Stanza">stanza</a> forms originally used in Spain with Italian meters and stanza forms.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The poet was influenced by <a href="/wiki/Petrarchan_sonnet" title="Petrarchan sonnet">Petrarchan</a> imagery and the works of <a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Virgil</a>, and was used as inspiration by subsequent poets of the time.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Garcilaso integrated a variety of mythological allusions into his works, in which he took inspiration from the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">Italian Renaissance</a> of the mid-16th century.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="17th_century">17th century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_literature&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: 17th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg/320px-Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg" decoding="async" width="320" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg/480px-Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg/640px-Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1993" data-file-height="1300" /></a><figcaption>The Bible, displayed in Malmesbury Abbey, Wiltshire, England</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Prose" title="Prose">Prose</a> and poetic literature within western regions, most prominently in England during the early <a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">modern era</a>, had a distinct <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Biblical</a> influence<sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which only began to be rejected during the Enlightenment period of the 18th century.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> European poetry during the 17th century tended to meditate on or reference the scriptures and teachings of the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a>, an example being orator <a href="/wiki/George_Herbert" title="George Herbert">George Herbert</a>'s "The Holy Scriptures (II)", in which Herbert relies heavily on biblical ligatures to create his <a href="/wiki/Sonnet" title="Sonnet">sonnets</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jacobean_era">Jacobean era</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_literature&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Jacobean era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="England_2">England</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_literature&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: England"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Donne_BBC_News.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/John_Donne_BBC_News.jpg/245px-John_Donne_BBC_News.jpg" decoding="async" width="245" height="307" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/John_Donne_BBC_News.jpg/368px-John_Donne_BBC_News.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/John_Donne_BBC_News.jpg/491px-John_Donne_BBC_News.jpg 2x" data-file-width="617" data-file-height="772" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of English metaphysical John Donne</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Jacobean_era" title="Jacobean era">Jacobean</a> period of 17th-century England gave birth to a group of <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysic</a> literary figures,<sup id="cite_ref-:20_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:20-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> metaphysical referring to a branch of philosophy which tries to bring meaning to and explain reality using broader and larger concepts.<sup id="cite_ref-:20_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:20-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In order to do this, the use of literary features including conceits was common, in which the writer makes obscure comparisons in order to convey a message or persuade a point.<sup id="cite_ref-:20_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:20-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The term <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a> was coined by poet <a href="/wiki/John_Dryden" title="John Dryden">John Dryden</a>, and during 1779 its meaning was extended to represent a group of poets of the time, then called "<a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_poets" title="Metaphysical poets">metaphysical poets</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-:2_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Major poets of the time included <a href="/wiki/John_Donne" title="John Donne">John Donne</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Marvell" title="Andrew Marvell">Andrew Marvell</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_Herbert" title="George Herbert">George Herbert</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These poets used wit and high intellectual standards while drawing from nature to reveal insights about emotion and rejected the romantic attributes of the <a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_era" title="Elizabethan era">Elizabethan period</a> to birth a more analytical and introspective form of writing.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A common literary device during the 17th century was the use of metaphysical <a href="/wiki/Conceit" class="mw-redirect" title="Conceit">conceits</a>, in which the poet uses "unorthodox language" to describe a relatable concept. It is beneficial when trying to bring light to concepts that are difficult to explain with more common imagery.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/John_Donne" title="John Donne">John Donne</a> was a prominent metaphysical poet of the 17th century. Donne's poetry explored the pleasures of life through strong use of conceits and emotive language. Donne adopted a more simplistic vernacular compared to the common <a href="/wiki/Petrarchan_sonnet" title="Petrarchan sonnet">Petrarchan</a> diction, with imagery derived mainly from God.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Donne was known for the metaphysical <a href="/wiki/Conceit" class="mw-redirect" title="Conceit">conceits</a> integrated in his poetry. He used themes of religion, death and love to inspire the conceits he constructed. A famous conceit is observed in his well-known poem "<a href="/wiki/The_Flea_(poem)" title="The Flea (poem)">The Flea</a>" in which the flea is utilised to describe the bond between Donne and his lover, explaining how just as multiple bloods are within one flea, their bond is inseparable.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="18th_century">18th century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_literature&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: 18th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Enlightenment_era">Enlightenment era</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_literature&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Enlightenment era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment era</a> was a time of progression which spanned over the 18th century across many western countries.<sup id="cite_ref-:21_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:21-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Upon recent years, this time of "enlightenment" was split into two degrees of progression, both a "moderate" and "radical" form, and was observed to be less harmonious across regions in its nature than previously thought.<sup id="cite_ref-:21_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:21-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Literature has been produced to comment on the different versions of "Enlightenment" that spawned across Europe during the 18th century. Henry Farnham stated in his book <i>The Enlightenment in America</i> that the "Moderate Enlightenment […] preaches balance, order and religious compromise", whereas the "Revolutionary Enlightenment" attempted to "construct a new heaven and earth out of the destruction of the old".<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Netherlands">Netherlands</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_literature&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Netherlands"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spinoza_Tractatus_Theologico-Politicus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Spinoza_Tractatus_Theologico-Politicus.jpg/219px-Spinoza_Tractatus_Theologico-Politicus.jpg" decoding="async" width="219" height="323" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Spinoza_Tractatus_Theologico-Politicus.jpg/329px-Spinoza_Tractatus_Theologico-Politicus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Spinoza_Tractatus_Theologico-Politicus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="437" data-file-height="644" /></a><figcaption><i>Tractatus Theologico-Politicus</i> by Spinoza</figcaption></figure> <p>Significant texts which shaped this literary period include <i><a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Theologico-Politicus" title="Tractatus Theologico-Politicus">Tractatus Theologico-Politicus</a></i>, an anonymously published treatise in Amsterdam in which the author, <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a>, rejected the Jewish and Christian religions for their lack of depth in teaching. Spinoza discussed higher levels of philosophy in his treatise, which he suggested was only understood by elitists.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This text is one of many during this period which attributed to the increasing "anti-religious" support during the time of Enlightenment.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the book held great influence, other writers of the time rejected Spinoza's views, including theologian Lambert van Valthuysen.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_15-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="France">France</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_literature&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: France"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The time of enlightenment and advancement meant that both sacred and secular authors were pushing women to be at a higher level of literary knowledgeability.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> France was attempting to improve the education of young women and therefore have this be seen as a reflection of the advancement of society. This led to the emergence of a new genre of literature in 18th-century France of books of conduct for girls and unmarried women.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pieces by authors including Marie-Antoinette Lenoir, <a href="/wiki/Louise_d%27%C3%89pinay" title="Louise d'Épinay">Louise d'Épinay</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anne-Th%C3%A9r%C3%A8se_de_Marguenat_de_Courcelles" title="Anne-Thérèse de Marguenat de Courcelles">Anne-Thérèse de Lambert</a> all shared the same role of shaping young French women to lead successful and progressive lives.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, this form of education for women during the 18th century has been observed to be more oppressive than empowering. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Spain_2">Spain</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_literature&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Spain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Europe,_1700%E2%80%941714.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Europe%2C_1700%E2%80%941714.png/344px-Europe%2C_1700%E2%80%941714.png" decoding="async" width="344" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Europe%2C_1700%E2%80%941714.png/516px-Europe%2C_1700%E2%80%941714.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Europe%2C_1700%E2%80%941714.png/688px-Europe%2C_1700%E2%80%941714.png 2x" data-file-width="1590" data-file-height="1086" /></a><figcaption>Europe from 1700 to 1714, during the time of the Spanish Succession and the Enlightenment era</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of Spanish Succession</a> (1701–1714) led to the French control over Spain. This influenced their cultural identity and, therefore, the Enlightenment period held an impact on Spanish literature in the 18th century.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The court of Madrid during the 18th century saw an increase in influence from the French and the Italian,<sup id="cite_ref-:6_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with literary influences derived increasingly from authors during the English Enlightenment period.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> English authors who are stated to hold influence on Spanish "Ilustrados" include <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Edmund Burke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edward_Young" title="Edward Young">Edward Young</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> New takes on literature began to emerge during this time, led by poets including <a href="/wiki/Ignacio_de_Luz%C3%A1n" title="Ignacio de Luzán">Ignacio de Luzán Claramunt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gaspar_Melchor_de_Jovellanos" title="Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos">Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos</a>, who contributed greatly to the <a href="/wiki/Neoclassicism" title="Neoclassicism">neoclassical</a> movement of the 18th century through drama and poetic forms of literature.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only until the 20th century, however, was the Spanish Enlightenment period properly acknowledged by scholars, with past research regarding the <a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Spain" title="Enlightenment in Spain">Spanish Enlightenment</a> period as a "time of foreign imitation".<sup id="cite_ref-:7_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Spanish Enlightenment held impact on women in Spain, with more women publishing literature, becoming members as well as subscribers to publications including the <i>Semanario de Salamanca</i> and the <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diario_de_Madrid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Diario de Madrid (page does not exist)">Diario de Madrid</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diario_de_Madrid" class="extiw" title="es:Diario de Madrid">es</a>]</span></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_23-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Numerous women who contributed to the Spanish Enlightenment period include poet <a href="/wiki/Margarita_Hickey" title="Margarita Hickey">Margarita Hickey</a>, author <a href="/wiki/Frasquita_Larrea" title="Frasquita Larrea">Frasquita Larrea</a>, and poet <a href="/wiki/Mar%C3%ADa_Gertrudis_Hore" title="María Gertrudis Hore">María Gertrudis Hore</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_23-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Russia">Russia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_literature&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Russia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Feofan_Prokopovich.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Feofan_Prokopovich.jpg/223px-Feofan_Prokopovich.jpg" decoding="async" width="223" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Feofan_Prokopovich.jpg/336px-Feofan_Prokopovich.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Feofan_Prokopovich.jpg/447px-Feofan_Prokopovich.jpg 2x" data-file-width="475" data-file-height="576" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of Feofan Prokopovich</figcaption></figure> <p>During the 18th century, Russia was experiencing expansions in military and geographical control, a key facet of the Enlightenment period. This is reflected in the literature of the time period.<sup id="cite_ref-:22_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Satire and the panegyric had influenced the development of Russian literature as seen in the Russian literary figures of the time including <a href="/wiki/Feofan_Prokopovich" class="mw-redirect" title="Feofan Prokopovich">Feofan Prokopovich</a>, Kantemir, Derzhavin and <a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Karamzin" title="Nikolay Karamzin">Karamzin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:22_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sublime_era">Sublime era</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_literature&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Sublime era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Spain_3">Spain</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_literature&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Spain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Spanish literature of the 18th century, apart from being influenced by the Enlightenment period, was influenced by the literary concept of the "<a href="/wiki/Sublime_(philosophy)" title="Sublime (philosophy)">sublime</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-:8_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The "sublime" was the linkage between Spanish Neoclassical poetry and Romantic poetry prevalent during the 18th century, and was a concept of literary, <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetorical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophical</a> value.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Longinus described the literary devices that the sublime creates as those that allowed the reader to experience something similar to the speaker. He had created a style of language that was not used to persuade, but merely to transport the reader into the mind of the speaker.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="19th_century">19th century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_literature&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: 19th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Romantic_era">Romantic era</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_literature&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Romantic era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Italy">Italy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_literature&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Italy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:I_promessi_sposi-008.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/I_promessi_sposi-008.jpg/200px-I_promessi_sposi-008.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="262" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/I_promessi_sposi-008.jpg/300px-I_promessi_sposi-008.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/I_promessi_sposi-008.jpg/400px-I_promessi_sposi-008.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1237" data-file-height="1618" /></a><figcaption>The frontispiece of the second edition of a novel titled <i><a href="/wiki/The_Betrothed_(Manzoni_novel)" title="The Betrothed (Manzoni novel)">The Betrothed</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Manzoni" title="Alessandro Manzoni">Alessandro Manzoni</a>, 1840–1842. Considered one of the greatest works of Manzoni.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romantic era</a> for literature was at its pinnacle during the 19th century and was a period which influenced western literature. Italian writers of the 19th century, including the likes of <a href="/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi">Leopardi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Manzoni" title="Alessandro Manzoni">Alessandro Manzoni</a>, detested being grouped into a "category" of writing.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, Italy was home to many isolated literary figures, with no unambiguous meaning for the term "Romanticism" itself. This was explained in the writings of Pietro Borsieri, in which he depicted the term Romanticism as being a literary movement that was self-defined by the writers.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Contrastingly, it was noted by writers of the time, including <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Acerbi" title="Giuseppe Acerbi">Giuseppe Acerbi</a>, how Italian Romantics were merely mimicking the trends seen in foreign nations in a hasty way which lacked the depth of foreign writers. Authors including <a href="/wiki/Ludovico_di_Breme" title="Ludovico di Breme">Ludovico di Breme</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ermes_Visconti&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ermes Visconti (page does not exist)">Ermes Visconti</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ermes_Visconti" class="extiw" title="it:Ermes Visconti">it</a>]</span> and <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Berchet" title="Giovanni Berchet">Giovanni Berchet</a> did classify themselves as Romantics, however they were critiqued by others, including Gina Martegiani, who wrote in her essay "Il Romanticismo Italiano Non Esiste" of 1908 that the authors who considered themselves Romantics only created two-dimensional imitations of the works of <a href="/wiki/German_Romanticism" title="German Romanticism">German Romantic</a> authors.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The poetry of the Romantic era of Italy was focused greatly on the motif of nature.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Romantic poets drew inspiration from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">ancient Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Latin_poetry" title="Latin poetry">Latin poetry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Mythology">mythology</a>, while poets of this time period also sought to create a sense of unity within the country with their writings.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Political disunity was prevalent in 19th-century Italy, reflected in the <a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Italy" title="Unification of Italy">Risorgimento</a>. After the <a href="/wiki/Parthenopean_Republic" title="Parthenopean Republic">Neapolitan Revolution</a> of 1799, the term "Risorgimento" was used in the context of a movement of "national redemption" as stated by <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Antonio Gramsci</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Consolo_149–163_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Consolo_149–163-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The one facet which held Italy together during this time of political disunity was the poetry and writings of the time period, as suggested by Berchet.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The desire for freedom and the sense of "national redemption" is reflected heavily in the works of Italian Romantics, including <a href="/wiki/Ugo_Foscolo" title="Ugo Foscolo">Ugo Foscolo</a>, who wrote the story <i><a href="/wiki/The_Last_Letters_of_Jacopo_Ortis" title="The Last Letters of Jacopo Ortis">The Last Letters of Jacopo Ortis</a></i>, in which a man was forced to commit suicide due to the political persecutions of his country.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Britain">Britain</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_literature&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Britain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lyrical_Ballads.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Lyrical_Ballads.jpg/220px-Lyrical_Ballads.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="363" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Lyrical_Ballads.jpg/330px-Lyrical_Ballads.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/Lyrical_Ballads.jpg 2x" data-file-width="397" data-file-height="655" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Lyrical_Ballads" title="Lyrical Ballads">Lyrical Ballads, with a few other poems</a></i>, by William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge</figcaption></figure> <p>Historical events including the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Revolution" title="Age of Revolution">European Revolution</a>, within which the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French revolution</a> is claimed to be most significant, contributed to the development of 19th-century <a href="/wiki/Romantic_literature_in_English" title="Romantic literature in English">British Romanticism</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> These revolutions birthed a new genre of authors and poets who used their literature to convey their distaste for authority.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> This is seen in the works of poet and artist <a href="/wiki/William_Blake" title="William Blake">William Blake</a>, who used primarily philosophical and biblical themes in his poetry, and <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Samuel Taylor Coleridge</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Wordsworth" title="William Wordsworth">William Wordsworth</a>, also known as the "<a href="/wiki/Lake_Poets" title="Lake Poets">Lake Poets</a>", whose literature including the <i><a href="/wiki/Lyrical_Ballads" title="Lyrical Ballads">Lyrical Ballads</a></i> is claimed to have "marked the beginning of the Romantic Movement".<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>There was known to be two waves of British Romantic authors; Coleridge and Wordsworth were grouped into the first wave, while a more radical and "aggressive" second wave of authors included the likes of <a href="/wiki/Lord_Byron" title="Lord Byron">George Gordon Byron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Percy_Bysshe_Shelley" title="Percy Bysshe Shelley">Percy Bysshe Shelley</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Due to the adamant aggression of Byron in his poetic works which advocated for an anti-violence revolution and world in which equality existed, a form of fictional character was born named the "<a href="/wiki/Byronic_hero" title="Byronic hero">Byronic hero</a>", who is known to be rebellious in character. The Byronic hero "pervades much of his work" and Byron is considered a reflection of the character he created.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Greek and <a href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">Roman mythology</a> was prevalent in the works of British Romantic poets including Byron, <a href="/wiki/John_Keats" title="John Keats">Keats</a> and <a href="/wiki/Percy_Bysshe_Shelley" title="Percy Bysshe Shelley">Shelley</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, there were poets who rejected the notion of mythological inspiration, including Coleridge, who preferred to take inspiration from the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> to produce significantly religious-inspired works.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>British 19th-century Romanticism developed literature which focused on the "self-organisation of living beings, their growth and adaption into their environments and the creative spark that inspired the physical system to perform complex functions".<sup id="cite_ref-:11_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are observed close ties between <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, a concept which was experiencing innovation during the 19th century, and Romantic English literature.<sup id="cite_ref-:11_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> British Romanticism also had influences from 13th-/16th-century <a href="/wiki/Italian_art" title="Italian art">Italian art</a> as a consequence of British artists who resided in Italy during the time of Bonaparte's invasion dealing paintings to London clients from <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">medieval</a> to the <a href="/wiki/High_Renaissance" title="High Renaissance">High Renaissance</a> Italian periods.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The exposure to these artworks influenced <a href="/wiki/British_literature" title="British literature">British literature</a> and culture during a time "when Britain was struggling to prove the value of its own visual culture".<sup id="cite_ref-:12_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The art gave inspiration and "shaped the aesthetic" of Romantic literature for writers including the likes of author <a href="/wiki/Mary_Shelley" title="Mary Shelley">Mary Shelley</a>. The diversity and lack of standard seen in the work of infamous Italian artists including <a href="/wiki/Michelangelo" title="Michelangelo">Michelangelo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Raphael" title="Raphael">Raphael</a> allowed Romantic writers to celebrate new forms and ways of expression. English essayist <a href="/wiki/William_Hazlitt" title="William Hazlitt">William Hazlitt</a> articulated how the lack of restriction, and ample artistic liberty and freedom seen through the artworks of Raphael inspired poets of the Romantic era.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Michelangelo's artworks, which "embodied the sublime",<sup id="cite_ref-:12_34-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were reflected in the literature of <a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">Shakespeare</a>, with constant analogies being made at the time comparing the two.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_34-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_literature&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persian_literature_in_Western_culture" title="Persian literature in Western culture">Persian literature in Western culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanian_literature" title="Oceanian literature">Oceanian literature</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_literature&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-EB-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-EB_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/343624/Western-literature">"Western literature"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 May</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Western+literature&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F343624%2FWestern-literature&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:13-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:13_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBates2019" class="citation journal cs1">Bates, Catherine (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/718354">"Recent Studies in the English Renaissance"</a>. <i>SEL: Studies in English Literature 1500–1900</i>. <b>59</b> (1): 203–241. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fsel.2019.0009">10.1353/sel.2019.0009</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1522-9270">1522-9270</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:150751824">150751824</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=SEL%3A+Studies+in+English+Literature+1500%E2%80%931900&rft.atitle=Recent+Studies+in+the+English+Renaissance&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=203-241&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A150751824%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1522-9270&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fsel.2019.0009&rft.aulast=Bates&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Farticle%2F718354&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrownlee,_Victoria2018" class="citation book cs1">Brownlee, Victoria (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/1002113576"><i>Biblical readings and literary writings in early modern England, 1558–1625</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-881248-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-881248-7"><bdi>978-0-19-881248-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1002113576">1002113576</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biblical+readings+and+literary+writings+in+early+modern+England%2C+1558%E2%80%931625&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1002113576&rft.isbn=978-0-19-881248-7&rft.au=Brownlee%2C+Victoria&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1002113576&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:19-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:19_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:19_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZorin1998" class="citation journal cs1">Zorin, Andrei (1998). "Faced with a Difficult Test". <i>Russian Studies in Literature</i>. <b>35</b>: 28–30. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2753%2FRSL1061-1975350128">10.2753/RSL1061-1975350128</a> – via Taylor & Francis Online.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Russian+Studies+in+Literature&rft.atitle=Faced+with+a+Difficult+Test&rft.volume=35&rft.pages=28-30&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2753%2FRSL1061-1975350128&rft.aulast=Zorin&rft.aufirst=Andrei&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:10-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:10_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBetti1997" class="citation journal cs1">Betti, Franco (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.2307/480076">"Key Aspects of Romantic Poetics in Italian Literature"</a>. <i>Italica</i>. <b>74</b> (2): 185–200. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F480076">10.2307/480076</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-3020">0021-3020</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/480076">480076</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Italica&rft.atitle=Key+Aspects+of+Romantic+Poetics+in+Italian+Literature&rft.volume=74&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=185-200&rft.date=1997&rft.issn=0021-3020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F480076%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F480076&rft.aulast=Betti&rft.aufirst=Franco&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.2307%2F480076&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:14-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:14_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:14_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCefalu2017" class="citation journal cs1">Cefalu, Paul (2017-10-19). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198808718.001.0001">"The Johannine Renaissance in Early Modern English Literature and Theology"</a>. <i>Oxford Scholarship Online</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foso%2F9780198808718.001.0001">10.1093/oso/9780198808718.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-880871-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-880871-8"><bdi>978-0-19-880871-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Scholarship+Online&rft.atitle=The+Johannine+Renaissance+in+Early+Modern+English+Literature+and+Theology&rft.date=2017-10-19&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foso%2F9780198808718.001.0001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-880871-8&rft.aulast=Cefalu&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1093%2Foso%2F9780198808718.001.0001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonneKingClarendon[Hide]2013" class="citation book cs1">Donne, John; King, Henry; Clarendon, Edward Hyde, first earl of; [Hide], Edward Hyde (2013-11-28). Colclough, David (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordscholarlyeditions.com/view/10.1093/actrade/9780199565481.book.1/actrade-9780199565481-book-1"><i>The Oxford Edition of the Sermons of John Donne, Vol. 3: Sermons Preached at the Court of Charles I</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Factrade%2F9780199565481.book.1">10.1093/actrade/9780199565481.book.1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-956548-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-956548-1"><bdi>978-0-19-956548-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Edition+of+the+Sermons+of+John+Donne%2C+Vol.+3%3A+Sermons+Preached+at+the+Court+of+Charles+I&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013-11-28&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Factrade%2F9780199565481.book.1&rft.isbn=978-0-19-956548-1&rft.aulast=Donne&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=King%2C+Henry&rft.au=Clarendon%2C+Edward+Hyde%2C+first+earl+of&rft.au=%5BHide%5D%2C+Edward+Hyde&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordscholarlyeditions.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Factrade%2F9780199565481.book.1%2Factrade-9780199565481-book-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+literature" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFP.M.2020" class="citation book cs1">P.M., OLIVER (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/1178640517"><i>DONNE'S GOD</i></a>. ROUTLEDGE. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-367-66667-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-367-66667-5"><bdi>978-0-367-66667-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1178640517">1178640517</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=DONNE%27S+GOD.&rft.pub=ROUTLEDGE&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1178640517&rft.isbn=978-0-367-66667-5&rft.aulast=P.M.&rft.aufirst=OLIVER&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1178640517&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:15-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:15_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:15_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/british-literature-through-history/s03-01-the-sixteenth-century.html">"The Sixteenth Century"</a>. <i>2012books.lardbucket.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-05-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=2012books.lardbucket.org&rft.atitle=The+Sixteenth+Century&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2F2012books.lardbucket.org%2Fbooks%2Fbritish-literature-through-history%2Fs03-01-the-sixteenth-century.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:16-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:16_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:16_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPugh2016" class="citation book cs1">Pugh, Syrithe (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/962073594"><i>Spenser and Virgil : the pastoral poems</i></a>. J. B. Lethbridge. Manchester. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5261-0389-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5261-0389-5"><bdi>978-1-5261-0389-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/962073594">962073594</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spenser+and+Virgil+%3A+the+pastoral+poems&rft.place=Manchester&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F962073594&rft.isbn=978-1-5261-0389-5&rft.aulast=Pugh&rft.aufirst=Syrithe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F962073594&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+literature" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:17-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:17_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:17_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCavendish1999" class="citation journal cs1">Cavendish, Richard (1999). "The First Book of Common Prayer January 15th, 1549 (Brief Article)". <i>History Today</i>. <b>49</b>: 52 – via MasterFILE Complete.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+Today&rft.atitle=The+First+Book+of+Common+Prayer+January+15th%2C+1549+%28Brief+Article%29&rft.volume=49&rft.pages=52&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Cavendish&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite2003" class="citation journal cs1">White, Stephen L (2003). "The Book of Common Prayer and the Standardization of the English Language". <i>The Anglican</i>. <b>32</b> (2): 4–11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Anglican&rft.atitle=The+Book+of+Common+Prayer+and+the+Standardization+of+the+English+Language&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=4-11&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Stephen+L&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.spainthenandnow.com/spanish-literature/spain-golden-age-literature-overview">"Spain Then and Now | Spain Then and Now. An overview of the history, literature, architecture, art and culture of Spain"</a>. <i>Spain Then and Now</i>. 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Spain+Then+and+Now&rft.atitle=Spain+Then+and+Now+%7C+Spain+Then+and+Now.+An+overview+of+the+history%2C+literature%2C+architecture%2C+art+and+culture+of+Spain&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.spainthenandnow.com%2Fspanish-literature%2Fspain-golden-age-literature-overview&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReyCammarata1984" class="citation journal cs1">Rey, Arsenio; Cammarata, Joan (September 1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.2307/342127">"Mythological Themes in the Works of Garcilaso de la Vega"</a>. <i>Hispania</i>. <b>67</b> (3): 471. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F342127">10.2307/342127</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0018-2133">0018-2133</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/342127">342127</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hispania&rft.atitle=Mythological+Themes+in+the+Works+of+Garcilaso+de+la+Vega&rft.volume=67&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=471&rft.date=1984-09&rft.issn=0018-2133&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F342127%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F342127&rft.aulast=Rey&rft.aufirst=Arsenio&rft.au=Cammarata%2C+Joan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.2307%2F342127&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_15-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_15-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSutcliffe2003" class="citation journal cs1">Sutcliffe, Adam (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1353/jhi.2003.0019">"Judaism in the Anti-Religious Thought of the Clandestine French Early Enlightenment"</a>. <i>Journal of the History of Ideas</i>. <b>64</b> (1): 97–117. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjhi.2003.0019">10.1353/jhi.2003.0019</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1086-3222">1086-3222</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170581810">170581810</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+History+of+Ideas&rft.atitle=Judaism+in+the+Anti-Religious+Thought+of+the+Clandestine+French+Early+Enlightenment&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=97-117&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A170581810%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1086-3222&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fjhi.2003.0019&rft.aulast=Sutcliffe&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1353%2Fjhi.2003.0019&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:20-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:20_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:20_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:20_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/faithandreason/gengloss/metaph-body.html">"Glossary Definition: Metaphysical"</a>. <i>pbs.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-05-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=pbs.org&rft.atitle=Glossary+Definition%3A+Metaphysical&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Ffaithandreason%2Fgengloss%2Fmetaph-body.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonne1633" class="citation cs2">Donne, John (1633), Gardner, Helen (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oseo/instance.00007224">"Occassional [sic] Poems"</a>, <i>John Donne: The Divine Poems</i>, Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foseo%2Finstance.00007224">10.1093/oseo/instance.00007224</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-811836-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-811836-7"><bdi>978-0-19-811836-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-05-16</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=John+Donne%3A+The+Divine+Poems&rft.atitle=Occassional+%5Bsic%5D+Poems&rft.date=1633&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foseo%2Finstance.00007224&rft.isbn=978-0-19-811836-7&rft.aulast=Donne&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1093%2Foseo%2Finstance.00007224&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+literature" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Unknown parameter <code class="cs1-code">|[sic]date=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#parameter_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_18-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDu2021" class="citation journal cs1">Du, Jiapeng (2021-08-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17507%2Ftpls.1108.12">"An Analysis of Metaphysical Conceits in John Donne's Poems"</a>. <i>Theory and Practice in Language Studies</i>. <b>11</b> (8): 962–967. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17507%2Ftpls.1108.12">10.17507/tpls.1108.12</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2053-0692">2053-0692</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:237466681">237466681</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Theory+and+Practice+in+Language+Studies&rft.atitle=An+Analysis+of+Metaphysical+Conceits+in+John+Donne%27s+Poems&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=962-967&rft.date=2021-08-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A237466681%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2053-0692&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17507%2Ftpls.1108.12&rft.aulast=Du&rft.aufirst=Jiapeng&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.17507%252Ftpls.1108.12&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:21-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:21_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:21_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerausgeberIn.2017" class="citation book cs1">HerausgeberIn., Ducheyne, Steffen. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/986518281"><i>Reassessing the radical enlightenment</i></a>. Routledge, Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-138-28004-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-138-28004-5"><bdi>978-1-138-28004-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/986518281">986518281</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reassessing+the+radical+enlightenment&rft.pub=Routledge%2C+Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F986518281&rft.isbn=978-1-138-28004-5&rft.aulast=HerausgeberIn.&rft.aufirst=Ducheyne%2C+Steffen.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F986518281&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+literature" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMay1976" class="citation book cs1">May, Henry F. (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/2400359"><i>The Enlightenment in America</i></a>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-502018-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-502018-9"><bdi>0-19-502018-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/2400359">2400359</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Enlightenment+in+America&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F2400359&rft.isbn=0-19-502018-9&rft.aulast=May&rft.aufirst=Henry+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F2400359&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_21-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerenguier2016" class="citation book cs1">Berenguier, Nadine (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/952727701"><i>Conduct books for girls in enlightenment France</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-315-57334-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-315-57334-2"><bdi>978-1-315-57334-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/952727701">952727701</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conduct+books+for+girls+in+enlightenment+France&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F952727701&rft.isbn=978-1-315-57334-2&rft.aulast=Berenguier&rft.aufirst=Nadine&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F952727701&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFD.1974" class="citation book cs1">D., Bergamini, John (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/253401951"><i>The Spanish Bourbons : the history of a tenacious dynasty</i></a>. Putnam. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/253401951">253401951</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Spanish+Bourbons+%3A+the+history+of+a+tenacious+dynasty&rft.pub=Putnam&rft.date=1974&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F253401951&rft.aulast=D.&rft.aufirst=Bergamini%2C+John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F253401951&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+literature" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:7-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:7_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_23-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_23-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_23-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMuñoz-BasolsLonsdaleDelgado2017" class="citation book cs1">Muñoz-Basols, Javier; Lonsdale, Laura; Delgado, Manuel, eds. (2017-03-16). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315709895"><i>The Routledge Companion to Iberian Studies</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315709895">10.4324/9781315709895</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10810%2F41497">10810/41497</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781315709895" title="Special:BookSources/9781315709895"><bdi>9781315709895</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Routledge+Companion+to+Iberian+Studies&rft.date=2017-03-16&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10810%2F41497&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781315709895&rft.isbn=9781315709895&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.4324%2F9781315709895&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/art/Spanish-literature">"Spanish literature | Britannica"</a>. <i>www.britannica.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-05-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.britannica.com&rft.atitle=Spanish+literature+%7C+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fart%2FSpanish-literature&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:22-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:22_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:22_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZorin1998" class="citation journal cs1">Zorin, Andrei (December 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.2753/rsl1061-1975350128">"Faced with a Difficult Test"</a>. <i>Russian Studies in Literature</i>. <b>35</b> (1): 28–30. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2753%2Frsl1061-1975350128">10.2753/rsl1061-1975350128</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1061-1975">1061-1975</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Russian+Studies+in+Literature&rft.atitle=Faced+with+a+Difficult+Test&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=28-30&rft.date=1998-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2753%2Frsl1061-1975350128&rft.issn=1061-1975&rft.aulast=Zorin&rft.aufirst=Andrei&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.2753%2Frsl1061-1975350128&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:8-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:8_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_26-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMandrell1991" class="citation journal cs1">Mandrell, James (March 1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2904861">"The Literary Sublime in Spain: Melendez Valdes and Espronceda"</a>. <i>MLN</i>. <b>106</b> (2): 294–313. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2904861">10.2307/2904861</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0026-7910">0026-7910</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2904861">2904861</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=MLN&rft.atitle=The+Literary+Sublime+in+Spain%3A+Melendez+Valdes+and+Espronceda&rft.volume=106&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=294-313&rft.date=1991-03&rft.issn=0026-7910&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2904861%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2904861&rft.aulast=Mandrell&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.2307%2F2904861&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:9-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:9_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_27-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCamilletti2015" class="citation book cs1">Camilletti, Fabio A (2015-10-06). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315655192"><i>Classicism and Romanticism in Italian Literature</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315655192">10.4324/9781315655192</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781315655192" title="Special:BookSources/9781315655192"><bdi>9781315655192</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Classicism+and+Romanticism+in+Italian+Literature&rft.date=2015-10-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781315655192&rft.isbn=9781315655192&rft.aulast=Camilletti&rft.aufirst=Fabio+A&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.4324%2F9781315655192&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Consolo_149–163-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Consolo_149–163_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConsolo2003" class="citation journal cs1">Consolo, Vincenzo (January 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1179/itc.2003.21.1.149">"Risorgimento and Literature: The Post-Risorgimento Novel in Sicily"</a>. <i>Italian Culture</i>. <b>21</b> (1): 149–163. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1179%2Fitc.2003.21.1.149">10.1179/itc.2003.21.1.149</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0161-4622">0161-4622</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144979252">144979252</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Italian+Culture&rft.atitle=Risorgimento+and+Literature%3A+The+Post-Risorgimento+Novel+in+Sicily&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=149-163&rft.date=2003-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144979252%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0161-4622&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1179%2Fitc.2003.21.1.149&rft.aulast=Consolo&rft.aufirst=Vincenzo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1179%2Fitc.2003.21.1.149&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/art/Italian-literature">"Italian literature | Britannica"</a>. <i>www.britannica.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-05-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.britannica.com&rft.atitle=Italian+literature+%7C+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fart%2FItalian-literature&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraham2001" class="citation web cs1">Graham, Peter (October 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.messolonghibyronsociety.gr/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/Byron_and_Greek_Mythology.pdf">"Byron and Greek Mythology"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Messolonghi Byron Society</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Messolonghi+Byron+Society&rft.atitle=Byron+and+Greek+Mythology&rft.date=2001-10&rft.aulast=Graham&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.messolonghibyronsociety.gr%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2019%2F12%2FByron_and_Greek_Mythology.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharkey1942" class="citation journal cs1">Sharkey, Kathleen Frances (1942). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://open.bu.edu/handle/2144/7288">"The classic and medieval influence in Keats"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+classic+and+medieval+influence+in+Keats&rft.date=1942&rft.aulast=Sharkey&rft.aufirst=Kathleen+Frances&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopen.bu.edu%2Fhandle%2F2144%2F7288&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+literature" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnox1992" class="citation magazine cs1">Knox, Bernard (1992-05-25). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://newrepublic.com/article/77364/the-oldest-dead-white-european-males">"The Oldest Dead White European Males"</a>. <i>The New Republic</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0028-6583">0028-6583</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-03-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Republic&rft.atitle=The+Oldest+Dead+White+European+Males&rft.date=1992-05-25&rft.issn=0028-6583&rft.aulast=Knox&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnewrepublic.com%2Farticle%2F77364%2Fthe-oldest-dead-white-european-males&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:11-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:11_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:11_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHegele,_Arden2022" class="citation book cs1">Hegele, Arden (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/1252849916"><i>Romantic autopsy : literary form and medical reading</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-284834-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-284834-5"><bdi>978-0-19-284834-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1252849916">1252849916</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Romantic+autopsy+%3A+literary+form+and+medical+reading&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1252849916&rft.isbn=978-0-19-284834-5&rft.au=Hegele%2C+Arden&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1252849916&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:12-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:12_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:12_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:12_34-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:12_34-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:12_34-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCue2016" class="citation book cs1">McCue, Maureen (2016-05-23). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315570280"><i>British Romanticism and the Reception of Italian Old Master Art, 1793–1840</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315570280">10.4324/9781315570280</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-315-57028-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-315-57028-0"><bdi>978-1-315-57028-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=British+Romanticism+and+the+Reception+of+Italian+Old+Master+Art%2C+1793%E2%80%931840&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016-05-23&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781315570280&rft.isbn=978-1-315-57028-0&rft.aulast=McCue&rft.aufirst=Maureen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.4324%2F9781315570280&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_literature&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Literature_of_Europe" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Literature of Europe">Literature of Europe</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="European_literature" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Europe_topic" title="Template:Europe topic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Europe_topic" title="Template talk:Europe topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Europe_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Europe topic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="European_literature" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">European literature</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Albania" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Andorra" title="Literature of Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Armenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Austria" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Azerbaijan" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Belarus" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Literature of Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Bulgaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Croatia" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Cyprus" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_the_Czech_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Denmark" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Estonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Finland" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Georgia_(country)" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Hungary" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Iceland" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Kazakhstan" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Latvia" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Literature_of_Liechtenstein&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Literature of Liechtenstein (page does not exist)">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Lithuania" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Luxembourg" title="Literature of Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Malta" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Moldova" title="Literature of Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Literature_of_Monaco&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Literature of Monaco (page does not exist)">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Montenegro" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_North_Macedonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Portugal" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Romania" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Literature_of_San_Marino&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Literature of San Marino (page does not exist)">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Serbia" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Slovakia" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Slovenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Switzerland" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Turkey" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States with limited<br />recognition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Abkhazia" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Abkhazia">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Kosovo" title="Literature of Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Literature_of_Northern_Cyprus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Literature of Northern Cyprus (page does not exist)">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_South_Ossetia" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of South Ossetia">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Literature_of_Transnistria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Literature of Transnistria (page does not exist)">Transnistria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dependencies and<br />other entities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Literature_of_%C3%85land&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Literature of Åland (page does not exist)">Åland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_the_Faroe_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of the Faroe Islands">Faroe Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Literature_of_Gibraltar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Literature of Gibraltar (page does not exist)">Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Literature_of_Guernsey&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Literature of Guernsey (page does not exist)">Guernsey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_the_Isle_of_Man" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of the Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Jersey" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Jersey">Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Literature_of_Svalbard&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Literature of Svalbard (page does not exist)">Svalbard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Western_world_and_culture" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Western_world" title="Template:Western world"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Western_world" title="Template talk:Western world"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Western_world" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Western world"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Western_world_and_culture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">culture</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foundations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization" title="Cradle of civilization">Cradle of civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman world</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Roman legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_culture" title="Gallo-Roman culture">Gallo-Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">European Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">high</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">late</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Revolution" title="Age of Revolution">Age of Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">Universal suffrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Post–Cold War era">Post–Cold War era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">Alphabet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Periods_in_Western_art_history" title="Periods in Western art history">Periods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_cuisine" title="European cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_pattern_diet" title="Western pattern diet">Diet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_tradition" title="Classical tradition">Classical tradition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">Studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_dress_codes" title="Western dress codes">Clothing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_fashion" title="History of Western fashion">History</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_dance_(Europe_and_North_America)" class="mw-redirect" title="Western dance (Europe and North America)">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_education" title="Western education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Esotericism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_astrology" title="Western astrology">Astrology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_folklore" title="European folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_Western_world" title="Immigration to the Western world">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_law" title="Western law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eurolinguistics" title="Eurolinguistics">Eurolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Average_European" title="Standard Average European">Standard Average European</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_canon" title="Western canon">Canon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_media" title="Western media">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chant" title="Chant">Chant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_music" title="Classical music">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_European_folk_music_traditions" title="List of European folk music traditions">Folk</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="European mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_painting" title="Western painting">Painting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/20th-century_Western_painting" title="20th-century Western painting">contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_(Western_philosophy)" title="Values (Western philosophy)">Values</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_physical_culture" title="Western physical culture">Physical culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_sports" title="Western sports">Sport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Christianity_in_the_Western_world" title="Decline of Christianity in the Western world">Decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Ancient Roman philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Christian_ethics" title="Judeo-Christian ethics">Judeo-Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian existentialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular humanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Tolerance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_tolerance" title="Paradox of tolerance">Paradox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Peritrope" title="Peritrope">Peritrope</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanticism" title="Atlanticism">Atlanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereigntism" title="Sovereigntism">Sovereigntism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_values" title="Western values">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_values" title="European values">European</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western</a>/<a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodoxy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Church" title="Greek Orthodox Church">Greek Orthodox Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Culture</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">Paganism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_paganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Finnish paganism">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankish mythology">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_paganism" title="Gothic paganism">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Old Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_religion" title="Hellenistic religion">Hellenistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_paganism" title="Modern paganism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_law" title="Western law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">Equality before the law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_life" title="Right to life">Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_thought" title="Freedom of thought">Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">Press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">Property</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">International law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary<br />integration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ABCANZ_Armies" title="ABCANZ Armies">ABCANZ Armies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_of_European_Regions" title="Assembly of European Regions">AER</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Portuguese_Alliance" title="Anglo-Portuguese Alliance">Anglo-Portuguese Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUK" title="ANZUK">ANZUK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUS" title="ANZUS">ANZUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Council" title="Arctic Council">Arctic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AUKUS" title="AUKUS">AUKUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AUSCANNZUKUS" title="AUSCANNZUKUS">AUSCANNZUKUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Assembly" title="Baltic Assembly">Baltic Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benelux" title="Benelux">Benelux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British%E2%80%93Irish_Council" title="British–Irish Council">British–Irish Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_the_Black_Sea_Economic_Cooperation" title="Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation">BSEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bucharest_Nine" title="Bucharest Nine">Bucharest Nine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CANZUK" title="CANZUK">CANZUK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Baltic_Sea_States" title="Council of the Baltic Sea States">CBSS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_European_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="Central European Free Trade Agreement">CEFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Europe" title="Council of Europe">Council of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craiova_Group" title="Craiova Group">Craiova Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_European_Group" title="Eastern European Group">Eastern European Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Partnership" title="Eastern Partnership">Eastern Partnership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Area" title="European Economic Area">EEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Free_Trade_Association" title="European Free Trade Association">EFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Political_Community" title="European Political Community">EPC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">ESA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">EU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union_Customs_Union" title="European Union Customs Union">EU Customs Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurozone" title="Eurozone">Eurozone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EU%E2%80%93UK_Trade_and_Cooperation_Agreement" title="EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement">EU–UK TCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Eyes" title="Five Eyes">Five Eyes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G7" title="G7">G7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lancaster_House_Treaties" title="Lancaster House Treaties">Lancaster House Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lublin_Triangle" title="Lublin Triangle">Lublin Triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Council" title="Nordic Council">Nordic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_American_States" title="Organization of American States">OAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Balkan" title="Open Balkan">Open Balkan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_for_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europe" title="Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe">OSCE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Islands_Forum" title="Pacific Islands Forum">Pacific Islands Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_for_the_Progress_and_Integration_of_South_America" title="Forum for the Progress and Integration of South America">PROSUR/PROSUL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-American_Treaty_of_Reciprocal_Assistance" title="Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance">Rio Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schengen_Area" title="Schengen Area">Schengen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Relationship" title="Special Relationship">Special Relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Seas_Initiative" title="Three Seas Initiative">Three Seas Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UKUSA_Agreement" title="UKUSA Agreement">UKUSA Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States%E2%80%93Mexico%E2%80%93Canada_Agreement" title="United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement">USMCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visegr%C3%A1d_Group" title="Visegrád Group">Visegrád Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Nordic_Council" title="West Nordic Council">West Nordic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_European_and_Others_Group" title="Western European and Others Group">Western European and Others Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westernization" title="Westernization">Westernization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2731060#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="evropská literatura"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph120062&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Western_literature&oldid=1258957752">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Western_literature&oldid=1258957752</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Western_culture" title="Category:Western culture">Western culture</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Literature_by_continent" title="Category:Literature by continent">Literature by continent</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:European_literature" title="Category:European literature">European literature</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">CS1 maint: location missing publisher</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_errors:_unsupported_parameter" title="Category:CS1 errors: unsupported parameter">CS1 errors: unsupported parameter</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_errors:_missing_periodical" title="Category:CS1 errors: missing periodical">CS1 errors: missing periodical</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_June_2022" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from June 2022">Articles with unsourced statements from June 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_is_on_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link is on Wikidata">Commons category link is on Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 22 November 2024, at 15:44<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Western_literature&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-xs6j4","wgBackendResponseTime":171,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.014","walltime":"1.211","ppvisitednodes":{"value":15106,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":164910,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":10535,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":14,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":10,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":181534,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 985.063 1 -total"," 31.87% 313.965 1 Template:Reflist"," 20.08% 197.822 6 Template:Sidebar"," 17.53% 172.722 1 Template:Europe_topic"," 17.02% 167.644 1 Template:Navbox"," 15.31% 150.801 1 Template:History_of_literature_by_region_or_country"," 11.48% 113.055 7 Template:Cite_web"," 11.45% 112.797 49 Template:Iso2country"," 9.56% 94.136 6 Template:Citation_needed"," 8.05% 79.341 6 Template:Fix"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.532","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":7248494,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-ext.codfw.main-7556f8b5dd-xqwf2","timestamp":"20241122154459","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Western literature","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Western_literature","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q2731060","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q2731060","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2005-08-08T16:48:41Z","dateModified":"2024-11-22T15:44:58Z","headline":"literature written in the context of Western culture in the languages of Europe"}</script> </body> </html>