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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Several_liability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Several_liability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Several liability</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Several_liability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Joint_liability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Joint_liability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Joint liability</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Joint_liability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Joint_and_several_liability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Joint_and_several_liability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Joint and several liability</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Joint_and_several_liability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arguments_for_and_against_joint_and_several_liability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arguments_for_and_against_joint_and_several_liability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Arguments for and against joint and several liability</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arguments_for_and_against_joint_and_several_liability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Variations_from_common_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Variations_from_common_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Variations from common law</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Variations_from_common_law-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Variations from common law subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Variations_from_common_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Examples</span> </div> </a> <ul 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.sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1202158006">.mw-parser-output .law-sidebar .sidebar-heading{background:#aaddff;color:#000}.mw-parser-output .law-sidebar .sidebar-above{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .law-sidebar .sidebar-below{padding:0.4em;border-top:1px #aaa solid;font-weight:normal;font-size:smaller}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks plainlist law-sidebar"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">Common law</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contract_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Contract law">Contract law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tort_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Tort law">Tort law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">Property law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Will (law)">Wills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trusts_and_estates" class="mw-redirect" title="Trusts and estates">Trusts and estates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">Criminal law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_(law)" title="Evidence (law)">Evidence</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Common_law" title="Template:Common law"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Common_law" title="Template talk:Common law"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Common_law" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Common law"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Where two or more persons are <a href="/wiki/Legal_liability" title="Legal liability">liable</a> in respect of the same liability, in most <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> legal systems they may either be: </p> <ul><li>severally liable, or</li> <li>jointly liable, or</li> <li>jointly and severally liable.<sup id="cite_ref-prosser1_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-prosser1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Several_liability">Several liability</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joint_and_several_liability&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Several liability"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <b>several</b> or <b>proportionate liability</b>, parties are liable only for their own obligations.<sup id="cite_ref-nz_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nz-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><i><b>Example</b>: AnyBank and AnotherBank join as a <a href="/wiki/Syndicated_loan" title="Syndicated loan">syndicate</a> to lend to Credit-Hungry Industries, Inc. The agreement provides that each bank is severally liable for its own part of the loan. AnyBank fails to advance its agreed part of the loan: Credit-Hungry can sue only AnyBank, and AnotherBank has no liability.</i></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Joint_liability">Joint liability</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joint_and_several_liability&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Joint liability"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>If parties have <b>joint liability</b>, each of them is liable up to the full amount of the relevant <a href="/wiki/Law_of_obligations" title="Law of obligations">obligation</a>. </p> <dl><dd><i><b>Example</b>: Alex and Bobbie are married. Together they take a <a href="/wiki/Loan" title="Loan">loan</a> from a <a href="/wiki/Bank" title="Bank">bank</a> and the loan <a href="/wiki/Contract" title="Contract">agreement</a> specifies that they are to be jointly liable for the full amount. Alex moves overseas and ceases to make payments. The bank is entitled to sue Bobbie for the full amount.</i></dd></dl> <p>However the <a href="/wiki/Creditor" title="Creditor">creditor</a> has only one cause of action; i.e., they can sue for each debt only once. If the claim fails against one party, the bank cannot go on to sue any of the others. </p> <dl><dd><i><b>Example</b>: As the bank couldn't locate Alex, he wasn't served with the claim, and so only Bobbie was party to the action. The court gives judgment against her, but the bank finds she cannot pay. Even if Alex later returns to the jurisdiction, or with more vigorous efforts can be found overseas and served effectively, the bank cannot seek to recover anything from him: the claim has already been determined (it is "<a href="/wiki/Res_judicata" title="Res judicata">res judicata</a>").</i><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Joint_and_several_liability">Joint and several liability</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joint_and_several_liability&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Joint and several liability"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Under <b>joint and several liability</b> or (in the U.S.) <i>all sums</i>, a plaintiff (claimant) is entitled to claim an obligation incurred by any of the promisors from all of them jointly <i>and also</i> from each of them individually. Thus the plaintiff has more than one cause of action: if she pursues one promisor and he fails to pay the sum due, her action is not exhausted and she can pursue a second promisor, and so on. </p> <dl><dd><i><b>Example</b>: Annie leases a property to three students, Bertie, Charlie and Danny, who agree to be jointly and severally liable. Bertie disappears and ceases to pay his rent. Annie can sue each of Bertie, Charlie, and Danny separately ("severally") for the rent owning.</i></dd></dl> <p>As far as the promisee is concerned, each promisor is liable for all sums due from any of his co-promisors. However, as between themselves, any one of them who pays more than his fair share is entitled to recover it from the party who is 'really' liable.<sup id="cite_ref-nz_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nz-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Arguments_for_and_against_joint_and_several_liability">Arguments for and against joint and several liability</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joint_and_several_liability&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Arguments for and against joint and several liability"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In situations of contract, there is usually no controversy over joint and several liability: each party gets what they bargained for. But in <a href="/wiki/Tort" title="Tort">tort</a>, the common law position has sometimes been challenged. </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Plaintiff" title="Plaintiff">plaintiff</a> may recover all the <a href="/wiki/Damages" title="Damages">damages</a> from any of the <a href="/wiki/Defendant" title="Defendant">defendants</a> regardless of their individual share of the liability. The rule is often applied in <a href="/wiki/Negligence" title="Negligence">negligence</a> cases, though it is sometimes invoked in other areas of law. </p><p>The Law Commission of New Zealand summarises the issue nicely: </p> <dl><dd>"The issue primarily turns on who is the most appropriate party to bear the risk of non-recovery. Should it be the plaintiff, in which case a proportionate model will be a fairer or efficient model of allocating risk? Should it be the liable defendants, in which case joint and several liability will be an efficient way of allocating risk?"<sup id="cite_ref-nz_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nz-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>Joint and several liability is premised on the theory that the defendants are in the best position to apportion damages amongst themselves. Once liability has been established and damages awarded, the defendants are free to litigate amongst themselves to better divide liability. The plaintiff no longer needs to be involved in the litigation and can avoid the cost of continuing litigation.<sup id="cite_ref-nz_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nz-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>As each defendant has contributed to a single result, the injury of the plaintiff, although there may be differences in the character or scope of their duties, it may be argued that their joint contribution to the single result prevents any reasonable division of the damages.<sup id="cite_ref-prosser1_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-prosser1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Although one defendant may end up paying more than that defendant <a href="/wiki/Tortfeasor" class="mw-redirect" title="Tortfeasor">tortfeasor</a>'s proportionate share of the damages, it is nonetheless thought that it is better for a culpable defendant to overpay that defendant's share of the damages than for the injured plaintiff to be undercompensated for the injury.</li></ul> <p>Where a financially wealthy party can be named or <a href="/wiki/Joinder" title="Joinder">joined</a> as a defendant, a plaintiff has a greater chance of recovering damages than when the defendants have very limited economic resources or are financially insolvent, or "<a href="/wiki/Judgment_proof" title="Judgment proof">judgment-proof</a>". Opponents of the principle of joint and several liability argue that its use is unfair to many defendants.<sup id="cite_ref-nz_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nz-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Joint and several liability will lead to cases in which a party who has a very small share of the responsibility for a plaintiff's injury may unfairly shoulder the burden of paying all of the damages.</li> <li>When defendants may be held jointly liable, the plaintiff may seek out a defendant with considerable resources ("deep pockets") to add to a case, hoping that the defendant will be found to be even 1% to 2% liable for the injury and thus be obligated to pay the entire judgment.</li></ul> <p>For example, where an uninsured drunk driver causes an accident that results in injury, the plaintiff may sue an additional defendant, along with the drunk driver, such as suing the state highway department alleging that a highway defect contributed to the accident, hoping that the additional defendant will be found partly responsible. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Variations_from_common_law">Variations from common law</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joint_and_several_liability&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Variations from common law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, 46 of the 50 <a href="/wiki/U.S._states" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. states">states</a> have a rule of joint and several liability, although in response to <a href="/wiki/Tort_reform" title="Tort reform">tort reform</a> efforts, some have limited the applicability of the rule. About two dozen have reformed the rule, with several (Alaska, Arizona, Kansas, Utah, Vermont, Oklahoma, and Wyoming) abolishing it. In some instances it is abolished except where the defendants "act in concert".<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some US jurisdictions have imposed limits on joint and several liability, but without completely abolishing that doctrine. For example, </p> <ul><li>In Ohio only defendants who are responsible for more than 50% of the tortious conduct can be held jointly and severally liable for economic losses. A defendant who bears responsibility for an injury but whose tortious conduct was less than 50% is only responsible for his or her share of the plaintiff's economic loss.<sup id="cite_ref-orc_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-orc-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Non-economic losses (such as pain and suffering or loss of companionship) can only be assigned proportionately.<sup id="cite_ref-orc_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-orc-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>California allows joint and several liability but only for economic damages.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Hawaii allows joint and several liability for all economic losses but only for non-economic losses when the underlying tort is intentional, related to environmental pollution or selected other classes.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Examples">Examples</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joint_and_several_liability&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>If Ann is struck by a car driven by Bob, who was served alcohol in Charlotte's bar (and the state has <a href="/wiki/Dramshop" class="mw-redirect" title="Dramshop">dramshop</a> laws), then both Bob and Charlotte's bar may be held jointly liable for Ann's injuries. If the <a href="/wiki/Jury" title="Jury">jury</a> determines Ann should be awarded $10 million and that Bob was 90% at fault and Charlotte's bar 10% at fault: </p> <ul><li>Under <i>several</i> or <i>proportionate</i> liability, Bob would have to pay $9 million (90% of $10 million) and Charlotte's bar would have to pay $1 million (10% of $10 million). If Bob does not have any money and is uninsured, Ann will only recover whatever sum(s) Charlotte's bar and/or her insurance provider are able to pay - up to the limit of any <a href="/wiki/Liability_insurance" title="Liability insurance">liability insurance</a> policy Charlotte may have (plus her own ability to pay, if any) <i>or</i> $1 million, whichever is <i>less</i>.</li> <li>Under <i>joint</i> liability, Ann may recover the full damages from <i>either</i> of the defendants. If Ann sued Charlotte's bar alone, Charlotte's bar would be liable for the full $10 million despite only being 10% at fault for the injury. If Charlotte's bar had an insurance policy with a liability limit of less than $10 million, the bar would remain liable for any amount over and above the policy limit. Charlotte would have to <a href="/wiki/Joinder" title="Joinder">join</a> Bob as defendant in Ann's suit against her.</li> <li>Under <i>joint and several</i> liability, if Charlotte's bar paid the full award of damages, Charlotte's bar could pursue a separate contribution action against Bob for $9 million. Regardless of the outcome of a contribution action, Charlotte's bar would remain liable to Ann for the full $10 million.</li></ul> <p>Joint and several liability can make a defendant liable for the full amount of damages suffered by a plaintiff even if that defendant bears only slight fault for the injury. For example, if a child is injured due to the negligence of a crossing guard employed by a school district, and a court finds the crossing guard to be 99% at fault for the child's injury and the school district to be only 1% at fault, the school district would be liable to pay 100% of the damages. In contrast, under several liability, if the crossing guard was unable to pay money toward the judgment the most that the injured child could recover would be 1% of the judgment from the school district. </p><p><br /> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Microfinance">Microfinance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joint_and_several_liability&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Microfinance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In trying to achieve its aim of alleviating poverty, <a href="/wiki/Microfinance" title="Microfinance">microfinance</a> often lends to group of poor, with each member of the group jointly liable. That means that each member is responsible for ensuring that all the other members of the group repay too. If one member fails to repay, the members of the group are also held in default. Joint liability solves the information and enforcement problems associated with <a href="/wiki/Credit_markets" class="mw-redirect" title="Credit markets">credit markets</a> by encouraging <a href="/wiki/Screening_(economics)" title="Screening (economics)">screening</a>, <a href="/wiki/Surveillance" title="Surveillance">monitoring</a>, <a href="/wiki/Costly_state_verification" title="Costly state verification">costly state verification</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Contract_enforcement&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Contract enforcement (page does not exist)">contract enforcement</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joint_and_several_liability&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_fault" class="mw-redirect" title="Comparative fault">Comparative fault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tort_reform" title="Tort reform">Tort reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solidary_obligations" title="Solidary obligations">Solidary obligations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">civil law</a> equivalent</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joint_and_several_liability&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-prosser1-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-prosser1_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-prosser1_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFProsser1936" class="citation journal cs1">Prosser, William J. (1936). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3757&context=californialawreview">"Joint Torts and Several Liability"</a>. <i>California Law Review</i>. <b>25</b> (4): 413–443. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3476762">10.2307/3476762</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3476762">3476762</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=California+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Joint+Torts+and+Several+Liability&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=413-443&rft.date=1936&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3476762&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3476762%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Prosser&rft.aufirst=William+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscholarship.law.berkeley.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D3757%26context%3Dcalifornialawreview&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoint+and+several+liability" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nz-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nz_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nz_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nz_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nz_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nz_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lawcom.govt.nz/assets/Publications/IssuesPapers/NZLC-IP32.pdf">"Review of joint and several liability. (Law Commission issues paper ; 32)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Review+of+joint+and+several+liability.+%28Law+Commission+issues+paper+%3B+32%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lawcom.govt.nz%2Fassets%2FPublications%2FIssuesPapers%2FNZLC-IP32.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoint+and+several+liability" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGottlieb1977" class="citation journal cs1">Gottlieb, Glenn M. (July 1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2405&context=californialawreview">"Res Judicata and Collateral Estoppel in the Law of Partnership"</a>. <i>California Law Review</i>. <b>65</b> (4): 863–885. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3480047">10.2307/3480047</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3480047">3480047</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=California+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Res+Judicata+and+Collateral+Estoppel+in+the+Law+of+Partnership&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=863-885&rft.date=1977-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3480047&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3480047%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Gottlieb&rft.aufirst=Glenn+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscholarship.law.berkeley.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D2405%26context%3Dcalifornialawreview&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoint+and+several+liability" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.heartland.org/sites/all/modules/custom/heartland_migration/files/pdfs/4934.pdf">The Rule of Joint and Several Liability</a>. <a href="/wiki/Heartland_Institute" title="Heartland Institute">Heartland Institute</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-orc-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-orc_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-orc_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://codes.ohio.gov/orc/2307.22v1">"Ohio Revised Code, Sec. 2307.22. Joint and several tort liability"</a>. <i>LAWriter</i>. Lawriter LLC<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LAWriter&rft.atitle=Ohio+Revised+Code%2C+Sec.+2307.22.+Joint+and+several+tort+liability.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcodes.ohio.gov%2Forc%2F2307.22v1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoint+and+several+liability" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/codes_displaySection.xhtml?sectionNum=1431.2.&lawCode=CIV">"California Civil Code, Sec. 1431.2. Several Liability for Non-economic Damages"</a>. <i>California Legislative Information</i>. California State Legislature<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=California+Legislative+Information&rft.atitle=California+Civil+Code%2C+Sec.+1431.2.+Several+Liability+for+Non-economic+Damages&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fleginfo.legislature.ca.gov%2Ffaces%2Fcodes_displaySection.xhtml%3FsectionNum%3D1431.2.%26lawCode%3DCIV&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoint+and+several+liability" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.capitol.hawaii.gov/hrscurrent/Vol13_Ch0601-0676/HRS0663/HRS_0663-.htm">"Hawaii Revised Statutes, Chapter 663, Tort Actions"</a>. <i>Hawaii State Legislature</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Hawaii+State+Legislature&rft.atitle=Hawaii+Revised+Statutes%2C+Chapter+663%2C+Tort+Actions&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.capitol.hawaii.gov%2Fhrscurrent%2FVol13_Ch0601-0676%2FHRS0663%2FHRS_0663-.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoint+and+several+liability" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArmendariz_de_Aghion,_Jonathan_Morduch2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Armendariz_de_Aghion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Armendariz de Aghion (page does not exist)">Armendariz de Aghion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Morduch" title="Jonathan Morduch">Jonathan Morduch</a> (2007). <i>The economics of microfinance</i>. <a href="/wiki/The_MIT_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="The MIT Press">The MIT Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-51201-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-51201-5"><bdi>978-0-262-51201-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+economics+of+microfinance&rft.pub=The+MIT+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-262-51201-5&rft.au=Armendariz+de+Aghion%2C+Jonathan+Morduch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoint+and+several+liability" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaitreesh_Ghatak,_Timothy_Guinnane1999" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Maitreesh_Ghatak" title="Maitreesh Ghatak">Maitreesh Ghatak</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Timothy_Guinnane&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Timothy Guinnane (page does not exist)">Timothy Guinnane</a> (1999). "The economics of lending with joint liability: theory and practice". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Development_Economics" title="Journal of Development Economics">Journal of Development Economics</a></i>. Vol. 60, no. 1. <a href="/wiki/Elsevier" title="Elsevier">Elsevier</a>. pp. 195–228. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-51201-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-51201-7"><bdi>0-262-51201-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Development+Economics&rft.atitle=The+economics+of+lending+with+joint+liability%3A+theory+and+practice&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=195-228&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-262-51201-7&rft.au=Maitreesh+Ghatak%2C+Timothy+Guinnane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoint+and+several+liability" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAshok_Rai,_Tomas_Sjostrom2004" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ashok_Rai" title="Ashok Rai">Ashok Rai</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tomas_Sjostrom&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tomas Sjostrom (page does not exist)">Tomas Sjostrom</a> (2004). "Is Grameen lending efficient? Repayment incentives and insurance in village economies". <i><a href="/wiki/Review_of_Economic_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Review of Economic Studies">Review of Economic Studies</a></i>. Vol. 71, no. 1. <a href="/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="John Wiley & Sons">John Wiley & Sons</a>. pp. 217–234.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Review+of+Economic+Studies&rft.atitle=Is+Grameen+lending+efficient%3F+Repayment+incentives+and+insurance+in+village+economies&rft.volume=71&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=217-234&rft.date=2004&rft.au=Ashok+Rai%2C+Tomas+Sjostrom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoint+and+several+liability" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joint_and_several_liability&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Joint and Several Liability: 50 U.S. State Survey <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wilsonelser.com/writable/files/Legal_Analysis/50_state-survey-joint-and-several-liability_mm4.pdf">PDF</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q682557#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00569406">Japan</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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