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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Laser spallation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Laser_spallation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nuclear_spallation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nuclear_spallation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Nuclear spallation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Nuclear_spallation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Nuclear spallation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Nuclear_spallation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Production_of_neutrons_at_a_spallation_neutron_source" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Production_of_neutrons_at_a_spallation_neutron_source"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Production of neutrons at a spallation neutron source</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Production_of_neutrons_at_a_spallation_neutron_source-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle See also subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Spallation_facilities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spallation_facilities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Spallation facilities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spallation_facilities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header 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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Spallation</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espal%C2%B7laci%C3%B3" title="Espal·lació – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Espal·lació" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spala%C4%8Dn%C3%AD_reakce" title="Spalační reakce – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Spalační reakce" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spallation" title="Spallation – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Spallation" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purunemine" title="Purunemine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Purunemine" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espalaci%C3%B3n" title="Espalación – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Espalación" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spallation" title="Spallation – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Spallation" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%8C%8C%EC%87%84" title="파쇄 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="파쇄" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%A8" title="समुत्खण्डन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="समुत्खण्डन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spalacija" title="Spalacija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Spalacija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spallazione_(fisica)" title="Spallazione (fisica) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Spallazione (fisica)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afsplintering" title="Afsplintering – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Afsplintering" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A0%B8%E7%A0%B4%E7%A0%95%E5%8F%8D%E5%BF%9C" title="核破砕反応 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="核破砕反応" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spalacja" title="Spalacja – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Spalacja" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espala%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Espalação – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Espalação" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spallation" title="Spallation – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Spallation" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Спалација – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Спалација" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spalacija" title="Spalacija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Spalacija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spallaatio" title="Spallaatio – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Spallaatio" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spallation" title="Spallation – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Spallation" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%81%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9B%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%87" title="การแตกเป็นเสี่ยง – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การแตกเป็นเสี่ยง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%86%D1%96%D1%97_%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Реакції сколювання – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Реакції сколювання" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%8E%D8%B4%D8%B8%DB%8C%DB%81" title="تَشظیہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="تَشظیہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q576621#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> 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.ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Spallation" title="Special:EditPage/Spallation">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Spallation%22">"Spallation"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Spallation%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Spallation%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Spallation%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Spallation%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Spallation%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 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.sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Nuclear physics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:NuclearReaction.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/NuclearReaction.svg/200px-NuclearReaction.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/NuclearReaction.svg/300px-NuclearReaction.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/NuclearReaction.svg/400px-NuclearReaction.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="350" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">Nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleon" title="Nucleon">Nucleons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">p</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">n</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_matter" title="Nuclear matter">Nuclear matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_force" title="Nuclear force">Nuclear force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_structure" title="Nuclear structure">Nuclear structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reaction" title="Nuclear reaction">Nuclear reaction</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear model">Models of the nucleus</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Semi-empirical_mass_formula" title="Semi-empirical mass formula">Liquid drop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_shell_model" title="Nuclear shell model">Nuclear shell model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interacting_boson_model" title="Interacting boson model">Interacting boson model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ab_initio_methods_(nuclear_physics)" title="Ab initio methods (nuclear physics)">Ab initio</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Nuclide" title="Nuclide">Nuclides</a>' classification</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">Isotopes</a> – equal <a href="/wiki/Atomic_number" title="Atomic number"><i>Z</i></a><br /></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isobar_(nuclide)" title="Isobar (nuclide)">Isobars</a> – equal <a href="/wiki/Mass_number" title="Mass number"><i>A</i></a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isotone" title="Isotone">Isotones</a> – equal <a href="/wiki/Neutron_number" title="Neutron number"><i>N</i></a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isodiapher" class="mw-redirect" title="Isodiapher">Isodiaphers</a> – equal <a href="/wiki/Neutron_excess" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutron excess"><i>N</i> − <i>Z</i></a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_isomer" title="Nuclear isomer">Isomers</a> – equal all the above</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mirror_nuclei" title="Mirror nuclei">Mirror nuclei</a> – <i>Z</i> ↔ <i>N</i></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stable_isotope" class="mw-redirect" title="Stable isotope">Stable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_number_(physics)" title="Magic number (physics)">Magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Even_and_odd_atomic_nuclei" title="Even and odd atomic nuclei">Even/odd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halo_nucleus" title="Halo nucleus">Halo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Borromean_nucleus" title="Borromean nucleus">Borromean</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Nuclear stability</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_binding_energy" title="Nuclear binding energy">Binding energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton%E2%80%93neutron_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Proton–neutron ratio">p–n ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_drip_line" title="Nuclear drip line">Drip line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Island_of_stability" title="Island of stability">Island of stability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valley_of_stability" title="Valley of stability">Valley of stability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stable_nuclide" title="Stable nuclide">Stable nuclide</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">Radioactive decay</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpha_decay" title="Alpha decay">Alpha α</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">Beta β</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Double_beta_decay" title="Double beta decay">2β</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neutrinoless_double_beta_decay" title="Neutrinoless double beta decay">0v</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positron_emission" title="Positron emission">β<sup>+</sup></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_capture" title="Electron capture">K/L capture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isomeric_transition" class="mw-redirect" title="Isomeric transition">Isomeric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">Gamma γ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_conversion" title="Internal conversion">Internal conversion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_fission" title="Spontaneous fission">Spontaneous fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cluster_decay" title="Cluster decay">Cluster decay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_emission" title="Neutron emission">Neutron emission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton_emission" title="Proton emission">Proton emission</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decay_energy" title="Decay energy">Decay energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decay_chain" title="Decay chain">Decay chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decay_product" title="Decay product">Decay product</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiogenic_nuclide" title="Radiogenic nuclide">Radiogenic nuclide</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">Nuclear fission</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_fission" title="Spontaneous fission">Spontaneous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission_product" title="Nuclear fission product">Products</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nucleon_pair_breaking_in_fission" title="Nucleon pair breaking in fission">pair breaking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photofission" title="Photofission">Photofission</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Capturing processes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electron_capture" title="Electron capture">electron</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Double_electron_capture" title="Double electron capture">2×</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture" title="Neutron capture">neutron</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/S-process" title="S-process">s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R-process" title="R-process">r</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton_capture" title="Proton capture">proton</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/P-process" title="P-process">p</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rp-process" title="Rp-process">rp</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">High-energy processes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Spallation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray_spallation" title="Cosmic ray spallation">by cosmic ray</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photodisintegration" title="Photodisintegration">Photodisintegration</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Nucleosynthesis" title="Nucleosynthesis">Nucleosynthesis</a> and<br /> <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_astrophysics" title="Nuclear astrophysics">nuclear astrophysics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">Nuclear fusion</a></li></ul> <ul><li><small>Processes:</small> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_nucleosynthesis" title="Stellar nucleosynthesis">Stellar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis" title="Big Bang nucleosynthesis">Big Bang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernova_nucleosynthesis" title="Supernova nucleosynthesis">Supernova</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>Nuclides: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primordial_nuclide" title="Primordial nuclide">Primordial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmogenic_nuclide" title="Cosmogenic nuclide">Cosmogenic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_element" title="Synthetic element">Artificial</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/High-energy_nuclear_physics" title="High-energy nuclear physics">High-energy nuclear physics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quark%E2%80%93gluon_plasma" title="Quark–gluon plasma">Quark–gluon plasma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativistic_Heavy_Ion_Collider" title="Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider">RHIC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider" title="Large Hadron Collider">LHC</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Nuclear_physicists" title="Category:Nuclear physicists">Scientists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Alvarez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Becquerel" title="Henri Becquerel">Becquerel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Bethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aage_Bohr" title="Aage Bohr">A. Bohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">N. Bohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">Chadwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Cockcroft" title="John Cockcroft">Cockcroft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ir%C3%A8ne_Joliot-Curie" title="Irène Joliot-Curie">Ir. Curie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Joliot-Curie" title="Frédéric Joliot-Curie">Fr. Curie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Curie" title="Pierre Curie">Pi. Curie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Skłodowska-Curie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinton_Davisson" title="Clinton Davisson">Davisson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Fermi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Hahn" title="Otto Hahn">Hahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Hans_D._Jensen" title="J. Hans D. Jensen">Jensen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence">Lawrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Goeppert-Mayer" class="mw-redirect" title="Maria Goeppert-Mayer">Mayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lise_Meitner" title="Lise Meitner">Meitner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Oliphant" title="Mark Oliphant">Oliphant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">Oppenheimer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandru_Proca" title="Alexandru Proca">Proca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Mills_Purcell" title="Edward Mills Purcell">Purcell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi">Rabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Rutherford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Soddy" title="Frederick Soddy">Soddy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Strassmann" title="Fritz Strassmann">Strassmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_%C5%9Awi%C4%85tecki_(physicist)" title="Władysław Świątecki (physicist)">Świątecki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd" class="mw-redirect" title="Leó Szilárd">Szilárd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Teller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">Thomson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Walton" title="Ernest Walton">Walton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Wigner</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="background-color: transparent; border-color: #A2B8BF"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/14px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/21px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/28px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Physics" title="Portal:Physics">Physics portal</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Nuclear_physics" title="Category:Nuclear physics">Category</a></span></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nuclear_physics" title="Template:Nuclear physics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nuclear_physics" title="Template talk:Nuclear physics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear_physics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear physics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Spallation</b> is a process in which fragments of material (<a href="/wiki/Spall" title="Spall">spall</a>) are ejected from a body due to impact or stress. In the context of <a href="/wiki/Impact_(mechanics)" title="Impact (mechanics)">impact mechanics</a> it describes ejection of material from a target during impact by a <a href="/wiki/Projectile" title="Projectile">projectile</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Planetary_science" title="Planetary science">planetary physics</a>, spallation describes <a href="/wiki/Meteor" class="mw-redirect" title="Meteor">meteoritic</a> impacts on a planetary surface and the effects of <a href="/wiki/Stellar_wind" title="Stellar wind">stellar winds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic rays">cosmic rays</a> on <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">planetary atmospheres</a> and <a href="/wiki/Planetary_surface" title="Planetary surface">surfaces</a>. In the context of <a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mining</a> or <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a>, spallation can refer to pieces of rock breaking off a <a href="/wiki/Rock_face" class="mw-redirect" title="Rock face">rock face</a> due to the internal stresses in the rock; it commonly occurs on <a href="/wiki/Shaft_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaft mining">mine shaft</a> walls. In the context of metal oxidation, spallation refers to the breaking off of the oxide layer from a metal. For example, the flaking off of <a href="/wiki/Rust" title="Rust">rust</a> from iron. In the context of <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>, spallation is a process used to make stone tools such as <a href="/wiki/Arrowhead" title="Arrowhead">arrowheads</a> by <a href="/wiki/Knapping" title="Knapping">knapping</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">nuclear physics</a>, spallation is the process in which a heavy nucleus emits numerous <a href="/wiki/Nucleon" title="Nucleon">nucleons</a> as a result of being hit by a high-energy <a href="/wiki/Subatomic_particle" title="Subatomic particle">particle</a>, thus greatly reducing its <a href="/wiki/Atomic_weight" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic weight">atomic weight</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Industrial_processes" title="Industrial processes">industrial processes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bioprocess" title="Bioprocess">bioprocessing</a> the loss of tubing material due to the repeated flexing of the tubing within a <a href="/wiki/Peristaltic_pump" title="Peristaltic pump">peristaltic pump</a> is termed spallation. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_solid_mechanics">In solid mechanics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spallation&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: In solid mechanics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Spallation can occur when a tensile stress wave propagates through a material and can be observed in flat plate impact tests. It is caused by an internal <a href="/wiki/Cavitation" title="Cavitation">cavitation</a> due to stresses, which are generated by the interaction of stress waves, exceeding the local <a href="/wiki/Tensile_strength" class="mw-redirect" title="Tensile strength">tensile strength</a> of materials. A fragment or multiple fragments will be created on the free end of the plate. This fragment known as "<a href="/wiki/Spall" title="Spall">spall</a>" acts as a secondary projectile with velocities that can be as high as one third of the stress wave speed on the material. This type of failure is typically an effect of high explosive squash head (<a href="/wiki/High-explosive_squash_head" title="High-explosive squash head">HESH</a>) charges. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Laser_spallation">Laser spallation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spallation&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Laser spallation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Laser induced spallation is a recent experimental technique developed to understand the <a href="/wiki/Adhesion" title="Adhesion">adhesion</a> of <a href="/wiki/Thin_films" class="mw-redirect" title="Thin films">thin films</a> with <a href="/wiki/Wafer_(electronics)" title="Wafer (electronics)">substrates</a>. A high energy pulsed <a href="/wiki/Laser" title="Laser">laser</a> (typically <a href="/wiki/Nd:YAG_laser" title="Nd:YAG laser">Nd:YAG</a>) is used to create a <a href="/wiki/Compressive_stress" title="Compressive stress">compressive stress</a> pulse in the <a href="/wiki/Wafer_(electronics)" title="Wafer (electronics)">substrate</a> wherein it propagates and reflects as a tensile wave at the free boundary. This tensile pulse spalls/peels the thin film while propagating towards the substrate. Using theory of <a href="/wiki/Wave_propagation" class="mw-redirect" title="Wave propagation">wave propagation</a> in solids it is possible to extract the interface strength. The stress pulse created in this example is usually around 3 to 8 <a href="/wiki/Nanoseconds" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanoseconds">nanoseconds</a> in duration while its magnitude varies as a function of <a href="/wiki/Laser" title="Laser">laser</a> fluence. Due to the non-contact application of load, this technique is very well suited to spall ultra-<a href="/wiki/Thin_films" class="mw-redirect" title="Thin films">thin films</a> (1 micrometre in thickness or less). It is also possible to mode convert a longitudinal stress wave into a <a href="/wiki/Shear_stress" title="Shear stress">shear stress</a> using a pulse shaping prism and achieve shear spallation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nuclear_spallation">Nuclear spallation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spallation&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Nuclear spallation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray_spallation" title="Cosmic ray spallation">Cosmic ray spallation</a></div> <p>Nuclear spallation from the impact of cosmic rays occurs naturally in <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's atmosphere">Earth's atmosphere</a> and on the surfaces of bodies in space such as <a href="/wiki/Meteorite" title="Meteorite">meteorites</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a>. Evidence of cosmic ray spallation is seen on outer surfaces of bodies and gives a means of measuring the length of time of exposure. The composition of cosmic rays themselves may also indicate that they have suffered spallation before reaching Earth, because the proportion of light elements such as lithium, boron, and beryllium in them exceeds average cosmic abundances; these elements in the cosmic rays were evidently formed from spallation of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon and perhaps silicon in the cosmic ray sources or during their lengthy travel here. <a href="/wiki/Cosmogenic_nuclide" title="Cosmogenic nuclide">Cosmogenic</a> <a href="/wiki/Isotopes" class="mw-redirect" title="Isotopes">isotopes</a> of <a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beryllium" title="Beryllium">beryllium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iodine" title="Iodine">iodine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neon" title="Neon">neon</a>, formed by spallation of terrestrial elements under cosmic ray bombardment, have been detected on Earth. </p><p>Nuclear spallation is one of the processes by which a <a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator">particle accelerator</a> may be used to produce a beam of <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutrons</a>. A particle beam consisting of protons at around 1 GeV is shot into a target consisting of <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tantalum" title="Tantalum">tantalum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or another heavy metal. The target nuclei are excited and upon deexcitation, 20 to 30 neutrons are expelled per nucleus. Although this is a far more expensive way of producing neutron beams than by a <a href="/wiki/Chain_reaction" title="Chain reaction">chain reaction</a> of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">nuclear fission</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactor</a>, it has the advantage that the beam can be pulsed with relative ease. Furthermore, the energetic cost of one spallation neutron is six times lower than that of a neutron gained via nuclear fission. In contrast to nuclear fission, the spallation neutrons cannot trigger further spallation or fission processes to produce further neutrons. Therefore, there is no chain reaction, which makes the process non-critical. Observations of cosmic ray spallation had already been made in the 1930s,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but the first observations from a particle accelerator occurred in 1947, and the term "spallation" was coined by <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobelist</a> <a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn T. Seaborg</a> that same year.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Spallation is a proposed neutron source in <a href="/wiki/Subcritical_nuclear_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Subcritical nuclear reactor">subcritical nuclear reactors</a> like the upcoming research reactor <a href="/wiki/MYRRHA" title="MYRRHA">MYRRHA</a>, which is planned to investigate the feasibility of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_transmutation" title="Nuclear transmutation">nuclear transmutation</a> of <a href="/wiki/High_level_waste" class="mw-redirect" title="High level waste">high level waste</a> into less harmful substances. Besides having a neutron multiplication factor <i>just below</i> <a href="/wiki/Criticality_(status)" title="Criticality (status)">criticality</a>, subcritical reactors can also produce net usable energy as the average energy expenditure per neutron produced ranges around 30 MeV (1GeV beam producing a bit over 30 neutrons in the most productive targets) while fission produces on the order of 200 MeV per actinide atom that is split. Even at relatively low <a href="/wiki/Energy_efficiency_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy efficiency (physics)">energy efficiency</a> of the processes involved, net usable energy could be generated while being able to use actinides unsuitable for use in conventional reactors as "fuel". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Production_of_neutrons_at_a_spallation_neutron_source">Production of neutrons at a spallation neutron source</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spallation&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Production of neutrons at a spallation neutron source"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/ISIS_neutron_source" class="mw-redirect" title="ISIS neutron source">ISIS neutron source</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spallation_Neutron_Source" title="Spallation Neutron Source">Spallation Neutron Source</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Scherrer_Institute#Swiss_Spallation_Neutron_Source_(SINQ)" title="Paul Scherrer Institute">SINQ</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background-color: #cee0f2">Science with <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutrons</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Quark_structure_neutron.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Quark_structure_neutron.svg/120px-Quark_structure_neutron.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Quark_structure_neutron.svg/180px-Quark_structure_neutron.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Quark_structure_neutron.svg/240px-Quark_structure_neutron.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background-color: #cee0f2"> Foundations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_temperature" title="Neutron temperature">Neutron temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_flux" title="Neutron flux">Flux</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neutron_radiation" title="Neutron radiation">Radiation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neutron_transport" title="Neutron transport">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_cross_section" title="Neutron cross section">Cross section</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neutron_absorption" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutron absorption">Absorption</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neutron_activation" title="Neutron activation">Activation</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background-color: #cee0f2"> <a href="/wiki/Neutron_scattering" title="Neutron scattering">Neutron scattering</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_diffraction" title="Neutron diffraction">Neutron diffraction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Small-angle_neutron_scattering" title="Small-angle neutron scattering">Small-angle neutron scattering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grazing-incidence_small-angle_neutron_scattering" class="mw-redirect" title="Grazing-incidence small-angle neutron scattering">GISANS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_reflectometry" title="Neutron reflectometry">Reflectometry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inelastic_neutron_scattering" class="mw-redirect" title="Inelastic neutron scattering">Inelastic neutron scattering</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_triple-axis_scattering" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutron triple-axis scattering">Triple-axis spectrometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_time-of-flight_scattering" title="Neutron time-of-flight scattering">Time-of-flight spectrometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_backscattering" title="Neutron backscattering">Backscattering spectrometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_spin_echo" title="Neutron spin echo">Spin-echo spectrometer</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background-color: #cee0f2"> Other applications</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_tomography" title="Neutron tomography">Neutron tomography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_activation_analysis" title="Neutron activation analysis">Activation analysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prompt_gamma_neutron_activation_analysis" title="Prompt gamma neutron activation analysis">Prompt gamma activation analysis</a></li> <li>Fundamental research with neutrons: <a href="/wiki/Ultracold_neutrons" title="Ultracold neutrons">Ultracold neutrons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neutron_interferometer" title="Neutron interferometer">Interferometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fast_neutron_therapy" title="Fast neutron therapy">Fast neutron therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture_therapy_of_cancer" title="Neutron capture therapy of cancer">Neutron capture therapy</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background-color: #cee0f2"> Infrastructure</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_source" title="Neutron source">Neutron sources</a>: <a href="/wiki/Research_reactor" title="Research reactor">Research reactor</a>, <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Spallation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neutron_moderator" title="Neutron moderator">Neutron moderator</a></li> <li>Neutron optics: <a href="/wiki/Neutron_reflector" title="Neutron reflector">Reflector</a>, <a href="/wiki/Supermirror" class="mw-redirect" title="Supermirror">Supermirror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_detection" title="Neutron detection">Detection</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background-color: #cee0f2"> <a href="/wiki/Neutron_facilities" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutron facilities">Neutron facilities</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left"> <ul><li>America: <a href="/wiki/High_Flux_Isotope_Reactor" title="High Flux Isotope Reactor">HFIR</a>, <a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_Neutron_Science_Center" title="Los Alamos Neutron Science Center">LANSCE</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nist.gov/ncnr/">NIST CNR</a> -<a href="/wiki/Spallation_Neutron_Source" title="Spallation Neutron Source">SNS</a></li> <li>Oceania: <a href="/wiki/Open-pool_Australian_lightwater_reactor" title="Open-pool Australian lightwater reactor">OPAL</a></li> <li>Asia: <a href="/wiki/J-PARC" title="J-PARC">J-PARC</a>, <a href="/wiki/High-Flux_Advanced_Neutron_Application_Reactor" title="High-Flux Advanced Neutron Application Reactor">HANARO</a></li> <li>Europe: <a href="/wiki/Helmholtz-Zentrum_Berlin" title="Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin">BER II</a>, <a href="/wiki/FRM_II" title="FRM II">FRM II</a>, <a href="/wiki/Institut_Laue%E2%80%93Langevin" title="Institut Laue–Langevin">ILL</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISIS_Neutron_and_Muon_Source" title="ISIS Neutron and Muon Source">ISIS Neutron and Muon Source</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joint_Institute_for_Nuclear_Research" title="Joint Institute for Nuclear Research">JINR</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Scherrer_Institute#Spallation_Neutron_Source_.28SINQ.29" title="Paul Scherrer Institute">SINQ</a></li> <li>Historic: <a href="/wiki/Intense_Pulsed_Neutron_Source" title="Intense Pulsed Neutron Source">IPNS</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bnl.gov/bnlweb/history/HFBR_main.asp">HFBR</a></li> <li>Under construction: <a href="/wiki/European_Spallation_Source" title="European Spallation Source">ESS</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Science_with_neutrons" title="Template:Science with neutrons"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Science_with_neutrons" title="Template talk:Science with neutrons"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Science_with_neutrons" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Science with neutrons"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Generally the production of neutrons at a spallation source begins with a high-powered proton <a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator">accelerator</a>. The accelerator may consist of a linac only (as in the <a href="/wiki/European_Spallation_Source" title="European Spallation Source">European Spallation Source</a>) or a combination of linac and synchrotron (e.g. <a href="/wiki/ISIS_neutron_source" class="mw-redirect" title="ISIS neutron source">ISIS neutron source</a>) or a cyclotron (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Paul_Scherrer_Institute#Swiss_Spallation_Neutron_Source_(SINQ)" title="Paul Scherrer Institute">SINQ (PSI)</a>) . As an example, the <a href="/wiki/ISIS_neutron_source" class="mw-redirect" title="ISIS neutron source">ISIS neutron source</a> is based on some components of the former <a href="/wiki/Nimrod_(synchrotron)" title="Nimrod (synchrotron)">Nimrod synchrotron</a>. Nimrod was uncompetitive for <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particle physics</a> so it was replaced with a new synchrotron, initially using the original <a href="/wiki/Injector" title="Injector">injectors</a>, but which produces a highly intense pulsed beam of protons. Whereas Nimrod would produce around 2 μA at 7 GeV, ISIS produces 200 μA at 0.8 GeV. This is pulsed at the rate of 50 Hz, and this intense beam of protons is focused onto a target. Experiments have been done with <a href="/wiki/Depleted_uranium" title="Depleted uranium">depleted uranium</a> targets but although these produce the most intense neutron beams, they also have the shortest lives. Generally, therefore, <a href="/wiki/Tantalum" title="Tantalum">tantalum</a> or <a href="/wiki/Tungsten" title="Tungsten">tungsten</a> targets have been used. Spallation processes in the target produce the neutrons, initially at <a href="/wiki/Fast_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast neutron">very high energies</a>—a good fraction of the proton energy. These neutrons are then slowed in <a href="/wiki/Neutron_moderation" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutron moderation">moderators</a> filled with <a href="/wiki/Liquid_hydrogen" title="Liquid hydrogen">liquid hydrogen</a> or liquid <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a> to the energies that are needed for the scattering instruments. Whilst protons can be focused since they have charge, chargeless neutrons cannot be, so in this arrangement the instruments are arranged around the moderators. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Inertial_confinement_fusion" title="Inertial confinement fusion">Inertial confinement fusion</a> has the potential to produce orders of magnitude more neutrons than spallation.<sup id="cite_ref-taylor2007_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-taylor2007-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This could be useful for <a href="/wiki/Neutron_radiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutron radiography">neutron radiography</a>, which can be used to locate hydrogen atoms in structures, resolve atomic thermal motion, and study collective excitations of phonons more effectively than <a href="/wiki/X-rays" class="mw-redirect" title="X-rays">X-rays</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spallation&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Energy_amplifier" title="Energy amplifier">Energy amplifier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subcritical_reactor" title="Subcritical reactor">Subcritical reactor</a> (accelerator-driven system)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sputtering" title="Sputtering">Sputtering</a> (phenomenon in which microscopic particles of a solid material are ejected from its surface)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spallation_facilities">Spallation facilities</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spallation&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Spallation facilities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Institut_Laue%E2%80%93Langevin" title="Institut Laue–Langevin">Institut-Laue-Langevin</a> Grenoble, France</li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Spallation_Source" title="European Spallation Source">European Spallation Source</a>, under construction, Sweden</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISIS_neutron_source" class="mw-redirect" title="ISIS neutron source">ISIS neutron source</a>, Harwell, UK</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J-PARC" title="J-PARC">J-PARC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LANSCE" class="mw-redirect" title="LANSCE">LANSCE</a> Los Alamos</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Scherrer_Institute#Swiss_Spallation_Neutron_Source_(SINQ)" title="Paul Scherrer Institute">PSI Spallation Neutron Source (SINQ)</a>, Switzerland</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spallation_Neutron_Source" title="Spallation Neutron Source">Spallation Neutron Source</a> Oak Ridge, USA</li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Spallation_Neutron_Source" title="China Spallation Neutron Source">China Spallation Neutron Source</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spallation&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.psi.ch/bsq/spallation-target">"Spallation Target | Paul Scherrer Institut (PSI)"</a>. <i>Psi.ch</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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"Über die Eigenschaften der durchdringenden Korpuskularstrahlung im Meeresniveau" [About properties of penetrating, corpuscular radiation at sea level]. <i>Zeitschrift für Physik</i>. <b>82</b> (3–4): 151–178. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1933ZPhy...82..151R">1933ZPhy...82..151R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01341486">10.1007/BF01341486</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:121427439">121427439</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Physik&rft.atitle=%C3%9Cber+die+Eigenschaften+der+durchdringenden+Korpuskularstrahlung+im+Meeresniveau&rft.volume=82&rft.issue=3%E2%80%934&rft.pages=151-178&rft.date=1933&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A121427439%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF01341486&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1933ZPhy...82..151R&rft.aulast=Rossi&rft.aufirst=Bruno&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpallation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrása2010" class="citation journal cs1">Krása, Antonín (May 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190303183952/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/ba08/30dcab221b45ca5bcc3cfa8ae82558d624e7.pdf">"Neutron Sources for ADS"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Faculty of Nuclear Sciences and Physical Engineering</i>. Czech Technical University in Prague. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:28796927">28796927</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/ba08/30dcab221b45ca5bcc3cfa8ae82558d624e7.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2019-03-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 20,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Faculty+of+Nuclear+Sciences+and+Physical+Engineering&rft.atitle=Neutron+Sources+for+ADS&rft.date=2010-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A28796927%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Kr%C3%A1sa&rft.aufirst=Anton%C3%ADn&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpdfs.semanticscholar.org%2Fba08%2F30dcab221b45ca5bcc3cfa8ae82558d624e7.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpallation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-taylor2007-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-taylor2007_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor,_AndrewDunneBenningtonAnsell2007" class="citation journal cs1">Taylor, Andrew; Dunne, M; Bennington, S; Ansell, S; Gardner, I; Norreys, P; Broome, T; Findlay, D; Nelmes, R (February 2007). "A Route to the Brightest Possible Neutron Source?". <i><a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i>. <b>315</b> (5815): 1092–1095. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007Sci...315.1092T">2007Sci...315.1092T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1127185">10.1126/science.1127185</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17322053">17322053</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:42506679">42506679</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=A+Route+to+the+Brightest+Possible+Neutron+Source%3F&rft.volume=315&rft.issue=5815&rft.pages=1092-1095&rft.date=2007-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1127185&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A42506679%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17322053&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007Sci...315.1092T&rft.au=Taylor%2C+Andrew&rft.au=Dunne%2C+M&rft.au=Bennington%2C+S&rft.au=Ansell%2C+S&rft.au=Gardner%2C+I&rft.au=Norreys%2C+P&rft.au=Broome%2C+T&rft.au=Findlay%2C+D&rft.au=Nelmes%2C+R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpallation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spallation&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nucleus.iaea.org/sites/accelerators/Pages/Spallation.aspx">IAEA database of spallation neutron sources</a> in the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nucleus.iaea.org/sites/accelerators/Pages/default.aspx">Accelerator Knowledge Portal</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090813211704/http://www.isis.rl.ac.uk/accelerator/index.htm">Description of ISIS accelerator etc.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060904163514/http://www.sns.gov/aboutsns/what-why.htm">Spallation Neutron Source</a> technical background.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.isis.stfc.ac.uk/about-isis/how-isis-works6313.html">How spallation works</a> at the ISIS neutron and muon source</li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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