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id="toc-Idea–expression_dichotomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Compilations_of_facts_and_the_sweat_of_the_brow_doctrine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Compilations_of_facts_and_the_sweat_of_the_brow_doctrine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Compilations of facts and the <i>sweat of the brow doctrine</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Compilations_of_facts_and_the_sweat_of_the_brow_doctrine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Useful_articles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Useful_articles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Useful articles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Useful_articles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works_by_the_federal_government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_by_the_federal_government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Works by the federal government</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_by_the_federal_government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Federal_and_state_laws_are_not_protected_by_copyright" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Federal_and_state_laws_are_not_protected_by_copyright"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Federal and state laws are not protected by copyright</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Federal_and_state_laws_are_not_protected_by_copyright-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exclusive_rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exclusive_rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Exclusive rights</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Exclusive_rights-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Exclusive rights subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Exclusive_rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Authorship,_ownership,_and_work_for_hire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Authorship,_ownership,_and_work_for_hire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Authorship, ownership, and work for hire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Authorship,_ownership,_and_work_for_hire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transfers_and_licenses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transfers_and_licenses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Transfers and licenses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transfers_and_licenses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Limitations_on_exclusive_rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Limitations_on_exclusive_rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Limitations on exclusive rights</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Limitations_on_exclusive_rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Registration_procedure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Registration_procedure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Registration procedure</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Registration_procedure-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Registration procedure subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Registration_procedure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Deposit_requirement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deposit_requirement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Deposit requirement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deposit_requirement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Copyright_notices" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Copyright_notices"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Copyright notices</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Copyright_notices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Duration_of_copyright" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Duration_of_copyright"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Duration of copyright</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Duration_of_copyright-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Duration of copyright subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Duration_of_copyright-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Works_created_before_1978" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_created_before_1978"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Works created before 1978</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_created_before_1978-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Copyright_limitations,_exceptions,_and_defenses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Copyright_limitations,_exceptions,_and_defenses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Copyright limitations, exceptions, and defenses</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Copyright_limitations,_exceptions,_and_defenses-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Copyright limitations, exceptions, and defenses subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Copyright_limitations,_exceptions,_and_defenses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fair_use" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fair_use"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Fair use</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fair_use-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Infringement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Infringement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Infringement</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Infringement-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Infringement subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Infringement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Copyright_infringement_litigation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Copyright_infringement_litigation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Copyright infringement litigation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Copyright_infringement_litigation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ownership_of_valid_copyright" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ownership_of_valid_copyright"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.1</span> <span>Ownership of valid copyright</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ownership_of_valid_copyright-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Misappropriation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Misappropriation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.2</span> <span>Misappropriation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Misappropriation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Civil_remedies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civil_remedies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Civil remedies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civil_remedies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Equitable_relief" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Equitable_relief"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2.1</span> <span>Equitable relief</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Equitable_relief-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Monetary_damages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monetary_damages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2.2</span> <span>Monetary damages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monetary_damages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Attorney's_fees" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Attorney's_fees"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2.3</span> <span>Attorney's fees</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Attorney's_fees-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criminal_penalties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criminal_penalties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Criminal penalties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criminal_penalties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Government_infringement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government_infringement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>Government infringement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Government_infringement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_domain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_domain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Public domain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_domain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Orphan_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Orphan_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Orphan works</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Orphan_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Copyright_reform" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Copyright_reform"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Copyright reform</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Copyright_reform-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Historical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.1</span> <span>Historical</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Copyright law of the United States</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 31 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-31" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">31 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_copyright_law" title="United States copyright law – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="United States copyright law" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%AD%D9%82%D9%88%D9%82_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%A3%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%81_%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%B4%D8%B1_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D8%A9" title="قانون حقوق التأليف والنشر في الولايات المتحدة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="قانون حقوق التأليف والنشر في الولايات المتحدة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/AB%C5%9E_M%C3%BC%C9%99lliflik_H%C3%BCquqlar%C4%B1_Qanunu" title="ABŞ Müəlliflik Hüquqları Qanunu – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="ABŞ Müəlliflik Hüquqları Qanunu" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%9F_%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A8" title="মার্কিন যুক্তরাষ্ট্রের কপিরাইট আইন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মার্কিন যুক্তরাষ্ট্রের কপিরাইট আইন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%A1%D0%90%D0%A9" title="Закон за авторското право на САЩ – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Закон за авторското право на САЩ" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ameri%C4%8Dki_zakon_o_autorskom_pravu" title="Američki zakon o autorskom pravu – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Američki zakon o autorskom pravu" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autorsk%C3%A9_pr%C3%A1vo_v_USA" title="Autorské právo v USA – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Autorské právo v USA" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyfraith_hawlfraint_yr_Unol_Daleithiau" title="Cyfraith hawlfraint yr Unol Daleithiau – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Cyfraith hawlfraint yr Unol Daleithiau" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_(Vereinigte_Staaten)" title="Copyright law (Vereinigte Staaten) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Copyright law (Vereinigte Staaten)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ley_de_derechos_de_autor_de_los_Estados_Unidos" title="Ley de derechos de autor de los Estados Unidos – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ley de derechos de autor de los Estados Unidos" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%AD%D9%82_%D8%AA%DA%A9%D8%AB%DB%8C%D8%B1_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%A2%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7" title="قانون حق تکثیر ایالات متحده آمریکا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="قانون حق تکثیر ایالات متحده آمریکا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droit_d%27auteur_aux_%C3%89tats-Unis" title="Droit d'auteur aux États-Unis – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Droit d'auteur aux États-Unis" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%A5%D5%B2%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%AB%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D6%84%D5%B6_%D4%B1%D5%84%D5%86-%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Հեղինակային իրավունքն ԱՄՆ-ում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հեղինակային իրավունքն ԱՄՆ-ում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ameri%C4%8Dki_zakon_o_autorskom_pravu" title="Američki zakon o autorskom pravu – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Američki zakon o autorskom pravu" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_the_United_States" title="Copyright law of the United States – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Copyright law of the United States" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Igbo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peraturan_hak_cipta_Amerika_Serikat" title="Peraturan hak cipta Amerika Serikat – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Peraturan hak cipta Amerika Serikat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%A1%D0%90%D0%94" title="Закон за авторското право на САД – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Закон за авторското право на САД" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undang-undang_hak_cipta_Amerika_Syarikat" title="Undang-undang hak cipta Amerika Syarikat – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Undang-undang hak cipta Amerika Syarikat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%91%97%E4%BD%9C%E6%A8%A9%E6%B3%95_(%E3%82%A2%E3%83%A1%E3%83%AA%E3%82%AB%E5%90%88%E8%A1%86%E5%9B%BD)" title="著作権法 (アメリカ合衆国) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="著作権法 (アメリカ合衆国)" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2_%D0%A1%D0%A8%D0%90" title="Авторское право в США – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Авторское право в США" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligji_i_s%C3%AB_drejt%C3%ABs_autoriale_n%C3%AB_Shtetet_e_Bashkuara" title="Ligji i së drejtës autoriale në Shtetet e Bashkuara – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Ligji i së drejtës autoriale në Shtetet e Bashkuara" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zakon_o_avtorskih_pravicah_ZDA" title="Zakon o avtorskih pravicah ZDA – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Zakon o avtorskih pravicah ZDA" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%8C_%D8%A8%DA%B5%D8%A7%D9%88%DA%A9%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%86%DB%95%D9%88%DB%95%DB%8C_%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%95%D8%AA%DB%95_%DB%8C%DB%95%DA%A9%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%88%DB%95%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86" title="یاسای مافی بڵاوکردنەوەی ویلایەتە یەکگرتووەکان – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="یاسای مافی بڵاوکردنەوەی ویلایەتە یەکگرتووەکان" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%BE_%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%83_%D0%A1%D0%90%D0%94" title="Закон о ауторском праву САД – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Закон о ауторском праву САД" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autorsko_pravo_u_SAD" title="Autorsko pravo u SAD – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Autorsko pravo u SAD" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%90%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF_%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="ஐக்கிய அமெரிக்காவின் பதிப்புரிமைச் சட்டம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஐக்கிய அமெரிக்காவின் பதிப்புரிமைச் சட்டம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%85%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%BE_%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%80%E0%B0%B9%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%81_%E0%B0%9A%E0%B0%9F%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%9F%E0%B0%82" title="అమెరికా కాపీహక్కు చట్టం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="అమెరికా కాపీహక్కు చట్టం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amerika_Birle%C5%9Fik_Devletleri_Telif_Hakk%C4%B1_Kanunu" title="Amerika Birleşik Devletleri Telif Hakkı Kanunu – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Amerika Birleşik Devletleri Telif Hakkı Kanunu" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lu%E1%BA%ADt_b%E1%BA%A3n_quy%E1%BB%81n_Hoa_K%E1%BB%B3" title="Luật bản quyền Hoa Kỳ – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Luật bản quyền Hoa Kỳ" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B%E7%89%88%E6%AC%8A%E6%B3%95" title="美國版權法 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="美國版權法" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9B%BD%E7%89%88%E6%9D%83%E6%B3%95" title="美国版权法 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="美国版权法" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" 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class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the stated purpose to promote <a href="/wiki/Art" title="Art">art</a> and <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a>, copyright law assigns a set of exclusive rights to authors: to make and sell copies of their works, to create derivative works, and to perform or display their works publicly. These exclusive rights are subject to a time and generally expire 70 years after the author's death or 95 years after publication. In the United States, works <a href="/wiki/Publication_(copyright)" class="mw-redirect" title="Publication (copyright)">published</a> before January 1, 1929, are in the public domain. </p><p>United States <a href="/wiki/Copyright" title="Copyright">copyright</a> law was last generally revised by the <a href="/wiki/Copyright_Act_of_1976" title="Copyright Act of 1976">Copyright Act of 1976</a>, codified in <a href="/wiki/Title_17_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 17 of the United States Code">Title 17 of the United States Code</a>. The United States Constitution explicitly grants Congress the power to create copyright law under Article 1, Section 8, Clause 8, known as the <a href="/wiki/Copyright_Clause" title="Copyright Clause">Copyright Clause</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-copyright-clause_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-copyright-clause-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under the Copyright Clause, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> has the power "To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries."<sup id="cite_ref-copyright-clause_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-copyright-clause-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Copyright_Office" title="United States Copyright Office">United States Copyright Office</a> handles copyright registration, recording of <a href="/wiki/Copyright_transfer_agreement" title="Copyright transfer agreement">copyright transfers</a>, and other administrative aspects of copyright law.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_copyright_law_of_the_United_States" title="History of copyright law of the United States">History of copyright law of the United States</a></div> <p>United States <a href="/wiki/Copyright" title="Copyright">copyright</a> law traces its lineage back to the British <a href="/wiki/Statute_of_Anne" title="Statute of Anne">Statute of Anne</a>, which influenced the first U.S. federal copyright law, the <a href="/wiki/Copyright_Act_of_1790" title="Copyright Act of 1790">Copyright Act of 1790</a>. The length of copyright established by the Founding Fathers was 14 years, plus the ability to renew it one time, for 14 more. <a href="/wiki/Copyright_Act_of_1831" title="Copyright Act of 1831">40 years later</a>, the initial term was changed to 28 years. </p><p>It was not until a full 180 years after its establishment that it was significantly extended beyond that, through the <a href="/wiki/Copyright_Act_of_1976" title="Copyright Act of 1976">Copyright Act of 1976</a> to "Either 75 years or the life of the author plus 50 years" and the Sonny Bono <a href="/wiki/Copyright_Term_Extension_Act" title="Copyright Term Extension Act">Copyright Term Extension Act</a> of 1998 (also called the "Mickey Mouse Protection Act", because it prevented the copyright from expiring on the first commercial success of the <a href="/wiki/The_Walt_Disney_Company" title="The Walt Disney Company">Disney</a> cartoon character <a href="/wiki/Mickey_Mouse" title="Mickey Mouse">Mickey Mouse</a>), which increased it even more, to 95 years after publication (120 years after creation for unpublished works), or the life of the author plus 70 years, whichever ends earlier. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Purpose_of_copyright">Purpose of copyright</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Purpose of copyright"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The Congress shall have Power [...] to promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a></cite></div></blockquote> <p>The goal of copyright law, as set forth in the <a href="/wiki/Copyright_Clause" title="Copyright Clause">Copyright Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/US_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="US Constitution">US Constitution</a>, is "to promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries."<sup id="cite_ref-copyright-clause_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-copyright-clause-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This includes incentivizing the creation of art, literature, architecture, music, and other works of authorship. As with many legal doctrines, the effectiveness of copyright law in achieving its stated purpose is a matter of debate.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Works_subject_to_copyright_law">Works subject to copyright law</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Works subject to copyright law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The United States copyright law protects "original works of authorship" fixed in a tangible medium,<sup id="cite_ref-17usc102_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17usc102-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including literary, dramatic, musical, artistic, and other intellectual works. This protection is available to both published and unpublished works. Copyright law includes the following types of works: </p> <ul><li>Literary</li> <li>Musical</li> <li>Dramatic</li> <li>Pantomimes and choreographic works</li> <li>Pictorial, graphic, and sculptural works</li> <li>Audio-visual works</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sound_recording_and_reproduction" title="Sound recording and reproduction">Sound recordings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derivative_work" title="Derivative work">Derivative works</a></li> <li>Compilations</li> <li>Architectural works<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Idea–expression_dichotomy"><span id="Idea.E2.80.93expression_dichotomy"></span>Idea–expression dichotomy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Idea–expression dichotomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Copyright law protects the "expression" of an idea, but copyright does not protect the "idea" itself. This distinction is called the <a href="/wiki/Idea%E2%80%93expression_divide" class="mw-redirect" title="Idea–expression divide">idea–expression dichotomy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The distinction between "idea" and "expression" is fundamental to copyright law. From the <a href="/wiki/Copyright_Act_of_1976" title="Copyright Act of 1976">Copyright Act of 1976</a> (<a href="/wiki/Title_17_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 17 of the United States Code">17 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/102">§ 102</a>): </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In no case does copyright protection for an original work of authorship extend to any idea, procedure, process, system, method of operation, concept, principle, or discovery, regardless of the form in which it is described, explained, illustrated, or embodied in such work.</p></blockquote> <p>For example, a paper describing a political theory is copyrightable. The paper is the <i>expression</i> of the author's ideas about the political theory. The theory itself is just an <i>idea</i>, and is not copyrightable. Another author is free to describe the same theory in their own words without infringing on the original author's copyright.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although fundamental, the idea–expression dichotomy is often difficult to put into practice. Reasonable people can disagree about where the unprotectable "idea" ends and the protectable "expression" begins. As Judge <a href="/wiki/Learned_Hand" title="Learned Hand">Learned Hand</a> put it, "Obviously, no principle can be stated as to when an imitator has gone beyond copying the 'idea,' and has borrowed its 'expression.' Decisions must therefore inevitably be ad hoc."<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Compilations_of_facts_and_the_sweat_of_the_brow_doctrine">Compilations of facts and the <i>sweat of the brow doctrine</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Compilations of facts and the sweat of the brow doctrine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Mere facts are not copyrightable. However, <i>compilations of facts</i> are treated differently, and may be copyrightable material. The Copyright Act, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/103">§ 103</a>, allows copyright protection for "compilations", as long as there is some "creative" or "original" act involved in developing the compilation, such as in the selection (deciding which facts to include or exclude) and arrangement (how facts are displayed and in what order). Copyright protection in compilations is limited to the <i>selection and arrangement of facts</i>, not to the facts themselves. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> decision in <i><a href="/wiki/Feist_Publications,_Inc.,_v._Rural_Telephone_Service_Co." title="Feist Publications, Inc., v. Rural Telephone Service Co.">Feist Publications, Inc., v. Rural Telephone Service Co.</a></i> clarified the requirements for copyright in compilations. The Feist case denied copyright protection to a "white pages" phone book (a compilation of telephone numbers, listed alphabetically). In making this ruling, the Supreme Court rejected the "<a href="/wiki/Sweat_of_the_brow" title="Sweat of the brow">sweat of the brow</a>" doctrine. That is, copyright protection requires creativity, and no amount of hard work ("sweat of the brow") can transform a non-creative list (like an alphabetical listing of phone numbers) into copyrightable subject matter. A mechanical, non-selective collection of facts (e.g., alphabetized phone numbers) cannot be protected by copyright.<sup id="cite_ref-works.bepress.com_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-works.bepress.com-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Useful_articles">Useful articles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Useful articles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Copyright protects artistic expression. Copyright does not protect useful articles, or objects with some useful functionality. The Copyright Act states: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>A "useful article" is an article having an intrinsic utilitarian function that is not merely to portray the appearance of the article or to convey information. An article that is normally a part of a useful article is considered a "useful article".</p></blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"the design of a useful article, as defined in this section, shall be considered a pictorial, graphic, or sculptural work only if, and only to the extent that, such design incorporates pictorial, graphic, or sculptural features that can be identified separately from, and are capable of existing independently of, the utilitarian aspects of the article."<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>However, many industrial designers create works that are both artistic and functional. Under these circumstances, copyright law only protects the artistic expression of such a work, and only to the extent that the artistic expression can be separated from its utilitarian function.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2017, the US Supreme Court granted <a href="/wiki/Certiorari" title="Certiorari">certiorari</a> in the case <i><a href="/wiki/Star_Athletica,_L._L._C._v._Varsity_Brands,_Inc." class="mw-redirect" title="Star Athletica, L. L. C. v. Varsity Brands, Inc.">Star Athletica, L. L. C. v. Varsity Brands, Inc.</a></i> to determine when a "pictorial, graphic, or sculptural feature" incorporated into a useful article is eligible for copyright protection,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> holding that such features are eligible for copyright protection "only if the feature (1) can be perceived as a two- or three-dimensional work of art separate from the useful article and (2) would qualify as a protectable pictorial, graphic, or sculptural work—either on its own or fixed in some other tangible medium of expression—if it were imagined separately from the useful article into which it is incorporated."<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Star Athletica</i> began as a suit by Varsity Brands against Star Athletica for infringing the copyright of five cheerleader uniform designs.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Applying its new test to the cheerleader uniform designs, the court said: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>First, one can identify the decorations as features having pictorial, graphic, or sculptural qualities. Second, if the arrangement of colors, shapes, stripes, and chevrons on the surface of the cheerleading uniforms were separated from the uniform and applied in another medium—for example, on a painter's canvas—they would qualify as "two-dimensional ... works of ... art". And imaginatively removing the surface decorations from the uniforms and applying them in another medium would not replicate the uniform itself. Indeed, respondents have applied the designs in this case to other media of expression—different types of clothing—without replicating the uniform. The decorations are therefore separable from the uniforms and eligible for copyright protection.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>This produces a relatively low threshold for pictorial, graphic, or sculptural features on useful articles to be eligible for copyright protection, which one commentator clearly highlighted: the <i>Star Athletica</i> decision "really has ensured that all but the subtlest graphic designs will be able to gain copyright protection...once we determine that the designs 'hav[e] … graphic … qualities … [and could be] applied … on a painter's canvas,' the test for copyrightability is met."<sup id="cite_ref-Mann_2017_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mann_2017-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_by_the_federal_government">Works by the federal government</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Works by the federal government"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Copyright_status_of_work_by_the_U.S._government" class="mw-redirect" title="Copyright status of work by the U.S. government">Copyright status of work by the U.S. government</a></div> <p>Works created by the federal government are not copyrightable.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This restriction on copyright applies to publications produced by the United States Government, and its agents or employees within the scope of their employment.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, government contractors are generally not considered employees, and their works may be subject to copyright. Additionally, the government can purchase and hold the copyright to works created by third parties. </p><p>The government may restrict access to works it has produced through other mechanisms. For instance, <a href="/wiki/Classified_information_in_the_United_States" title="Classified information in the United States">classified materials</a> may not be protected by copyright, but are restricted by other applicable laws. Even in case of non-classified materials, there may be specific prohibitions against usage, such as the <a href="/wiki/Seal_of_the_president_of_the_United_States" title="Seal of the president of the United States">presidential seal</a>, which is restricted for commercial uses.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Federal_and_state_laws_are_not_protected_by_copyright">Federal and state laws are not protected by copyright</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Federal and state laws are not protected by copyright"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_government" title="Edict of government">Edict of government</a></div> <p>Federal, state, and local statutes and court decisions are in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a> and are ineligible for copyright, a concept known as the government edicts doctrine. It is not difficult to see the motivations behind this: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The citizens are the authors of the law, and therefore its owners, regardless of who actually drafts the provisions, because the law derives its authority from the consent of the public, expressed through the democratic process.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Three key Supreme Court cases established this government edicts doctrine: <i><a href="/wiki/Wheaton_v._Peters" title="Wheaton v. Peters">Wheaton v. Peters</a></i> (1834), <i><a href="/wiki/Banks_v._Manchester" title="Banks v. Manchester">Banks v. Manchester</a></i> (1888), and <i><a href="/wiki/Callaghan_v._Myers" title="Callaghan v. Myers">Callaghan v. Myers</a></i> (1888).<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The doctrine was codified into the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Code" title="United States Code">United States Code</a> at <a href="/wiki/Title_17_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 17 of the United States Code">17 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/105">§ 105</a> via the <a href="/wiki/Copyright_Act_of_1976" title="Copyright Act of 1976">Copyright Act of 1976</a>. The Copyright Office upholds this doctrine within its own regulations: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>As a matter of longstanding public policy, the U.S. Copyright Office will not register a government edict that has been issued by any state, local, or territorial government, including legislative enactments, judicial decisions, administrative rulings, public ordinances, or similar types of official legal materials. Likewise, the Office will not register a government edict issued by any foreign government or any translation prepared by a government employee acting within the course of his or her official duties.<sup id="cite_ref-Compendium313.6C2_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Compendium313.6C2-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The Supreme Court has also ruled that annotated versions of statutes or court decisions at the federal, state, and local level, when such annotations are done by members of the government as part of their duties, are ineligible for copyright in <i><a href="/wiki/Georgia_v._Public.Resource.Org,_Inc." title="Georgia v. Public.Resource.Org, Inc.">Georgia v. Public.Resource.Org, Inc.</a></i> (2020).<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Exclusive_rights">Exclusive rights</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Exclusive rights"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are six basic rights protected by copyright.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The owner of a copyright has the exclusive right to do and authorize others to do the following: </p> <ul><li>To <i>reproduce</i> the work in copies or phonorecords;</li> <li>To prepare <i>derivative works</i> based upon the work;</li> <li>To <i>distribute</i> copies or phonorecords of the work to the public by sale or other transfer of ownership, or by rental, lease, or lending;</li> <li>To <i>publicly perform</i> the work, in the case of literary, musical, dramatic, and choreographic works, pantomimes, and motion pictures and other audiovisual works;</li> <li>To <i>publicly display</i> the work, in the case of literary, musical, dramatic, and choreographic works, pantomimes, and pictorial, graphic, or sculptural works, including the individual images of a motion picture or other audiovisual work.</li> <li>To <i>digitally</i> transmit sound recordings by means of digital audio transmission.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>A violation of any of the exclusive rights of the copyright holder is a <a href="/wiki/Copyright_infringement" title="Copyright infringement">copyright infringement</a>, unless fair use (or a similar affirmative defense) applies.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Authorship,_ownership,_and_work_for_hire"><span id="Authorship.2C_ownership.2C_and_work_for_hire"></span>Authorship, ownership, and work for hire</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Authorship, ownership, and work for hire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The initial owner of the copyright to a work is the author, unless that work is a "work made for hire". </p> <ul><li><b>Works for hire</b>. If a work is made "for hire" within the meaning of the Copyright Act, then the <i>employer</i> or <i>commissioning party</i> is deemed to be the author and will own the copyright as though it were the true author.<sup id="cite_ref-Section_101_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Section_101-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These circumstances under which a work may be found to be a <a href="/wiki/Work_for_hire" title="Work for hire">work for hire</a> are: <ul><li>Work prepared by an <i>employee</i> within the scope of their employment. In Community for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid, 490 U.S. 730 (1989), the Supreme Court held that the term "employee" in this context should be interpreted according to common law agency principles. If the person doing the work is an "employee" within the meaning of the common law, and the work was done within the scope of their employment (whether the work is the kind they were employed to prepare; whether the preparation takes place primarily within the employer's time and place specifications; and whether the work was activated, at least in part, by a purpose to serve the employer), then the work is a work for hire and the employer is the initial owner of the copyright.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Specially ordered or commissioned works. Works created by independent contractors (rather than employees) can be deemed works for hire only if two conditions are satisfied. First, the work must fit into one of these categories: a contribution to a collective work, part of a motion picture or other audiovisual work, a translation, a supplementary work, a compilation, an instructional text, a test, answer material for a test, or an atlas. Second, the parties must expressly agree in a written, signed instrument that the work will be considered a work made for hire.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li></ul> <p>If a work is not a work for hire, then the author will be the initial copyright owner. The author generally is the person who conceives of the copyrightable expression and "fixes" it in a "tangible medium of expression." Special rules apply when multiple authors are involved: </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Joint_authorship" title="Joint authorship">Joint authorship</a>:</b> The US copyright law recognizes joint authorship in Section 101.<sup id="cite_ref-Section_101_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Section_101-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The authors of a joint work are co-owners of a single copyright in the work. A joint work is "a work prepared by two or more authors with the intention that their contributions be merged into inseparable or independent parts of a unitary whole."<sup id="cite_ref-Section_101_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Section_101-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Collective_work_(US)" title="Collective work (US)">Collective works</a></b>: A collective work is a collection of independent, separately copyrightable works of authorship, such as a newspaper, magazine, or encyclopedia.<sup id="cite_ref-Section_101_28-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Section_101-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the absence of an express assignment of copyright, the author of each individual work in the collection retains copyright in that work.<sup id="cite_ref-Section_201_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Section_201-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The compiler, or author of the collection, owns copyright in the expression he or she contributed, which is primarily the selection and arrangement of the separate contributions, but may include such things as a preface, advertisements, etc., that the collective author created.<sup id="cite_ref-Section_101_28-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Section_101-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transfers_and_licenses">Transfers and licenses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Transfers and licenses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Three types of transfers exist for copyrighted works. </p> <ul><li>Assignment</li> <li>Exclusive license</li> <li>Non-exclusive license</li></ul> <p>The first two, assignment and exclusive licenses, require the transfer to be in writing. Nonexclusive licenses need not be in writing and they may be implied by the circumstances. Transfers of copyright always involve one or more of the <i>exclusive rights</i> of copyright. For instance, a license may provide a right to perform a work, but not to reproduce it or to prepare a derivative work (adaptation right).<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The terms of the license are governed by the applicable contract law; however, there is substantial academic debate about to what extent the Copyright Act preempts state contract law principles.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An author, after transferring a copyright, can terminate the transfer under certain circumstances. This right to terminate the transfer is absolute and cannot be waived.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For works published before 1978, copyrights may revert to the author after 56 years. For example, <a href="/wiki/Paul_McCartney" title="Paul McCartney">Paul McCartney</a> reclaimed the U.S. publishing rights to early <a href="/wiki/The_Beatles" title="The Beatles">Beatles</a> songs from <a href="/wiki/Sony_Music_Publishing" title="Sony Music Publishing">Sony Music Publishing</a>, beginning in October 2018.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For works published since 1978, copyrights may revert to the original author after 35 years. <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><a href="/wiki/Title_17_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 17 of the United States Code">17 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/203#a">§ 203(a)</a></span> states that the author must write a letter requesting a termination of the original copyright grant at least two years before the effective termination date.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Limitations_on_exclusive_rights">Limitations on exclusive rights</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Limitations on exclusive rights"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Title 17, United States Code, Section 108 places limitations on exclusive copyrights for the purposes of certain limited reproduction by a public library or an archive.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Title 17, United States Code, Section 107 also places statutory limits on copyright which are commonly referred to as the fair use exception.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Registration_procedure">Registration procedure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Registration procedure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Newspaper_advert_copyright_patent_and_trade_mark.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Late 19th-century newspaper advertisement for copyright registration services. The text reads "United States and Foreign Copyright. Patents and Trade-Marks A Copyright will protect you from Pirates. And make you a fortune. If you have a play, sketch, photo, act, song or book that is worth anything, you should copyright it. Don't take chances when you can secure our services at small cost. Send for our special offer to inventors before applying for a patent, it will pay you. Handbook on patents sent free. We advise if patentable or not. Free. We incorporate stock companies. Small fees. Consult us. Wormelle & Van Mater, Managers, Columbia Copyright & Patent Co. Inc, Washington, D.C."" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Newspaper_advert_copyright_patent_and_trade_mark.jpg/220px-Newspaper_advert_copyright_patent_and_trade_mark.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="276" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Newspaper_advert_copyright_patent_and_trade_mark.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="318" data-file-height="399" /></a><figcaption>Late 19th-century newspaper advertisement for copyright registration services</figcaption></figure> <p>Copyright is automatically granted to the author of an original work (that otherwise meets the basic copyright requirements, discussed above). Registration is not necessary. However, registration amplifies a copyright holder's rights in a number of ways. Registration, or refusal of registration,<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is required before a lawsuit can be filed, and registration creates the possibility for enhanced "statutory" damages. </p><p>A copyright can be registered online at the US Copyright Office's website. The Copyright Office reviews applications for obvious errors or lack of copyrightable subject matter and then issues a certificate of registration. The Copyright Office does not compare the author's new work against a collection of existing works or otherwise check for infringement. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Deposit_requirement">Deposit requirement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Deposit requirement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The United States Copyright Office requires a deposit copy of the work for which copyright registration is sought. Deposits can be made through the Copyright Office's eCO System. This deposit requirement serves two purposes. First, if a copyright infringement lawsuit arises, the owner may prove that the material that is infringed is exactly the same material for which the owner has secured a registration. Second, this requirement helps the Library of Congress build its collection of works.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Failure to comply with the deposit requirement, as modified by Copyright Office regulations, is punishable by fine, but does not result in forfeiture of copyright. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Copyright_notices">Copyright notices</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Copyright notices"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Copyright_notice" title="Copyright notice">Copyright notice</a></div> <p>The use of copyright notices is optional. The <a href="/wiki/Berne_Convention" title="Berne Convention">Berne Convention</a>, amending US copyright law in 1989, makes copyright automatic.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the lack of notice of copyright using these marks may have consequences in terms of reduced damages in an infringement lawsuit—using notices of this form may reduce the likelihood of a defense of "innocent infringement" being successful.<sup id="cite_ref-USC,_17,_401_(d)_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USC,_17,_401_(d)-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Duration_of_copyright">Duration of copyright</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Duration of copyright"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Extended_Tom_Bell%27s_graph_showing_extension_of_U.S._copyright_term_over_time.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Extended_Tom_Bell%27s_graph_showing_extension_of_U.S._copyright_term_over_time.svg/220px-Extended_Tom_Bell%27s_graph_showing_extension_of_U.S._copyright_term_over_time.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Extended_Tom_Bell%27s_graph_showing_extension_of_U.S._copyright_term_over_time.svg/330px-Extended_Tom_Bell%27s_graph_showing_extension_of_U.S._copyright_term_over_time.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Extended_Tom_Bell%27s_graph_showing_extension_of_U.S._copyright_term_over_time.svg/440px-Extended_Tom_Bell%27s_graph_showing_extension_of_U.S._copyright_term_over_time.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="656" data-file-height="375" /></a><figcaption>Expansion of U.S. <a href="/wiki/Copyright_term" title="Copyright term">copyright term</a> (assuming authors create their works at age 35 and die at age 70)</figcaption></figure> <p>Copyright protection generally lasts for 70 years after the death of the author. If the work was a "work for hire", then copyright persists for 120 years after creation or 95 years after publication, whichever is shorter. For works created before 1978, the copyright duration rules are complicated. However, works published before January 1, 1929 (other than sound recordings), have made their way into the public domain. All copyright terms run to the end of the calendar year in which they would otherwise expire.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_created_before_1978">Works created before 1978</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Works created before 1978"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For works published or registered before 1978, the maximum copyright duration is 95 years from the date of publication, if copyright was renewed during the 28th year following publication.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Copyright_renewal" class="mw-redirect" title="Copyright renewal">Copyright renewal</a> has been automatic since the <a href="/wiki/Copyright_Renewal_Act_of_1992" title="Copyright Renewal Act of 1992">Copyright Renewal Act of 1992</a>. </p><p>For works created before 1978, but not published or registered before 1978, the standard §302 copyright duration of 70 years from the author's death also applies.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prior to 1978, works had to be published or registered to receive copyright protection. Upon the effective date of the 1976 Copyright Act (which was January 1, 1978) this requirement was removed and these unpublished, unregistered works received protection. However, Congress intended to provide an incentive for these authors to publish their unpublished works. To provide that incentive, these works, if published before 2003, would not have their protection expire before 2048.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>All copyrightable works published in the United States before 1929 are in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-:0_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> works created but not published or copyrighted before January 1, 1978, may be protected until 2047.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For works that received their copyright before 1978, a renewal had to be filed in the work's 28th year with the Copyright Office for its term of protection to be extended. The need for renewal was eliminated by the <a href="/wiki/Copyright_Renewal_Act_of_1992" title="Copyright Renewal Act of 1992">Copyright Renewal Act of 1992</a>, but works that had already entered the public domain by non-renewal did not regain copyright protection. Therefore, works published before 1964 that were not renewed are in the public domain. </p><p>Before 1972, sound recordings were not subject to federal copyright, but copying was nonetheless regulated under various state <a href="/wiki/Tort" title="Tort">torts</a> and statutes, some of which had no duration limit. The Sound Recording Amendment of 1971 extended federal copyright to recordings fixed on or after February 15, 1972, and declared that recordings fixed before that date would remain subject to state or <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> copyright. Subsequent amendments had extended this latter provision until 2067.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, older sound recordings were not subject to the expiration rules that applied to contemporary visual works. Although these could have entered the public domain as a result of government authorship or formal grant by the owner, the practical effect was to render public domain audio virtually nonexistent.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This situation changed with the 2018 enactment of the <a href="/wiki/Music_Modernization_Act" title="Music Modernization Act">Music Modernization Act</a>, which extended federal copyright protection to all sound recordings, regardless of their date of creation, and preempted state copyright laws on those works. Under the Act, the first sound recordings to enter the public domain were those fixed before 1923, which entered the public domain on January 1, 2022. Recordings fixed between 1923 and February 14, 1972, will be phased into the public domain in the following decades.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Specifically, works fixed 1923–1946 are public after 100 years and works fixed 1947–1956 after 110 years of fixation. Works fixed 1 January 1957 – 14 February 1972 will all become public on 15 February 2067.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_48-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In May 2016, <a href="/wiki/Percy_Anderson_(judge)" title="Percy Anderson (judge)">Judge Percy Anderson</a> ruled in a lawsuit between ABS Entertainment and <a href="/wiki/CBS_Radio" title="CBS Radio">CBS Radio</a> that "remastered" versions of pre-1972 recordings can receive a federal copyright as a distinct work due to the amount of creative effort expressed in the process.<sup id="cite_ref-thr-cbs1972_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thr-cbs1972-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Ninth Circuit appeals court reversed the decision in favor of ABS Entertainment.<sup id="cite_ref-Justia_16-55917_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Justia_16-55917-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Copyright_limitations,_exceptions,_and_defenses"><span id="Copyright_limitations.2C_exceptions.2C_and_defenses"></span>Copyright limitations, exceptions, and defenses</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Copyright limitations, exceptions, and defenses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>United States copyright law includes numerous defenses, exceptions, and limitations. Some of the most important include: </p> <ul><li>Copyright applies only to certain copyrightable subject matter, codified within <a href="/wiki/Title_17_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 17 of the United States Code">17 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/102">§ 102</a>. Works that are not "original works of authorship fixed in any tangible medium of expression" are not subject to copyright. <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><a href="/wiki/Title_17_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 17 of the United States Code">17 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/102#b">§ 102(b)</a></span> codifies that copyright protection does not extend to ideas, procedures, processes, systems, etc. Facts may not be copyrighted. "Useful articles" may not be copyrighted. Useful articles includes typeface designs (<i><a href="/wiki/Eltra_Corp._v._Ringer" title="Eltra Corp. v. Ringer">Eltra Corp. v. Ringer</a></i>), fashion designs, blank forms, titles, names, short phrases, slogans, lists of ingredients and contents, domain names and band names.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Macaca_nigra_self-portrait_large.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Macaca_nigra_self-portrait_large.jpg/170px-Macaca_nigra_self-portrait_large.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Macaca_nigra_self-portrait_large.jpg/255px-Macaca_nigra_self-portrait_large.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Macaca_nigra_self-portrait_large.jpg/340px-Macaca_nigra_self-portrait_large.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2912" data-file-height="4030" /></a><figcaption>As an animal-made photograph, this <a href="/wiki/Monkey_selfie" class="mw-redirect" title="Monkey selfie">monkey selfie</a> is ineligible for copyright in the United States.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/First-sale_doctrine" title="First-sale doctrine">first-sale doctrine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Title_17_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 17 of the United States Code">17 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/109">§ 109</a>, limits the rights of copyright holders to control the further distribution and display of copies of their works <i>after</i> the first sale by the copyright owner. The owner of a particular copy is entitled to "sell or otherwise dispose of the possession of that copy" and to "display the copy publicly ... to viewers present at the place where the copy is located."</li> <li>The "good faith" defense (Section 504(c)(2)) reduces the statutory damages where the infringer was an educational institution, library, archive, or public broadcaster and reasonably believed that the infringing use was "fair use."</li> <li>The Copyright Act includes specific exemptions for types of works and particular entities, such as libraries,<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> public broadcasters,<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> braille<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> software backup copies,<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "cover license" permitting sound recording covers,<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and jukebox compulsory licenses.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>A <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_panorama" title="Freedom of panorama">freedom of panorama</a> clause, limited only to works of architecture, exists in 17 USC 120(a).<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Provisions for the Blind and Disabled: The Copyright Act, in 17 USC 121 and 17 USC 110(8), includes specific statutory exceptions for reproduction of material for the blind or other persons with disabilities. Section 121 (the "Chafee Amendment")<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> permits the reproduction of copyright works in <a href="/wiki/Braille" title="Braille">Braille</a>, audio, electronic, Web-Braille,<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or other necessary formats. For instance, the <a href="/wiki/National_Library_Service_for_the_Blind_and_Physically_Handicapped" class="mw-redirect" title="National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped">National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped</a> (NLS) administers a program under Section 121, and the <a href="/wiki/HathiTrust" title="HathiTrust">HathiTrust Digital Library</a> also relies on Section 121 in providing access to disabled users.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Online Service Provider "Safe Harbor": <a href="/wiki/Online_Copyright_Infringement_Liability_Limitation_Act" title="Online Copyright Infringement Liability Limitation Act">Section 512</a> ("OCILLA", passed as part of the DMCA in 1998) provides a contingent "safe harbor" for online service providers from secondary liability for their users' copy infringements.</li> <li>US copyright law does not allow <a href="/wiki/Works_created_by_animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Works created by animals">works created by animals</a> to be copyrighted.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Compendium313.2_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Compendium313.2-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The United States Copyright Office and the DC District Court ruled that copyright does not apply to <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence_art" title="Artificial intelligence art">artificial intelligence-generated art</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Scenic_Valley_in_the_Afternoon_Artistic_(VQGAN%2BCLIP).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Scenic_Valley_in_the_Afternoon_Artistic_%28VQGAN%2BCLIP%29.jpg/220px-Scenic_Valley_in_the_Afternoon_Artistic_%28VQGAN%2BCLIP%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Scenic_Valley_in_the_Afternoon_Artistic_%28VQGAN%2BCLIP%29.jpg/330px-Scenic_Valley_in_the_Afternoon_Artistic_%28VQGAN%2BCLIP%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Scenic_Valley_in_the_Afternoon_Artistic_%28VQGAN%2BCLIP%29.jpg/440px-Scenic_Valley_in_the_Afternoon_Artistic_%28VQGAN%2BCLIP%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4672" data-file-height="2560" /></a><figcaption>As <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence_art" title="Artificial intelligence art">AI art</a>, this landscape is ineligible for copyright in the United States.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fair_use">Fair use</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Fair use"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fair_use" title="Fair use">Fair use</a></div> <p>Fair use is the use of limited amounts of copyrighted material in such a way as to not be an infringement. It is codified at <a href="/wiki/Title_17_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 17 of the United States Code">17 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/107">§ 107</a>, and states that "the fair use of a copyrighted work ... is not an infringement of copyright." The section lists four factors that must be assessed to determine whether a particular use is fair. There are no <a href="/wiki/Bright-line_rule" title="Bright-line rule">bright-line rules</a> regarding fair use and each determination is made on an individualized case-by-case basis.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li><i>Purpose and character of the use, including whether the use is of a commercial nature or is for nonprofit educational purposes</i>: Nonprofit educational and noncommercial uses are more likely to be fair use. This does <i>not</i> mean that all nonprofit education and noncommercial uses are fair use or that all commercial uses are not fair. Instead, courts will balance the purpose and character of the use against the other factors below. Additionally, "transformative" uses are more likely to be considered fair. Transformative uses are those that add something new, with a further purpose or different character, and do not substitute for the original use of the work.</li> <li><i>Nature of the copyrighted work</i>: Using a more creative or imaginative work (such as a novel, movie, or song) is <i>less</i> likely to support fair use than using a factual work (such as a technical article or news item). In addition, use of an unpublished work is less likely to be considered fair.</li> <li><i>Amount and substantiality of the portion used in relation to the copyrighted work as a whole</i>: Courts look at both the quantity and quality of the copyrighted material that was used. Using a large portion of the copyrighted work is less likely to be fair use. However, courts have occasionally found use of an <i>entire</i> work to be fair use, and in other contexts, using even a small amount of a copyrighted work was determined not to be fair use because the selection was an important part—or the "heart"—of the work.</li> <li><i>Effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work</i>: Here, courts review whether, and to what extent, the unlicensed use harms the existing or future market for the copyright owner's original work. In assessing this factor, courts consider whether the use is hurting the current market for the original work (for example, by displacing sales of the original) and/or whether the use could cause substantial harm if it were to become widespread.</li></ol> <p>In addition to these four factors, the statute also allows courts to consider any other factors that may be relevant to the fair use analysis. Courts evaluate fair use claims on a case-by-case basis, and the outcome of any given case depends on the specific facts of that case. There is <i>no formula</i> to ensure that a predetermined percentage or amount of a work—or specific number of words, lines, pages, copies—may be used without permission.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The justification of the fair use doctrine turns primarily on whether, and to what extent, the challenged use is <i>transformative</i>. "The use must be productive and must employ the quoted matter in a different manner or for a different purpose from the original. A quotation of copyrighted material that merely repackages or republishes the original is unlikely to pass the test.... If, on the other hand, the secondary use adds value to the original—if the quoted matter is used as raw material, transformed in the creation of new information, new aesthetics, new insights and understandings—this is the very type of activity that the fair use doctrine intends to protect for the enrichment of society."<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Copyright Office provides a searchable list of fair use case law.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Infringement">Infringement</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Infringement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Copyright infringement occurs when someone violates one of the exclusive rights listed in 17 USC 106. Commonly, this involves someone creating or distributing a "copy" of a protected work that is "substantially similar" to the original version. </p><p>Infringements requires copying. If two people happen to write exactly the same story, without knowledge of the other, there is no infringement. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Copyright_infringement_litigation">Copyright infringement litigation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Copyright infringement litigation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A copyright owner may bring a copyright infringement lawsuit in federal court. Federal courts have <i>exclusive</i> <a href="/wiki/Subject-matter_jurisdiction" title="Subject-matter jurisdiction">subject-matter jurisdiction</a> over copyright infringement cases.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That is, an infringement case may not be brought in <i>state</i> courts. (With an exception for works not protected under Federal law, but are protected under state law, e.g. state laws prohibiting copying of sound recordings made before February 15, 1972.) Note that the Copyright Office handles copyright registrations, but it does not adjudicate copyright infringement disputes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ownership_of_valid_copyright">Ownership of valid copyright</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Ownership of valid copyright"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>To bring a copyright infringement lawsuit, a copyright holder must establish ownership of a valid copyright and the copying of constituent elements of the work that are original.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The copyright owner must also establish both (a) actual copying and (b) improper appropriation of the work. The copyright owner, as <a href="/wiki/Plaintiff" title="Plaintiff">plaintiff</a>, bears the burden of establishing these three elements of the <i><a href="/wiki/Prima_facie" title="Prima facie">prima facie</a></i> case for infringement. </p><p>A plaintiff establishes ownership by authorship (by the plaintiff itself or by someone who assigned rights to the plaintiff) of (1) an <i>original</i> work of authorship that is (2) fixed in a tangible medium (e.g. a book, musical recording, etc.). </p><p>Registration is not required to establish copyright protection, but registration is necessary before bringing a lawsuit. Registration is also useful because it creates a presumption of a <i>valid</i> copyright, it allows the plaintiff to collect enhanced "statutory damages", and to be eligible for an award of attorney fees. </p><p>A plaintiff establishes "actual copying" with direct or indirect evidence. Direct evidence is satisfied either by a defendant's admission to copying or the testimony of witnesses who observed the defendant in the act. More commonly, a plaintiff relies on circumstantial or indirect evidence. A court will infer copying by a showing of a "striking similarity" between the copyrighted work and the alleged copy, along with a showing of both access and use of that access.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A plaintiff may establish "access" by proof of distribution over a large geographical area, or by eyewitness testimony that the defendant owned a copy of the protected work. Access alone is not sufficient to establish infringement. The plaintiff must show a similarity between the two works, and the degree of similarity will affect the probability that illicit copying in fact occurred in the court's eyes.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even then, the plaintiff must show that the copying amounted to improper appropriation. Indeed, the United States Supreme Court has held that not all copying constitutes infringement and a showing of misappropriation is necessary.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Misappropriation">Misappropriation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Misappropriation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A copyrighted work may contain elements that are not copyrightable, such as facts, ideas, themes, or content in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>. A plaintiff alleging misappropriation must first demonstrate that what the defendant appropriated from the copyrighted work was protectable. Second, a plaintiff must show that the intended audience will recognize <a href="/wiki/Substantial_similarity" title="Substantial similarity">substantial similarities</a> between the two works. The intended audience may be the general public, or a specialized field. The degree of similarity necessary for a court to find misappropriation is not easily defined. Indeed, "the test for infringement of a copyright is of necessity vague."<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Two methods are used to determine if unlawful appropriation has occurred: the "subtractive method" and the "totality method". </p><p>The subtractive method, also known as the "abstraction/subtraction approach", seeks to analyze which parts of a copyrighted work are protectible and which are not.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The unprotected elements are <i>subtracted</i> and the fact finder then determines whether substantial similarities exist in the protectible expression which remains. For instance, if the copyright holder for <i><a href="/wiki/West_Side_Story" title="West Side Story">West Side Story</a></i> alleged infringement, the elements of that musical borrowed from <i><a href="/wiki/Romeo_and_Juliet" title="Romeo and Juliet">Romeo and Juliet</a></i> would be subtracted before comparing it to the allegedly infringing work because <i>Romeo and Juliet</i> exists in the public domain. </p><p>The totality method, also known as the "total concept and feel" approach, takes the work as a whole with all elements included when determining if a substantial similarity exists. This was first formulated in <i><a href="/wiki/Roth_Greeting_Cards_v._United_Card_Co." title="Roth Greeting Cards v. United Card Co.">Roth Greeting Cards v. United Card Co.</a></i> (1970).<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The individual elements of the alleged infringing work may by themselves be substantially different from their corresponding part in the copyrighted work, but nevertheless taken together be a clear misappropriation of copyrightable material.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Modern courts may sometimes use both methods in their analysis of misappropriation.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In other instances, one method may find misappropriation while the other would not, making misappropriation a contentious topic in infringement litigation.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Civil_remedies">Civil remedies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Civil remedies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A successful copyright infringement plaintiff may seek both "injunctive relief" and monetary <a href="/wiki/Damages" title="Damages">damages</a>. As of 2019, the United States Supreme Court has held that a copyright holder must register his copyright with the U.S. copyright office before he may seek any judicial remedies for infringement.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Injunctions: Copyright Act § 502 authorizes courts to grant both preliminary and permanent injunctions against copyright infringement. There are also provisions for impounding allegedly infringing copies and other materials used to infringe, and for their destruction. </p><p>Damages and/or Profits: Copyright Act § 504 gives the copyright owner a choice of recovering: (1) their actual damages and any additional profits of the defendant; or (2) statutory damages. </p><p>However, Title 17 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Code" title="United States Code">United States Code</a> §411(a) states that a civil action to enforce a copyright claim in a US work cannot be made until the work has been registered with the U.S. Copyright Office, with a narrow exception if the claim was filed and rejected by the Copyright Office.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Litman_SCOTUSblog_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Litman_SCOTUSblog-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2019, the U.S. Supreme Court <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Estate_Public_Benefit_Corp._v._Wall-Street.com" title="Fourth Estate Public Benefit Corp. v. Wall-Street.com">decided</a> that §411(a) requires that a lawsuit cannot be initiated until the Copyright Office has processed, not merely received, the application.<sup id="cite_ref-Litman_SCOTUSblog_88-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Litman_SCOTUSblog-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Equitable_relief">Equitable relief</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Equitable relief"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Both temporary and permanent injunctions are available to prevent or restrain infringement of a copyright.<sup id="cite_ref-Section_502_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Section_502-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An "injunction" is a court order directing the defendant to stop doing something (e.g., stop selling infringing copies). One form of equitable relief that is available in copyright cases is a seizure order. At any time during the lawsuit, the court may order the impoundment of any and all copies of the infringing products. The seizure order may include materials used to produce such copies, such as master tapes, film negatives, printing plates, etc. Items that are impounded during the course of the lawsuit can, if the plaintiff wins, be ordered destroyed as part of the final decree. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Monetary_damages">Monetary damages</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Monetary damages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A copyright holder can also seek monetary damages. Injunctions and damages are not <a href="/wiki/Mutually_exclusive" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutually exclusive">mutually exclusive</a>. One can have injunctions and no damages, or damages and no injunctions, or both injunctions and damages. There are two types of damages: actual damages and profits, or statutory damages.<sup id="cite_ref-sec#504_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sec#504-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The copyright owner may recover the profits he or she would have earned absent the infringement (actual damages) and any profits the infringer might have made as a result of the infringement but that are not already considered in calculating actual damages.<sup id="cite_ref-sec#504_91-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sec#504-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To recover actual damages, the plaintiff must prove to the court that, in the absence of the infringement, the plaintiff would have been able to make additional sales, or perhaps been able to charge higher prices, and that this would have resulted in profits given the owner's cost structure.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some cases, the profits earned by the infringer exploiting the copyrighted material may exceed those earned by or potentially available to the owner. In these circumstances, the copyright owner can recover the infringer's profits if he or she can demonstrate a nexus between the profits and the infringing use.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Statutory_damages_for_copyright_infringement" title="Statutory damages for copyright infringement">Statutory damages</a> are available as an alternative to actual damages and profits.<sup id="cite_ref-sect#504c_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sect#504c-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the copyright was registered either (a) within three months of publication or (b) before the infringement, then the plaintiff is eligible to seek statutory damages.<sup id="cite_ref-sect#504c_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sect#504c-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Statutory damages can be awarded by the court within the range of $750 to $30,000, but this can be lowered if the infringement is deemed inadvertent, or increased significantly if the infringement is willful.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Statutory damages are sometimes preferable for the plaintiff if actual damages and profits are too small, too difficult to prove, or both. There are, however, situations where statutory damages are not available. <a href="/wiki/Title_17_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 17 of the United States Code">17 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/412">§ 412</a> provides: </p> <ul><li>Statutory damages are not available if the work is unpublished and the infringement began before the effective date of its <a href="/wiki/Copyright_registration" title="Copyright registration">registration</a>.</li> <li>Statutory damages are not available if the work is published but the infringement commenced after the first publication and before the effective date of its registration, unless registration is made within three months after the first publication.</li></ul> <p>Statutory damages are calculated per work infringed.<sup id="cite_ref-sect#504c_94-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sect#504c-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to clause (1) of Title 17, U.S.C. Section 504(c), statutory damages range from $750 per work to $30,000 per work, with two principal exceptions: </p> <ul><li>In case of "innocent infringement", the amount may be reduced to a sum "not less than $200" for an effective range of $200 to $30,000 per work. "Innocent" is a technical term. In particular, if the work carries a copyright notice, the infringer cannot claim innocence.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In case of "willful infringement" (again, "willful" is a technical term), statutory damages can be no more than $150,000 for an effective range of $750 to $150,000 per work.<sup id="cite_ref-sect#504c_94-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sect#504c-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Damages in copyright cases can be very high. In <i>Lowry's Reports, Inc. v. Legg Mason Inc.</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a 2003 lawsuit between a publisher of stock analysis newsletters against a company that buys one copy of the newsletters and makes multiple copies for use in-house, the jury awarded damages – actual damages for some newsletters and statutory damages for other newsletters – totaling $20 million. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Attorney's_fees"><span id="Attorney.27s_fees"></span>Attorney's fees</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Attorney's fees"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cost and attorney fees: Copyright Act § 505 permits courts, in their discretion, to award costs against either party and to award reasonable attorney fees to the prevailing party. The court may (but is not required to) award to the "prevailing party" reasonable attorney's fees.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This applies to both a winning plaintiff (copyright owner) and a winning defendant (accused infringer).<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, attorney's fees award is not available against the government. Like statutory damages, attorney's fees are not available if the work infringed is not registered at the time of infringement. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criminal_penalties">Criminal penalties</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Criminal penalties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Criminal_Copyright_Law_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Criminal Copyright Law in the United States">Criminal Copyright Law in the United States</a></div> <p>In addition to the civil remedies, the Copyright Act provides for criminal prosecution in some cases of willful copyright infringement. There are also criminal sanctions for fraudulent copyright notice, fraudulent removal of copyright notice, and false representations in applications for copyright registration. The <a href="/wiki/Digital_Millennium_Copyright_Act" title="Digital Millennium Copyright Act">Digital Millennium Copyright Act</a> imposes criminal sanctions for certain acts of circumvention and interference with copyright management information. There are not criminal sanctions for violating the rights of attribution and integrity held by the author of a work of visual art. </p><p>Criminal penalties for copyright infringement include: </p> <ul><li>A <a href="/wiki/Fine_(penalty)" title="Fine (penalty)">fine</a> of not more than $500,000 or <a href="/wiki/Prison" title="Prison">imprisonment</a> for not more than five years, or both, for the first <a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">offense</a>.</li> <li>A fine of not more than $1 million or imprisonment for not more than 10 years, or both, for repeated offenses.</li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Nonprofit_organization" title="Nonprofit organization">Nonprofit</a> libraries, archives, <a href="/wiki/School" title="School">education institutions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Public_broadcasting" title="Public broadcasting">public broadcasting</a> entities are exempt from criminal prosecution. </p><p>Felony penalties for first offenses begin at seven copies for audiovisual works, and one hundred copies for sound recordings.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Government_infringement">Government infringement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Government infringement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The US government, its agencies and officials, and corporations owned or controlled by it, are subject to suit for copyright infringement. All infringement claims against the U.S. that did not arise in a foreign country must be filed with the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Federal_Claims" title="United States Court of Federal Claims">United States Court of Federal Claims</a> within three years of the infringing action.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Claims filed in the wrong court are dismissed for lack of <a href="/wiki/Subject-matter_jurisdiction" title="Subject-matter jurisdiction">subject-matter jurisdiction</a>. The government and its agencies are also authorized to settle the infringement claims out of court. </p><p>The states have <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_immunity_in_the_United_States" title="Sovereign immunity in the United States">sovereign immunity</a> provided by the <a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution</a>, which bars most forms of lawsuits against states in federal courts, but can be abrogated in certain circumstances by Congress.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Copyright Remedy and Clarification Act of 1990 (CRCA) states in part that states are liable to copyright infringement "in the same manner and to the same extent as any nongovernmental entity"<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and also that states and state entities and officials "shall not be immune, under the Eleventh Amendment to the Constitution of the United States or under any other doctrine of sovereign immunity, from suit in Federal Court by any person"<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> alleging copyright infringement.<sup id="cite_ref-Allen_v_Cooper_cert_pet_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allen_v_Cooper_cert_pet-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1">: 1 </span></sup> The CRCA has been declared unconstitutional by several federal courts.,<sup id="cite_ref-Allen_v_Cooper_cert_pet_107-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allen_v_Cooper_cert_pet-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 4">: 4 </span></sup> and this was upheld by the US Supreme Court on March 23, 2020.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a result of the ruling <a href="/wiki/Nautilus_Productions" title="Nautilus Productions">Nautilus Productions</a>, the plaintiff in <i><a href="/wiki/Allen_v._Cooper" class="mw-redirect" title="Allen v. Cooper">Allen v. Cooper</a></i> filed a motion for reconsideration in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of North Carolina.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On August 18, 2021, Judge <a href="/wiki/Terrence_Boyle" title="Terrence Boyle">Terrence Boyle</a> granted the motion for reconsideration which North Carolina promptly appealed to the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 4th Circuit denied the state's motion on October 14, 2022.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nautilus then filed their second amended complaint on February 8, 2023, alleging 5th and 14th Amendment violations of Nautilus' constitutional rights, additional copyright violations, and claiming that North Carolina's "<a href="/wiki/Blackbeard%27s_Law" title="Blackbeard's Law">Blackbeard's Law</a>" represents a <a href="/wiki/Bill_of_Attainder" class="mw-redirect" title="Bill of Attainder">Bill of Attainder</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Eight years after the passage of Blackbeard's Law, on June 30, 2023, North Carolina Gov. Roy Cooper signed a bill repealing the law.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Public_domain">Public domain</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Public domain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Public_domain_in_the_United_States" title="Public domain in the United States">Public domain in the United States</a></div> <p>Works in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a> are free for anyone to copy and use. Strictly speaking, the term "public domain" means that the work is not covered by any <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">intellectual property</a> rights at all (copyright, trademark, patent, or otherwise).<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, this article discusses public domain with respect to copyright <i>only</i>. </p><p>A work may enter the public domain in a number of different ways. For example, (a) the copyright protecting the work may have expired, or (b) the owner may have explicitly donated the work to the public, or (c) the work is not the type of work that copyright can protect. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Orphan_works">Orphan works</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Orphan works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Orphan_works_in_the_United_States" title="Orphan works in the United States">Orphan works in the United States</a></div> <p>The "<a href="/wiki/Orphan_works" class="mw-redirect" title="Orphan works">orphan works</a>" problem arose in the United States with the enactment of the Copyright Act of 1976, which eliminated the need to register copyrighted works, instead declaring that all "original works of authorship fixed in any tangible medium of expression"<sup id="cite_ref-17usc102_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17usc102-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> fall into copyright status. The elimination of registration also eliminated a central recording location to track and identify copyright-holders. Consequently, potential users of copyrighted works, e.g., filmmakers or biographers, must assume that many works they might use are copyrighted. Where the planned use would not be otherwise permitted by law (for example, by <a href="/wiki/Fair_use" title="Fair use">fair use</a>), they must themselves individually investigate the copyright status of each work they plan to use. With no central database of copyright-holders, identifying and contacting copyright-holders can sometimes be difficult; those works that fall into this category may be considered "orphaned". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Copyright_reform">Copyright reform</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Copyright reform"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Critics of copyright assert that copyright protections last too long before copyrighted works are allowed to enter into the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In 2022, legislation introduced by Senator <a href="/wiki/Josh_Hawley" title="Josh Hawley">Josh Hawley</a>, entitled the Copyright Clause Restoration Act of 2022, seeks to reduce the protection from 70 years after the creator's death (post-1978) and 95 years (pre-1978) to 28 years, with the option to renew it at the end of that term for a limit of 56 years total.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These same terms were in place from 1909 up until 1976.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A similar bill was also introduced in 2023.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bilateral_copyright_agreements_of_the_United_States" title="Bilateral copyright agreements of the United States">Bilateral copyright agreements of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Catalog" title="Copyright Catalog">Copyright Catalog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_status_of_works_by_subnational_governments_of_the_United_States" title="Copyright status of works by subnational governments of the United States">Copyright status of works by subnational governments of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_status_of_works_by_the_federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Copyright status of works by the federal government of the United States">Copyright status of works by the federal government of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fair_Use_Project" title="Fair Use Project">Fair Use Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_Electronic_Theft_Act" title="No Electronic Theft Act">No Electronic Theft Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TEACH_Act" title="TEACH Act">TEACH Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_copyright_law_in_the_performing_arts" title="United States copyright law in the performing arts">United States copyright law in the performing arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_trademark_law" title="United States trademark law">United States trademark law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruguay_Round_Agreements_Act" title="Uruguay Round Agreements Act">Uruguay Round Agreements Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_Artists_Rights_Act" title="Visual Artists Rights Act">Visual Artists Rights Act</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-17usc102-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-17usc102_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-17usc102_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-17usc102_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Title_17_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 17 of the United States Code">17 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/102">§ 102</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/19pdf/18-1150_7m58.pdf">"Archived copy"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200427150257/https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/19pdf/18-1150_7m58.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on April 27, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 27,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.supremecourt.gov%2Fopinions%2F19pdf%2F18-1150_7m58.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright+law+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-copyright-clause-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-copyright-clause_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-copyright-clause_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-copyright-clause_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Stanford Fair Use and Copyright Center. U.S. Constitution. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://fairuse.stanford.edu/law/us-constitution/">http://fairuse.stanford.edu/law/us-constitution/</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151211003622/http://fairuse.stanford.edu/law/us-constitution/">Archived</a> December 11, 2015, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved December 3, 2015.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Copyright_Office" title="United States Copyright Office">United States Copyright Office</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.copyright.gov/">http://www.copyright.gov/</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080105092234/http://www.copyright.gov/">Archived</a> January 5, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved December 2, 2015.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSPIEGEL_ONLINE2010" class="citation web cs1">SPIEGEL ONLINE (August 18, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/0,1518,710976,00.html">"No Copyright Law: The Real Reason for Germany's Industrial Expansion?"</a>. <i>SPIEGEL ONLINE</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120127024200/http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/0,1518,710976,00.html">Archived</a> from the original on January 27, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 13,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=SPIEGEL+ONLINE&rft.atitle=No+Copyright+Law%3A+The+Real+Reason+for+Germany%27s+Industrial+Expansion%3F&rft.date=2010-08-18&rft.au=SPIEGEL+ONLINE&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.spiegel.de%2Finternational%2Fzeitgeist%2F0%2C1518%2C710976%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright+law+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Electronic Freedom Foundation. 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Varsity Brands, Inc.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170409191400/https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/16pdf/15-866_0971.pdf">Archived</a> April 9, 2017, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>, No. 15-866, 580 U.S. ___ (2017), slip op. at 1-2 (quoting <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/101">17 U.S.C. § 101</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160430034315/https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/101">Archived</a> April 30, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/16pdf/15-866_0971.pdf">Star Athletica, L. L. C. v. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 12,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.copyright.gov&rft.atitle=Chapter+1+-+Circular+92+%26%23124%3B+U.S.+Copyright+Office&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.copyright.gov%2Ftitle17%2F92chap1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright+law+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/411">"17 U.S. Code § 411 - Registration and civil infringement actions"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=17+U.S.+Code+%C2%A7+411+-+Registration+and+civil+infringement+actions&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.cornell.edu%2Fuscode%2Ftext%2F17%2F411&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright+law+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ03.pdf">"U.S. Copyright Office – Information Circular"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120926110554/http://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ03.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on September 26, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 12,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=U.S.+Copyright+Office+%E2%80%93+Information+Circular&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.copyright.gov%2Fcircs%2Fcirc03.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright+law+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-USC,_17,_401_(d)-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-USC,_17,_401_(d)_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Title_17_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 17 of the United States Code">17 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/401(d)">§ 401(d)</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Title_17_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 17 of the United States Code">17 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/305">§ 305</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Title_17_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 17 of the United States Code">17 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/304">§ 304</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Title_17_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 17 of the United States Code">17 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/302">§ 302</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_48-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://copyright.cornell.edu/publicdomain">"Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States | Copyright Information Center"</a>. <i>copyright.cornell.edu</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170911204703/https://copyright.cornell.edu/publicdomain">Archived</a> from the original on September 11, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 30,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=copyright.cornell.edu&rft.atitle=Copyright+Term+and+the+Public+Domain+in+the+United+States+%7C+Copyright+Information+Center&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcopyright.cornell.edu%2Fpublicdomain&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright+law+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Title_17_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 17 of the United States Code">17 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/303">§ 303</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Title_17_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 17 of the United States Code">17 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/301">§ 301</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJasziLewis2009" class="citation web cs1">Jaszi, Peter; Lewis, Nick (September 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/programs/static/national-recording-preservation-plan/publications-and-reports/documents/pub146.pdf">"Protection for Pre-1972 Sound Recordings under State Law and Its Impact on Use by Nonprofit Institutions: A 10-State Analysis"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Library of Congress</i>. Council on Library and Information Resources and Library of Congress. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180304203509/https://www.loc.gov/programs/static/national-recording-preservation-plan/publications-and-reports/documents/pub146.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on March 4, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 4,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Library+of+Congress&rft.atitle=Protection+for+Pre-1972+Sound+Recordings+under+State+Law+and+Its+Impact+on+Use+by+Nonprofit+Institutions%3A+A+10-State+Analysis&rft.date=2009-09&rft.aulast=Jaszi&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Lewis%2C+Nick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loc.gov%2Fprograms%2Fstatic%2Fnational-recording-preservation-plan%2Fpublications-and-reports%2Fdocuments%2Fpub146.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright+law+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeahl2018" class="citation web cs1">Deahl, Dani (October 11, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theverge.com/2018/10/11/17963804/music-modernization-act-mma-copyright-law-bill-labels-congress">"The Music Modernization Act has been signed into law"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Verge" title="The Verge">The Verge</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181011184622/https://www.theverge.com/2018/10/11/17963804/music-modernization-act-mma-copyright-law-bill-labels-congress">Archived</a> from the original on October 11, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 11,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Verge&rft.atitle=The+Music+Modernization+Act+has+been+signed+into+law&rft.date=2018-10-11&rft.aulast=Deahl&rft.aufirst=Dani&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theverge.com%2F2018%2F10%2F11%2F17963804%2Fmusic-modernization-act-mma-copyright-law-bill-labels-congress&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright+law+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStolz2018" class="citation web cs1">Stolz, Mitch (September 19, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.eff.org/es/deeplinks/2018/09/new-music-modernization-act-has-major-fix-older-recordings-will-belong-public">"The New Music Modernization Act Has a Major Fix: Older Recordings Will Belong to the Public, Orphan Recordings Will Be Heard Again"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Electronic_Frontier_Foundation" title="Electronic Frontier Foundation">Electronic Frontier Foundation</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181031065710/https://www.eff.org/es/deeplinks/2018/09/new-music-modernization-act-has-major-fix-older-recordings-will-belong-public">Archived</a> from the original on October 31, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 14,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+New+Music+Modernization+Act+Has+a+Major+Fix%3A+Older+Recordings+Will+Belong+to+the+Public%2C+Orphan+Recordings+Will+Be+Heard+Again&rft.pub=Electronic+Frontier+Foundation&rft.date=2018-09-19&rft.aulast=Stolz&rft.aufirst=Mitch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eff.org%2Fes%2Fdeeplinks%2F2018%2F09%2Fnew-music-modernization-act-has-major-fix-older-recordings-will-belong-public&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright+law+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-thr-cbs1972-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-thr-cbs1972_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGardner2016" class="citation web cs1">Gardner, Eriq (June 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/thr-esq/cbs-beats-lawsuit-pre-1972-898633">"CBS Beats Lawsuit Over Pre-1972 Songs With Bold Copyright Argument"</a>. <i>The Hollywood Reporter</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160602104158/http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/thr-esq/cbs-beats-lawsuit-pre-1972-898633">Archived</a> from the original on June 2, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 2,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Hollywood+Reporter&rft.atitle=CBS+Beats+Lawsuit+Over+Pre-1972+Songs+With+Bold+Copyright+Argument&rft.date=2016-06&rft.aulast=Gardner&rft.aufirst=Eriq&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hollywoodreporter.com%2Fthr-esq%2Fcbs-beats-lawsuit-pre-1972-898633&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright+law+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Justia_16-55917-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Justia_16-55917_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate-courts/ca9/16-55917/16-55917-2018-10-31.html">"ABS ENTERTAINMENT, INC. V. CBS CORP., No. 16-55917 (9th Cir. 2018) :: Justia"</a>. Justia US Law. October 31, 2018. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190908030818/https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate-courts/ca9/16-55917/16-55917-2018-10-31.html">Archived</a> from the original on September 8, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 8,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ABS+ENTERTAINMENT%2C+INC.+V.+CBS+CORP.%2C+No.+16-55917+%289th+Cir.+2018%29+%3A%3A+Justia&rft.pub=Justia+US+Law&rft.date=2018-10-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flaw.justia.com%2Fcases%2Ffederal%2Fappellate-courts%2Fca9%2F16-55917%2F16-55917-2018-10-31.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright+law+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.copyright.gov/help/faq/faq-protect.html">"What Does Copyright Protect? (FAQ) - U.S. Copyright Office"</a>. <i>copyright.gov</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120207144720/http://www.copyright.gov/help/faq/faq-protect.html">Archived</a> from the original on February 7, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 13,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=copyright.gov&rft.atitle=What+Does+Copyright+Protect%3F+%28FAQ%29+-+U.S.+Copyright+Office&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.copyright.gov%2Fhelp%2Ffaq%2Ffaq-protect.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright+law+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Title_17_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 17 of the United States Code">17 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/108">§ 108</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Title_17_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 17 of the United States Code">17 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/110">§ 110</a> and <a href="/wiki/Title_17_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 17 of the United States Code">17 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/118">§ 118</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Title_17_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 17 of the United States Code">17 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/121">§ 121</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Title_17_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 17 of the United States Code">17 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/117">§ 117</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Title_17_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 17 of the United States Code">17 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/115">§ 115</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Title_17_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 17 of the United States Code">17 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/116">§ 116</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Title_17_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 17 of the United States Code">17 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/120">§ 120</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html">"Chapter 1 - Circular 92 | U.S. Copyright Office"</a>. <i>www.copyright.gov</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.copyright.gov&rft.atitle=Chapter+1+-+Circular+92+%26%23124%3B+U.S.+Copyright+Office&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.copyright.gov%2Ftitle17%2F92chap1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright+law+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141129074448/https://www.loc.gov/nls/reference/factsheets/webbraille2003.html">"Facts: Web-Braille (2003)"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a></i>. November 29, 2014. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/nls/reference/factsheets/webbraille2003.html">the original</a> on November 29, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Library+of+Congress&rft.atitle=Facts%3A+Web-Braille+%282003%29&rft.date=2014-11-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loc.gov%2Fnls%2Freference%2Ffactsheets%2Fwebbraille2003.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright+law+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <i><a href="/wiki/Authors_Guild_v._HathiTrust" class="mw-redirect" title="Authors Guild v. HathiTrust">Authors Guild v. HathiTrust</a></i>, 902 F.Supp.2d 445 (SDNY 2012).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAxelrad2014" class="citation news cs1">Axelrad, Jacob (August 22, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.csmonitor.com/Innovation/Tech-Culture/2014/0822/US-government-Monkey-selfies-ineligible-for-copyright">"US government: Monkey selfies ineligible for copyright"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Christian_Science_Monitor" title="The Christian Science Monitor">The Christian Science Monitor</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150217155607/http://www.csmonitor.com/Innovation/Tech-Culture/2014/0822/US-government-Monkey-selfies-ineligible-for-copyright">Archived</a> from the original on February 17, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 23,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Christian+Science+Monitor&rft.atitle=US+government%3A+Monkey+selfies+ineligible+for+copyright&rft.date=2014-08-22&rft.aulast=Axelrad&rft.aufirst=Jacob&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.csmonitor.com%2FInnovation%2FTech-Culture%2F2014%2F0822%2FUS-government-Monkey-selfies-ineligible-for-copyright&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright+law+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Compendium313.2-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Compendium313.2_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://copyright.gov/comp3/chap300/ch300-copyrightable-authorship.pdf">"Compendium of U.S. Copyright Office Practices, § 313.2"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Copyright_Office" title="United States Copyright Office">United States Copyright Office</a>. December 22, 2014. p. 22. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151106233924/http://copyright.gov/comp3/chap300/ch300-copyrightable-authorship.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on November 6, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 27,</span> 2015</span>. <q>To qualify as a work of 'authorship' a work must be created by a human being.... Works that do not satisfy this requirement are not copyrightable. The Office will not register works produced by nature, animals, or plants.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Compendium+of+U.S.+Copyright+Office+Practices%2C+%C2%A7+313.2&rft.pages=22&rft.pub=United+States+Copyright+Office&rft.date=2014-12-22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcopyright.gov%2Fcomp3%2Fchap300%2Fch300-copyrightable-authorship.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright+law+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> The Compendium lists several examples of such ineligible works, including "a photograph taken by a monkey" and "a mural painted by an elephant".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhang2018" class="citation news cs1">Zhang, Michael (April 24, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://petapixel.com/2018/04/24/photographer-wins-monkey-selfie-copyright-case-court-slams-peta/">"Photographer Wins Monkey Selfie Copyright Case, Court Slams PETA"</a>. PetaPixel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180811164007/https://petapixel.com/2018/04/24/photographer-wins-monkey-selfie-copyright-case-court-slams-peta/">Archived</a> from the original on August 11, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 11,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Photographer+Wins+Monkey+Selfie+Copyright+Case%2C+Court+Slams+PETA&rft.date=2018-04-24&rft.aulast=Zhang&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpetapixel.com%2F2018%2F04%2F24%2Fphotographer-wins-monkey-selfie-copyright-case-court-slams-peta%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright+law+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavis2023" class="citation web cs1">Davis, Wes (August 19, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230821015421/https://www.theverge.com/2023/8/19/23838458/ai-generated-art-no-copyright-district-court">"AI-generated art cannot be copyrighted, rules a US Federal Judge"</a>. <i>The Verge</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theverge.com/2023/8/19/23838458/ai-generated-art-no-copyright-district-court">the original</a> on August 21, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 21,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Verge&rft.atitle=AI-generated+art+cannot+be+copyrighted%2C+rules+a+US+Federal+Judge&rft.date=2023-08-19&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=Wes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theverge.com%2F2023%2F8%2F19%2F23838458%2Fai-generated-art-no-copyright-district-court&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright+law+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fairuse.stanford.edu/overview/fair-use/four-factors/">"Measuring Fair Use: The Four Factors"</a>. <i>Stanford University Libraries</i>. April 4, 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170315111053/http://fairuse.stanford.edu/overview/fair-use/four-factors/">Archived</a> from the original on March 15, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 15,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stanford+University+Libraries&rft.atitle=Measuring+Fair+Use%3A+The+Four+Factors&rft.date=2013-04-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffairuse.stanford.edu%2Foverview%2Ffair-use%2Ffour-factors%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright+law+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://copyright.gov/fair-use/more-info.html">"More Information on Fair Use"</a>. <i>copyright.gov</i>. April 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150501022513/http://copyright.gov/fair-use/more-info.html">Archived</a> from the original on May 1, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 29,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=copyright.gov&rft.atitle=More+Information+on+Fair+Use&rft.date=2015-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcopyright.gov%2Ffair-use%2Fmore-info.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright+law+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeval1990" class="citation journal cs1">Leval, Pierre (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://docs.law.gwu.edu/facweb/claw/levalfrustd.htm">"Toward a Fair Use Standard"</a>. <i>Harvard Law Review</i>. <b>103</b> (5): 1105–1136. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1341457">10.2307/1341457</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1341457">1341457</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150422040841/http://docs.law.gwu.edu/facweb/claw/levalfrustd.htm">Archived</a> from the original on April 22, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 5,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Toward+a+Fair+Use+Standard&rft.volume=103&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1105-1136&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1341457&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1341457%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Leval&rft.aufirst=Pierre&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdocs.law.gwu.edu%2Ffacweb%2Fclaw%2Flevalfrustd.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright+law+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://copyright.gov/fair-use/fair-index.html">"Search Cases"</a>. <i>Copyright.gov</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150501200300/http://copyright.gov/fair-use/fair-index.html">Archived</a> from the original on May 1, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 16,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Copyright.gov&rft.atitle=Search+Cases&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcopyright.gov%2Ffair-use%2Ffair-index.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright+law+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Title_28_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 28 of the United States Code">28 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/1338">§ 1338</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>see <a href="/wiki/Feist_v._Rural" class="mw-redirect" title="Feist v. Rural">Feist Publications, Inc., v. Rural Telephone Service Co.</a></i> 499 U.S. 340, 361 (1991)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>see Ty, Inc. v. GMA Accessories, Inc.</i> 132 F.3d 1167 (7th Cir. 1997).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i> Id.</i> 132 F.3d 1167</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>see Feist</i> at 361</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Judge <a href="/wiki/Learned_Hand" title="Learned Hand">Learned Hand</a>, <i>Peter Pan Fabrics, Inc. v. Martin Weiner Corp.</i>, 274 F.2d 487, 489 (2nd Cir. 1960).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>see Nichols v. Universal Pictures Corp.</i>, 45 F.2d 119 (2nd Cir. 1930)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLehman1995" class="citation book cs1">Lehman, Bruce A. (October 1, 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x1vERuaJxIgC&pg=PA104"><i>Intellectual Property and the National Information Infrastructure: The Report of the Working Group on Intellectual Property Rights</i></a>. DIANE Publishing. p. 104. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7881-2415-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7881-2415-0"><bdi>978-0-7881-2415-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190413033718/https://books.google.com/books?id=x1vERuaJxIgC&pg=PA104">Archived</a> from the original on April 13, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 23,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Intellectual+Property+and+the+National+Information+Infrastructure%3A+The+Report+of+the+Working+Group+on+Intellectual+Property+Rights&rft.pages=104&rft.pub=DIANE+Publishing&rft.date=1995-10-01&rft.isbn=978-0-7881-2415-0&rft.aulast=Lehman&rft.aufirst=Bruce+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dx1vERuaJxIgC%26pg%3DPA104&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright+law+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>see <a href="/wiki/Sid_%26_Marty_Krofft_Television_Productions_Inc._v._McDonald%27s_Corp." title="Sid & Marty Krofft Television Productions Inc. v. McDonald's Corp.">Sid & Marty Krofft Television Productions Inc. v. McDonald's Corp.</a></i>, 562 F.2d 1157 (9th Cir. 1977) (holding that a series of <a href="/wiki/McDonald%27s" title="McDonald's">McDonald's</a> commercials portraying "McDonaldland" had used as its basis the "H.R. Pufnstuf" television show. Corresponding characters to each, while displaying marked differences, taken altogether demonstrated that McDonald's had captured the total concept and feel of the show and had thus infringed).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>see <a href="/wiki/Castle_Rock_Entertainment,_Inc._v._Carol_Publishing_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="Castle Rock Entertainment, Inc. v. Carol Publishing Group">Castle Rock Entertainment, Inc. v. Carol Publishing Group</a></i>, 150 F.3d 132, 140 (2nd Cir. 1998).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>see Computer Associates International, Inc. v. Altai, Inc.</i>, 982 F.2d 693, (2nd Cir. 1992) (where court chose the subtraction method for two computer programs whose total concept were the same. Individual copied elements of the program were non-protectible material because they constituted a process or idea in the program, their utilitarian aspects barring copyright protection; no infringement found).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fourth Estate Public Benefit Corp. v. Wall-Street.com LLC et al. 586 U.S. ___, 139 S. Ct. 881; 203 L. Ed. 2d 147; 129 U.S.P.Q. 2d 1453 (2019).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><a href="/wiki/Title_17_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 17 of the United States Code">17 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/411#a">§ 411(a)</a></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Litman_SCOTUSblog-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Litman_SCOTUSblog_88-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Litman_SCOTUSblog_88-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLitman2019" class="citation news cs1">Litman, Jessica (March 4, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scotusblog.com/2019/03/opinion-analysis-a-copyright-owner-cant-sue-for-infringement-before-the-register-has-processed-its-copyright-registration-application/">"Opinion analysis: A copyright owner can't sue for infringement before the Register has processed its copyright registration application"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/SCOTUSblog" title="SCOTUSblog">SCOTUSblog</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190305071328/https://www.scotusblog.com/2019/03/opinion-analysis-a-copyright-owner-cant-sue-for-infringement-before-the-register-has-processed-its-copyright-registration-application/">Archived</a> from the original on March 5, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 5,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=SCOTUSblog&rft.atitle=Opinion+analysis%3A+A+copyright+owner+can%27t+sue+for+infringement+before+the+Register+has+processed+its+copyright+registration+application&rft.date=2019-03-04&rft.aulast=Litman&rft.aufirst=Jessica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scotusblog.com%2F2019%2F03%2Fopinion-analysis-a-copyright-owner-cant-sue-for-infringement-before-the-register-has-processed-its-copyright-registration-application%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright+law+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Estate_Public_Benefit_Corp._v._Wall-Street.com" title="Fourth Estate Public Benefit Corp. v. Wall-Street.com">Fourth Estate Public Benefit Corp. v. Wall-Street.com</a></i>, No. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/586/17-571/">17-571</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_586" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 586">586</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> ___ (March 4, 2019)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Section_502-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Section_502_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Title_17_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 17 of the United States Code">17 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/502">§ 502</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sec#504-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sec#504_91-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sec#504_91-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Title_17_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 17 of the United States Code">17 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/504">§ 504</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gordon V. Smith & Russel L. Parr, "Intellectual Property: Valuation, Exploitation, and Infringement Damages," John Wiley & Sons, 2005, pp 617–630.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. B. Troxel and W.O. Kerr, "Assets and Finance: Calculating Intellectual Property Damages", West, 2014, pp 462-472.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sect#504c-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sect#504c_94-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sect#504c_94-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sect#504c_94-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sect#504c_94-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Title_17_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 17 of the United States Code">17 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/504(c)">§ 504(c)</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, <i>inter alia</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://ipmetrics.net/blog/2010/06/17/copyright-infringement-damages/">http://ipmetrics.net/blog/2010/06/17/copyright-infringement-damages/</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100925074920/http://ipmetrics.net/blog/2010/06/17/copyright-infringement-damages/">Archived</a> September 25, 2010, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><a href="/wiki/Title_17_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 17 of the United States Code">17 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/402#d">§ 402(d)</a></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lowry's Reports, Inc. v. Legg Mason Inc., 271 F. Supp. 2d 737 (D. Md. 2003)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Title_17_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 17 of the United States Code">17 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/505">§ 505</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Fogerty v. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 21,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ncleg.gov&rft.atitle=AN+ACT+TO+MAKE+VARIOUS+CHANGES+TO+THE+STATUTES+GOVERNING+THE+DEPARTMENT+OF+NATURAL+AND+CULTURAL+RESOURCES%2C+AS+RECOMMENDED+BY+THE+DEPARTMENT&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncleg.gov%2FSessions%2F2023%2FBills%2FHouse%2FPDF%2FH168v6.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright+law+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoyle2008" class="citation book cs1">Boyle, James (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Fn1Pl9Gv_EMC&q=public+domain"><i>The Public Domain: Enclosing the Commons of the Mind</i></a>. CSPD. p. 38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-13740-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-13740-8"><bdi>978-0-300-13740-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150214065428/http://www.google.com/books?id=Fn1Pl9Gv_EMC&dq=public+domain&source=gbs_navlinks_s">Archived</a> from the original on February 14, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 10,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Public+Domain%3A+Enclosing+the+Commons+of+the+Mind&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=CSPD&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-300-13740-8&rft.aulast=Boyle&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFn1Pl9Gv_EMC%26q%3Dpublic%2Bdomain&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright+law+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hawley.senate.gov/sites/default/files/2022-05/Copyright%20Clause%20Restoration%20Act.pdf">"Copyright Clause Restoration Act of 2022"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. May 3, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Copyright+Clause+Restoration+Act+of+2022&rft.date=2022-05-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hawley.senate.gov%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2F2022-05%2FCopyright%2520Clause%2520Restoration%2520Act.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright+law+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.arl.org/copyright-timeline/">"Copyright Timeline: A History of Copyright in the United States"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 23,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Copyright+Timeline%3A+A+History+of+Copyright+in+the+United+States&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.arl.org%2Fcopyright-timeline%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright+law+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/118th-congress/house-bill/576/text">"H.R.576 - Copyright Clause Restoration Act of 2023"</a>. <i>Congress.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 25,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Congress.gov&rft.atitle=H.R.576+-+Copyright+Clause+Restoration+Act+of+2023&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.congress.gov%2Fbill%2F118th-congress%2Fhouse-bill%2F576%2Ftext&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright+law+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical">Historical</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Historical"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111009143055/http://www.copyright.gov/title17/circ92.pdf">Copyright Law of the United States</a> (US Copyright Office, 2011).</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070926003813/http://www.fjc.gov/public/pdf.nsf/lookup/copyright.pdf/%24file/copyright.pdf">Copyright Law, Second Edition</a>, Prof. Robert Gorman (Federal Judicial Center, 2006).</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.law.duke.edu/cspd/pdf/IPCasebook2014.pdf">Intellectual Property: Law & the Information Society. Cases & Materials</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160313135910/http://web.law.duke.edu/cspd/pdf/IPCasebook2014.pdf">Archived</a> March 13, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (First Edition, 2014) James Boyle and Jennifer Jenkin.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150422111138/http://www.yalelawtech.org/wp-content/uploads/leval.pdf">Toward a Fair Use Standard</a><i>.</i> Pierre N. Leval (103 Harvard Law Review 1105 (1990)).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output 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ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/US_Copyright_Law_(Title_17,_U.S._Code)" class="extiw" title="wikisource:US Copyright Law (Title 17, U.S. Code)">US Copyright Law (Title 17, U.S. Code)</a></b></div></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/40px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/60px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/80px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: <i><b><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/US_Copyright_Law" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:US Copyright Law">US Copyright Law</a></b></i></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080105092234/http://www.copyright.gov/">United States Copyright Office</a> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://copyright.gov/fair-use/fair-index.html">Copyright Office—Searchable Fair Use Index</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110912035259/http://www.copyright.gov/circs/">United States Copyright Office list of circulars</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.copyright.gov/title17/">Copyright Law of the United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120807013946/http://copyright.cornell.edu/resources/publicdomain.cfm">Cornell University: Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://librarycopyright.net/resources/digitalslider/index.html">Digital copyright slider</a> to determine copyright status of a work</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/renewals.html">"How Can I Tell Whether a Copyright Was Renewed?"</a>. <i>The Online Books Page</i>. University of Pennsylvania.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Online+Books+Page&rft.atitle=How+Can+I+Tell+Whether+a+Copyright+Was+Renewed%3F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fonlinebooks.library.upenn.edu%2Frenewals.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopyright+law+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.arl.org/copyright-timeline/">Copyright Timeline: A History of Copyright in the U.S.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://law.copyrightdata.com/">Text of every version of U.S. Copyright Act</a> for 1909 to the present</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://copyrightbook.org/">Jeanne C. Fromer & Christopher Jon Sprigman, <i>Copyright Law: Cases and Materials</i> (v. 4.0)</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Copyright_law_by_country" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" 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country</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_copyright_acts" title="List of copyright acts">Copyright acts by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_copyright_case_law" title="List of copyright case law">Copyright case law by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries%27_copyright_lengths" class="mw-redirect" title="List of countries' copyright lengths">Copyright lengths by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_copyright_treaties" title="International copyright treaties">International copyright treaties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_parties_to_international_copyright_agreements" title="List of parties to international copyright agreements">by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_parties_to_international_treaties_protecting_rights_related_to_copyright" title="List of parties to international treaties protecting rights related to copyright">related rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_the_shorter_term" title="Rule of the shorter term">Rule of the shorter term</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_law_of_Benin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Copyright law of Benin (page does not exist)">Benin</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droit_d%27auteur_au_B%C3%A9nin" class="extiw" title="fr:Droit d'auteur au Bénin">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Burundi" title="Copyright law of Burundi">Burundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Cameroon" title="Copyright law of Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Ghana" class="mw-redirect" title="Copyright law of Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Egypt" title="Copyright law of Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Ivory_Coast&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Copyright in Ivory Coast (page does not exist)">Ivory Coast</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droit_d%27auteur_en_C%C3%B4te_d%27Ivoire" class="extiw" title="fr:Droit d'auteur en Côte d'Ivoire">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Madagascar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Copyright in Madagascar (page does not exist)">Madagascar</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droit_d%27auteur_%C3%A0_Madagascar" class="extiw" title="fr:Droit d'auteur à Madagascar">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Morocco&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Copyright in Morocco (page does not exist)">Morocco</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droits_d%27auteur_et_droits_voisins_au_Maroc" class="extiw" title="fr:Droits d'auteur et droits voisins au Maroc">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Mozambique&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Copyright in Mozambique (page does not exist)">Mozambique</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2_%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B5" class="extiw" title="ru:Авторское право в Мозамбике">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Senegal" class="mw-redirect" title="Copyright law of Senegal">Senegal</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droit_d%27auteur_(S%C3%A9n%C3%A9gal)" class="extiw" title="fr:Droit d'auteur (Sénégal)">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_South_Africa" title="Copyright law of South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Copyright.svg/90px-Copyright.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Copyright.svg/135px-Copyright.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Copyright.svg/180px-Copyright.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="197" data-file-height="197" /></span></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Argentina" title="Copyright law of Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_in_Bermuda" title="Copyright in Bermuda">Bermuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Bolivia" title="Copyright law of Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Brazil" title="Copyright law of Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Canada" title="Copyright law of Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Chile" title="Copyright law of Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Copyright in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Ecuador&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Copyright in Ecuador (page does not exist)">Ecuador</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derecho_de_autor_en_Ecuador" class="extiw" title="es:Derecho de autor en Ecuador">es</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_El_Salvador" title="Copyright law of El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Honduras" title="Copyright law of Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Panama" title="Copyright law of Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Peru" title="Copyright law of Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Uruguay&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Copyright in Uruguay (page does not exist)">Uruguay</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derecho_de_autor_en_Uruguay" class="extiw" title="es:Derecho de autor en Uruguay">es</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Venezuela" title="Copyright law of Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afghanistan_and_copyright_issues" title="Afghanistan and copyright issues">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Azerbaijan" title="Copyright law of Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Bangladesh" title="Copyright law of Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Copyright law of China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Hong_Kong" title="Copyright law of Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_India" title="Copyright law of India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Indonesia" title="Copyright law of Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Copyright in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Israel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Copyright in Israel (page does not exist)">Israel</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2_%D0%98%D0%B7%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5" class="extiw" title="ru:Авторское право в Израиле">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Japan" title="Copyright law of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Jordan" title="Copyright law of Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Kazakhstan" title="Copyright law of Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Kyrgyzstan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Copyright in Kyrgyzstan (page does not exist)">Kyrgyzstan</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2_%D0%9A%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%8B%D0%B7%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5" class="extiw" title="ru:Авторское право в Кыргызстане">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_North_Korea" title="Copyright law of North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_South_Korea" title="Copyright law of South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Lebanon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Copyright in Lebanon (page does not exist)">Lebanon</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2_%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5" class="extiw" title="ru:Авторское право в Ливане">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Malaysia" title="Copyright law of Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Mongolia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Copyright in Mongolia (page does not exist)">Mongolia</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2_%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B8" class="extiw" title="ru:Авторское право в Монголии">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Myanmar" title="Copyright law of Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Nepal" title="Copyright law of Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Oman" title="Copyright law of Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Pakistan" title="Copyright law of Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_the_Philippines" title="Copyright law of the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Saudi_Arabia" title="Copyright law of Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Sri_Lanka" title="Copyright law of Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Syria" title="Copyright law of Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Tajikistan" title="Copyright law of Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Thailand" title="Copyright law of Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Copyright in the United Arab Emirates (page does not exist)">United Arab Emirates</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urheberrecht_(Vereinigte_Arabische_Emirate)" class="extiw" title="de:Urheberrecht (Vereinigte Arabische Emirate)">de</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Uzbekistan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Copyright in Uzbekistan (page does not exist)">Uzbekistan</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2_%D0%A3%D0%B7%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5" class="extiw" title="ru:Авторское право в Узбекистане">ru</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_the_European_Union" title="Copyright law of the European Union">European Union</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_law_of_Austria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Copyright law of Austria (page does not exist)">Austria</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urheberrecht_(%C3%96sterreich)" class="extiw" title="de:Urheberrecht (Österreich)">de</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Belgium&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Copyright in Belgium (page does not exist)">Belgium</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droit_d%27auteur_en_Belgique" class="extiw" title="fr:Droit d'auteur en Belgique">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_France" title="Copyright law of France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Germany" title="Copyright law of Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Greece" title="Copyright law of Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Ireland" title="Copyright law of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Italy" title="Copyright law of Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Latvia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Copyright in Latvia (page does not exist)">Latvia</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2_%D0%9B%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B8" class="extiw" title="ru:Авторское право в Латвии">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Lithuania&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Copyright in Lithuania (page does not exist)">Lithuania</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2_%D0%9B%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5" class="extiw" title="ru:Авторское право в Литве">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Luxembourg&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Copyright in Luxembourg (page does not exist)">Luxembourg</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urheberrecht_(Luxemburg)" class="extiw" title="de:Urheberrecht (Luxemburg)">de</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_the_Netherlands" title="Copyright law of the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Poland" title="Copyright law of Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Romania" title="Copyright law of Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Spain" title="Copyright law of Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Sweden" title="Copyright law of Sweden">Sweden</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other countries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Albania" title="Copyright law of Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Armenia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Copyright in Armenia (page does not exist)">Armenia</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2_%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B8" class="extiw" title="ru:Авторское право в Армении">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Belarus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Copyright in Belarus (page does not exist)">Belarus</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2_%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B8" class="extiw" title="ru:Авторское право в Белоруссии">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Georgia" title="Copyright law of Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Kazakhstan" title="Copyright law of Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Kyrgyzstan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Copyright in Kyrgyzstan (page does not exist)">Kyrgyzstan</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2_%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B8" class="extiw" title="ru:Авторское право в Киргизии">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Moldova" title="Copyright law of Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Russia" title="Copyright law of Russia">Russia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Copyright law of the Soviet Union">USSR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_the_Russian_Federation" title="Copyright law of the Russian Federation">Russian Federation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Serbia" title="Copyright law of Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Switzerland" title="Copyright law of Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Turkey" title="Copyright law of Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_in_Ukraine" title="Copyright in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Copyright law of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Australia" title="Copyright law of Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_New_Zealand" title="Copyright law of New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Copyright_law_by_country" title="Category:Copyright law by country">Category:Copyright law by country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Copyright_law_of_the_World" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:World_topic" title="Template:World topic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:World_topic" title="Template talk:World topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:World_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:World topic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Copyright_law_of_the_World" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copyright_law_of_the_World&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Copyright law of the World (page does not exist)">Copyright law of the World</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Albania" title="Copyright law of Albania">Albania</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Argentina" title="Copyright law of Argentina">Argentina</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Australia" title="Copyright law of Australia">Australia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Azerbaijan" title="Copyright law of Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Bangladesh" title="Copyright law of Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Bolivia" title="Copyright law of Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Brazil" title="Copyright law of Brazil">Brazil</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Burundi" title="Copyright law of Burundi">Burundi</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Cameroon" title="Copyright law of Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Canada" title="Copyright law of Canada">Canada</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Chile" title="Copyright law of Chile">Chile</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Copyright law of China">China</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Egypt" title="Copyright law of Egypt">Egypt</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_El_Salvador" title="Copyright law of El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_France" title="Copyright law of France">France</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Georgia_(country)" class="mw-redirect" title="Copyright law of Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Germany" title="Copyright law of Germany">Germany</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Ghana" class="mw-redirect" title="Copyright law of Ghana">Ghana</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Greece" title="Copyright law of Greece">Greece</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Honduras" title="Copyright law of Honduras">Honduras</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_India" title="Copyright law of India">India</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Indonesia" title="Copyright law of Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Copyright law of Iran">Iran</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Copyright law of the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Italy" title="Copyright law of Italy">Italy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Japan" title="Copyright law of Japan">Japan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Jordan" title="Copyright law of Jordan">Jordan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Kazakhstan" title="Copyright law of Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Malaysia" title="Copyright law of Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="Copyright law of Mexico">Mexico</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Moldova" title="Copyright law of Moldova">Moldova</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Myanmar" title="Copyright law of Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Nepal" title="Copyright law of Nepal">Nepal</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_the_Netherlands" title="Copyright law of the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_New_Zealand" title="Copyright law of New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_North_Korea" title="Copyright law of North Korea">North Korea</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Oman" title="Copyright law of Oman">Oman</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Pakistan" title="Copyright law of Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Panama" title="Copyright law of Panama">Panama</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Peru" title="Copyright law of Peru">Peru</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_the_Philippines" title="Copyright law of the Philippines">Philippines</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Poland" title="Copyright law of Poland">Poland</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Romania" title="Copyright law of Romania">Romania</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Russia" title="Copyright law of Russia">Russia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Saudi_Arabia" title="Copyright law of Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Senegal" class="mw-redirect" title="Copyright law of Senegal">Senegal</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Serbia" title="Copyright law of Serbia">Serbia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_South_Africa" title="Copyright law of South Africa">South Africa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_South_Korea" title="Copyright law of South Korea">South Korea</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Spain" title="Copyright law of Spain">Spain</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Sri_Lanka" title="Copyright law of Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Sweden" title="Copyright law of Sweden">Sweden</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Switzerland" title="Copyright law of Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Syria" title="Copyright law of Syria">Syria</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Tajikistan" title="Copyright law of Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Thailand" title="Copyright law of Thailand">Thailand</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Turkey" title="Copyright law of Turkey">Turkey</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Copyright law of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Venezuela" title="Copyright law of Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Copyright_law_of_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Copyright_law_in_the_United_States" title="Template:Copyright law in the United States"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Copyright_law_in_the_United_States" title="Template talk:Copyright law in the United States"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Copyright_law_in_the_United_States" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Copyright law in the United States"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Copyright_law_of_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Copyright law of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Title_17_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 17 of the United States Code">17 U.S.C.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Clause" title="Copyright Clause">Copyright Clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Copyright_Office" title="United States Copyright Office">United States Copyright Office</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Compendium_of_U.S._Copyright_Office_Practices" title="Compendium of U.S. Copyright Office Practices">Compendium of U.S. Copyright Office Practices</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Arbitration_Royalty_Panel" title="Copyright Arbitration Royalty Panel">CARP</a> → <a href="/wiki/Copyright_Royalty_Board" title="Copyright Royalty Board">CRB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Catalog" title="Copyright Catalog">Copyright Catalog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Register_of_Copyrights" title="Register of Copyrights">Register of Copyrights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_108_Study_Group" title="Section 108 Study Group">Section 108 Study Group</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_status_of_works_by_the_federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Copyright status of works by the federal government of the United States">Copyright status of works by the federal government of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_status_of_works_by_subnational_governments_of_the_United_States" title="Copyright status of works by subnational governments of the United States">Copyright status of works by subnational governments of the United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Statutes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-1976</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Act_of_1790" title="Copyright Act of 1790">Copyright Act of 1790</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Act_of_1831" title="Copyright Act of 1831">Copyright Act of 1831</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Act_of_1870" title="Copyright Act of 1870">Copyright Act of 1870</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Copyright_Act_of_1891" title="International Copyright Act of 1891">International Copyright Act of 1891</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printing_Act_of_1895" title="Printing Act of 1895">Printing Act of 1895</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Act_of_1909" title="Copyright Act of 1909">Copyright Act of 1909</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1970s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Act_of_1976" title="Copyright Act of 1976">Copyright Act of 1976</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berne_Convention_Implementation_Act_of_1988" title="Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988">Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Visual_Artists_Rights_Act" title="Visual Artists Rights Act">Visual Artists Rights Act</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Remedy_Clarification_Act" title="Copyright Remedy Clarification Act">Copyright Remedy Clarification Act</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Renewal_Act_of_1992" title="Copyright Renewal Act of 1992">Copyright Renewal Act of 1992</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audio_Home_Recording_Act" title="Audio Home Recording Act">Audio Home Recording Act</a> (1992)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruguay_Round_Agreements_Act" title="Uruguay Round Agreements Act">Uruguay Round Agreements Act</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_Electronic_Theft_Act" title="No Electronic Theft Act">No Electronic Theft Act</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Term_Extension_Act" title="Copyright Term Extension Act">Copyright Term Extension Act</a> (1998)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fairness_in_Music_Licensing_Act_of_1998" title="Fairness in Music Licensing Act of 1998">Fairness in Music Licensing Act of 1998</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_Millennium_Copyright_Act" title="Digital Millennium Copyright Act">Digital Millennium Copyright Act</a> (1998) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Online_Copyright_Infringement_Liability_Limitation_Act" title="Online Copyright Infringement Liability Limitation Act">Online Copyright Infringement Liability Limitation Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WIPO_Copyright_and_Performances_and_Phonograms_Treaties_Implementation_Act" title="WIPO Copyright and Performances and Phonograms Treaties Implementation Act">WIPO Copyright and Performances and Phonograms Treaties Implementation Act</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2000s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Family_Entertainment_and_Copyright_Act" title="Family Entertainment and Copyright Act">Family Entertainment and Copyright Act</a> (2005)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2010s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unlocking_Consumer_Choice_and_Wireless_Competition_Act" title="Unlocking Consumer Choice and Wireless Competition Act">Unlocking Consumer Choice and Wireless Competition Act</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_Modernization_Act" title="Music Modernization Act">Music Modernization Act</a> (2018)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2020s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Alternative_in_Small-Claims_Enforcement_Act_of_2020" title="Copyright Alternative in Small-Claims Enforcement Act of 2020">CASE Act</a> (2020)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Precedents<br />and rulings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_copyright_case_law" title="List of United States Supreme Court copyright case law">Supreme Court</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Wheaton_v._Peters" title="Wheaton v. Peters">Wheaton v. Peters</a></i> (1834)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Baker_v._Selden" title="Baker v. Selden">Baker v. Selden</a></i> (1879)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Trade-Mark_Cases" title="Trade-Mark Cases">Trade-Mark Cases</a></i> (1879)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Burrow-Giles_Lithographic_Co._v._Sarony" title="Burrow-Giles Lithographic Co. v. Sarony">Burrow-Giles Lithographic Co. v. Sarony</a></i> (1884)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Banks_v._Manchester" title="Banks v. Manchester">Banks v. Manchester</a></i> (1888)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Callaghan_v._Myers" title="Callaghan v. Myers">Callaghan v. Myers</a></i> (1888)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bobbs-Merrill_Co._v._Straus" title="Bobbs-Merrill Co. v. Straus">Bobbs-Merrill Co. v. Straus</a></i> (1908)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/White-Smith_Music_Publishing_Co._v._Apollo_Co." title="White-Smith Music Publishing Co. v. Apollo Co.">White-Smith Music Publishing Co. v. Apollo Co.</a></i> (1908)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Williams_%26_Wilkins_Co._v._United_States" title="Williams & Wilkins Co. v. United States">Williams & Wilkins Co. v. United States</a></i> (1975)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sony_Corp._of_America_v._Universal_City_Studios,_Inc." title="Sony Corp. of America v. Universal City Studios, Inc.">Sony Corp. of America v. Universal City Studios, Inc.</a></i> (1984)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Feist_Publications,_Inc.,_v._Rural_Telephone_Service_Co." title="Feist Publications, Inc., v. Rural Telephone Service Co.">Feist v. Rural</a></i> (1991)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Campbell_v._Acuff-Rose_Music,_Inc." title="Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc.">Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc.</a></i> (1994)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Quality_King_Distributors_Inc.,_v._L%27anza_Research_International_Inc." title="Quality King Distributors Inc., v. L'anza Research International Inc.">Quality King v. L'anza</a></i> (1998)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eldred_v._Ashcroft" title="Eldred v. Ashcroft">Eldred v. Ashcroft</a></i> (2003)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/MGM_Studios,_Inc._v._Grokster,_Ltd." title="MGM Studios, Inc. v. Grokster, Ltd.">MGM Studios, Inc. v. Grokster, Ltd.</a></i> (2005)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Costco_Wholesale_Corp._v._Omega,_S._A." title="Costco Wholesale Corp. v. Omega, S. A.">Costco Wholesale Corp. v. Omega, S. A.</a></i> (2010)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Golan_v._Holder" title="Golan v. Holder">Golan v. Holder</a></i> (2012)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kirtsaeng_v._John_Wiley_%26_Sons,_Inc." title="Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.">Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.</a></i> (2013)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Cos.,_Inc._v._Aereo,_Inc." title="American Broadcasting Cos., Inc. v. Aereo, Inc.">American Broadcasting Cos., Inc. v. Aereo, Inc.</a></i> (2014)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Star_Athletica,_LLC_v._Varsity_Brands,_Inc." title="Star Athletica, LLC v. Varsity Brands, Inc.">Star Athletica v. Varsity Brands</a></i> (2017)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Estate_Public_Benefit_Corp._v._Wall-Street.com" title="Fourth Estate Public Benefit Corp. v. Wall-Street.com">Fourth Estate v. Wall-Street.com</a></i> (2019)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Georgia_v._Public.Resource.Org,_Inc." title="Georgia v. Public.Resource.Org, Inc.">Georgia v. Public.Resource.Org, Inc.</a></i> (2020)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Google_LLC_v._Oracle_America,_Inc." title="Google LLC v. Oracle America, Inc.">Google LLC v. Oracle America, Inc.</a></i> (2021)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Andy_Warhol_Foundation_for_the_Visual_Arts,_Inc._v._Goldsmith" title="Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts, Inc. v. Goldsmith">Andy Warhol Foundation v. Goldsmith</a></i> (2023)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Appeals courts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Berlin_v._E.C._Publications,_Inc." title="Berlin v. E.C. Publications, Inc.">Berlin v. E.C. Publications, Inc.</a></i> (2d Cir. 1964)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Roth_Greeting_Cards_v._United_Card_Co." title="Roth Greeting Cards v. United Card Co.">Roth Greeting Cards v. United Card Co.</a></i> (9th Cir. 1970)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eltra_Corp._v._Ringer" title="Eltra Corp. v. Ringer">Eltra Corp. v. Ringer</a></i> (4th Cir. 1978)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Walt_Disney_Productions_v._Air_Pirates" title="Walt Disney Productions v. Air Pirates">Walt Disney Productions v. Air Pirates</a></i> (9th Cir. 1978)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Midway_Manufacturing_Co._v._Artic_International,_Inc." title="Midway Manufacturing Co. v. Artic International, Inc.">Midway Manufacturing Co. v. Artic International, Inc.</a></i> (7th Cir. 1983)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Apple_Computer,_Inc._v._Franklin_Computer_Corp." title="Apple Computer, Inc. v. Franklin Computer Corp.">Apple Computer, Inc. v. Franklin Computer Corp.</a></i> (3d Cir. 1983)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fisher_v._Dees" title="Fisher v. Dees">Fisher v. Dees</a></i> (9th Cir. 1986)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Whelan_v._Jaslow" title="Whelan v. Jaslow">Whelan v. Jaslow</a></i> (3d Cir. 1986)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vault_Corp._v._Quaid_Software_Ltd." title="Vault Corp. v. Quaid Software Ltd.">Vault Corp. v. Quaid Software Ltd.</a></i> (5th Cir. 1988)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rogers_v._Koons" title="Rogers v. Koons">Rogers v. Koons</a></i> (2nd Cir. 1992)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Computer_Associates_International,_Inc._v._Altai,_Inc." title="Computer Associates International, Inc. v. Altai, Inc.">Computer Associates International, Inc. v. Altai, Inc.</a></i> (2d Cir. 1992)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/American_Geophysical_Union_v._Texaco,_Inc." title="American Geophysical Union v. Texaco, Inc.">American Geophysical Union v. Texaco, Inc.</a></i> (2nd Cir. 1995)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dr._Seuss_Enters.,_L.P._v._Penguin_Books_USA,_Inc." title="Dr. Seuss Enters., L.P. v. Penguin Books USA, Inc.">Dr. Seuss Enters., L.P. v. Penguin Books USA, Inc.</a></i>(9th Cir. 1997)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Itar-Tass_Russian_News_Agency_v._Russian_Kurier,_Inc." title="Itar-Tass Russian News Agency v. Russian Kurier, Inc.">Itar-Tass Russian News Agency v. Russian Kurier, Inc.</a></i> (2d Cir. 1998)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sony_Computer_Entertainment,_Inc._v._Connectix_Corp." title="Sony Computer Entertainment, Inc. v. Connectix Corp.">Sony Computer Entertainment, Inc. v. Connectix Corp.</a></i> (9th Cir. 2000)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nunez_v._Caribbean_Int%27l_News_Corp." title="Nunez v. Caribbean Int'l News Corp.">Nunez v. Caribbean Int'l News Corp.</a></i> (1st Cir. 2000)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A%26M_Records,_Inc._v._Napster,_Inc." title="A&M Records, Inc. v. Napster, Inc.">A&M Records, Inc. v. Napster, Inc.</a></i> (9th Cir. 2001)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Veeck_v._Southern_Building_Code_Congress_Int%27l" title="Veeck v. Southern Building Code Congress Int'l">Veeck v. Southern Building Code Congress Int'l</a></i> (5th Cir. 2002)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kelly_v._Arriba_Soft_Corp." title="Kelly v. Arriba Soft Corp.">Kelly v. Arriba Soft Corp.</a></i> (9th Cir. 2002 / 2003)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_re_Aimster_Copyright_Litigation" title="In re Aimster Copyright Litigation">In re Aimster Copyright Litigation</a></i> (7th Cir. 2003)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/NXIVM_Corp._v._Ross_Institute" title="NXIVM Corp. v. Ross Institute">NXIVM Corp. v. Ross Institute</a></i> (2d Cir. 2004)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/BMG_Music_v._Gonzalez" title="BMG Music v. Gonzalez">BMG Music v. Gonzalez</a></i> (7th Cir. 2005)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bill_Graham_Archives_v._Dorling_Kindersley,_Ltd." title="Bill Graham Archives v. Dorling Kindersley, Ltd.">Bill Graham Archives v. Dorling Kindersley, Ltd.</a></i> (2nd Cir. 2006)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Blanch_v._Koons" title="Blanch v. Koons">Blanch v. Koons</a></i> (2nd Cir. 2006)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Perfect_10,_Inc._v._Amazon.com,_Inc." title="Perfect 10, Inc. v. Amazon.com, Inc.">Perfect 10, Inc. v. Amazon.com, Inc.</a></i> (9th Cir. 2006)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cartoon_Network,_LP_v._CSC_Holdings,_Inc." title="Cartoon Network, LP v. CSC Holdings, Inc.">Cartoon Network, LP v. CSC Holdings, Inc.</a></i> (2nd Cir. 2008)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ahanchian_v._Xenon_Pictures,_Inc." title="Ahanchian v. Xenon Pictures, Inc.">Ahanchian v. Xenon Pictures, Inc.</a></i> (9th Cir. 2010)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Penguin_Group_(USA)_Inc._v._American_Buddha" title="Penguin Group (USA) Inc. v. American Buddha">Penguin Group (USA) Inc. v. American Buddha</a></i> (2d Cir. 2011)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monge_v._Maya_Magazines,_Inc." title="Monge v. Maya Magazines, Inc.">Monge v. Maya Magazines, Inc.</a></i> (9th Cir. 2012)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Viacom_International_Inc._v._YouTube,_Inc." title="Viacom International Inc. v. YouTube, Inc.">Viacom International Inc. v. YouTube, Inc.</a></i> (2d Cir. 2012)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Seltzer_v._Green_Day,_Inc" title="Seltzer v. Green Day, Inc">Seltzer v. Green Day, Inc</a></i> (9th Cir. 2013)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Authors_Guild,_Inc._v._Google,_Inc." title="Authors Guild, Inc. v. Google, Inc.">Authors Guild, Inc. v. Google, Inc.</a></i> (2d Cir. 2015)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lenz_v._Universal_Music_Corp." title="Lenz v. Universal Music Corp.">Lenz v. Universal Music Corp.</a></i> (9th Cir. 2015)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monkey_selfie_copyright_dispute" title="Monkey selfie copyright dispute">Naruto v. Slater</a></i> (9th Cir. 2018)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lower courts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Folsom_v._Marsh" title="Folsom v. Marsh">Folsom v. Marsh</a></i> (C.C.D. Mass. 1841)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elektra_Records_Co._v._Gem_Electronic_Distributors,_Inc." title="Elektra Records Co. v. Gem Electronic Distributors, Inc.">Elektra Records Co. v. Gem Electronic Distributors, Inc.</a></i> (E.D.N.Y. 1973)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Broderbund_Software_Inc._v._Unison_World,_Inc." title="Broderbund Software Inc. v. Unison World, Inc.">Broderbund Software Inc. v. Unison World, Inc.</a></i> (N.D. Cal. 1986)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Playboy_Enterprises,_Inc._v._Frena" title="Playboy Enterprises, Inc. v. Frena">Playboy Enterprises, Inc. v. Frena</a></i> (M.D. Fla. 1993)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bridgeman_Art_Library_v._Corel_Corp." title="Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp.">Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp.</a></i> (S.D.N.Y. 1999)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/RealNetworks,_Inc._v._Streambox,_Inc." title="RealNetworks, Inc. v. Streambox, Inc.">RealNetworks, Inc. v. Streambox, Inc.</a></i> (W.D. Wash. 2000)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mannion_v._Coors_Brewing_Co." title="Mannion v. Coors Brewing Co.">Mannion v. Coors Brewing Co.</a></i> (S.D.N.Y. 2005)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arista_Records_LLC_v._Lime_Group_LLC" title="Arista Records LLC v. Lime Group LLC">Arista Records LLC v. Lime Group LLC</a></i> (S.D.N.Y. 2010)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Capitol_Records,_LLC_v._ReDigi_Inc." title="Capitol Records, LLC v. ReDigi Inc.">Capitol Records, LLC v. ReDigi Inc.</a></i> (S.D.N.Y. 2013)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Equals_Three,_LLC_v._Jukin_Media,_Inc." title="Equals Three, LLC v. Jukin Media, Inc.">Equals Three, LLC v. Jukin Media, Inc.</a></i> (C.D. Cal. 2015)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hachette_v._Internet_Archive" title="Hachette v. Internet Archive">Hachette v. Internet Archive</a></i> (S.D.N.Y. 2023)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berne_Convention" title="Berne Convention">Berne Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruguay_Round" title="Uruguay Round">Uruguay Round</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Don%27t_Copy_That_Floppy" title="Don't Copy That Floppy">Don't Copy That Floppy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_Recording_Rights_Coalition" title="Home Recording Rights Coalition">Home Recording Rights Coalition</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nimmer_on_Copyright" title="Nimmer on Copyright">Nimmer on Copyright</a></i></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/You_Wouldn%27t_Steal_a_Car" title="You Wouldn't Steal a Car">You Wouldn't Steal a Car</a>"</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="U.S._Supreme_Court_Freedom_of_the_Press_Clause_case_law" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:US1stAmendment_Freedom_of_the_Press_Clause_Supreme_Court_case_law" title="Template:US1stAmendment Freedom of the Press Clause Supreme Court case law"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:US1stAmendment_Freedom_of_the_Press_Clause_Supreme_Court_case_law" title="Template talk:US1stAmendment Freedom of the Press Clause Supreme Court case law"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:US1stAmendment_Freedom_of_the_Press_Clause_Supreme_Court_case_law" title="Special:EditPage/Template:US1stAmendment Freedom of the Press Clause Supreme Court case law"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="U.S._Supreme_Court_Freedom_of_the_Press_Clause_case_law" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">U.S. Supreme Court</a> <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of the press in the United States">Freedom of the Press Clause</a> case law</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b><a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></b></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prior_restraint" title="Prior restraint">Prior restraints</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_the_United_States" title="Censorship in the United States">censorship</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Patterson_v._Colorado" title="Patterson v. Colorado">Patterson v. Colorado</a></i> (1907)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Near_v._Minnesota" title="Near v. Minnesota">Near v. Minnesota</a></i> (1931)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lovell_v._City_of_Griffin" title="Lovell v. City of Griffin">Lovell v. City of Griffin</a></i> (1938)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tucker_v._Texas" title="Tucker v. Texas">Tucker v. Texas</a></i> (1946)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hannegan_v._Esquire,_Inc." title="Hannegan v. Esquire, Inc.">Hannegan v. Esquire, Inc.</a></i> (1946)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lamont_v._Postmaster_General" title="Lamont v. Postmaster General">Lamont v. Postmaster General</a></i> (1965)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sheppard_v._Maxwell" title="Sheppard v. Maxwell">Sheppard v. Maxwell</a></i> (1966)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Times_Co._v._United_States" title="New York Times Co. v. United States">New York Times Co. v. United States</a></i> (1971)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nebraska_Press_Ass%27n_v._Stuart" title="Nebraska Press Ass'n v. Stuart">Nebraska Press Ass'n v. Stuart</a></i> (1976)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Landmark_Communications,_Inc._v._Virginia" title="Landmark Communications, Inc. v. Virginia">Landmark Communications, Inc. v. Virginia</a></i> (1978)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lowe_v._SEC&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lowe v. SEC (page does not exist)">Lowe v. SEC</a></i> (1985)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tory_v._Cochran" title="Tory v. Cochran">Tory v. Cochran</a></i> (2005)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Privacy_laws_of_the_United_States" title="Privacy laws of the United States">Privacy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Time,_Inc._v._Hill" title="Time, Inc. v. Hill">Time, Inc. v. Hill</a></i> (1967)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cox_Broadcasting_Corp._v._Cohn" title="Cox Broadcasting Corp. v. Cohn">Cox Broadcasting Corp. v. Cohn</a></i> (1975)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Florida_Star_v._B._J._F." title="Florida Star v. B. J. F.">Florida Star v. B. J. F.</a></i> (1989)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Taxation and<br /><a href="/wiki/Reporter%27s_privilege" title="Reporter's privilege">privileges</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Grosjean_v._American_Press_Co." title="Grosjean v. American Press Co.">Grosjean v. American Press Co.</a></i> (1936)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Branzburg_v._Hayes" title="Branzburg v. Hayes">Branzburg v. Hayes</a></i> (1972)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Houchins_v._KQED,_Inc." title="Houchins v. KQED, Inc.">Houchins v. KQED, Inc.</a></i> (1978)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Minneapolis_Star_Tribune_Co._v._Commissioner" title="Minneapolis Star Tribune Co. v. Commissioner">Minneapolis Star Tribune Co. v. Commissioner</a></i> (1983)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arkansas_Writers%27_Project_v._Ragland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arkansas Writers' Project v. Ragland (page does not exist)">Arkansas Writers' Project v. Ragland</a></i> (1987)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cohen_v._Cowles_Media_Co." title="Cohen v. Cowles Media Co.">Cohen v. Cowles Media Co.</a></i> (1991)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_defamation_law" title="United States defamation law">Defamation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Beauharnais_v._Illinois" title="Beauharnais v. Illinois">Beauharnais v. Illinois</a></i> (1952)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Times_Co._v._Sullivan" title="New York Times Co. v. Sullivan">New York Times Co. v. Sullivan</a></i> (1964)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Curtis_Publishing_Co._v._Butts" title="Curtis Publishing Co. v. Butts">Curtis Publishing Co. v. Butts</a></i> (1967)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Greenbelt_Cooperative_Publishing_Ass%27n,_Inc._v._Bresler" title="Greenbelt Cooperative Publishing Ass'n, Inc. v. Bresler">Greenbelt Cooperative Publishing Ass'n, Inc. v. Bresler</a></i> (1970)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gertz_v._Robert_Welch,_Inc." title="Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc.">Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc.</a></i> (1974)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Time,_Inc._v._Firestone" title="Time, Inc. v. Firestone">Time, Inc. v. Firestone</a></i> (1976)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bose_Corp._v._Consumers_Union_of_United_States,_Inc." title="Bose Corp. v. Consumers Union of United States, Inc.">Bose Corp. v. Consumers Union of United States, Inc.</a></i> (1984)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dun_%26_Bradstreet,_Inc._v._Greenmoss_Builders,_Inc." title="Dun & Bradstreet, Inc. v. Greenmoss Builders, Inc.">Dun & Bradstreet, Inc. v. Greenmoss Builders, Inc.</a></i> (1985)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/McDonald_v._Smith" title="McDonald v. Smith">McDonald v. Smith</a></i> (1985)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hustler_Magazine_v._Falwell" title="Hustler Magazine v. Falwell">Hustler Magazine v. Falwell</a></i> (1988)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harte-Hanks_Communications,_Inc._v._Connaughton" title="Harte-Hanks Communications, Inc. v. Connaughton">Harte-Hanks Communications, Inc. v. Connaughton</a></i> (1989)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Milkovich_v._Lorain_Journal_Co." title="Milkovich v. Lorain Journal Co.">Milkovich v. Lorain Journal Co.</a></i> (1990)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Broadcasting_in_the_United_States" title="Broadcasting in the United States">Broadcast media</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Red_Lion_Broadcasting_Co._v._FCC" title="Red Lion Broadcasting Co. v. FCC">Red Lion Broadcasting Co. v. FCC</a></i> (1969)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/FCC_v._Pacifica_Foundation" title="FCC v. Pacifica Foundation">FCC v. Pacifica Foundation</a></i> (1978)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=FCC_v._WNCN_Listeners_Guild&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="FCC v. WNCN Listeners Guild (page does not exist)">FCC v. WNCN Listeners Guild</a></i> (1981)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Turner_Broadcasting_System,_Inc._v._FCC" title="Turner Broadcasting System, Inc. v. FCC">Turner Broadcasting System, Inc. v. FCC I</a></i> (1994)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Turner_Broadcasting_System,_Inc._v._FCC" title="Turner Broadcasting System, Inc. v. FCC">Turner Broadcasting System, Inc. v. FCC II</a></i> (1997)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bartnicki_v._Vopper" title="Bartnicki v. Vopper">Bartnicki v. Vopper</a></i> (2001)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Copyrighted materials</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Zacchini_v._Scripps-Howard_Broadcasting_Co." title="Zacchini v. Scripps-Howard Broadcasting Co.">Zacchini v. Scripps-Howard Broadcasting Co.</a></i> (1977)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harper_%26_Row_v._Nation_Enterprises" title="Harper & Row v. Nation Enterprises">Harper & Row v. Nation Enterprises</a></i> (1985)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eldred_v._Ashcroft" title="Eldred v. Ashcroft">Eldred v. Ashcroft</a></i> (2003)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q842270#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85032489">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007562848705171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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