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Grapevine shoots, post-pruning, are an abundant agricultural residue with little economic value as they are ..."/><meta property="og:title" content="Agricultural Waste to Potential High-Performance Fibers: Impact of Dry and Wet Pretreatment on Extraction and Properties of Novel Fibers from Grapevine Shoots."/><meta property="og:description" content="This study focuses on Vitis vinifera (grape), one of the world's largest crops and an ancient dietary staple, for the development of novel biodegradable and sustainable fibers. Grapevine shoots, post-pruning, are an abundant agricultural residue with little economic value as they are ..."/><meta property="og:url" content="https://www.researchsquare.com/article/rs-5423738/v1"/><meta property="og:type" content="article"/><meta name="twitter:title" content="Agricultural Waste to Potential High-Performance Fibers: Impact of Dry and Wet Pretreatment on Extraction and Properties of Novel Fibers from Grapevine Shoots."/><meta name="twitter:description" content="This study focuses on Vitis vinifera (grape), one of the world's largest crops and an ancient dietary staple, for the development of novel biodegradable and sustainable fibers. Grapevine shoots, post-pruning, are an abundant agricultural residue with little economic value as they are ..."/><meta name="citation_publication_date" content="2024-12-02"/><meta property="citation_author" content="Princy Rana"/><meta property="citation_author" content="Sabina Sethi"/><meta name="citation_title" content="Agricultural Waste to Potential High-Performance Fibers: Impact of Dry and Wet Pretreatment on Extraction and Properties of Novel Fibers from Grapevine Shoots."/><meta name="citation_doi" content="10.21203/rs.3.rs-5423738/v1"/><meta name="citation_pdf_url" content="https://www.researchsquare.com/article/rs-5423738/latest.pdf"/><script async="">(function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var 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Potential High-Performance Fibers: Impact of Dry and Wet Pretreatment on Extraction and Properties of Novel Fibers from Grapevine Shoots.</p></h1></div></div><div class="tw-px-4"><div class="tw-flex tw-items-start tw-justify-between"><button type="button" class="focus:tw-outline-none tw-group tw-min-w-full"><div class="tw-flex tw-items-start tw-justify-between"><div class="tw-py-3 tw-w-full"><p class="tw-antialiased tw-text-left tw-text-sm tw-text-black">Princy Rana, Sabina Sethi</p></div><div class="tw-py-2 sm:tw-border-r-2 sm:tw-border-white"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="currentColor" aria-hidden="true" class="tw-ml-4 tw-h-7 tw-w-7 tw-flex-shrink-0 tw-rounded-full tw-text-gray-500 group-hover:tw-bg-gray-200 group-hover:tw-text-gray-900 tw-transform tw-duration-300"><path fill-rule="evenodd" d="M5.293 7.293a1 1 0 011.414 0L10 10.586l3.293-3.293a1 1 0 111.414 1.414l-4 4a1 1 0 01-1.414 0l-4-4a1 1 0 010-1.414z" 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tw-justify-between"><div class="tw-w-full tw-py-2"><div class="tw-flex tw-items-center"><h3 class="tw-antialiased tw-font-bold tw-text-left tw-text-blue-900 tw-text-base">Status:</h3><div class="tw-rounded-xl tw-font-bold tw-px-3 tw-py-1 tw-bg-blue-800 tw-text-white tw-ml-2"><p class="tw-antialiased tw-text-left tw-text-sm tw-text-white">Under Revision</p></div></div></div><div class="tw-rounded-xl tw-font-bold tw-px-3 tw-py-1 tw-bg-gray-100 tw-text-gray-700 tw-my-2 tw-flex tw-items-center tw-duration-300 tw-transform tw-bg-gray-100 group-hover:tw-bg-gray-200"><p class="tw-antialiased tw-text-left tw-text-sm tw-text-black tw-text-gray-800 group-hover:tw-text-gray-900 tw-flex"></p><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="currentColor" aria-hidden="true" class="tw-text-gray-800 group-hover:tw-text-gray-900 tw-h-6 tw-w-6 tw-flex-shrink-0 tw-rounded-full tw-transform tw-duration-300"><path fill-rule="evenodd" d="M5.293 7.293a1 1 0 011.414 0L10 10.586l3.293-3.293a1 1 0 111.414 1.414l-4 4a1 1 0 01-1.414 0l-4-4a1 1 0 010-1.414z" clip-rule="evenodd"></path></svg></div></div><div class="tw-mb-3 tw-rounded-lg sm:tw-mx-0 tw-bg-white tw-border-2 tw-border-gray-100"><div class="tw-px-2.5 sm:tw-px-4"><img src="https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/logos/journals/logo-environmental-science-and-pollution-research-m.svg" alt="Environmental Science and Pollution Research" class="tw-py-3 tw-w-80"/></div></div></button></div><div class="tw-px-4 tw-border-t-2 tw-border-gray-100"><button type="button" class="tw-min-w-full focus:tw-outline-none tw-group"><div class="tw-flex tw-items-center tw-justify-between"><div class="tw-w-full tw-py-2"><div class="tw-text-left"><h3 class="tw-antialiased tw-font-bold tw-text-left tw-text-blue-900 tw-text-base">Version 1</h3><p class="tw-antialiased tw-text-left tw-text-sm tw-text-black tw-text-gray-700">posted </p></div></div><div class="tw-rounded-xl tw-font-bold tw-px-3 tw-py-1 tw-bg-gray-100 tw-text-gray-700 tw-my-2 tw-flex tw-items-center tw-duration-300 tw-transform tw-bg-gray-100 group-hover:tw-bg-gray-200"><p class="tw-antialiased tw-text-left tw-text-sm tw-text-black tw-text-gray-800 group-hover:tw-text-gray-900 tw-flex">5</p><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="currentColor" aria-hidden="true" class="tw-text-gray-800 group-hover:tw-text-gray-900 tw-h-6 tw-w-6 tw-flex-shrink-0 tw-rounded-full tw-transform tw-duration-300 tw-ml-2"><path fill-rule="evenodd" d="M5.293 7.293a1 1 0 011.414 0L10 10.586l3.293-3.293a1 1 0 111.414 1.414l-4 4a1 1 0 01-1.414 0l-4-4a1 1 0 010-1.414z" clip-rule="evenodd"></path></svg></div></div></button><div class="tw-pb-1"><p class="tw-antialiased tw-text-left tw-text-sm tw-text-black"><span class="tw-rounded-xl tw-font-bold tw-px-3 tw-py-1 tw-bg-gray-100 tw-text-gray-700 tw-flex tw-justify-center tw-w-full tw-mb-2">You are reading this latest preprint version</span></p></div></div></div></div><div class="tw-border-b-2 tw-border-gray-100 tw-px-4"><div class="tw-flex tw-items-start tw-justify-between tw-min-w-full"><button type="button" class="focus:tw-outline-none tw-group tw-min-w-full"><div class="tw-flex tw-items-start tw-justify-between"><div class="tw-py-2 tw-w-full"><h2 class="tw-antialiased tw-font-bold tw-text-left tw-text-blue-900 tw-text-xl">Abstract</h2></div><div class="tw-py-2 sm:tw-border-r-2 sm:tw-border-white"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="currentColor" aria-hidden="true" class="tw-ml-4 tw-h-7 tw-w-7 tw-flex-shrink-0 tw-rounded-full tw-text-gray-500 group-hover:tw-bg-gray-200 group-hover:tw-text-gray-900 tw-transform tw-duration-300 -tw-rotate-180"><path fill-rule="evenodd" d="M5.293 7.293a1 1 0 011.414 0L10 10.586l3.293-3.293a1 1 0 111.414 1.414l-4 4a1 1 0 01-1.414 0l-4-4a1 1 0 010-1.414z" clip-rule="evenodd"></path></svg></div></div></button></div><div class="tw-pb-1"><div class="tw-text-base tw-antialiased tw-leading-relaxed tw-text-left tw-text-black md:tw-leading-loose _fulltext-content"><span style="display:block"><div><p>This study focuses on <em>Vitis vinifera</em> (grape), one of the world's largest crops and an ancient dietary staple, for the development of novel biodegradable and sustainable fibers. Grapevine shoots, post-pruning, are an abundant agricultural residue with little economic value as they are mainly used as fuel or fertilizer. The prime objective of the study was to evaluate the effects of dry and wet pre-treatment on the extraction and physical properties of novel lignocellulosic fibers derived from both the bark and core of waste grapevine shoots, respectively. It was found that, as compared to the dry pre-treatment, extraction done after wet pre-treatment required lower chemical concentrations as well as time and still enhanced fiber length, fineness, strength, and elongation. Physical characterization showed that compared to traditional fibers including jute, flax, kenaf, hemp, ramie, sisal, and coir, these extracted fibers demonstrated superior elongation, tenacity, and length characteristics while maintaining a moderate and comparable fineness. These distinct features make them appropriate for potential manufacturing of yarn and composite materials. Furthermore, the valorization of this otherwise discarded agricultural waste into marketable goods would reduce greenhouse gas emissions associated with its decomposition.</p></div></span></div><div class="tw-flex tw-flex-wrap tw-pb-3"><div class="tw-my-2 tw-mr-2"><p class="tw-antialiased tw-text-left tw-text-sm tw-text-black"><span class="tw-rounded-xl tw-font-bold tw-px-3 tw-py-1 tw-bg-gray-100 tw-text-gray-700">agro waste fiber</span></p></div><div class="tw-my-2 tw-mr-2"><p class="tw-antialiased tw-text-left tw-text-sm tw-text-black"><span class="tw-rounded-xl tw-font-bold tw-px-3 tw-py-1 tw-bg-gray-100 tw-text-gray-700">grapevine fiber</span></p></div><div class="tw-my-2 tw-mr-2"><p class="tw-antialiased tw-text-left tw-text-sm tw-text-black"><span class="tw-rounded-xl tw-font-bold tw-px-3 tw-py-1 tw-bg-gray-100 tw-text-gray-700">sustainable fibre extraction</span></p></div><div class="tw-my-2 tw-mr-2"><p class="tw-antialiased tw-text-left tw-text-sm tw-text-black"><span class="tw-rounded-xl tw-font-bold tw-px-3 tw-py-1 tw-bg-gray-100 tw-text-gray-700">agricultural waste management</span></p></div><div class="tw-my-2 tw-mr-2"><p class="tw-antialiased tw-text-left tw-text-sm tw-text-black"><span class="tw-rounded-xl tw-font-bold tw-px-3 tw-py-1 tw-bg-gray-100 tw-text-gray-700">vineyard waste utilisation</span></p></div><div class="tw-my-2 tw-mr-2"><p class="tw-antialiased tw-text-left tw-text-sm tw-text-black"><span class="tw-rounded-xl tw-font-bold tw-px-3 tw-py-1 tw-bg-gray-100 tw-text-gray-700">novel lignocellulosic fiber</span></p></div><div class="tw-my-2 tw-mr-2"><p class="tw-antialiased tw-text-left tw-text-sm tw-text-black"><span class="tw-rounded-xl tw-font-bold tw-px-3 tw-py-1 tw-bg-gray-100 tw-text-gray-700">biodegradable fiber</span></p></div><div class="tw-my-2 tw-mr-2"><p class="tw-antialiased tw-text-left tw-text-sm tw-text-black"><span class="tw-rounded-xl tw-font-bold tw-px-3 tw-py-1 tw-bg-gray-100 tw-text-gray-700">eco fiber</span></p></div></div></div></div><div class="tw-border-b-2 tw-border-gray-100 tw-px-4"><div class="tw-flex tw-items-start tw-justify-between tw-min-w-full"><button type="button" class="focus:tw-outline-none tw-group tw-min-w-full"><div class="tw-flex tw-items-start tw-justify-between"><div class="tw-py-2 tw-w-full"><h2 class="tw-antialiased tw-font-bold tw-text-left tw-text-blue-900 tw-text-xl">Figures</h2></div><div class="tw-py-2 sm:tw-border-r-2 sm:tw-border-white"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="currentColor" aria-hidden="true" class="tw-ml-4 tw-h-7 tw-w-7 tw-flex-shrink-0 tw-rounded-full tw-text-gray-500 group-hover:tw-bg-gray-200 group-hover:tw-text-gray-900 tw-transform tw-duration-300 -tw-rotate-180"><path fill-rule="evenodd" d="M5.293 7.293a1 1 0 011.414 0L10 10.586l3.293-3.293a1 1 0 111.414 1.414l-4 4a1 1 0 01-1.414 0l-4-4a1 1 0 010-1.414z" clip-rule="evenodd"></path></svg></div></div></button></div><div class="tw-pb-1"><div class="tw-flex tw-flex-wrap tw-items-end tw-pt-2"><button class="tw-mb-4 tw-mr-4 focus:tw-outline-none tw-group" type="button" tabindex="0"><img alt="Figure 1" loading="lazy" width="100" height="100" decoding="async" data-nimg="1" class="tw-mb-2 tw-border-2 tw-border-gray-100 tw-rounded-lg group-hover:tw-border-gray-200" style="color:transparent" srcSet="/_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fassets-eu.researchsquare.com%2Ffiles%2Frs-5423738%2Fv1%2F673a07825e5a7e99f5958122.jpg%3FmaxDims%3D150x150&w=128&q=75 1x, /_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fassets-eu.researchsquare.com%2Ffiles%2Frs-5423738%2Fv1%2F673a07825e5a7e99f5958122.jpg%3FmaxDims%3D150x150&w=256&q=75 2x" src="/_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fassets-eu.researchsquare.com%2Ffiles%2Frs-5423738%2Fv1%2F673a07825e5a7e99f5958122.jpg%3FmaxDims%3D150x150&w=256&q=75"/><p class="tw-antialiased tw-text-left tw-text-sm tw-text-black group-hover:tw-underline">Figure 1</p></button><button class="tw-mb-4 tw-mr-4 focus:tw-outline-none tw-group" type="button" tabindex="1"><img alt="Figure 2" loading="lazy" width="100" height="100" decoding="async" data-nimg="1" class="tw-mb-2 tw-border-2 tw-border-gray-100 tw-rounded-lg group-hover:tw-border-gray-200" style="color:transparent" srcSet="/_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fassets-eu.researchsquare.com%2Ffiles%2Frs-5423738%2Fv1%2F0c1ebfb1ba241086ab4759d8.jpeg%3FmaxDims%3D150x150&w=128&q=75 1x, /_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fassets-eu.researchsquare.com%2Ffiles%2Frs-5423738%2Fv1%2F0c1ebfb1ba241086ab4759d8.jpeg%3FmaxDims%3D150x150&w=256&q=75 2x" src="/_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fassets-eu.researchsquare.com%2Ffiles%2Frs-5423738%2Fv1%2F0c1ebfb1ba241086ab4759d8.jpeg%3FmaxDims%3D150x150&w=256&q=75"/><p class="tw-antialiased tw-text-left tw-text-sm tw-text-black group-hover:tw-underline">Figure 2</p></button><button class="tw-mb-4 tw-mr-4 focus:tw-outline-none tw-group" type="button" tabindex="2"><img alt="Figure 3" loading="lazy" width="100" height="100" decoding="async" data-nimg="1" class="tw-mb-2 tw-border-2 tw-border-gray-100 tw-rounded-lg group-hover:tw-border-gray-200" style="color:transparent" srcSet="/_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fassets-eu.researchsquare.com%2Ffiles%2Frs-5423738%2Fv1%2F4a4ff6e0f2e4fa953f22dd22.jpeg%3FmaxDims%3D150x150&w=128&q=75 1x, /_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fassets-eu.researchsquare.com%2Ffiles%2Frs-5423738%2Fv1%2F4a4ff6e0f2e4fa953f22dd22.jpeg%3FmaxDims%3D150x150&w=256&q=75 2x" src="/_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fassets-eu.researchsquare.com%2Ffiles%2Frs-5423738%2Fv1%2F4a4ff6e0f2e4fa953f22dd22.jpeg%3FmaxDims%3D150x150&w=256&q=75"/><p class="tw-antialiased tw-text-left tw-text-sm tw-text-black group-hover:tw-underline">Figure 3</p></button><button class="tw-mb-4 tw-mr-4 focus:tw-outline-none tw-group" type="button" tabindex="3"><img alt="Figure 4" loading="lazy" width="100" height="100" decoding="async" data-nimg="1" class="tw-mb-2 tw-border-2 tw-border-gray-100 tw-rounded-lg group-hover:tw-border-gray-200" style="color:transparent" srcSet="/_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fassets-eu.researchsquare.com%2Ffiles%2Frs-5423738%2Fv1%2Fe114f1c9d8e5c4b903be0aad.png%3FmaxDims%3D150x150&w=128&q=75 1x, /_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fassets-eu.researchsquare.com%2Ffiles%2Frs-5423738%2Fv1%2Fe114f1c9d8e5c4b903be0aad.png%3FmaxDims%3D150x150&w=256&q=75 2x" src="/_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fassets-eu.researchsquare.com%2Ffiles%2Frs-5423738%2Fv1%2Fe114f1c9d8e5c4b903be0aad.png%3FmaxDims%3D150x150&w=256&q=75"/><p class="tw-antialiased tw-text-left tw-text-sm tw-text-black group-hover:tw-underline">Figure 4</p></button><button class="tw-mb-4 tw-mr-4 focus:tw-outline-none tw-group" type="button" tabindex="4"><img alt="Figure 5" loading="lazy" width="100" height="100" decoding="async" data-nimg="1" class="tw-mb-2 tw-border-2 tw-border-gray-100 tw-rounded-lg group-hover:tw-border-gray-200" style="color:transparent" srcSet="/_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fassets-eu.researchsquare.com%2Ffiles%2Frs-5423738%2Fv1%2Fde4f3f93e6f096eeecc97609.png%3FmaxDims%3D150x150&w=128&q=75 1x, /_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fassets-eu.researchsquare.com%2Ffiles%2Frs-5423738%2Fv1%2Fde4f3f93e6f096eeecc97609.png%3FmaxDims%3D150x150&w=256&q=75 2x" src="/_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fassets-eu.researchsquare.com%2Ffiles%2Frs-5423738%2Fv1%2Fde4f3f93e6f096eeecc97609.png%3FmaxDims%3D150x150&w=256&q=75"/><p class="tw-antialiased tw-text-left tw-text-sm tw-text-black group-hover:tw-underline">Figure 5</p></button></div></div></div><div class="tw-border-b-2 tw-border-gray-100 tw-px-4"><div class="tw-flex tw-items-start tw-justify-between tw-min-w-full"><button type="button" class="focus:tw-outline-none tw-group tw-min-w-full"><div class="tw-flex tw-items-start tw-justify-between"><div class="tw-py-2 tw-w-full"><h2 class="tw-antialiased tw-font-bold tw-text-left tw-text-blue-900 tw-text-xl">1. INTRODUCTION</h2></div><div class="tw-py-2 sm:tw-border-r-2 sm:tw-border-white"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="currentColor" aria-hidden="true" class="tw-ml-4 tw-h-7 tw-w-7 tw-flex-shrink-0 tw-rounded-full tw-text-gray-500 group-hover:tw-bg-gray-200 group-hover:tw-text-gray-900 tw-transform tw-duration-300 -tw-rotate-180"><path fill-rule="evenodd" d="M5.293 7.293a1 1 0 011.414 0L10 10.586l3.293-3.293a1 1 0 111.414 1.414l-4 4a1 1 0 01-1.414 0l-4-4a1 1 0 010-1.414z" clip-rule="evenodd"></path></svg></div></div></button></div><div class="tw-pb-1"><div class="tw-text-base tw-antialiased tw-leading-relaxed tw-text-left tw-text-black md:tw-leading-loose _fulltext-content"><span style="display:block"><div><p>The effective management of agricultural and food waste has become a fundamental area of concern due to the continuous growth of the global population and the increasing demand for food and energy (Daszkiewicz <span citationid="CR10" class="CitationRef">2022</span>; Sala et al. <span citationid="CR56" class="CitationRef">2017</span>). Significant amounts of agro-industrial waste are generated annually on a global scale as a result of the production of food and crops. Such accumulation has detrimental effects on the global economy and the environment (CampoyMuñoz et al. <span citationid="CR7" class="CitationRef">2017</span>). The management of natural resources and waste has been subjected to a critical evaluation as a result of the ongoing pursuit of sustainable solutions and the increasing awareness of environmental challenges (Blasi et al. <span citationid="CR3" class="CitationRef">2023</span>; Varghese et al. <span citationid="CR68" class="CitationRef">2023</span>).</p> <p>As elucidated by Van Dam (2007), the agricultural sector grapples with a significant challenge, namely, the generation of substantial waste, constituting both an economic and environmental conundrum. Crop biomass residues serve various purposes, from animal feed and rural home thatching to residential and industrial fuel. Nonetheless, a substantial portion of crop residues remains underutilized, left to decay in the fields. The key constituents in all lignocellulosic biomasses include cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin, albeit in varying proportions, ranging from 30–60%, 15–40%, and 15–30%, respectively, across different biomasses (Ramirez et al. 2022). Agro-waste is a major source of carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>), methane (CH<sub>4</sub>), nitrous oxide (N<sub>2</sub>O), and hydrocarbons, which greatly affect global atmospheric chemistry when agro-waste and biomass decompose or burn. Combustion emissions have both detrimental and beneficial impacts on the climate. On the one hand, aerosol and smoke particles exert a cooling effect in the atmosphere through scattering or reflecting sunlight. But on the other hand, certain gases emitted by the burning of agricultural waste, such as CO<sub>2</sub> and CH<sub>4</sub>, are classified as greenhouse gases (GHGs) and therefore contribute to the greenhouse effect. This effect causes the atmosphere to warm up by absorbing thermal solar radiation. Furthermore, black carbon particles absorb incoming solar rays, generating heat that warms the environment (Elbasiouny et al. <span citationid="CR15" class="CitationRef">2020</span>). According to Singh et al. (2021) uncontrolled burning of agro-industrial waste releases smoke; carcinogenic substances such as furans, dioxins, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons; harmful gases such as nitrogen oxides, SO<sub>2</sub>, respirable particulate matter; and greenhouse gases (GHGs), all of which have a negative impact on human health in addition to causing substantial haze and global warming.</p> <p>The textile industry, much like agriculture, faces significant environmental challenges, including air emissions and water contamination due to untreated effluents (Karthik, Rathinamoorthy, and Muthu <span citationid="CR31" class="CitationRef">2017</span>; Sethi, Rana, and Jain <span citationid="CR60" class="CitationRef">2023</span>). The market is saturated with synthetic textile fibers, and the majority of these synthetic polymers, like polyester, nylon, spandex, and acrylic fiber, are derived from petrochemical raw ingredients, which are non-biodegradable. Therefore, synthetic polymers lead to a variety of environmental issues, including environmental pollution through CO<sub>2</sub> emissions during their life cycle, the depletion of fossil resources, as well as detrimental effects on aquatic and wildlife ecosystems. Moreover, according to (Duraisamy and Thangavel <span citationid="CR12" class="CitationRef">2013</span>), the recycling of plastics exacerbates the negative eco-balance, as it necessitates washing the plastics during the recycling phase, leading to increased energy consumption throughout the recycling process (Karthik et al. <span citationid="CR31" class="CitationRef">2017</span>). Therefore, the question arises: What alternative materials can mitigate these impacts?</p> <p>Lignocellulosic agro-industrial biomass is a sustainable and economic natural resource obtained from a variety of sources, such as agricultural residues (straw, bagasse, seeds, seed pods, roots, husks, leaves, and stems), food processing refuse (shells, peels, skin, oil cakes, and egg waste), as well as forestry by-products. (Ashokkumar et al. <span citationid="CR1" class="CitationRef">2022</span>; Sharma et al. <span citationid="CR61" class="CitationRef">2022</span>). Since natural biomass serves as the raw material for biobased fiber, the extraction and processing of biobased fiber can lower greenhouse gas emissions (Tursi <span citationid="CR67" class="CitationRef">2019</span>). Biobased fibers are predominantly biodegradable, that are capable of degradation through respiration or chemical energy synthesis by bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms in various environmental conditions, including natural composting. This process results in decomposition into CO<sub>2</sub> and water (Wojnowska-Baryła, Kulikowska, and Bernat <span citationid="CR72" class="CitationRef">2020</span>) This CO<sub>2</sub> generated is absorbed and utilised by plants ultimately contributing to the carbon cycle. Therefore, development of biobased fibers leads to overall carbon reduction or carbon-free emissions at every stage (Tian et al. <span citationid="CR65" class="CitationRef">2022</span>). In 2019, Janssen et al. conducted a cradle-to-gate life cycle assessment study to compare the use of lignin-based carbon fibers (L-CF) in carbon fiber-reinforced polymers (CFRPs) with the use of poly-acrylonitrile-based carbon fibers (PAN-CF). By transitioning from PAN-based to lignin-based fibers, there was observed a 30% decrease in life cycle energy. In addition, the results indicated that the climate impact per kilo of lignin-based carbon fibers produced was 1.50 kg CO<sub>2</sub> equivalents, which was 96% less than that of fossil-based carbon fibers, having a value of 38.9 kg CO<sub>2</sub> equivalents. Similarly, Eerhart et al. (<span citationid="CR13" class="CitationRef">2012</span>) compared the production of fossil-based Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) to polyethylene furandicarboxylate (PEF) synthesized from corn biomass based fructose showed that substitution of PEF for PET would reduce the non-renewable energy use (NREU) by approximately 40–50% while GHG emissions by 45–55% corresponding to savings of 440 to 520 PJ of NREU and 20 to 35 Mt of CO<sub>2</sub> equivalents of GHG emissions respectively.</p> <p>Apart from the above-mentioned ecological superiority, advantages of natural fibers include low density, low cost, reduced tool wear, enhanced energy recovery, acceptable specific strength, along with reduced dermal, respiratory irritation, and health risk (Obasi et al. <span citationid="CR47" class="CitationRef">2014</span>). However, natural fibers have inconsistent quality and features, as well as disparate physical and mechanical properties. They exhibit higher moisture absorption and lower levels of durability, strength, and processing temperature. Nevertheless, the unique characteristics and lasting nature of natural fibers make them indispensable for a wide range of textile and technical applications. (Pickering et al. <span citationid="CR50" class="CitationRef">2016</span>).</p> <p>Such applications include but are not limited to apparel, bed linens, towels, and various textiles (Daria et al. <span citationid="CR9" class="CitationRef">2020</span>; Fuqua et al. <span citationid="CR19" class="CitationRef">2012</span>; Khan et al. <span citationid="CR33" class="CitationRef">2024</span>; Kozłowski & Mackiewicz-Talarczyk, <span citationid="CR34" class="CitationRef">2020</span>; Todor et al. <span citationid="CR66" class="CitationRef">2018</span>). Ropes, twines, carpets, agricultural textiles fishing nets (Mortazavi & Moghadam, <span citationid="CR44" class="CitationRef">2009</span>); Sacks, bags, carpets, geotextiles (Kicinska-Jakubowska ´ et al. 2012); erosion control, mattresses, floor mats (Azman et al. 2021; Advanced functional textiles and polymers, 2019). Correspondingly, natural fiber composites have grown in acceptance across several industries thanks to their special blend of robustness, longevity, and biodegradability. For instance, applications in building materials like bamboo rooftops and earthen walls, which give required strength under different loads (Ramasubbu and Madasamy <span citationid="CR53" class="CitationRef">2020</span>) while also enhancing soil stability and stopping erosion in reinforced constructions (Chen et al. <span citationid="CR8" class="CitationRef">2005</span>; Mahir et al. <span citationid="CR40" class="CitationRef">2019</span>). The automobile sector uses these composites in elements like instrument and door panels (Duigou and Baley <span citationid="CR11" class="CitationRef">2014</span>). Natural fiber composites help to reduce weight in parts like seats and interior panels in aircraft, therefore improving fuel economy (Khan et al. <span citationid="CR33" class="CitationRef">2024</span>). Furthermore, environmentally acceptable substitutes for conventional materials in packaging show similar mechanical qualities (Gurunathan, Mohanty, and Nayak <span citationid="CR24" class="CitationRef">2015</span>; Samir et al. <span citationid="CR57" class="CitationRef">2022</span>). Owing to their strength and sustainability, the sports goods industry gains as well from their usage in equipment like surfboards and fishing rods (Kavimani et al. <span citationid="CR32" class="CitationRef">2022</span>). Moreover, studies on ballistic uses have revealed that fibers like curaua and coir have good protective qualities comparable to those of traditional materials (Braga et al. <span citationid="CR6" class="CitationRef">2017</span>; Yahaya et al. <span citationid="CR73" class="CitationRef">2014</span>, <span citationid="CR74" class="CitationRef">2016</span>).</p> <p>The concept of environmentally responsible and recyclable products is now universally recognized, drawing attention to natural fibers as promising alternatives. Remarkably, many plant species that yield fibers with diverse applications remain largely unexplored. One such example is <em>Vitis vinifera</em> or grape, with production reaches an astonishing 74.9 million tonnes annually on a global scale (FAOSTAT, <span citationid="CR16" class="CitationRef">2023</span>), this vigorous climbing shrub produces woody stems that can be 15–20 metres long. The plant attaches itself to the surrounding vegetation by means of coiled tendrils, as shown in Fig. <span refid="Fig1" class="InternalRef">1</span>.</p> <p> </p> <p>As a staple crop, grapevine necessitates annual, rigorous pruning of shoots to maintain the desired quality and volume of production (Jobbágy et al. <span citationid="CR29" class="CitationRef">2018</span>). Guardia et al. (<span citationid="CR23" class="CitationRef">2018</span>) have documented that 25 kg of waste is produced for every 100 kg of grapes. According to Çetin et al.the weight of pruned shoots fluctuates between 0.56 kg/vine to 2.01 kg/vine, depending on the season. Figure <span refid="Fig2" class="InternalRef">2</span> shows a freshly pruned grapevine shoot.</p> <p> </p> <p>After pruning, grapevine shoots are an abundant agricultural residue. The vineyard typically disposes of these shoots, which have minimal economic value, directly beneath its support pillars (Fig. <span refid="Fig3" class="InternalRef">3</span>). This method of repeatedly discarding these shoots for extended periods can occasionally attract pests and dangerous reptiles like snakes, thereby putting the workers at risk (Rana & Sethi <span citationid="CR55" class="CitationRef">2024</span>).</p> <p> </p> <p>There has been little research on the use of vine shoots after pruning, much of it focusing on paper pulp and ethanol production. Furthermore, the former especially calls for more thorough research to improve output, as vine shoots often produce pulp of somewhat poorer quality than other agricultural wastes (Bordiga <span citationid="CR5" class="CitationRef">2016</span>).</p> <p>Therefore, this study was envisaged with the objective of developing new fibers from grapevine shoots and analyzing the effect of dry and wet pretreatment conditions on the properties of the extracted novel fibers. It was an attempt at utilizing agricultural waste effectively and improving resource efficiency. In line with the 12th and 13th Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the United Nations, which are ‘Responsible Consumption and Production’ and ‘Climate Action’ respectively, this study is a means to answer the pressing need for eco-friendly alternatives, highlighting the potential of natural fibers derived from agricultural waste.</p></div></span></div></div></div><div class="tw-border-b-2 tw-border-gray-100 tw-px-4"><div class="tw-flex tw-items-start tw-justify-between tw-min-w-full"><button type="button" class="focus:tw-outline-none tw-group tw-min-w-full"><div class="tw-flex tw-items-start tw-justify-between"><div class="tw-py-2 tw-w-full"><h2 class="tw-antialiased tw-font-bold tw-text-left tw-text-blue-900 tw-text-xl">2. MATERIALS</h2></div><div class="tw-py-2 sm:tw-border-r-2 sm:tw-border-white"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="currentColor" aria-hidden="true" class="tw-ml-4 tw-h-7 tw-w-7 tw-flex-shrink-0 tw-rounded-full tw-text-gray-500 group-hover:tw-bg-gray-200 group-hover:tw-text-gray-900 tw-transform tw-duration-300 -tw-rotate-180"><path fill-rule="evenodd" d="M5.293 7.293a1 1 0 011.414 0L10 10.586l3.293-3.293a1 1 0 111.414 1.414l-4 4a1 1 0 01-1.414 0l-4-4a1 1 0 010-1.414z" clip-rule="evenodd"></path></svg></div></div></button></div><div class="tw-pb-1"><div class="tw-text-base tw-antialiased tw-leading-relaxed tw-text-left tw-text-black md:tw-leading-loose _fulltext-content"><span style="display:block"><div><p>Procurement of the raw material (grapevine shoots after pruning) was done in the month of May from a vineyard situated in Bangaluru (Karnataka), India.</p></div></span></div></div></div><div class="tw-border-b-2 tw-border-gray-100 tw-px-4"><div class="tw-flex tw-items-start tw-justify-between tw-min-w-full"><button type="button" class="focus:tw-outline-none tw-group tw-min-w-full"><div class="tw-flex tw-items-start tw-justify-between"><div class="tw-py-2 tw-w-full"><h2 class="tw-antialiased tw-font-bold tw-text-left tw-text-blue-900 tw-text-xl">3. METHODOLOGY</h2></div><div class="tw-py-2 sm:tw-border-r-2 sm:tw-border-white"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="currentColor" aria-hidden="true" class="tw-ml-4 tw-h-7 tw-w-7 tw-flex-shrink-0 tw-rounded-full tw-text-gray-500 group-hover:tw-bg-gray-200 group-hover:tw-text-gray-900 tw-transform tw-duration-300 -tw-rotate-180"><path fill-rule="evenodd" d="M5.293 7.293a1 1 0 011.414 0L10 10.586l3.293-3.293a1 1 0 111.414 1.414l-4 4a1 1 0 01-1.414 0l-4-4a1 1 0 010-1.414z" clip-rule="evenodd"></path></svg></div></div></button></div><div class="tw-pb-1"><div class="tw-text-base tw-antialiased tw-leading-relaxed tw-text-left tw-text-black md:tw-leading-loose _fulltext-content"><span style="display:block"><div><div id="Sec4" class="Section2"> <h2>3.1 Preliminary step</h2> <p>The grapevine shoots were defoliated, cleaned, and cut into 15-cm pieces before applying the appropriate dry and wet pretreatments.</p> <p> <strong>Dry Pretreatment</strong> </p><p>The raw material was subjected to drying for 25 days at room temperature (28–32°C), followed by steam explosion for 30 minutes. This process subjected the raw material to high-temperature steam (180–240°C) and pressure (1–3.5 MPa). The abrupt decrease in pressure induces a shear stress that significantly alters the structure of the plant cell wall (Yu et al. <span citationid="CR75" class="CitationRef">2022</span>). The raw material was then beaten with a soft-faced hammer to separate bark and core.</p> <p></p> <p> <strong>Wet Pretreatment</strong> </p><p>The fresh raw material was soaked overnight, followed by beating with a soft-faced hammer to separate bark and core. Figure <span refid="Fig4" class="InternalRef">4</span> (a) and (b) show grapevine shoots after dry and wet pre-treatments respectively, where bark and cores are clearly visible in the cross section.</p> <p></p> <p> </p> </div> <div id="Sec5" class="Section2"> <h2>3.2 Experimental procedure</h2> <p>The extraction conditions for the grapevine bark and core fibers were optimized both with and without alkalis. Parameters such as concentration and time were varied to optimize the process.</p> <div id="Sec6" class="Section3"> <h2>3.2.1 Extraction using Retting</h2> <p>The process of retting was carried out on dry and wet pre-treated grapevine barks and cores for durations of 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 45, and 60 days to subject them to biological maceration at room temperature (25–35°C), with periodic replacement of the water every 5 days to enhance the extraction efficiency. A constant MLR (material to liquid ratio) of 1:50 was maintained. After the planned maceration period ended, they were washed with water, and the subsequent step included manually extracting the fibers.</p> </div> <div id="Sec7" class="Section3"> <h2>3.2.2 Extraction using Alkalis</h2> <p>The review of literature indicated that application of alkaline treatment leads to surface modification, better lignocellulose digestion, heightened fiber porosity, enhanced tensile characteristics, and greater compatibility of the processed fiber (Kuila & Sharma <span citationid="CR35" class="CitationRef">2017</span>; Rana & Chopra 2022; Sogut & Cakmak <span citationid="CR62" class="CitationRef">2022</span>). Therefore, NaOH (Sodium Hydroxide) and Na<sub>2</sub>S (Sodium Sulfide) were used in various concentrations. Elevated extraction temperatures of 80–100°C were implemented to expedite the extraction process and the interaction of fiber with the alkali (Hülya Çakmak & Dekker 2022).</p> <p>Dry and wet pre-treated grapevine barks and cores were given alkaline treatments with concentrations of 10, 15, 20, 25, 50, and 75 g/l of NaOH and Na<sub>2</sub>S, respectively, for 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, and 3 hours at 80–100°C. A constant MLR of 1:40 was maintained for all alkaline treatments. Subsequently, they were neutralized with a 5% acetic acid solution and rinsed with water. Finally, they were manually extracted by pounding with a soft-faced hammer and separating them as necessary.</p> </div> </div> <div id="Sec8" class="Section2"> <h2>3.3 Characterisation of Physical Properties</h2> <p>The extracted fibers were characterized in terms of physical properties. They were then analyzed and compared with other lignocellulosics. The following list gives the properties and standard methods used to measure them:</p> <p> </p><ul> <li> <p>Length: Standard method IS 10014-1 was used to test the length of the extracted grapevine bark and core fibers.</p> </li> <li> <p>Diameter: Diameter was determined using microscopic imaging.</p> </li> <li> <p>Fineness: Standard method ASTM 1577 D:2007 (Cut and weigh method) was used to determine the linear density of extracted grapevine bark and core fibers. Therefore, fineness was calculated in terms of denier.</p> </li> <li> <p>Tensile Strength, Tenacity, and Elongation: The standard method ASTM D3822/D3822M-14 was used to test these properties for extracted fibers.</p> </li> <li> <p>Yield Percentage: Yield percentage was calculated as a ratio of dry weights of extracted fibers to the corresponding raw material.</p> </li> </ul> <p></p> </div></div></span></div></div></div><div class="tw-border-b-2 tw-border-gray-100 tw-px-4"><div class="tw-flex tw-items-start tw-justify-between tw-min-w-full"><button type="button" class="focus:tw-outline-none tw-group tw-min-w-full"><div class="tw-flex tw-items-start tw-justify-between"><div class="tw-py-2 tw-w-full"><h2 class="tw-antialiased tw-font-bold tw-text-left tw-text-blue-900 tw-text-xl">4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION</h2></div><div class="tw-py-2 sm:tw-border-r-2 sm:tw-border-white"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="currentColor" aria-hidden="true" class="tw-ml-4 tw-h-7 tw-w-7 tw-flex-shrink-0 tw-rounded-full tw-text-gray-500 group-hover:tw-bg-gray-200 group-hover:tw-text-gray-900 tw-transform tw-duration-300 -tw-rotate-180"><path fill-rule="evenodd" d="M5.293 7.293a1 1 0 011.414 0L10 10.586l3.293-3.293a1 1 0 111.414 1.414l-4 4a1 1 0 01-1.414 0l-4-4a1 1 0 010-1.414z" clip-rule="evenodd"></path></svg></div></div></button></div><div class="tw-pb-1"><div class="tw-text-base tw-antialiased tw-leading-relaxed tw-text-left tw-text-black md:tw-leading-loose _fulltext-content"><span style="display:block"><div><p> </p><div class="BlockQuote"> <p>The grapevine shoots were given dry and wet pre-treatments before segregation, and it was found that, in the case of drying pre-treatment, grapevine shoots comprised of 20% bark and 60% core (by weight), with the remainder as corky-powdery waste, whereas those subjected to a wet pre-treatment contained 27% bark and 70% core.</p> </div> <p></p> <p> </p><div class="gridtable"><table float="Yes" id="Tab1" border="1"> <caption language="En"> <div class="CaptionNumber">Table 1</div> <div class="CaptionContent"> <p>Optimised Conditions for various treatments</p> </div> </caption> <colgroup cols="7"> <div align="left" class="colspec" colname="c1" colnum="1"></div> <div align="left" class="colspec" colname="c2" colnum="2"></div> <div align="left" class="colspec" colname="c3" colnum="3"></div> <div align="left" class="colspec" colname="c4" colnum="4"></div> <div align="left" class="colspec" colname="c5" colnum="5"></div> <div align="left" class="colspec" colname="c6" colnum="6"></div> <div align="left" class="colspec" colname="c7" colnum="7"></div> <tbody> <tr> <td align="left" colname="c1" morerows="1" rowspan="2"> <p>Treatment</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c2" morerows="1" rowspan="2"> <p>Part of the Grapevine Shoot</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c3" morerows="1" rowspan="2"> <p>Dried or Wet</p> <p>Raw Material</p> </td> <td align="left" colSpan="4" nameend="c7" namest="c4"> <p>Optimised Conditions</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left" colname="c4"> <p>Concentration</p> <p>(g/l)</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c5"> <p>Time</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c6"> <p>Temperature</p> <p>(<sup>0</sup>C)</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c7"> <p>MLR (Ratio)</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left" colname="c1" morerows="3" rowspan="4"> <p>Retting</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c2" morerows="1" rowspan="2"> <p>Bark</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c3"> <p>Dry</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c4"> <p>-</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c5"> <p>45 days</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c6"> <p>25–35</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c7"> <p>1:50</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left" colname="c3"> <p>Wet</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c4"> <p>-</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c5"> <p>15 days</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c6"> <p>25–35</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c7"> <p>1:50</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left" colname="c2" morerows="1" rowspan="2"> <p>Core</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c3"> <p>Dry</p> </td> <td align="left" colSpan="4" nameend="c7" namest="c4"> <p>Core fibers were not extractable by retting dried raw material</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left" colname="c3"> <p>Wet</p> </td> <td align="left" colSpan="4" nameend="c7" namest="c4"> <p>Core fibers were not extractable by retting wet raw material</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left" colname="c1" morerows="3" rowspan="4"> <p>NaOH</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c2" morerows="1" rowspan="2"> <p>Bark</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c3"> <p>Dry</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c4"> <p>50</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c5"> <p>1.5 hr</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c6"> <p>80–100</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c7"> <p>1:40</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left" colname="c3"> <p>Wet</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c4"> <p>15</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c5"> <p>1 hr</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c6"> <p>80–100</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c7"> <p>1:40</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left" colname="c2" morerows="1" rowspan="2"> <p>Core</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c3"> <p>Dry</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c4"> <p>50</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c5"> <p>2.5 hr</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c6"> <p>80–100</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c7"> <p>1:40</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left" colname="c3"> <p>Wet</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c4"> <p>15</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c5"> <p>1.5 hr</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c6"> <p>80–100</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c7"> <p>1:40</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left" colname="c1" morerows="3" rowspan="4"> <p>Na<sub>2</sub>S</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c2" morerows="1" rowspan="2"> <p>Bark</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c3"> <p>Dry</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c4"> <p>50</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c5"> <p>1.5 hr</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c6"> <p>80–100</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c7"> <p>1:40</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left" colname="c3"> <p>Wet</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c4"> <p>15</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c5"> <p>1 hr</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c6"> <p>80–100</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c7"> <p>1:40</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left" colname="c2" morerows="1" rowspan="2"> <p>Core</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c3"> <p>Dry</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c4"> <p>50</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c5"> <p>2.5 hr</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c6"> <p>80–100</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c7"> <p>1:40</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left" colname="c3"> <p>Wet</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c4"> <p>15</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c5"> <p>1.5 hr</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c6"> <p>80–100</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c7"> <p>1:40</p> </td> </tr> </tbody> </colgroup> </table></div> <p></p> <p>The above table clearly indicates that the wet pre-treatment method required less time and a lower chemical concentration than the dry pre-treatment method.</p> <p> </p> <p> </p><div class="gridtable"><table float="Yes" id="Tab2" border="1"> <caption language="En"> <div class="CaptionNumber">Table 2</div> <div class="CaptionContent"> <p>Comparison of Physical Properties of Grapevine Fibers Extracted Using Different Extraction Conditions</p> </div> </caption> <colgroup cols="10"> <div align="left" class="colspec" colname="c1" colnum="1"></div> <div align="left" class="colspec" colname="c2" colnum="2"></div> <div align="left" class="colspec" colname="c3" colnum="3"></div> <div align="left" class="colspec" colname="c4" colnum="4"></div> <div align="left" class="colspec" colname="c5" colnum="5"></div> <div align="left" class="colspec" colname="c6" colnum="6"></div> <div align="left" class="colspec" colname="c7" colnum="7"></div> <div align="left" class="colspec" colname="c8" colnum="8"></div> <div align="left" class="colspec" colname="c9" colnum="9"></div> <div align="left" class="colspec" colname="c10" colnum="10"></div> <thead> <tr> <th align="left" colname="c1"> <p>Treatment</p> </th> <th align="left" colname="c2"> <p>Part of the Grapevine Shoot</p> </th> <th align="left" colname="c3"> <p>Dried or Wet</p> <p>Raw Material</p> </th> <th align="left" colname="c4"> <p>Length (mm)</p> </th> <th align="left" colname="c5"> <p>Diameter</p> <p>(µm)</p> </th> <th align="left" colname="c6"> <p>Fineness or Denier (g/denier)</p> </th> <th align="left" colname="c7"> <p>Breaking Force (g)</p> </th> <th align="left" colname="c8"> <p>Tenacity (g/denier)</p> </th> <th align="left" colname="c9"> <p>Elongation at Break (%)</p> </th> <th align="left" colname="c10"> <p>Yield %</p> </th> </tr> </thead> <tbody> <tr> <td align="left" colname="c1" morerows="3" rowspan="4"> <p>Retting</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c2" morerows="1" rowspan="2"> <p>Bark</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c3"> <p>Dry</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c4"> <p>94.9</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c5"> <p>208.1</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c6"> <p>350.35</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c7"> <p>351.64</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c8"> <p>1.01</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c9"> <p>2.71</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c10"> <p>10.1</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left" colname="c3"> <p>Wet</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c4"> <p>119.8</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c5"> <p>211.30</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c6"> <p>169.69</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c7"> <p>356.91</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c8"> <p>2.10</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c9"> <p>2.81</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c10"> <p>9.2</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left" colname="c2" morerows="1" rowspan="2"> <p>Core</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c3"> <p>Dry</p> </td> <td align="left" colSpan="7" nameend="c10" namest="c4"> <p>Core fibers were not extractable by retting dried raw material</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left" colname="c3"> <p>Wet</p> </td> <td align="left" colSpan="7" nameend="c10" namest="c4"> <p>Core fibers were not extractable by retting wet raw material</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left" colname="c1" morerows="3" rowspan="4"> <p>NaOH</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c2" morerows="1" rowspan="2"> <p>Bark</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c3"> <p>Dry</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c4"> <p>79.1</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c5"> <p>141</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c6"> <p>189.31</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c7"> <p>272.92</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c8"> <p>1.44</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c9"> <p>3.16</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c10"> <p>25.8</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left" colname="c3"> <p>Wet</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c4"> <p>89.0</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c5"> <p>194.81</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c6"> <p>122.26</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c7"> <p>297.96</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c8"> <p>2.44</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c9"> <p>4.1</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c10"> <p>4.5</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left" colname="c2" morerows="1" rowspan="2"> <p>Core</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c3"> <p>Dry</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c4"> <p>28.5</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c5"> <p>289</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c6"> <p>787.51</p> </td> <td align="left" colSpan="3" nameend="c9" namest="c7"> <p>Could not be determined, fibers too brittle for testing</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c10"> <p>31.1</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left" colname="c3"> <p>Wet</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c4"> <p>52.5</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c5"> <p>318.94</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c6"> <p>360.33</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c7"> <p>284.71</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c8"> <p>0.79</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c9"> <p>4.28</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c10"> <p>6.8</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left" colname="c1" morerows="3" rowspan="4"> <p>Na<sub>2</sub>S</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c2" morerows="1" rowspan="2"> <p>Bark</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c3"> <p>Dry</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c4"> <p>47.4</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c5"> <p>144</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c6"> <p>183.52</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c7"> <p>289.73</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c8"> <p>1.58</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c9"> <p>4.23</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c10"> <p>18.9</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left" colname="c3"> <p>Wet</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c4"> <p>80.9</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c5"> <p>170.20</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c6"> <p>97.55</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c7"> <p>341.21</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c8"> <p>3.50</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c9"> <p>2.36</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c10"> <p>6.3</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left" colname="c2" morerows="1" rowspan="2"> <p>Core</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c3"> <p>Dry</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c4"> <p>42.2</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c5"> <p>290</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c6"> <p>420.12</p> </td> <td align="left" colSpan="3" nameend="c9" namest="c7"> <p>Could not be determined, fibers too brittle for testing</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c10"> <p>35.1</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left" colname="c3"> <p>Wet</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c4"> <p>59.6</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c5"> <p>294.98</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c6"> <p>343.33</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c7"> <p>388.63</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c8"> <p>1.13</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c9"> <p>4.67</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c10"> <p>12.2</p> </td> </tr> </tbody> </colgroup> </table></div> <p></p> <p>Figure <span refid="Fig5" class="InternalRef">5</span> shows the fibers extracted using various optimized conditions, while Table <span refid="Tab2" class="InternalRef">2</span> presents a comparison of the physical properties of grapevine shoot bark and core fibers extracted using different solvents after dry and wet pre-treatments, respectively. The procedure involved extraction from both dry and wet pretreated grapevine shoots and subsequently assessing the extracted fibers for physical properties, including length, diameter, fineness, breaking force, tenacity, elongation at break, and yield percentage. Whether the raw material (grapevine shoots) was dry or wet, the retting process could not extract the core fibers. The results also indicated that dry core fibers, which underwent treatment with NaOH and Na2S, exhibited excessive brittleness, rendering them unsuitable for testing purposes.</p> <p>From Table <span refid="Tab2" class="InternalRef">2</span>, we can observe a pattern across all the extraction conditions that, when dry versus wet treatment conditions are compared, there is an increase in length, a decrease in fiber denier (meaning an increase in fineness), an increase in breaking strength, tenacity, as well as elongation when extracted using wet pretreatment. However, the diameter of fibers extracted after dry pretreatment is less than that for those extracted after wet pre-treatment. This phenomenon can be attributed to the permanent closure of pores in the cell wall, the contraction of the cell wall, and even the collapse of the lumen, as indicated by several studies (Fernandes et al. 2004; Hubbe et al. <span citationid="CR26" class="CitationRef">2007</span>; Li et al. <span citationid="CR37" class="CitationRef">2018</span>). Additionally, numerous studies have reported the creation of permanent hydrogen bonds inside or between the fibers due to excessive drying (L and E <span citationid="CR36" class="CitationRef">1999</span>; Mo et al. <span citationid="CR43" class="CitationRef">2020</span>). Consequently, the solvent is unable to penetrate the structure adequately, inhibiting effective treatment and thereby deteriorating the properties of the extracted fibers.</p> <p>Interestingly, yield percentage is a parameter in which dry raw material appears to have performed better. This is due to the presence of waxes, pectin, lignin, hemicellulose, and other impurities that had crystallized around the fibers; extraction after drying produced bulkier and stiffer fibers in both retting and alkali treatments. This implied that the fibers had a greater volume, as demonstrated by the higher yield percentage in the case of extractions after drying. Therefore, the reduced yield observed in wet-condition extractions can be attributed to the more effective removal of impurities like waxes, pectin, lignin, and hemicelluloses.</p> <p> </p><div class="gridtable"><table float="Yes" id="Tab3" border="1"> <caption language="En"> <div class="CaptionNumber">Table 3</div> <div class="CaptionContent"> <p>Comparison of Physical Properties of various Natural Cellulosic Fibers</p> </div> </caption> <colgroup cols="5"> <div align="left" class="colspec" colname="c1" colnum="1"></div> <div align="left" class="colspec" colname="c2" colnum="2"></div> <div align="left" class="colspec" colname="c3" colnum="3"></div> <div align="left" class="colspec" colname="c4" colnum="4"></div> <div align="left" class="colspec" colname="c5" colnum="5"></div> <thead> <tr> <th align="left" colname="c1" morerows="1" rowspan="2"> <p>Fiber</p> </th> <th align="left" colSpan="4" nameend="c5" namest="c2"> <p>Physical Parameters</p> </th> </tr> <tr> <th align="left" colname="c2"> <p>Diameter (µm)</p> </th> <th align="left" colname="c3"> <p>Fineness (denier)</p> </th> <th align="left" colname="c4"> <p>Tenacity(g/d)</p> </th> <th align="left" colname="c5"> <p>Breaking Elongation (%)</p> </th> </tr> </thead> <tbody> <tr> <td align="left" colname="c1"> <p><b>Jute</b></p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c2"> <p>40–350</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c3"> <p>27–36</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c4"> <p>3.33–3.38</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c5"> <p>1.0–2.0</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left" colname="c1"> <p><b>Flax</b></p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c2"> <p>12–27</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c3"> <p>22.5–27</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c4"> <p>3.33–4.44</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c5"> <p>1.5-5</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left" colname="c1"> <p><b>Hemp</b></p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c2"> <p>25–50</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c3"> <p>16–50</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c4"> <p>3.0–7.0</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c5"> <p>1.5-5</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left" colname="c1"> <p><b>Ramie</b></p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c2"> <p>50</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c3"> <p>16–125</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c4"> <p>4.5–8.8</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c5"> <p>1.5-5</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left" colname="c1"> <p><b>Kenaf</b></p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c2"> <p>70–250</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c3"> <p>14–33</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c4"> <p>2.4–3.33</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c5"> <p>1.6</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left" colname="c1"> <p><b>Sisal</b></p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c2"> <p>50–300</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c3"> <p>100–400</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c4"> <p>3.11–3.33</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c5"> <p>3.02</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left" colname="c1"> <p><b>PALF</b></p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c2"> <p>20–80</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c3"> <p>31.5–38.5</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c4"> <p>2.55–3.33</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c5"> <p>2.4–3.4</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left" colname="c1"> <p><b>Coir</b></p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c2"> <p>100–450</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c3"> <p>450–495</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c4"> <p>1.22–1.33</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c5"> <p>30</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left" colname="c1"> <p><b>Banana</b></p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c2"> <p>50–250</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c3"> <p>90–140</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c4"> <p>3.47–3.87</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c5"> <p>1.8–2.4</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left" colname="c1"> <p><b>Bamboo</b></p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c2"> <p>240–330</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c3"> <p>1.37</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c4"> <p>2.2</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c5"> <p>21.1</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left" colname="c1"> <p><b>Grapevine Bark</b></p> <p><b>(wet treatment)</b></p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c2"> <p>170.20-211.30</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c3"> <p>97.55-169.69</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c4"> <p>2.10–3.50</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c5"> <p>2.36–4.1</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left" colname="c1"> <p><b>Grapevine Core</b></p> <p><b>(wet treatment)</b></p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c2"> <p>294.98-318.94</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c3"> <p>343.33-360.33</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c4"> <p>0.79–1.13</p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c5"> <p>4.28–4.67</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left" colname="c1"> <p><b>References</b></p> </td> <td align="left" colname="c2"> <p>Bogoeva-Gaceva et al. (<span citationid="CR4" class="CitationRef">2007</span>); Geremew et al. (<span citationid="CR20" class="CitationRef">2021</span>); Sathishkumar et al. (<span citationid="CR58" class="CitationRef">2013</span>)</p> </td> <td align="left" colSpan="3" nameend="c5" namest="c3"> <p>Elayaperumal (<span citationid="CR14" class="CitationRef">2016</span>); Prakash et al. (<span citationid="CR51" class="CitationRef">2011</span>); Rana & Chopra (<span citationid="CR54" class="CitationRef">2021</span>); Soraisham et al. ( 2021)</p> </td> </tr> </tbody> </colgroup> </table></div> <p></p> <p>Table <span refid="Tab3" class="InternalRef">3</span> presents a comparison of the physical properties of known natural cellulosic fibers with the novel grapevine bark and core fibers extracted during this study. It is apparent that for the grapevine fibers extracted after wet pretreatment, the length of the bark fibers ranges from 80.9-119.8 mm, while the diameter ranges between 170.20-211.30 µm, comparable with fibers like jute, kenaf, banana, bamboo, and superior to sisal and coir. While fineness, or fiber denier, ranges from 97.55 to 169.69 deniers, which is comparable to ramie, banana, and superior to sisal and coir fibers. In terms of tenacity, they range from 2.10 to 3.50 g/denier and are comparable to flax, kenaf, hemp, and PALF, exceeding that of jute, sisal, coir, and banana fibers. Furthermore, in terms of elongation, they outperform all of the listed fibers (with the exception of coir and bamboo) and therefore have excellent elasticity. This suggests that grapevine bark fibers are moderately fine, possess good tenacity, and exhibit outstanding elongation and elasticity in comparison to other natural cellulosic fibers. These properties would confer distinctive characteristics on the products manufactured with them.</p> <p>Possible applications with grapevine bark fibers may include production of pure or blended yarn, as was done by using ramie and banana fibers, having similar fineness, by Soraisham et al. (<span citationid="CR63" class="CitationRef">2021</span>). According to their study, blending banana and ramie fibers in various ratios can produce a fine blend yarn (213 tex) with a tenacity of 15.71 cN/text. Alternatively, their composites could be considered for applications in certain automobile parts where high impact strength is required. For example, banana fibers (having similar fineness) positively impacted the hardness (Guruswamy et al. <span citationid="CR25" class="CitationRef">2019</span>). Similarly, due to properties like excellent length and strength, like that of flax, applications corresponding to those of flax, like in the automotive industry for reinforcement, in the production and development of hidden interior parts such as door panels, rear seat shells, rear shelves, and dashboards, or structural components such as floors, etc. (Li et al. <span citationid="CR37" class="CitationRef">2018</span>; Liang et al. <span citationid="CR38" class="CitationRef">2014</span>; Martin et al. <span citationid="CR41" class="CitationRef">2013</span>), may be explored, in addition to usage in clothing and cigarette papers (Khan et al. <span citationid="CR33" class="CitationRef">2024</span>). Moreover, since the tenacity is also similar to that of hemp, multifiber composites with compatible adhesives may also be explored for varied usages. For example, Green Line is a manufacturer that specializes in the production of musical instrument cases by using hemp and flax to create composites with polylactic acid (PLA) and polypropylene (PP) and additives (Ngo <span citationid="CR46" class="CitationRef">2017</span>). Further, since grapevine bark fibers have a comparable tenacity to that of kenaf, they may also be utilized for ballistic applications, as composites of the latter were tested as a potential alternative to aramids and exhibited superior performance (Yahaya et al. <span citationid="CR73" class="CitationRef">2014</span>, <span citationid="CR74" class="CitationRef">2016</span>).</p> <p>The fibers extracted from the grapevine core after wet pretreatment range from 52.5–59.6 mm in length and 294.98-318.94 micrometers in diameter (comparable with coir and bamboo). While having a fineness or fiber denier in the range of 343.33-360.33 deniers, which is comparable to sisal and coir, as indicated in the table. Additionally, they are comparable with coir in terms of tenacity, with a range of 0.79–1.13 grams per denier. Furthermore, with an elongation that ranges from 4.6–4.7%, they surpass all of the listed fibers, with the exception of coir and bamboo.</p> <p>Given the coarse nature of the extracted core fibers, they may find use in a variety of applications, such as mat production, twine manufacturing, rope production, and other items commonly used in nautical Given the coarse nature of the extracted core fibers, they may find use in a variety of applications, such as mat production, twine manufacturing, rope production, and other items commonly used in nautical and agricultural sectors associated with sisal fibers that are inferior in all the aforementioned properties (Faruk et al. <span citationid="CR17" class="CitationRef">2012</span>; Senthilkumar et al. <span citationid="CR59" class="CitationRef">2018</span>). It was observed composites could be considered for applications in certain automobile parts where high impact strength is required. For example, banana fibers (having similar fineness) positively impacted the hardness (Guruswamy et al. <span citationid="CR25" class="CitationRef">2019</span>). According to Faruk et al. (<span citationid="CR17" class="CitationRef">2012</span>) and Senthilkumar et al. (<span citationid="CR59" class="CitationRef">2018</span>), sisal fibers, which are inferior in all the aforementioned properties, are associated with the agricultural sector. Similarly, production of trays, boxes, and other packaging supplies can be explored, as done by Enkev, a manufacturer that uses coir, a comparatively inferior fiber for integration of natural latex rubber to produce a variety of packaging material (Ngo <span citationid="CR46" class="CitationRef">2017</span>). Additionally, considering that coir fiber epoxy composites exhibited superior ballistic characteristics compared to Kevlar (Luz et al. <span citationid="CR39" class="CitationRef">2017</span>), grapevine core fibers might also be utilized for ballistic applications.</p></div></span></div></div></div><div class="tw-border-b-2 tw-border-gray-100 tw-px-4"><div class="tw-flex tw-items-start tw-justify-between tw-min-w-full"><button type="button" class="focus:tw-outline-none tw-group tw-min-w-full"><div class="tw-flex tw-items-start tw-justify-between"><div class="tw-py-2 tw-w-full"><h2 class="tw-antialiased tw-font-bold tw-text-left tw-text-blue-900 tw-text-xl">5. CONCLUSION</h2></div><div class="tw-py-2 sm:tw-border-r-2 sm:tw-border-white"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="currentColor" aria-hidden="true" class="tw-ml-4 tw-h-7 tw-w-7 tw-flex-shrink-0 tw-rounded-full tw-text-gray-500 group-hover:tw-bg-gray-200 group-hover:tw-text-gray-900 tw-transform tw-duration-300 -tw-rotate-180"><path fill-rule="evenodd" d="M5.293 7.293a1 1 0 011.414 0L10 10.586l3.293-3.293a1 1 0 111.414 1.414l-4 4a1 1 0 01-1.414 0l-4-4a1 1 0 010-1.414z" clip-rule="evenodd"></path></svg></div></div></button></div><div class="tw-pb-1"><div class="tw-text-base tw-antialiased tw-leading-relaxed tw-text-left tw-text-black md:tw-leading-loose _fulltext-content"><span style="display:block"><div><p>Grapevine shoots, post-pruning, are an abundant agricultural residue with little economic value because they are mainly used as fuel or fertilizer. This study investigated the impact of dry and wet pre-treatment on the extraction and physical properties of novel lignocellulosic fibers from waste grapevine shoots (from bark as well as core). The use of wet pre-treatment required less chemical concentration and time for extraction; and resulted in improved fiber length, fineness, strength, and elongation compared to dry pre-treatment.</p> <p>In comparison to conventional fibers such as jute, flax, kenaf, hemp, ramie, sisal, and coir, the extracted fibers exhibited exceptional elongation, tenacity, and length properties, all while maintaining a moderate and comparable fineness. Such unique properties make them suitable for yarn and composite material production, potentially reducing greenhouse gas emissions associated with the decomposition of this otherwise agricultural waste. Overall, this study highlights the significance of Sustainable Development Goal 12's advocacy for responsible consumption and production practices.</p> <p>By turning agricultural waste into a valuable resource, we can help to build a more sustainable and resilient fiber sector while also addressing critical environmental and social concerns. Waste can be diverted from landfills by incorporating agro-waste into other applications, hence minimizing the industry's environmental impact. It also allows farmers to gain additional income from their waste products, thereby reducing wage disparities.</p></div></span></div></div></div><div class="tw-border-b-2 tw-border-gray-100 tw-px-4"><div class="tw-flex tw-items-start tw-justify-between tw-min-w-full"><button type="button" class="focus:tw-outline-none tw-group tw-min-w-full"><div class="tw-flex tw-items-start tw-justify-between"><div class="tw-py-2 tw-w-full"><h2 class="tw-antialiased tw-font-bold tw-text-left tw-text-blue-900 tw-text-xl">Declarations</h2></div><div class="tw-py-2 sm:tw-border-r-2 sm:tw-border-white"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="currentColor" aria-hidden="true" class="tw-ml-4 tw-h-7 tw-w-7 tw-flex-shrink-0 tw-rounded-full tw-text-gray-500 group-hover:tw-bg-gray-200 group-hover:tw-text-gray-900 tw-transform tw-duration-300 -tw-rotate-180"><path fill-rule="evenodd" d="M5.293 7.293a1 1 0 011.414 0L10 10.586l3.293-3.293a1 1 0 111.414 1.414l-4 4a1 1 0 01-1.414 0l-4-4a1 1 0 010-1.414z" clip-rule="evenodd"></path></svg></div></div></button></div><div class="tw-pb-1"><div class="tw-text-base tw-antialiased tw-leading-relaxed tw-text-left tw-text-black md:tw-leading-loose _fulltext-content"><span style="display:block"><div><p><b>Author Contributions</b>: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis and investigation, Writing - original draft preparation, review and editing: Princy Rana; Supervision: Prof. Sabina Sethi</p><p> </p><h2>Ethical Approval:</h2> <p>The study was granted exemption by Institutional Ethics Committee of Lady Irwin College (IEC_LIC Ref. No. 0006 on 27th August, 2022) since this study is purely laboratory based.</p> <p></p> <p> <strong>Consent to Participate:</strong> </p><p>Not applicable</p> <p></p> <p> <strong>Consent to Publish:</strong> </p><p>Not applicable</p> <p></p><p> </p><h2>Competing Interests:</h2> <p>The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.</p> <p></p><h2>Funding:</h2> <p>The authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript.</p><h2>Availability of data and materials:</h2> <p>Not applicable</p></div></span></div></div></div><div class="tw-border-b-2 tw-border-gray-100 tw-px-4"><div class="tw-flex tw-items-start tw-justify-between tw-min-w-full"><button type="button" class="focus:tw-outline-none tw-group tw-min-w-full"><div class="tw-flex tw-items-start tw-justify-between"><div class="tw-py-2 tw-w-full"><h2 class="tw-antialiased tw-font-bold tw-text-left tw-text-blue-900 tw-text-xl">References</h2></div><div class="tw-py-2 sm:tw-border-r-2 sm:tw-border-white"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="currentColor" aria-hidden="true" class="tw-ml-4 tw-h-7 tw-w-7 tw-flex-shrink-0 tw-rounded-full tw-text-gray-500 group-hover:tw-bg-gray-200 group-hover:tw-text-gray-900 tw-transform tw-duration-300 -tw-rotate-180"><path fill-rule="evenodd" d="M5.293 7.293a1 1 0 011.414 0L10 10.586l3.293-3.293a1 1 0 111.414 1.414l-4 4a1 1 0 01-1.414 0l-4-4a1 1 0 010-1.414z" clip-rule="evenodd"></path></svg></div></div></button></div><div class="tw-pb-1"><div class="tw-text-base tw-antialiased tw-leading-relaxed tw-text-left tw-text-black md:tw-leading-loose _fulltext-content"><span style="display:block"><div><ol><li><span>Ashokkumar V, Venkatkarthick R, Jayashree S, Chuetor S, Dharmaraj S, Kumar G, Chen W, Ngamcharussrivichai C (2022) Recent advances in lignocellulosic biomass for biofuels and valueadded bioproductsA critical review. 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tw-font-bold tw-text-left tw-text-blue-900 tw-text-base">Status:</h3><div class="tw-rounded-xl tw-font-bold tw-px-3 tw-py-1 tw-bg-blue-800 tw-text-white tw-ml-2"><p class="tw-antialiased tw-text-left tw-text-sm tw-text-white">Under Revision</p></div></div></div><div class="tw-rounded-xl tw-font-bold tw-px-3 tw-py-1 tw-bg-gray-100 tw-text-gray-700 tw-my-2 tw-flex tw-items-center tw-duration-300 tw-transform tw-bg-gray-100 group-hover:tw-bg-gray-200"><p class="tw-antialiased tw-text-left tw-text-sm tw-text-black tw-text-gray-800 group-hover:tw-text-gray-900 tw-flex"></p><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="currentColor" aria-hidden="true" class="tw-text-gray-800 group-hover:tw-text-gray-900 tw-h-6 tw-w-6 tw-flex-shrink-0 tw-rounded-full tw-transform tw-duration-300"><path fill-rule="evenodd" d="M5.293 7.293a1 1 0 011.414 0L10 10.586l3.293-3.293a1 1 0 111.414 1.414l-4 4a1 1 0 01-1.414 0l-4-4a1 1 0 010-1.414z" clip-rule="evenodd"></path></svg></div></div><div 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2.828l-.793.793-2.828-2.828.793-.793zM11.379 5.793L3 14.172V17h2.828l8.38-8.379-2.83-2.828z"></path></svg></span></div><div class="tw-block tw-min-w-0 md:tw-pt-1 md:tw-flex-1 md:tw-flex md:tw-justify-between"><p class="tw-antialiased tw-text-left tw-text-sm tw-text-black tw-pr-2">Editorial decision: <b>Major Revision</b></p><p class="tw-antialiased tw-text-left tw-text-sm tw-text-black tw-flex-shrink-0 lg:tw-text-right">14 Feb, 2025</p></div></div></div></li><li class="tw-pb-2"><div class="tw-relative"><span class="tw-absolute -tw-top-1.5 tw-left-3.5 -tw-ml-px tw-h-full tw-w-0.5 tw-bg-gray-200" aria-hidden="true"></span><div class="tw-relative tw-flex tw-space-x-3"><div><span class="tw-h-7 tw-w-7 tw-rounded-full tw-flex tw-items-center tw-justify-center tw-bg-gray-200"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="currentColor" aria-hidden="true" class="tw-h-4 tw-w-4 tw-text-gray-700"><path d="M2 10.5a1.5 1.5 0 113 0v6a1.5 1.5 0 01-3 0v-6zM6 10.333v5.43a2 2 0 001.106 1.79l.05.025A4 4 0 008.943 18h5.416a2 2 0 001.962-1.608l1.2-6A2 2 0 0015.56 8H12V4a2 2 0 00-2-2 1 1 0 00-1 1v.667a4 4 0 01-.8 2.4L6.8 7.933a4 4 0 00-.8 2.4z"></path></svg></span></div><div class="tw-block tw-min-w-0 md:tw-pt-1 md:tw-flex-1 md:tw-flex md:tw-justify-between"><p class="tw-antialiased tw-text-left tw-text-sm tw-text-black tw-pr-2">Reviewers agreed at journal</p><p class="tw-antialiased tw-text-left tw-text-sm tw-text-black tw-flex-shrink-0 lg:tw-text-right">16 Nov, 2024</p></div></div></div></li><li class="tw-pb-2"><div class="tw-relative"><span class="tw-absolute -tw-top-1.5 tw-left-3.5 -tw-ml-px tw-h-full tw-w-0.5 tw-bg-gray-200" aria-hidden="true"></span><div class="tw-relative tw-flex tw-space-x-3"><div><span class="tw-h-7 tw-w-7 tw-rounded-full tw-flex tw-items-center tw-justify-center tw-bg-gray-200"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="currentColor" aria-hidden="true" class="tw-h-4 tw-w-4 tw-text-gray-700"><path d="M2.003 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type="application/json">{"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-5423738","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":378583170,"identity":"3e97a581-1662-47d6-9468-afd593740f03","order_by":0,"name":"Princy Rana","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAxUlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACfiA+AMRyIM6BB8RokWyAaDEGa0kgRovBAQid2AAiidNyu/fh4YKaw+nzww4/BNpiJ6fbQMhhd44bHJ5x7HDuxttpBkAtycZmBwho4buRxnCYtwGoZXYCSMuBxG2EtDBAtaQbzk7/QJwWAaiWBHnpHCJtkZxzjOEwz7F0ww3SOQUHEgyI8Au/dBvzZ54aa3n52embP3yosJMjqIVBAkw2QyPIgJByhJY6BvkGYlSPglEwCkbBiAQAWTtJ6hFTqt0AAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3955-0662","institution":"Lady Irwin College","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Princy","middleName":"","lastName":"Rana","suffix":""},{"id":378583171,"identity":"203cefba-bdf1-46d3-8071-b36f4e46ed5c","order_by":1,"name":"Sabina Sethi","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Lady Irwin College","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sabina","middleName":"","lastName":"Sethi","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-11-10 00:00:47","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5423738/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5423738/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":70325363,"identity":"40687c63-ae4d-465b-9404-913678b7c3d0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-02 07:27:57","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":44446,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGrapevine Morphology during Dormant and Growing Season\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSource: mercurynews.com\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5423738/v1/673a07825e5a7e99f5958122.jpg"},{"id":70324074,"identity":"d56c107f-f548-4f60-951a-a0549c88890e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-02 07:19:57","extension":"jpeg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":140907,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFreshly pruned grapevine shoot\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image2.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5423738/v1/0c1ebfb1ba241086ab4759d8.jpeg"},{"id":70323937,"identity":"c9bbc7b4-c6e6-48f9-be55-dccbec8f2b47","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-02 07:11:57","extension":"jpeg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":319229,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePruned off shoots dumped near the pillars in the vineyard.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image3.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5423738/v1/4a4ff6e0f2e4fa953f22dd22.jpeg"},{"id":70324072,"identity":"9c1c2833-26c4-4040-a827-6cf9eecffec5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-02 07:19:57","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":580177,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(a)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e Grapevine shoots after dry pre-treatment \u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4 (b) \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003eGrapevine shoots after wet pre-treatment\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5423738/v1/e114f1c9d8e5c4b903be0aad.png"},{"id":70323939,"identity":"552b2ccb-9c7a-405d-b2c8-6b4bab5571da","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-02 07:11:57","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1489647,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGrapevine bark and core fibers extracted using: (a)Retting (b)NaOH treatment (c)Na\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eS treatment\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5423738/v1/de4f3f93e6f096eeecc97609.png"},{"id":70325744,"identity":"878a9ce2-d34a-489c-b3fe-96393b9ac09e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-02 07:35:59","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":3457063,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5423738/v1/f6a2983f-65df-46c6-a6d2-d47a07087c9d.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Agricultural Waste to Potential High-Performance Fibers: Impact of Dry and Wet Pretreatment on Extraction and Properties of Novel Fibers from Grapevine Shoots.","fulltext":[{"header":"1. INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe effective management of agricultural and food waste has become a fundamental area of concern due to the continuous growth of the global population and the increasing demand for food and energy (Daszkiewicz \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Sala et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Significant amounts of agro-industrial waste are generated annually on a global scale as a result of the production of food and crops. Such accumulation has detrimental effects on the global economy and the environment (CampoyMu\u0026ntilde;oz et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). The management of natural resources and waste has been subjected to a critical evaluation as a result of the ongoing pursuit of sustainable solutions and the increasing awareness of environmental challenges (Blasi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Varghese et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs elucidated by Van Dam (2007), the agricultural sector grapples with a significant challenge, namely, the generation of substantial waste, constituting both an economic and environmental conundrum. Crop biomass residues serve various purposes, from animal feed and rural home thatching to residential and industrial fuel. Nonetheless, a substantial portion of crop residues remains underutilized, left to decay in the fields. The key constituents in all lignocellulosic biomasses include cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin, albeit in varying proportions, ranging from 30\u0026ndash;60%, 15\u0026ndash;40%, and 15\u0026ndash;30%, respectively, across different biomasses (Ramirez et al. 2022). Agro-waste is a major source of carbon dioxide (CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e), methane (CH\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e), nitrous oxide (N\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO), and hydrocarbons, which greatly affect global atmospheric chemistry when agro-waste and biomass decompose or burn. Combustion emissions have both detrimental and beneficial impacts on the climate. On the one hand, aerosol and smoke particles exert a cooling effect in the atmosphere through scattering or reflecting sunlight. But on the other hand, certain gases emitted by the burning of agricultural waste, such as CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e and CH\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e, are classified as greenhouse gases (GHGs) and therefore contribute to the greenhouse effect. This effect causes the atmosphere to warm up by absorbing thermal solar radiation. Furthermore, black carbon particles absorb incoming solar rays, generating heat that warms the environment (Elbasiouny et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). According to Singh et al. (2021) uncontrolled burning of agro-industrial waste releases smoke; carcinogenic substances such as furans, dioxins, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons; harmful gases such as nitrogen oxides, SO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, respirable particulate matter; and greenhouse gases (GHGs), all of which have a negative impact on human health in addition to causing substantial haze and global warming.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe textile industry, much like agriculture, faces significant environmental challenges, including air emissions and water contamination due to untreated effluents (Karthik, Rathinamoorthy, and Muthu \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Sethi, Rana, and Jain \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The market is saturated with synthetic textile fibers, and the majority of these synthetic polymers, like polyester, nylon, spandex, and acrylic fiber, are derived from petrochemical raw ingredients, which are non-biodegradable. Therefore, synthetic polymers lead to a variety of environmental issues, including environmental pollution through CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e emissions during their life cycle, the depletion of fossil resources, as well as detrimental effects on aquatic and wildlife ecosystems. Moreover, according to (Duraisamy and Thangavel \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), the recycling of plastics exacerbates the negative eco-balance, as it necessitates washing the plastics during the recycling phase, leading to increased energy consumption throughout the recycling process (Karthik et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, the question arises: What alternative materials can mitigate these impacts?\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLignocellulosic agro-industrial biomass is a sustainable and economic natural resource obtained from a variety of sources, such as agricultural residues (straw, bagasse, seeds, seed pods, roots, husks, leaves, and stems), food processing refuse (shells, peels, skin, oil cakes, and egg waste), as well as forestry by-products. (Ashokkumar et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Sharma et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Since natural biomass serves as the raw material for biobased fiber, the extraction and processing of biobased fiber can lower greenhouse gas emissions (Tursi \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Biobased fibers are predominantly biodegradable, that are capable of degradation through respiration or chemical energy synthesis by bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms in various environmental conditions, including natural composting. This process results in decomposition into CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e and water (Wojnowska-Baryła, Kulikowska, and Bernat \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) This CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e generated is absorbed and utilised by plants ultimately contributing to the carbon cycle. Therefore, development of biobased fibers leads to overall carbon reduction or carbon-free emissions at every stage (Tian et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In 2019, Janssen et al. conducted a cradle-to-gate life cycle assessment study to compare the use of lignin-based carbon fibers (L-CF) in carbon fiber-reinforced polymers (CFRPs) with the use of poly-acrylonitrile-based carbon fibers (PAN-CF). By transitioning from PAN-based to lignin-based fibers, there was observed a 30% decrease in life cycle energy. In addition, the results indicated that the climate impact per kilo of lignin-based carbon fibers produced was 1.50 kg CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e equivalents, which was 96% less than that of fossil-based carbon fibers, having a value of 38.9 kg CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e equivalents. Similarly, Eerhart et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) compared the production of fossil-based Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) to polyethylene furandicarboxylate (PEF) synthesized from corn biomass based fructose showed that substitution of PEF for PET would reduce the non-renewable energy use (NREU) by approximately 40\u0026ndash;50% while GHG emissions by 45\u0026ndash;55% corresponding to savings of 440 to 520 PJ of NREU and 20 to 35 Mt of CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e equivalents of GHG emissions respectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eApart from the above-mentioned ecological superiority, advantages of natural fibers include low density, low cost, reduced tool wear, enhanced energy recovery, acceptable specific strength, along with reduced dermal, respiratory irritation, and health risk (Obasi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). However, natural fibers have inconsistent quality and features, as well as disparate physical and mechanical properties. They exhibit higher moisture absorption and lower levels of durability, strength, and processing temperature. Nevertheless, the unique characteristics and lasting nature of natural fibers make them indispensable for a wide range of textile and technical applications. (Pickering et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSuch applications include but are not limited to apparel, bed linens, towels, and various textiles (Daria et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Fuqua et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Khan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Kozłowski \u0026amp; Mackiewicz-Talarczyk, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Todor et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Ropes, twines, carpets, agricultural textiles fishing nets (Mortazavi \u0026amp; Moghadam, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e); Sacks, bags, carpets, geotextiles (Kicinska-Jakubowska \u0026acute; et al. 2012); erosion control, mattresses, floor mats (Azman et al. 2021; Advanced functional textiles and polymers, 2019). Correspondingly, natural fiber composites have grown in acceptance across several industries thanks to their special blend of robustness, longevity, and biodegradability. For instance, applications in building materials like bamboo rooftops and earthen walls, which give required strength under different loads (Ramasubbu and Madasamy \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) while also enhancing soil stability and stopping erosion in reinforced constructions (Chen et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Mahir et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The automobile sector uses these composites in elements like instrument and door panels (Duigou and Baley \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Natural fiber composites help to reduce weight in parts like seats and interior panels in aircraft, therefore improving fuel economy (Khan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, environmentally acceptable substitutes for conventional materials in packaging show similar mechanical qualities (Gurunathan, Mohanty, and Nayak \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Samir et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Owing to their strength and sustainability, the sports goods industry gains as well from their usage in equipment like surfboards and fishing rods (Kavimani et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, studies on ballistic uses have revealed that fibers like curaua and coir have good protective qualities comparable to those of traditional materials (Braga et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Yahaya et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe concept of environmentally responsible and recyclable products is now universally recognized, drawing attention to natural fibers as promising alternatives. Remarkably, many plant species that yield fibers with diverse applications remain largely unexplored. One such example is \u003cem\u003eVitis vinifera\u003c/em\u003e or grape, with production reaches an astonishing 74.9\u0026nbsp;million tonnes annually on a global scale (FAOSTAT, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), this vigorous climbing shrub produces woody stems that can be 15\u0026ndash;20 metres long. The plant attaches itself to the surrounding vegetation by means of coiled tendrils, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs a staple crop, grapevine necessitates annual, rigorous pruning of shoots to maintain the desired quality and volume of production (Jobb\u0026aacute;gy et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Guardia et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) have documented that 25 kg of waste is produced for every 100 kg of grapes. According to \u0026Ccedil;etin et al.the weight of pruned shoots fluctuates between 0.56 kg/vine to 2.01 kg/vine, depending on the season. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e shows a freshly pruned grapevine shoot.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfter pruning, grapevine shoots are an abundant agricultural residue. The vineyard typically disposes of these shoots, which have minimal economic value, directly beneath its support pillars (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). This method of repeatedly discarding these shoots for extended periods can occasionally attract pests and dangerous reptiles like snakes, thereby putting the workers at risk (Rana \u0026amp; Sethi \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere has been little research on the use of vine shoots after pruning, much of it focusing on paper pulp and ethanol production. Furthermore, the former especially calls for more thorough research to improve output, as vine shoots often produce pulp of somewhat poorer quality than other agricultural wastes (Bordiga \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTherefore, this study was envisaged with the objective of developing new fibers from grapevine shoots and analyzing the effect of dry and wet pretreatment conditions on the properties of the extracted novel fibers. It was an attempt at utilizing agricultural waste effectively and improving resource efficiency. In line with the 12th and 13th Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the United Nations, which are \u0026lsquo;Responsible Consumption and Production\u0026rsquo; and \u0026lsquo;Climate Action\u0026rsquo; respectively, this study is a means to answer the pressing need for eco-friendly alternatives, highlighting the potential of natural fibers derived from agricultural waste.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. MATERIALS","content":"\u003cp\u003eProcurement of the raw material (grapevine shoots after pruning) was done in the month of May from a vineyard situated in Bangaluru (Karnataka), India.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. METHODOLOGY","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Preliminary step\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe grapevine shoots were defoliated, cleaned, and cut into 15-cm pieces before applying the appropriate dry and wet pretreatments.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eDry Pretreatment\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe raw material was subjected to drying for 25 days at room temperature (28\u0026ndash;32\u0026deg;C), followed by steam explosion for 30 minutes. This process subjected the raw material to high-temperature steam (180\u0026ndash;240\u0026deg;C) and pressure (1\u0026ndash;3.5 MPa). The abrupt decrease in pressure induces a shear stress that significantly alters the structure of the plant cell wall (Yu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The raw material was then beaten with a soft-faced hammer to separate bark and core.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eWet Pretreatment\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe fresh raw material was soaked overnight, followed by beating with a soft-faced hammer to separate bark and core. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e (a) and (b) show grapevine shoots after dry and wet pre-treatments respectively, where bark and cores are clearly visible in the cross section.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Experimental procedure\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe extraction conditions for the grapevine bark and core fibers were optimized both with and without alkalis. Parameters such as concentration and time were varied to optimize the process.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2.1 Extraction using Retting\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe process of retting was carried out on dry and wet pre-treated grapevine barks and cores for durations of 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 45, and 60 days to subject them to biological maceration at room temperature (25\u0026ndash;35\u0026deg;C), with periodic replacement of the water every 5 days to enhance the extraction efficiency. A constant MLR (material to liquid ratio) of 1:50 was maintained. After the planned maceration period ended, they were washed with water, and the subsequent step included manually extracting the fibers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2.2 Extraction using Alkalis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe review of literature indicated that application of alkaline treatment leads to surface modification, better lignocellulose digestion, heightened fiber porosity, enhanced tensile characteristics, and greater compatibility of the processed fiber (Kuila \u0026amp; Sharma \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Rana \u0026amp; Chopra 2022; Sogut \u0026amp; Cakmak \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, NaOH (Sodium Hydroxide) and Na\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eS (Sodium Sulfide) were used in various concentrations. Elevated extraction temperatures of 80\u0026ndash;100\u0026deg;C were implemented to expedite the extraction process and the interaction of fiber with the alkali (H\u0026uuml;lya \u0026Ccedil;akmak \u0026amp; Dekker 2022).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDry and wet pre-treated grapevine barks and cores were given alkaline treatments with concentrations of 10, 15, 20, 25, 50, and 75 g/l of NaOH and Na\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eS, respectively, for 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, and 3 hours at 80\u0026ndash;100\u0026deg;C. A constant MLR of 1:40 was maintained for all alkaline treatments. Subsequently, they were neutralized with a 5% acetic acid solution and rinsed with water. Finally, they were manually extracted by pounding with a soft-faced hammer and separating them as necessary.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3 Characterisation of Physical Properties\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe extracted fibers were characterized in terms of physical properties. They were then analyzed and compared with other lignocellulosics. The following list gives the properties and standard methods used to measure them:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eLength: Standard method IS 10014-1 was used to test the length of the extracted grapevine bark and core fibers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiameter: Diameter was determined using microscopic imaging.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eFineness: Standard method ASTM 1577 D:2007 (Cut and weigh method) was used to determine the linear density of extracted grapevine bark and core fibers. Therefore, fineness was calculated in terms of denier.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTensile Strength, Tenacity, and Elongation: The standard method ASTM D3822/D3822M-14 was used to test these properties for extracted fibers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eYield Percentage: Yield percentage was calculated as a ratio of dry weights of extracted fibers to the corresponding raw material.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe grapevine shoots were given dry and wet pre-treatments before segregation, and it was found that, in the case of drying pre-treatment, grapevine shoots comprised of 20% bark and 60% core (by weight), with the remainder as corky-powdery waste, whereas those subjected to a wet pre-treatment contained 27% bark and 70% core.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOptimised Conditions for various treatments\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePart of the Grapevine Shoot\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDried or Wet\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRaw Material\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOptimised Conditions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConcentration\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(g/l)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTime\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTemperature\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003eC)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMLR (Ratio)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRetting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBark\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDry\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45 days\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u0026ndash;35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1:50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWet\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15 days\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u0026ndash;35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1:50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCore\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDry\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCore fibers were not extractable by retting dried raw material\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWet\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCore fibers were not extractable by retting wet raw material\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNaOH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBark\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDry\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5 hr\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80\u0026ndash;100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1:40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWet\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1 hr\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80\u0026ndash;100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1:40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCore\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDry\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5 hr\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80\u0026ndash;100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1:40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWet\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5 hr\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80\u0026ndash;100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1:40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNa\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBark\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDry\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5 hr\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80\u0026ndash;100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1:40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWet\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1 hr\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80\u0026ndash;100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1:40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCore\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDry\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5 hr\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80\u0026ndash;100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1:40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWet\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5 hr\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80\u0026ndash;100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1:40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe above table clearly indicates that the wet pre-treatment method required less time and a lower chemical concentration than the dry pre-treatment method.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eComparison of Physical Properties of Grapevine Fibers Extracted Using Different Extraction Conditions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"10\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePart of the Grapevine Shoot\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDried or Wet\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRaw Material\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLength (mm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiameter\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(\u0026micro;m)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFineness or Denier (g/denier)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBreaking Force (g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTenacity (g/denier)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElongation at Break (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYield %\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRetting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBark\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDry\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e94.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e208.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e350.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e351.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWet\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e119.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e211.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e169.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e356.91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCore\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDry\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"7\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCore fibers were not extractable by retting dried raw material\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWet\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"7\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCore fibers were not extractable by retting wet raw material\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNaOH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBark\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDry\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e79.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e141\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e189.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e272.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWet\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e89.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e194.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e122.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e297.96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCore\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDry\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e289\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e787.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCould not be determined, fibers too brittle for testing\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWet\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e318.94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e360.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e284.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNa\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBark\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDry\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e144\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e183.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e289.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWet\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e170.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e97.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e341.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCore\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDry\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e290\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e420.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCould not be determined, fibers too brittle for testing\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWet\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e59.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e294.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e343.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e388.63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e shows the fibers extracted using various optimized conditions, while Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e presents a comparison of the physical properties of grapevine shoot bark and core fibers extracted using different solvents after dry and wet pre-treatments, respectively. The procedure involved extraction from both dry and wet pretreated grapevine shoots and subsequently assessing the extracted fibers for physical properties, including length, diameter, fineness, breaking force, tenacity, elongation at break, and yield percentage. Whether the raw material (grapevine shoots) was dry or wet, the retting process could not extract the core fibers. The results also indicated that dry core fibers, which underwent treatment with NaOH and Na2S, exhibited excessive brittleness, rendering them unsuitable for testing purposes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, we can observe a pattern across all the extraction conditions that, when dry versus wet treatment conditions are compared, there is an increase in length, a decrease in fiber denier (meaning an increase in fineness), an increase in breaking strength, tenacity, as well as elongation when extracted using wet pretreatment. However, the diameter of fibers extracted after dry pretreatment is less than that for those extracted after wet pre-treatment. This phenomenon can be attributed to the permanent closure of pores in the cell wall, the contraction of the cell wall, and even the collapse of the lumen, as indicated by several studies (Fernandes et al. 2004; Hubbe et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Li et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, numerous studies have reported the creation of permanent hydrogen bonds inside or between the fibers due to excessive drying (L and E \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e; Mo et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, the solvent is unable to penetrate the structure adequately, inhibiting effective treatment and thereby deteriorating the properties of the extracted fibers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInterestingly, yield percentage is a parameter in which dry raw material appears to have performed better. This is due to the presence of waxes, pectin, lignin, hemicellulose, and other impurities that had crystallized around the fibers; extraction after drying produced bulkier and stiffer fibers in both retting and alkali treatments. This implied that the fibers had a greater volume, as demonstrated by the higher yield percentage in the case of extractions after drying. Therefore, the reduced yield observed in wet-condition extractions can be attributed to the more effective removal of impurities like waxes, pectin, lignin, and hemicelluloses.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eComparison of Physical Properties of various Natural Cellulosic Fibers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFiber\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhysical Parameters\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiameter (\u0026micro;m)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFineness (denier)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTenacity(g/d)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBreaking Elongation (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eJute\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u0026ndash;350\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27\u0026ndash;36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.33\u0026ndash;3.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.0\u0026ndash;2.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFlax\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u0026ndash;27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.5\u0026ndash;27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.33\u0026ndash;4.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5-5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHemp\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u0026ndash;50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u0026ndash;50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.0\u0026ndash;7.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5-5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRamie\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u0026ndash;125\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.5\u0026ndash;8.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5-5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eKenaf\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70\u0026ndash;250\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u0026ndash;33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.4\u0026ndash;3.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSisal\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u0026ndash;300\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u0026ndash;400\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.11\u0026ndash;3.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePALF\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u0026ndash;80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.5\u0026ndash;38.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.55\u0026ndash;3.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.4\u0026ndash;3.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCoir\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u0026ndash;450\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e450\u0026ndash;495\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.22\u0026ndash;1.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBanana\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u0026ndash;250\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90\u0026ndash;140\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.47\u0026ndash;3.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.8\u0026ndash;2.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBamboo\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e240\u0026ndash;330\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eGrapevine Bark\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e(wet treatment)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e170.20-211.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e97.55-169.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.10\u0026ndash;3.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.36\u0026ndash;4.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eGrapevine Core\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e(wet treatment)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e294.98-318.94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e343.33-360.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.79\u0026ndash;1.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.28\u0026ndash;4.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eReferences\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBogoeva-Gaceva et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e); Geremew et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e); Sathishkumar et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElayaperumal (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e); Prakash et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e); Rana \u0026amp; Chopra (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e); Soraisham et al. ( 2021)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e presents a comparison of the physical properties of known natural cellulosic fibers with the novel grapevine bark and core fibers extracted during this study. It is apparent that for the grapevine fibers extracted after wet pretreatment, the length of the bark fibers ranges from 80.9-119.8 mm, while the diameter ranges between 170.20-211.30 \u0026micro;m, comparable with fibers like jute, kenaf, banana, bamboo, and superior to sisal and coir. While fineness, or fiber denier, ranges from 97.55 to 169.69 deniers, which is comparable to ramie, banana, and superior to sisal and coir fibers. In terms of tenacity, they range from 2.10 to 3.50 g/denier and are comparable to flax, kenaf, hemp, and PALF, exceeding that of jute, sisal, coir, and banana fibers. Furthermore, in terms of elongation, they outperform all of the listed fibers (with the exception of coir and bamboo) and therefore have excellent elasticity. This suggests that grapevine bark fibers are moderately fine, possess good tenacity, and exhibit outstanding elongation and elasticity in comparison to other natural cellulosic fibers. These properties would confer distinctive characteristics on the products manufactured with them.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePossible applications with grapevine bark fibers may include production of pure or blended yarn, as was done by using ramie and banana fibers, having similar fineness, by Soraisham et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). According to their study, blending banana and ramie fibers in various ratios can produce a fine blend yarn (213 tex) with a tenacity of 15.71 cN/text. Alternatively, their composites could be considered for applications in certain automobile parts where high impact strength is required. For example, banana fibers (having similar fineness) positively impacted the hardness (Guruswamy et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, due to properties like excellent length and strength, like that of flax, applications corresponding to those of flax, like in the automotive industry for reinforcement, in the production and development of hidden interior parts such as door panels, rear seat shells, rear shelves, and dashboards, or structural components such as floors, etc. (Li et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Liang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Martin et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), may be explored, in addition to usage in clothing and cigarette papers (Khan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, since the tenacity is also similar to that of hemp, multifiber composites with compatible adhesives may also be explored for varied usages. For example, Green Line is a manufacturer that specializes in the production of musical instrument cases by using hemp and flax to create composites with polylactic acid (PLA) and polypropylene (PP) and additives (Ngo \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Further, since grapevine bark fibers have a comparable tenacity to that of kenaf, they may also be utilized for ballistic applications, as composites of the latter were tested as a potential alternative to aramids and exhibited superior performance (Yahaya et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe fibers extracted from the grapevine core after wet pretreatment range from 52.5\u0026ndash;59.6 mm in length and 294.98-318.94 micrometers in diameter (comparable with coir and bamboo). While having a fineness or fiber denier in the range of 343.33-360.33 deniers, which is comparable to sisal and coir, as indicated in the table. Additionally, they are comparable with coir in terms of tenacity, with a range of 0.79\u0026ndash;1.13 grams per denier. Furthermore, with an elongation that ranges from 4.6\u0026ndash;4.7%, they surpass all of the listed fibers, with the exception of coir and bamboo.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGiven the coarse nature of the extracted core fibers, they may find use in a variety of applications, such as mat production, twine manufacturing, rope production, and other items commonly used in nautical Given the coarse nature of the extracted core fibers, they may find use in a variety of applications, such as mat production, twine manufacturing, rope production, and other items commonly used in nautical and agricultural sectors associated with sisal fibers that are inferior in all the aforementioned properties (Faruk et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Senthilkumar et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). It was observed composites could be considered for applications in certain automobile parts where high impact strength is required. For example, banana fibers (having similar fineness) positively impacted the hardness (Guruswamy et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). According to Faruk et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) and Senthilkumar et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), sisal fibers, which are inferior in all the aforementioned properties, are associated with the agricultural sector. Similarly, production of trays, boxes, and other packaging supplies can be explored, as done by Enkev, a manufacturer that uses coir, a comparatively inferior fiber for integration of natural latex rubber to produce a variety of packaging material (Ngo \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, considering that coir fiber epoxy composites exhibited superior ballistic characteristics compared to Kevlar (Luz et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), grapevine core fibers might also be utilized for ballistic applications.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. CONCLUSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eGrapevine shoots, post-pruning, are an abundant agricultural residue with little economic value because they are mainly used as fuel or fertilizer. This study investigated the impact of dry and wet pre-treatment on the extraction and physical properties of novel lignocellulosic fibers from waste grapevine shoots (from bark as well as core). The use of wet pre-treatment required less chemical concentration and time for extraction; and resulted in improved fiber length, fineness, strength, and elongation compared to dry pre-treatment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn comparison to conventional fibers such as jute, flax, kenaf, hemp, ramie, sisal, and coir, the extracted fibers exhibited exceptional elongation, tenacity, and length properties, all while maintaining a moderate and comparable fineness. Such unique properties make them suitable for yarn and composite material production, potentially reducing greenhouse gas emissions associated with the decomposition of this otherwise agricultural waste. Overall, this study highlights the significance of Sustainable Development Goal 12's advocacy for responsible consumption and production practices.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBy turning agricultural waste into a valuable resource, we can help to build a more sustainable and resilient fiber sector while also addressing critical environmental and social concerns. Waste can be diverted from landfills by incorporating agro-waste into other applications, hence minimizing the industry's environmental impact. It also allows farmers to gain additional income from their waste products, thereby reducing wage disparities.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAuthor Contributions\u003c/b\u003e: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis and investigation, Writing - original draft preparation, review and editing: Princy Rana; Supervision: Prof. Sabina Sethi\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eEthical Approval:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study was granted exemption by Institutional Ethics Committee of Lady Irwin College (IEC_LIC Ref. No. 0006 on 27th August, 2022) since this study is purely laboratory based.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Participate:\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Publish:\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCompeting Interests:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAvailability of data and materials:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAshokkumar V, Venkatkarthick R, Jayashree S, Chuetor S, Dharmaraj S, Kumar G, Chen W, Ngamcharussrivichai C (2022) Recent advances in lignocellulosic biomass for biofuels and valueadded bioproductsA critical review. 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Renew Sustain Energy Rev 154(February):111871. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.111871\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.rser.2021.111871\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"info@researchsquare.com","identity":"environmental-science-and-pollution-research","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"espr","sideBox":"Learn more about [Environmental Science and Pollution Research](https://www.springer.com/journal/11356)","snPcode":"11356","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/11356/3","title":"Environmental Science and Pollution Research","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"agro waste fiber, grapevine fiber, sustainable fibre extraction, agricultural waste management, vineyard waste utilisation, novel lignocellulosic fiber, biodegradable fiber, eco fiber","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study focuses on \u003cem\u003eVitis vinifera\u003c/em\u003e (grape), one of the world's largest crops and an ancient dietary staple, for the development of novel biodegradable and sustainable fibers. Grapevine shoots, post-pruning, are an abundant agricultural residue with little economic value as they are mainly used as fuel or fertilizer. The prime objective of the study was to evaluate the effects of dry and wet pre-treatment on the extraction and physical properties of novel lignocellulosic fibers derived from both the bark and core of waste grapevine shoots, respectively. It was found that, as compared to the dry pre-treatment, extraction done after wet pre-treatment required lower chemical concentrations as well as time and still enhanced fiber length, fineness, strength, and elongation. Physical characterization showed that compared to traditional fibers including jute, flax, kenaf, hemp, ramie, sisal, and coir, these extracted fibers demonstrated superior elongation, tenacity, and length characteristics while maintaining a moderate and comparable fineness. These distinct features make them appropriate for potential manufacturing of yarn and composite materials. Furthermore, the valorization of this otherwise discarded agricultural waste into marketable goods would reduce greenhouse gas emissions associated with its decomposition.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Agricultural Waste to Potential High-Performance Fibers: Impact of Dry and Wet Pretreatment on Extraction and Properties of Novel Fibers from Grapevine Shoots.","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-12-02 07:11:53","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5423738/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Major Revision","date":"2025-02-14T16:51:01+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2024-11-16T08:57:03+00:00","index":0,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2024-11-15T12:43:03+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2024-11-13T04:14:52+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Environmental Science and Pollution Research","date":"2024-11-11T18:34:41+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"info@researchsquare.com","identity":"environmental-science-and-pollution-research","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"espr","sideBox":"Learn more about [Environmental Science and Pollution Research](https://www.springer.com/journal/11356)","snPcode":"11356","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/11356/3","title":"Environmental Science and Pollution Research","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"95e79c66-2fef-49e5-a6fc-79f739f06185","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 2nd, 2024","published":true,"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"in-revision","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-12-02 07:11:53","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5423738","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"identity":"rs-5423738","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"iwg5YVIabm0Oh4Q_cy70v","isFallback":false,"dynamicIds":[59267],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}</script><div hidden="" id="snipcart" data-api-key="ODA3NTlmNDUtYjRjNy00MzE2LTgzNmYtYjUwY2Y4MWFkOWRlNjM3MTQwMjI1MDM0NDU2MjEx"></div></body></html>