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id="toc-Persian_period_(538–332_BCE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Persian_period_(538–332_BCE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Persian period (538–332 BCE)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Persian_period_(538–332_BCE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hellenistic_period_(333–110_BCE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hellenistic_period_(333–110_BCE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Hellenistic period (333–110 BCE)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hellenistic_period_(333–110_BCE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Maccabean_Revolt_(167–141_BCE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maccabean_Revolt_(167–141_BCE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.1</span> <span>Maccabean Revolt (167–141 BCE)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maccabean_Revolt_(167–141_BCE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hasmonean_vassal_state_(140–110_BCE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hasmonean_vassal_state_(140–110_BCE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.2</span> <span>Hasmonean vassal state (140–110 BCE)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hasmonean_vassal_state_(140–110_BCE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hasmonean_period_(110–63_BCE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hasmonean_period_(110–63_BCE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Hasmonean period (110–63 BCE)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hasmonean_period_(110–63_BCE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hasmonean_civil_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hasmonean_civil_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.1</span> <span>Hasmonean civil war</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hasmonean_civil_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_Roman_period_(63_BCE–70_CE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Roman_period_(63_BCE–70_CE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Early Roman period (63 BCE–70 CE)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Roman_period_(63_BCE–70_CE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Herodian_dynasty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Herodian_dynasty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.1</span> <span>Herodian dynasty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Herodian_dynasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roman_Judaea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman_Judaea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.2</span> <span>Roman Judaea</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman_Judaea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_Jewish–Roman_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_Jewish–Roman_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.3</span> <span>First Jewish–Roman War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_Jewish–Roman_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Aftermath</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Religion</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Religion-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Religion subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Economy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Economy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Economy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Agriculture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agriculture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Agriculture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agriculture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Import_and_export" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Import_and_export"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Import and export</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Import_and_export-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Goods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Goods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Goods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Goods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Overview" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Overview"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Overview</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Overview-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aramaic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aramaic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Aramaic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aramaic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hebrew" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hebrew"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Hebrew</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hebrew-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Greek" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greek"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Greek</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greek-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Identity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Identity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Identity</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Identity-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Identity subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Identity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nationalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nationalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Nationalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nationalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jewish_identity_in_the_Diaspora" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jewish_identity_in_the_Diaspora"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Jewish identity in the Diaspora</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jewish_identity_in_the_Diaspora-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Demography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Demography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Demography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Demography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-By_area" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_area"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>By area</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-By_area-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Galilee" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Galilee"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.1</span> <span>Galilee</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Galilee-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Perea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Perea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.2</span> <span>Perea</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Perea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Idumaea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Idumaea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.3</span> <span>Idumaea</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Idumaea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Samaria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Samaria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.4</span> <span>Samaria</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Samaria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coastal_plain_(Paralia)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coastal_plain_(Paralia)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.5</span> <span>Coastal plain (Paralia)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coastal_plain_(Paralia)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Total_numbers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Total_numbers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Total numbers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Total_numbers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_Judaea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_Judaea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.1</span> <span>In Judaea</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_Judaea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Worldwide" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Worldwide"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.2</span> <span>Worldwide</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Worldwide-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Material_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Material_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Material culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Material_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Burial" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Burial"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Burial</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Burial-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Burial subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Burial-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Monumental_burial" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monumental_burial"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Monumental burial</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monumental_burial-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_Jerusalem" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_Jerusalem"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.1</span> <span>In Jerusalem</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_Jerusalem-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_rural_Judea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_rural_Judea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.2</span> <span>In rural Judea</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_rural_Judea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Second Temple period</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 15 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-15" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">15 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87%D9%8A%D9%83%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AB%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A" title="فترة الهيكل الثاني – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فترة الهيكل الثاني" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Per%C3%ADode_del_Segon_Temple" title="Període del Segon Temple – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Període del Segon Temple" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%BF%CE%B4%CE%BF%CF%82_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%94%CE%B5%CF%8D%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%9D%CE%B1%CE%BF%CF%8D" title="Περίοδος του Δεύτερου Ναού – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Περίοδος του Δεύτερου Ναού" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Per%C3%ADodo_del_Segundo_Templo" title="Período del Segundo Templo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Período del Segundo Templo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%87_%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%AF_%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%85" title="دوره معبد دوم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دوره معبد دوم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A9riode_du_Second_Temple" title="Période du Second Temple – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Période du Second Temple" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%9C2%EC%84%B1%EC%A0%84%EA%B8%B0" title="제2성전기 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="제2성전기" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periode_Bait_Suci_Kedua" title="Periode Bait Suci Kedua – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Periode Bait Suci Kedua" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodo_del_Secondo_Tempio" title="Periodo del Secondo Tempio – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Periodo del Secondo Tempio" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%AA_%D7%91%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%A9%D7%A0%D7%99" title="תקופת בית שני – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="תקופת בית שני" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanimpotoan%27_ny_Tempoly_Faharoa" title="Vanimpotoan' ny Tempoly Faharoa – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Vanimpotoan' ny Tempoly Faharoa" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/The_temple_menorah_on_the_Magdala_Stone_%28replica%29.png/220px-The_temple_menorah_on_the_Magdala_Stone_%28replica%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/The_temple_menorah_on_the_Magdala_Stone_%28replica%29.png/330px-The_temple_menorah_on_the_Magdala_Stone_%28replica%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/The_temple_menorah_on_the_Magdala_Stone_%28replica%29.png/440px-The_temple_menorah_on_the_Magdala_Stone_%28replica%29.png 2x" data-file-width="628" data-file-height="703" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Temple_menorah" title="Temple menorah">temple menorah</a> as depicted on the <a href="/wiki/Magdala_stone" title="Magdala stone">Magdala stone</a>, early 1st century CE</figcaption></figure> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Period in Jewish history, c. 516 BCE–70 CE</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks vcard hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Israel" title="Category:History of Israel">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_Israel" title="History of Israel">History of <span class="fn org label">Israel</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kotel_East_Jerusalem.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="The Western Wall, Jerusalem" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Kotel_East_Jerusalem.jpg/245px-Kotel_East_Jerusalem.jpg" decoding="async" width="245" height="74" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Kotel_East_Jerusalem.jpg/368px-Kotel_East_Jerusalem.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Kotel_East_Jerusalem.jpg/490px-Kotel_East_Jerusalem.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3684" data-file-height="1120" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:LightSteelBlue; white-space:nowrap; font-size:12.5px; text-align:left; border-top:solid 0px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Early history</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><b><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_the_Levant" title="Prehistory of the Levant">Prehistoric Levant</a></b> <small></small> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kebaran_culture" title="Kebaran culture">Kebaran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mushabian_culture" title="Mushabian culture">Mushabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natufian_culture" title="Natufian culture">Natufian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harifian_culture" title="Harifian culture">Harifian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yarmukian_culture" title="Yarmukian culture">Yarmukian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lodian_culture" title="Lodian culture">Lodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nizzanim_culture" title="Nizzanim culture">Nizzanim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghassulian" title="Ghassulian">Ghassulian</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a></b> <small></small> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Retjenu" title="Retjenu">Retjenu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habiru" class="mw-redirect" title="Habiru">Habiru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shasu" title="Shasu">Shasu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Bronze_Age_collapse" title="Late Bronze Age collapse">Late Bronze Age collapse</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:LightSteelBlue; white-space:nowrap; font-size:12.5px; text-align:left; border-top:solid 0px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah" title="History of ancient Israel and Judah">Ancient Israel and Judah</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> Iron Age I <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Israelites" title="Israelites">Israelites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philistines" title="Philistines">Philistines</a></li></ul></li></ul></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 12th–10th centuries BCE</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(united_monarchy)" title="Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)">United Monarchy</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 10th century BCE</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(Samaria)" title="Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)">Kingdom of Israel</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 10th century BCE–720 BCE</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">Kingdom of Judah</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 10th century BCE–587 BCE</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Yehud_(Babylonian_province)" title="Yehud (Babylonian province)">Babylonian rule</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 587–538 BCE</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:LightSteelBlue; white-space:nowrap; font-size:12.5px; text-align:left; border-top:solid 0px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Second Temple period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Yehud_(Persian_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Yehud (Persian province)">Persian Yehud</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 538–333 BCE</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Coele-Syria" title="Coele-Syria">Hellenistic period</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 333–164 BCE</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_dynasty" title="Hasmonean dynasty">Hasmonean dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 164–37 BCE</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Herodian_dynasty" title="Herodian dynasty">Herodian dynasty</a> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Herodian_kingdom" title="Herodian kingdom">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian_tetrarchy" title="Herodian tetrarchy">Tetrarchy</a></li></ul></li></ul></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 37 BCE–6 CE</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Judaea_(Roman_province)" title="Judaea (Roman province)">Roman Judaea</a> <li>(<a href="/wiki/Jewish-Roman_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish-Roman Wars">Jewish-Roman Wars</a>)</li></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 6 CE–136 CE</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:LightSteelBlue; white-space:nowrap; font-size:12.5px; text-align:left; border-top:solid 0px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Late Antiquity and Middle Ages</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a> (<a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_period" title="Rabbinic period">Rabbinic period</a>)</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 70–638</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Syria_Palaestina" title="Syria Palaestina">Syria Palaestina</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 136–395</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_the_East" title="Diocese of the East">Byzantine Palaestina</a> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palaestina_Prima" title="Palaestina Prima">Prima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palaestina_Secunda" title="Palaestina Secunda">Secunda</a></li></ul></li></ul></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 395–638</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Bilad_a-Sham" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilad a-Sham">Early Islamic period</a> (<a href="/wiki/Jund_Filastin" title="Jund Filastin">Filastin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jund_al-Urdunn" title="Jund al-Urdunn">Urdunn</a>)</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 638–1099</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem" title="Kingdom of Jerusalem">Kingdom of Jerusalem</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1099–1291</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1174–1260</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate" title="Mamluk Sultanate">Mamluk Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1260–1517</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:LightSteelBlue; white-space:nowrap; font-size:12.5px; text-align:left; border-top:solid 0px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Modern history</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><b>Modern history</b> <small>(1517–1948)</small> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Syria" title="Ottoman Syria">Ottoman rule</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Damascus_Eyalet" title="Damascus Eyalet">Eyalet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutasarrifate_of_Jerusalem" title="Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem">Mutasarrifate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Yishuv" title="Old Yishuv">Old Yishuv</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupied_Enemy_Territory_Administration" title="Occupied Enemy Territory Administration">OETA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine" title="Mandatory Palestine">British Mandate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yishuv" title="Yishuv">Yishuv</a></li></ul></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Israel_(1948%E2%80%93present)" title="History of Israel (1948–present)">State of Israel</a></b> <small>(1948–present)</small> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Israeli_history" title="Timeline of Israeli history">Timeline</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_Israel" title="List of years in Israel">Years</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Israeli Declaration of Independence">Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict" title="Arab–Israeli conflict">Arab–Israeli conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austerity_in_Israel" title="Austerity in Israel">Austerity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silicon_Wadi" title="Silicon Wadi">Silicon Wadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Israel_proxy_conflict" title="Iran–Israel proxy conflict">Iran–Israel conflict</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:LightSteelBlue; white-space:nowrap; font-size:12.5px; text-align:left; border-top:solid 0px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">By topic</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartography_of_Palestine" title="Cartography of Palestine">Historical maps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_Palestine_(region)" title="Demographic history of Palestine (region)">Historical population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Travelogues_of_Palestine" title="Travelogues of Palestine">Historical literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic history of Israel">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_and_Judaism_in_the_Land_of_Israel" title="History of the Jews and Judaism in the Land of Israel">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jerusalem" title="History of Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Zionism" title="History of Zionism">Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_leaders_in_the_Land_of_Israel" title="List of Jewish leaders in the Land of Israel">Jewish leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_military_history" title="Jewish military history">Jewish warfare</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:LightSteelBlue; white-space:nowrap; font-size:12.5px; text-align:left; border-top:solid 0px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Related</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_history" title="Jewish history">Jewish history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yahwism" title="Yahwism">Yahwism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_calendar" title="Hebrew calendar">Hebrew calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_Israel" title="Archaeology of Israel">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Israeli_museums" title="List of Israeli museums">Museums</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/32px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="23" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/48px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/64px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="800" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Israel" title="Portal:Israel">Israel portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Israel" title="Template:History of Israel"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Israel" title="Template talk:History of Israel"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Israel" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Israel"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Second Temple period</b> or <b>post-exilic period</b> in <a href="/wiki/Jewish_history" title="Jewish history">Jewish history</a> denotes the approximately 600 years (516 BCE – 70 CE) during which the <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple" title="Second Temple">Second Temple</a> stood in the city of <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>. It began with the <a href="/wiki/Return_to_Zion" title="Return to Zion">return to Zion</a> and subsequent reconstruction of the <a href="/wiki/Temple_in_Jerusalem" title="Temple in Jerusalem">Temple in Jerusalem</a>, and ended with the <a href="/wiki/First_Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_War" title="First Jewish–Roman War">First Jewish–Roman War</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(70_CE)" title="Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)">Roman siege of Jerusalem</a>. </p><p>In 587/586 BCE, the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a> conquered the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">Kingdom of Judah</a>; the Judeans lost their independence upon the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(587_BC)" title="Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC)">Babylonian siege of Jerusalem</a>, during which the <a href="/wiki/Solomon%27s_Temple" title="Solomon's Temple">First Temple</a> was destroyed. After the Babylonians <a href="/wiki/Yehud_(Babylonian_province)" title="Yehud (Babylonian province)">annexed Judah as a province</a>, part of the subjugated populace was <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_captivity" title="Babylonian captivity">exiled to Babylon</a>. This exilic period lasted for nearly five decades, ending after the Neo-Babylonian Empire itself was conquered by the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Persian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaemenid Persian Empire">Achaemenid Persian Empire</a>, which annexed Babylonian territorial possessions after the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Babylon" title="Fall of Babylon">fall of Babylon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Soon after the conquest, Persian king <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus the Great</a> issued a proclamation known as the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Cyrus" title="Edict of Cyrus">Edict of Cyrus</a>, encouraging the exiles to return to their homeland after the Persians raised it as an <a href="/wiki/Yehud_(Persian_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Yehud (Persian province)">autonomous Jewish-governed province</a>. Under the Persians (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 539–332 BCE</span>), the returned Jewish population restored the city and rebuilt the Temple in Jerusalem. In 332 BCE, the Achaemenid Empire fell to <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>, and the region was later incorporated into the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic Kingdom</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 301–200 BCE</span>) and the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 200–167 BCE</span>). </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Maccabean_Revolt" title="Maccabean Revolt">Maccabean Revolt</a> against Seleucid rule led to the establishment of a nominally independent Jewish kingdom under the <a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_dynasty" title="Hasmonean dynasty">Hasmonean dynasty</a> (140–37 BCE). While it initially exercised governance semi-autonomously under Seleucid hegemony, the Hasmoneans' kingdom increasingly exercised total self-governance as it undertook military campaigns to push the weakening Seleucids out of the region, establishing itself as the last Jewish kingdom and preceding an almost 2000-year-long hiatus in <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_and_Judaism_in_the_Land_of_Israel" title="History of the Jews and Judaism in the Land of Israel">Jewish sovereignty in the Levant</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-auto1_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:22_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-auto_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 63 BCE, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> conquered the kingdom. In 37 BCE, the Romans appointed <a href="/wiki/Herod_the_Great" title="Herod the Great">Herod the Great</a> as king of <a href="/wiki/Herodian_Kingdom_of_Judea" class="mw-redirect" title="Herodian Kingdom of Judea">a vassal Judea</a>. In 6 CE, Judea was fully incorporated into the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Judaea_(Roman_province)" title="Judaea (Roman province)">province of Judaea</a>. Growing dissatisfaction with Roman rule and civil disturbances eventually led to the <a href="/wiki/First_Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_War" title="First Jewish–Roman War">First Jewish–Roman War</a> (66–73 CE), resulting in the destruction of Jerusalem and its Temple, which ended the Second Temple period. </p><p>As <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_Judaism" title="Second Temple Judaism">Second Temple Judaism</a> developed, multiple religious currents emerged and extensive cultural, religious, and political developments occurred. The <a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_Hebrew_Bible_canon" title="Development of the Hebrew Bible canon">development of the Hebrew Bible canon</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue">synagogue</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_eschatology" title="Jewish eschatology">Jewish eschatology</a> can be traced back to the Second Temple period. According to Jewish tradition, <a href="/wiki/Nevi%27im" title="Nevi'im">prophecy</a> ceased during the early Second Temple period; this left the Jews without their version of divine guidance when they felt most in need of support and direction.<sup id="cite_ref-Wheat2ndTemp_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wheat2ndTemp-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under Hellenistic rule, the growing influence of <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism" title="Hellenistic Judaism">Hellenism in Judaism</a> became a source of dissent for those Jews who clung to their <a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">monotheistic</a> faith; this was a major catalyst for the Maccabean revolt. In the latter years of the period, Jewish society was deeply polarized along ideological lines, and the sects of the <a href="/wiki/Pharisees" title="Pharisees">Pharisees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sadducees" title="Sadducees">Sadducees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Essenes" title="Essenes">Essenes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zealots" title="Zealots">Zealots</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_1st_century" title="Christianity in the 1st century">early Christianity</a> were formed. Important Jewish writings were also composed during the Second Temple period, including portions of the Hebrew Bible, such as the books of <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Ezra" title="Book of Ezra">Ezra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Nehemiah" title="Book of Nehemiah">Nehemiah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scroll_of_Esther" class="mw-redirect" title="Scroll of Esther">Esther</a> and <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Daniel" title="Book of Daniel">Daniel</a> and writings that are a part of the <a href="/wiki/Apocrypha" title="Apocrypha">Apocrypha</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Dead_Sea_Scrolls" title="Dead Sea Scrolls">Dead Sea Scrolls</a>. Among the major sources for the time period are the writings of <a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Books_of_the_Maccabees" title="Books of the Maccabees">Books of the Maccabees</a>, Greek and Roman writers and later <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_literature" title="Rabbinic literature">Rabbinic literature</a>. </p><p>The destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple in 70 CE is considered one of the most cataclysmic events in Jewish history.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The loss of mother-city and temple necessitated a reshaping of Jewish culture to ensure its survival. Judaism's Temple-based sects disappeared.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">Rabbinic Judaism</a>, centered around <a href="/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue">communal synagogue worship</a> and <a href="/wiki/Torah_study" title="Torah study">Torah study</a>, eventually evolved out of the Pharisaic school and became the mainstream form of the religion.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:5_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:8_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the same era, <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> <a href="/wiki/Split_of_early_Christianity_and_Judaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Split of early Christianity and Judaism">gradually separated from Judaism</a>, becoming a predominantly <a href="/wiki/Gentile" title="Gentile">Gentile</a> religion.<sup id="cite_ref-Klutz_2002_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Klutz_2002-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A few decades after the First Jewish-Roman War, the <a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt" title="Bar Kokhba revolt">Bar-Kokhba Revolt</a> (132–135 CE) erupted; its brutal suppression by the Romans further dwindled the Jewish population in Judea and enhanced the role of <a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Jewish diaspora</a>. During the ensuing <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_period" title="Rabbinic period">Rabbinic period</a>, the Jewish demographic center shifted to <a href="/wiki/Galilee" title="Galilee">Galilee</a>, where the <a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a> was compiled, and later to <a href="/wiki/Asoristan" title="Asoristan">Babylonia</a>, while smaller Jewish communities persisted across the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Temple_period&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Second_Temple_period" title="Timeline of the Second Temple period">Timeline of the Second Temple period</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Persian_period_(538–332_BCE)"><span id="Persian_period_.28538.E2.80.93332_BCE.29"></span>Persian period (538–332 BCE)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Temple_period&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Persian period (538–332 BCE)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Return_to_Zion" title="Return to Zion">Return to Zion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yehud_(Persian_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Yehud (Persian province)">Yehud (Persian province)</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:408px;max-width:408px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Illustrations by <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Dore" class="mw-redirect" title="Gustav Dore">Gustav Dore</a></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:109.Ezra_Reads_the_Law_to_the_People.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/109.Ezra_Reads_the_Law_to_the_People.jpg/200px-109.Ezra_Reads_the_Law_to_the_People.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/109.Ezra_Reads_the_Law_to_the_People.jpg/300px-109.Ezra_Reads_the_Law_to_the_People.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/109.Ezra_Reads_the_Law_to_the_People.jpg/400px-109.Ezra_Reads_the_Law_to_the_People.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2301" data-file-height="2907" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Ezra" title="Ezra">Ezra</a> Reads the Law to the People</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:108.Nehemiah_Views_the_Ruins_of_Jerusalem%27s_Walls.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/108.Nehemiah_Views_the_Ruins_of_Jerusalem%27s_Walls.jpg/200px-108.Nehemiah_Views_the_Ruins_of_Jerusalem%27s_Walls.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/108.Nehemiah_Views_the_Ruins_of_Jerusalem%27s_Walls.jpg/300px-108.Nehemiah_Views_the_Ruins_of_Jerusalem%27s_Walls.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/108.Nehemiah_Views_the_Ruins_of_Jerusalem%27s_Walls.jpg/400px-108.Nehemiah_Views_the_Ruins_of_Jerusalem%27s_Walls.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2351" data-file-height="2922" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Nehemiah" title="Nehemiah">Nehemiah</a> Views the Ruins of Jerusalem's Walls</div></div></div></div></div> <p>According to the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Ezra" title="Book of Ezra">Book of Ezra</a>, the Persian <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus the Great</a> ended the <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_exile" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonian exile">Babylonian exile</a> in 538 BCE,<sup id="cite_ref-rennert_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rennert-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the year after he captured Babylon.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The exile ended with the return under <a href="/wiki/Zerubbabel" title="Zerubbabel">Zerubbabel</a> the Prince (so-called because he was a descendant of the royal line of <a href="/wiki/David" title="David">David</a>) and Joshua the Priest (a descendant of the line of the former High Priests of the Temple) and their construction of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple" title="Second Temple">Second Temple</a> in the period 521–516 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-rennert_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rennert-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_Cylinder" title="Cyrus Cylinder">Cyrus Cylinder</a>, an ancient tablet on which is written a declaration in the name of Cyrus referring to restoration of temples and repatriation of exiled peoples, has often been taken as corroboration of the authenticity of the biblical decrees attributed to Cyrus,<sup id="cite_ref-Becking_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Becking-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but other scholars point out that the cylinder's text is specific to Babylon and Mesopotamia and makes no mention of Judah or Jerusalem.<sup id="cite_ref-Becking_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Becking-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Professor Lester L. Grabbe asserted that the "alleged decree of Cyrus" regarding Judah, "cannot be considered authentic", but that there was a "general policy of allowing deportees to return and to re-establish cult sites". He also stated that archaeology suggests that the return was a "trickle" taking place over decades, rather than a single event.<sup id="cite_ref-Grabbe355_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grabbe355-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Persians may have experimented initially with ruling Judah as a <a href="/wiki/Davidic_line" title="Davidic line">Davidic</a> <a href="/wiki/Client_state" title="Client state">client-kingdom</a> under descendants of <a href="/wiki/Jehoiachin" class="mw-redirect" title="Jehoiachin">Jehoiachin</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but by the mid–5th century BCE Judah had become in practice a <a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">theocracy</a>, ruled by hereditary <a href="/wiki/High_Priest_(Judaism)" class="mw-redirect" title="High Priest (Judaism)">High Priests</a><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a Persian-appointed governor, frequently Jewish, charged with keeping order and seeing that tribute was paid.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A second group of 5,000, led by <a href="/wiki/Ezra" title="Ezra">Ezra</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nehemiah" title="Nehemiah">Nehemiah</a>, returned to Judah in 456 BCE. The first was empowered by the Persian king to enforce the <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a>, the second had the status of governor and a royal mission to restore the walls of the city.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Bible mentions tension between the returnees and those who had remained in Judah, the former rebuffing the attempt of the "peoples of the land" to participate in the rebuilding of the Temple; this attitude was based partly on the exclusivism which the exiles had developed while in Babylon and, probably, partly on disputes over property.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The careers of Ezra and Nehemiah in the 5th century BCE were thus a kind of religious colonisation in reverse, an attempt by one of the many Jewish factions in Babylon to create a self-segregated, ritually pure society inspired by the prophesies of <a href="/wiki/Ezekiel" title="Ezekiel">Ezekiel</a> and his followers.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:JUDAEA,_Persian_Period._Anonymous._Circa_375-332_BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/JUDAEA%2C_Persian_Period._Anonymous._Circa_375-332_BCE.jpg/220px-JUDAEA%2C_Persian_Period._Anonymous._Circa_375-332_BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/JUDAEA%2C_Persian_Period._Anonymous._Circa_375-332_BCE.jpg/330px-JUDAEA%2C_Persian_Period._Anonymous._Circa_375-332_BCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/JUDAEA%2C_Persian_Period._Anonymous._Circa_375-332_BCE.jpg/440px-JUDAEA%2C_Persian_Period._Anonymous._Circa_375-332_BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="394" /></a><figcaption>Silver coin (<i><a href="/wiki/Gerah" title="Gerah">gerah</a></i>) minted in the Persian province of Yehud, dated <abbr>c.</abbr> 375-332 BCE. <i>Obv</i>: Bearded head wearing crown, possibly representing the Persian Great King. <i>Rev</i>: Falcon facing, head right, with wings spread; <a href="/wiki/Paleo-Hebrew_alphabet" title="Paleo-Hebrew alphabet">Paleo-Hebrew</a> <i>YHD</i> to right.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Persian era, and especially the period between 538 and 400 BCE, laid the foundations for the unified Judaic religion and the beginning of a scriptural canon.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The final <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a> is widely seen as a product of the Persian period (probably 450–350 BCE).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrei20016_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrei20016-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This consensus echoes a traditional Jewish view which gives Ezra a pivotal role in its promulgation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERomer20082_and_fn.3_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERomer20082_and_fn.3-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been suggested that <a href="/wiki/Darius_the_Great" title="Darius the Great">Darius</a>' reform of the empire's administrative structures, which included the collection, codification, and administration of local law codes, was the driving force behind the Jewish Torah's redaction.<sup id="cite_ref-blenkinsopp64_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-blenkinsopp64-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Yehud's population significantly decreased during the Persian era; it is likely that it never exceeded 30,000. This represents a 70% decrease when compared to the late First Temple period.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jerusalem's area was also smaller compared with the late First Temple period. The city shrank to its pre-eighth century BCE size, and its inhabited areas—the <a href="/wiki/City_of_David_(archaeological_site)" title="City of David (archaeological site)">City of David</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Temple_Mount" title="Temple Mount">Temple Mount</a>—had a population of around 1500. Together with the surrounding farms and unwalled settled areas, Jerusalem's population was around 3000 people. The rest of the population lived in small, unwalled towns and villages.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Israel of the Persian period consisted of descendants of the inhabitants of the former Kingdom of Judah, returnees from the Babylonian exile community, Mesopotamians who had joined them or had been exiled themselves to Samaria at a far earlier period, <a href="/wiki/Samaritans" title="Samaritans">Samaritans</a>, and others.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hellenistic_period_(333–110_BCE)"><span id="Hellenistic_period_.28333.E2.80.93110_BCE.29"></span>Hellenistic period (333–110 BCE)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Temple_period&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Hellenistic period (333–110 BCE)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coele-Syria" title="Coele-Syria">Coele-Syria</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marble_Head_of_Alexander_the_Great,_Beth_Shean,_2nd-1st_Century_BC_(28348265957).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Marble_Head_of_Alexander_the_Great%2C_Beth_Shean%2C_2nd-1st_Century_BC_%2828348265957%29.jpg/220px-Marble_Head_of_Alexander_the_Great%2C_Beth_Shean%2C_2nd-1st_Century_BC_%2828348265957%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Marble_Head_of_Alexander_the_Great%2C_Beth_Shean%2C_2nd-1st_Century_BC_%2828348265957%29.jpg/330px-Marble_Head_of_Alexander_the_Great%2C_Beth_Shean%2C_2nd-1st_Century_BC_%2828348265957%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Marble_Head_of_Alexander_the_Great%2C_Beth_Shean%2C_2nd-1st_Century_BC_%2828348265957%29.jpg/440px-Marble_Head_of_Alexander_the_Great%2C_Beth_Shean%2C_2nd-1st_Century_BC_%2828348265957%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="6000" /></a><figcaption>Marble bust of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>, discovered in <a href="/wiki/Beit_She%27an" title="Beit She'an">Beit She'an</a> (2nd or 1st century BCE)</figcaption></figure> <p>In 332 BCE, the region was conquered by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> of <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedon</a>, ushering in the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a>. After his death in 322 BCE, his generals <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great#Division_of_the_empire" title="Alexander the Great">divided the empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Judea" title="Judea">Judea</a> became a frontier region between the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic Egypt">Ptolemaic Egypt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under the Hellenistic kingdoms, Judea was ruled by the hereditary office of the <a href="/wiki/High_Priest_of_Israel" title="High Priest of Israel">High Priest of Israel</a> as a Hellenistic vassal.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the same time, <a href="/wiki/Hellenism_(Greek_culture)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenism (Greek culture)">Hellenism</a> gradually spread to varied degrees on all sides in the region through a variety of contacts, but especially as a result of the development of commerce and the arrival of Greek settlers.<sup id="cite_ref-:20_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:20-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Between 301 and 219 BCE the Ptolemies ruled Judea in relative peace.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jews often found themselves working in the Ptolemaic administration and army, which led to the rise of a Hellenized Jewish elite class (e.g. the <a href="/wiki/Tobiads" title="Tobiads">Tobiads</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-auto3_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto3-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This period also saw the rise of a <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism" title="Hellenistic Judaism">Hellenistic Judaism</a>, which first developed in the Jewish diaspora of Alexandria and Antioch, and then spread to Judea. The major literary product of this cultural syncretism is the <a href="/wiki/Septuagint" title="Septuagint">Septuagint</a> translation of the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a> from <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical Hebrew</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Aramaic" title="Biblical Aramaic">Biblical Aramaic</a> to <a href="/wiki/Koin%C3%A9_Greek" class="mw-redirect" title="Koiné Greek">Koiné Greek</a>. The reason for the production of this translation seems to be that many of the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Alexandria" title="History of the Jews in Alexandria">Alexandrian Jews</a> had lost the ability to speak Hebrew and Aramaic.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the turn of the 2nd-century BCE, a successful military campaign in <a href="/wiki/Coele-Syria" title="Coele-Syria">Coele-Syria</a> led by the Seleucid <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiochus III">Antiochus III</a> finally brought the region into the Seleucid empire, with Jerusalem falling under his control in 198 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-auto3_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto3-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Seleucids, like the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemies</a> before them, held a <a href="/wiki/Suzerainty" title="Suzerainty">suzerainty</a> over <a href="/wiki/Judea" title="Judea">Judea</a>: they respected Jewish culture and protected Jewish institutions.<sup id="cite_ref-Hengel_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hengel-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This policy was drastically reversed by <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiochus IV">Antiochus IV</a>, possibly due to a dispute over leadership of the Temple in Jerusalem and the office of <a href="/wiki/High_Priest_of_Israel" title="High Priest of Israel">High Priest</a> or a revolt whose nature was lost to time. Antiochus IV issued decrees forbidding many traditional Jewish practices and began a campaign of persecution against devout Jews. This triggered a revolt against his rule, the <a href="/wiki/Maccabean_Revolt" title="Maccabean Revolt">Maccabean Revolt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hengel_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hengel-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These decrees were a departure from typical Seleucid practice, which did not attempt to suppress local religions in their empire.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scholars of <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_Judaism" title="Second Temple Judaism">Second Temple Judaism</a> sometimes refer to Antiochus' reign as the 'Antiochene crises' for the Jews,<sup id="cite_ref-Stuckenbruck_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stuckenbruck-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and as a period of civil war between Hellenized and orthodox forms of Judaism.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-simpletoremember_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-simpletoremember-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Maccabean_Revolt_(167–141_BCE)"><span id="Maccabean_Revolt_.28167.E2.80.93141_BCE.29"></span>Maccabean Revolt (167–141 BCE)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Temple_period&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Maccabean Revolt (167–141 BCE)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Maccabean_Revolt" title="Maccabean Revolt">Maccabean Revolt</a></div> <p>According to <a href="/wiki/1_Maccabees" title="1 Maccabees">1 Maccabees</a>, <a href="/wiki/2_Maccabees" title="2 Maccabees">2 Maccabees</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Flavius_Josephus" class="mw-redirect" title="Flavius Josephus">Josephus</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Seleucid Emperor <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiochus IV">Antiochus IV</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 175–164</span>) moved to assert strict control over the Seleucid <a href="/wiki/Satrapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Satrapy">satrapy</a> of <a href="/wiki/Coele_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Coele Syria">Coele Syria</a> and Phoenicia<sup id="cite_ref-oxfordbibliographies.com_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oxfordbibliographies.com-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> after his successful invasion of Ptolemaic Egypt (170 to 168 BCE) was turned back by the intervention of the Roman Republic.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He sacked <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> and the Temple, suppressing Jewish and Samaritan religious and cultural observances,<sup id="cite_ref-oxfordbibliographies.com_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oxfordbibliographies.com-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kasher_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kasher-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and imposed <a href="/wiki/Hellenization" title="Hellenization">Hellenistic practices</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 168-167 BCE).<sup id="cite_ref-Kasher_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kasher-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Antiochus' actions enraged the elites but also the rural population, who had remained mostly untouched by Hellenism. In 167 BCE, <a href="/wiki/Mattathias" title="Mattathias">Mattathias</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_dynasty" title="Hasmonean dynasty">Hasmonean</a>-lineage Jewish priest, killed a Jew in his hometown <a href="/wiki/Modi%27in_(ancient_city)" title="Modi'in (ancient city)">Modi'in</a> who stepped forward to offer sacrifice to the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Greek gods</a>; he then killed a Seleucid official who ordered the sacrifice. According to <a href="/wiki/1_Maccabees" title="1 Maccabees">1 Maccabees</a>, he declared, "Let everyone who is zealous for the law and supports the covenant come out with me!",<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and fled with his sons and followers to the wilderness of Judea. These events signaled the start of the <a href="/wiki/Maccabean_Revolt" title="Maccabean Revolt">Maccabean Revolt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When Mattathias died, his son <a href="/wiki/Judas_Maccabeus" title="Judas Maccabeus">Judas Maccabeus</a> took over as leader of the revolt. He used <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">guerrilla tactics</a> to defeat several small Seleucid armies while Antiochus IV was fighting a war in the east. The conflict was heavily religiously charged because, in order to distinguish themselves from their Jewish opponents, the Maccabees presented themselves as radical Jews and carried out large-scale forced <a href="/wiki/Brit_milah" title="Brit milah">circumcisions</a>. Judas eventually succeeded in capturing Jerusalem and purifying the allegedly desecrated temple.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This event is commemorated by the Jewish festival of <a href="/wiki/Hanukkah" title="Hanukkah">Hannukkah</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Maccabean cause was aided further in 164 BCE when Antiochus IV died and his generals fought over guardianship of his young son <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_V_Eupator" title="Antiochus V Eupator">Antiochus V</a>; this turmoil ended when Antiochus IV's nephew, <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_I_Soter" title="Demetrius I Soter">Demetrios I</a>, returned from exile in Rome, deposed Antiochus V, and ascended to the Seleucid throne. Demetrios continued the war against the Maccabees and backed their Jewish opponents. Around this time Judas was able to make a treaty with the Romans. Around 161 BCE, a Roman–Jewish Treaty was signed. In 160 BCE, the Seleucid general <a href="/wiki/Bacchides_(general)" title="Bacchides (general)">Bacchides</a> defeated the Maccabees at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Elasa" title="Battle of Elasa">Battle of Elasa</a> in 160 BCE; Judas' death during the battle dealt a blow to the rebels.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After Judas died, his brother <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Apphus" title="Jonathan Apphus">Jonathan Apphus</a> took over as the leader of the revolt. He benefited from another internal Seleucid struggle between King <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_I_Soter" title="Demetrius I Soter">Demetrius I Soter</a> and an usurper, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Balas" title="Alexander Balas">Alexander Balas</a>. Both turned to Jonathan, attempting to win him over with concessions, and Alexander Balas even elevated him to the position of high priest. Alexander Balas was eventually able to assert himself, but he was quickly defeated by Demetrios' son <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_II_Nicator" title="Demetrius II Nicator">Demetrios II</a>. The battle for the throne was now between him and the general <a href="/wiki/Diodotus_Tryphon" title="Diodotus Tryphon">Diodotos Tryphon</a>, which strengthened Jonathan's position even more. This did not change when Tryphon was able to capture and murder Jonathan in <a href="/wiki/Acre,_Israel" title="Acre, Israel">Acre</a> through treachery.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 142 BCE, <a href="/wiki/Simon_Thassi" title="Simon Thassi">Simon Thassi</a>, the last of Mattathias' sons, took over as rebellion leader and high priest. He was eventually successful in destroying the <a href="/wiki/Acra_(fortress)" title="Acra (fortress)">Acra</a>, a fortified complex in Jerusalem that was the last symbol of Seleucid rule in Judea.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hasmonean_vassal_state_(140–110_BCE)"><span id="Hasmonean_vassal_state_.28140.E2.80.93110_BCE.29"></span>Hasmonean vassal state (140–110 BCE)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Temple_period&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Hasmonean vassal state (140–110 BCE)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_dynasty" title="Hasmonean dynasty">Hasmonean dynasty</a></div> <p>After Simon was assassinated and replaced by his son <a href="/wiki/John_Hyrcanus" title="John Hyrcanus">John Hyrcanus I</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 134–104 BCE</span>), <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_VII_Sidetes" title="Antiochus VII Sidetes">Antiochus VII</a> led a large army into Judea, forcing Hyrcanus to surrender as a vassal ruler in Jerusalem after a two-year siege. However, following Antiochus' death in the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid%E2%80%93Parthian_Wars" title="Seleucid–Parthian Wars">Seleucid-Parthian Wars</a> in 129 BCE, the Seleucids were soon too weak to pursue an active policy outside of <a href="/wiki/Coele-Syria" title="Coele-Syria">Syria</a>; Hyrcanus was relieved of his burden,<sup id="cite_ref-:03_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> establishing the now de facto independent Hasmonean state of Judea, minting coins for the first time, and doubling the state's territory. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hasmonean_period_(110–63_BCE)"><span id="Hasmonean_period_.28110.E2.80.9363_BCE.29"></span>Hasmonean period (110–63 BCE)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Temple_period&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Hasmonean period (110–63 BCE)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_dynasty" title="Hasmonean dynasty">Hasmonean dynasty</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D7%A9%D7%91%D7%A8_%D7%A7%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%AA_%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%98%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%9E%D7%94%D7%AA%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%97%D7%A9%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%90%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%95%D7%A2%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%95_%D7%94%D7%9B%D7%99%D7%AA%D7%95%D7%91_%D7%94%D7%A8%D7%A7%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/%D7%A9%D7%91%D7%A8_%D7%A7%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%AA_%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%98%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%9E%D7%94%D7%AA%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%97%D7%A9%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%90%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%95%D7%A2%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%95_%D7%94%D7%9B%D7%99%D7%AA%D7%95%D7%91_%D7%94%D7%A8%D7%A7%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A1.jpg/220px-%D7%A9%D7%91%D7%A8_%D7%A7%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%AA_%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%98%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%9E%D7%94%D7%AA%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%97%D7%A9%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%90%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%95%D7%A2%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%95_%D7%94%D7%9B%D7%99%D7%AA%D7%95%D7%91_%D7%94%D7%A8%D7%A7%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/%D7%A9%D7%91%D7%A8_%D7%A7%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%AA_%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%98%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%9E%D7%94%D7%AA%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%97%D7%A9%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%90%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%95%D7%A2%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%95_%D7%94%D7%9B%D7%99%D7%AA%D7%95%D7%91_%D7%94%D7%A8%D7%A7%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A1.jpg/330px-%D7%A9%D7%91%D7%A8_%D7%A7%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%AA_%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%98%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%9E%D7%94%D7%AA%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%97%D7%A9%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%90%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%95%D7%A2%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%95_%D7%94%D7%9B%D7%99%D7%AA%D7%95%D7%91_%D7%94%D7%A8%D7%A7%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/%D7%A9%D7%91%D7%A8_%D7%A7%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%AA_%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%98%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%9E%D7%94%D7%AA%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%97%D7%A9%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%90%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%95%D7%A2%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%95_%D7%94%D7%9B%D7%99%D7%AA%D7%95%D7%91_%D7%94%D7%A8%D7%A7%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A1.jpg/440px-%D7%A9%D7%91%D7%A8_%D7%A7%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%AA_%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%98%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%9E%D7%94%D7%AA%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%97%D7%A9%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%90%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%95%D7%A2%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%95_%D7%94%D7%9B%D7%99%D7%AA%D7%95%D7%91_%D7%94%D7%A8%D7%A7%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="970" data-file-height="1176" /></a><figcaption>Stone bowl fragment with the name “Hyrcanus,” which was discovered in the <a href="/wiki/Givati_Parking_Lot_dig" title="Givati Parking Lot dig">Givati Parking Lot</a>, Jerusalem</figcaption></figure> <p>Around 110 BCE, Hyrcanus launched an invasion of <a href="/wiki/Transjordan_(region)" title="Transjordan (region)">Transjordan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SmithFuller20042_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SmithFuller20042-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His army laid siege to the city of <a href="/wiki/Medeba" class="mw-redirect" title="Medeba">Medeba</a> and took it after a six-month siege. After this victory, he turned north and invaded <a href="/wiki/Samaria" title="Samaria">Samaria</a>, which had long separated Judea from Jewish settlements in Galilee.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Shechem" title="Shechem">Shechem</a> was reduced to a village and the <a href="/wiki/Samaritans" title="Samaritans">Samaritan</a> Temple on <a href="/wiki/Mount_Gerizim" title="Mount Gerizim">Mount Gerizim</a> was destroyed.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Berlin_20112_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Berlin_20112-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Archaeological evidence places these events between 111 and 110 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hyrcanus also launched a military campaign in <a href="/wiki/Idumea" class="mw-redirect" title="Idumea">Idumea</a>, capturing Marisa and Adora. The <a href="/wiki/Idumea" class="mw-redirect" title="Idumea">Idumeans</a> <a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion" title="Forced conversion">were forced</a> to convert to Judaism, by threat of exile or death, depending on the source.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the death of Hyrcanus, his son <a href="/wiki/Aristobulus_I" title="Aristobulus I">Aristobulus I</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 104–103 BCE</span>) assumed the title of king for the first time and combined it with the office of high priest. People were now more open to Hellenistic influences that had been demonized as un-Jewish during the war; the Hasmonean kingship bore clear Hellenistic monarchy traits, but combined these with theocratic elements.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aristobulus conquered and annexed <a href="/wiki/Galilee" title="Galilee">Galilee</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:22_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:03_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Galilee, which had previously been sparsely inhabited, mostly by pagan populations, but also by Jewish communities, experienced an influx of Jewish settlement following these conquests.<sup id="cite_ref-:04_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:04-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Josephus writes that he had also subjugated and Judaized <a href="/wiki/Iturea" title="Iturea">Iturea</a>, but this claim is not supported by archeological evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:07_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:07-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hasmonean_kingdom.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Hasmonean_kingdom.jpg/220px-Hasmonean_kingdom.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="281" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Hasmonean_kingdom.jpg/330px-Hasmonean_kingdom.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Hasmonean_kingdom.jpg/440px-Hasmonean_kingdom.jpg 2x" data-file-width="619" data-file-height="790" /></a><figcaption>Map of the <a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_dynasty" title="Hasmonean dynasty">Hasmonean kingdom</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Jannaeus" title="Alexander Jannaeus">Alexander Jannaeus</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 103–76 BCE</span>) waged a series of <a href="/wiki/Expansionism" title="Expansionism">expansionist</a> wars, primarily against the Hellenistic cities surrounding Judea. Unlike his predecessors, who were focused on the concentration of the Jewish population in one country, his military efforts were motivated by a desire to control key economic points such as ports and trade routes. On the same time, he carried on his predecessors' conversion policy, and destroyed <a href="/wiki/Pella,_Jordan" title="Pella, Jordan">Pella</a> because its inhabitants refused to convert. During his reign, the Hasmonean kingdom expanded to its greatest extent, now including the coastal plain, the northern Negev, and western parts of Transjordan.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-auto1_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:22_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jannaeus' dual role as king and high priest, his inclination towards the <a href="/wiki/Sadducees" title="Sadducees">Sadducees</a>, the high cost of the wars in both money and lives threatened the governmental balance and sparked opposition to his rule, resulting in the <a href="/wiki/Judean_Civil_War" title="Judean Civil War">Judean Civil War</a>, which Jannaeus brutally suppressed. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Salome_Alexandra" title="Salome Alexandra">Salome Alexandra</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 76–67 BCE</span>), Jannaeus' widow, ascended to power following her husband's death. Under her rule, the priesthood was separated from the other powers of government for the first time since the rise of the Hasmoneans. Salome appointed her son, <a href="/wiki/Hyrcanus_II" title="Hyrcanus II">Hyrcanus II</a>, as high priest and his brother, <a href="/wiki/Aristobulus_II" title="Aristobulus II">Aristobulus II</a>, as army commander, and pursued a moderate, mostly defensive policy that included the formation of a large and deterring army. Her nine-year reign is described as one of peace and economic prosperity, during which the country recovered from wars. The queen clearly supported the <a href="/wiki/Pharisees" title="Pharisees">Pharisees</a>, even allowing them to persecute and punish the Sadducees. Her rule had a distinct Hellenistic flavor, as there was no tradition of female rule in Judea. </p><p>Hasmonean kings attempted to revive the Judah described in the Bible: a Jewish monarchy ruled from Jerusalem and including all territories once ruled by David and Solomon. In order to carry out this project, the <a href="/wiki/Hasmonean" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasmonean">Hasmoneans</a> forcibly converted neighbor nations to Judaism.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some scholars argue that the Hasmonean dynasty institutionalized the final <a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_Hebrew_Bible_canon" title="Development of the Hebrew Bible canon">Jewish biblical canon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hasmonean_civil_war">Hasmonean civil war</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Temple_period&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Hasmonean civil war"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasmonean Civil War">Hasmonean Civil War</a></div> <p>After Salome Alexander died in 67 BCE, <a href="/wiki/Hyrcanus_II" title="Hyrcanus II">Hyrcanus II</a>, her older son, was entitled to assume the throne and was already acting as high priest. However, <a href="/wiki/Aristobulus_II" title="Aristobulus II">Aristobulus II</a>, her younger son, was more energetic and determined to become king. Aristobulus gathered an army to attack Jerusalem, forcing Hyrcanus to abdicate the crown. The abdication was formally carried out in the temple, and Aristobulus' son, Alexander, married Hyrcanus' daughter, Alexandra. However, <a href="/wiki/Antipater_the_Idumaean" title="Antipater the Idumaean">Antipater</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Edom" title="Edom">Edomite</a> noble who served as Hyrcanus' advisor, convinced him that giving up the throne was a mistake that needed to be undone. Along with <a href="/wiki/Aretas_III" title="Aretas III">Aretas III</a>, king of the <a href="/wiki/Nabataeans" title="Nabataeans">Nabateans</a>, these two formed an alliance and together they attacked and besieged Jerusalem. </p><p>During the same period, Roman general <a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a> was in the midst of a campaign in the Eastern Mediterranean. After defeating <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_VI_Eupator" title="Mithridates VI Eupator">Mithridates VI</a> of Pontus, Pompey conquered the Seleucid Kingdom, which became a Roman province called <a href="/wiki/Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">Syria</a>. The warrying brothers, who saw a mighty army camped near them, appealed to Pompey to decide between them. Three delegations then appeared before Pompey: one sent by Aristobulus, one sent by Hyrcanus, and another from "the people" who demanded to abolish the Hasmonean dynasty, which had transformed the rule of the priests into the rule of kings. Pompey heard the delegations but refrained from deciding. Eventually, in 63 BCE, Pompey invaded Judea, <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(63_BC)" title="Siege of Jerusalem (63 BC)">conquered Jerusalem</a>, desecrated the <a href="/wiki/Holy_of_Holies" title="Holy of Holies">Holy of Holies</a>, imprisoned Aristobulus, and declared Hyrcanus an "<a href="/wiki/Ethnarch" title="Ethnarch">ethnarch</a>", a title inferior to the title "king". Judea then became a <a href="/wiki/Vassal_state" title="Vassal state">vassal kingdom</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Roman_period_(63_BCE–70_CE)"><span id="Early_Roman_period_.2863_BCE.E2.80.9370_CE.29"></span>Early Roman period (63 BCE–70 CE)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Temple_period&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Early Roman period (63 BCE–70 CE)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After Pompey's conquest of Judea in 63 BCE, <a href="/wiki/Hyrcanus_II" title="Hyrcanus II">Hyrcanus II</a> assumed the role of ethnarch; however, his advisor <a href="/wiki/Antipater_the_Idumaean" title="Antipater the Idumaean">Antipater</a> was ruler in practice and managed the kingdom's affairs. Some cities which were conquered by the Hasmoneans were removed from Judaean rule, including <a href="/wiki/Ashdod" title="Ashdod">Azotus</a>, Jaffa and <a href="/wiki/Samaria_(ancient_city)" title="Samaria (ancient city)">Samaria</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Beit_She%27an" title="Beit She'an">Scythopolis</a> and several cities in <a href="/wiki/Transjordan_(region)" title="Transjordan (region)">Transjordan</a>, which formed the semi-autonomous <a href="/wiki/Decapolis" title="Decapolis">Decapolis</a>. </p><p>Hyrcanus II's rule was unstable. <a href="/wiki/Alexander_of_Judaea" title="Alexander of Judaea">Alexander II</a>, Aristobulus II's son, raised a large army and seized Jerusalem, forcing Hyrcanus to leave the city. The Roman general <a href="/wiki/Aulus_Gabinius" title="Aulus Gabinius">Aulus Gabinius</a> invaded Judea in retaliation, sent Hyrcanus back to Jerusalem, and reinstated him as high priest. When <a href="/wiki/Caesar%27s_civil_war" title="Caesar's civil war">Caesar's civil war</a> broke out, <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> attempted to install Aristobulus on the throne; however, Aristobulus was poisoned, and his son Alexander, who was preparing to support him, was beheaded at <a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a> at the command of Pompey. Antipater and his sons <a href="/wiki/Phasael" title="Phasael">Phasael</a> and <a href="/wiki/Herod_the_Great" title="Herod the Great">Herod</a> gained status and power at the expense of the Hasmonean dynasty's waning power. </p><p>When the <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthians</a> invaded the area in 40 BCE, they installed <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_II_Mattathias" title="Antigonus II Mattathias">Antigonus II Mattathias</a>, Aristobulus II's youngest son, as king. Phasael committed suicide, and Hyrcanus II was taken as a prisoner to Babylon after having his ear severed in order to prevent him from ever acting as high priest again. Herod, who fled the Parthians, found his way to <a href="/wiki/Mark_Antony" title="Mark Antony">Mark Antony</a>, who then controlled the eastern part of the Roman Republic. In agreement with his co-ruler <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a>, who controlled the western part, the two decided to appoint Herod as king of Judaea, and sent him with an army to seize the throne. In 37 BCE, <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(37_BC)" title="Siege of Jerusalem (37 BC)">Jerusalem was taken after a siege</a>, and Antigonus was captured and executed. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Herodian_dynasty">Herodian dynasty</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Temple_period&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Herodian dynasty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Herodian_dynasty" title="Herodian dynasty">Herodian dynasty</a></div><p> In 37-36 BCE, <a href="/wiki/Herod_the_Great" title="Herod the Great">Herod the Great</a> was appointed king of the Jews by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Roman Senate</a>. The kingdom of Judea during his period is also referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Herodian_kingdom" title="Herodian kingdom">Herodian kingdom</a>. As a close and loyal ally to the Romans, Herod extended his rule as far as Arabia and the Hauran. Herod undertook many colossal building projects, including fully rebuilding the Second Temple and expanding the <a href="/wiki/Temple_Mount" title="Temple Mount">Temple Mount</a>, and founding <a href="/wiki/Caesarea_Maritima" title="Caesarea Maritima">Caesarea Maritima</a> as a major port city. Herod also constructed the enclosure around the <a href="/wiki/Cave_of_the_Patriarchs" title="Cave of the Patriarchs">Cave of the Patriarchs</a> in <a href="/wiki/Hebron" title="Hebron">Hebron</a>, the fortress at <a href="/wiki/Masada" title="Masada">Masada</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Herodium" title="Herodium">Herodium</a>. The Herodian kingdom under Herod experienced a period of growth and expansion. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"></p><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:192px;max-width:192px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:190px;max-width:190px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:92px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:19_Shrine_of_the_Book_005.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Reconstruction of Herod's Temple" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/19_Shrine_of_the_Book_005.jpg/188px-19_Shrine_of_the_Book_005.jpg" decoding="async" width="188" height="92" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/19_Shrine_of_the_Book_005.jpg/282px-19_Shrine_of_the_Book_005.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/19_Shrine_of_the_Book_005.jpg/376px-19_Shrine_of_the_Book_005.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3255" data-file-height="1601" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Reconstruction of <a href="/wiki/Herod%27s_Temple" class="mw-redirect" title="Herod's Temple">Herod's Temple</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Holyland_Model_of_Jerusalem" title="Holyland Model of Jerusalem">Holyland Model of Jerusalem</a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:190px;max-width:190px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:105px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Port of Caesarea Maritima" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94.jpg/188px-%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94.jpg" decoding="async" width="188" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94.jpg/282px-%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94.jpg/376px-%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5464" data-file-height="3070" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The port of <a href="/wiki/Caesarea_Maritima" title="Caesarea Maritima">Caesarea Maritima</a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:190px;max-width:190px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:141px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Herodium_(4684127772).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Herodium" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Herodium_%284684127772%29.jpg/188px-Herodium_%284684127772%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="188" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Herodium_%284684127772%29.jpg/282px-Herodium_%284684127772%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Herodium_%284684127772%29.jpg/376px-Herodium_%284684127772%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Herodium" title="Herodium">Herodium</a>, a palace fortress built by Herod</div></div></div></div></div><p>After Herod's death in 4 BCE, the kingdom was partitioned to several parts to each of his three sons (initially four parts), forming the <a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy_(Judea)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetrarchy (Judea)">Tetrarchy</a>. The central part of the Tetrarchy was given to <a href="/wiki/Herod_Archelaus" title="Herod Archelaus">Herod Archelaus</a>, including Judea proper, <a href="/wiki/Idumea" class="mw-redirect" title="Idumea">Idumea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Samaria" title="Samaria">Samaria</a>. Herod's death in 4 BCE caused the release of built up frustrations of the people who were suppressed by his brutality. Many people were impoverished because of Herod's high taxes and spending. When he died, his building projects that once allowed for job opportunities were stopped, and many people lost their jobs. This built up frustrations that ultimately contributed to the causes of the <a href="/wiki/First_Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_War" title="First Jewish–Roman War">First Jewish–Roman War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Roman_Judaea">Roman Judaea</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Temple_period&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Roman Judaea"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Judaea_(Roman_province)" title="Judaea (Roman province)">Judaea (Roman province)</a></div> <p>In 6 CE, the country fell into unrest, and the Herodian ruler of Judea was deposed in favor of forming the new <a href="/wiki/Iudaea_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Iudaea Province">Iudaea Province</a> under direct <a href="/wiki/Roman_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman empire">Roman</a> rule.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Roman province</a> of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Judaea" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Judaea">Judaea</a> extended over parts of the former regions of the <a href="/wiki/Hasmonean" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasmonean">Hasmonean</a> and <a href="/wiki/Herodian_kingdom" title="Herodian kingdom">Herodian kingdoms</a>. It was created in 6 CE with the <a href="/wiki/Census_of_Quirinius" title="Census of Quirinius">Census of Quirinius</a> and merged into <a href="/wiki/Syria_Palaestina" title="Syria Palaestina">Syria Palaestina</a> after 135 CE. </p><p>Jerusalem reached a peak in size and population during the late Second Temple period.<sup id="cite_ref-ERPplaces_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ERPplaces-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-HarEl68_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HarEl68-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The majority of scholars estimate that city's population at that time to have been between 70,000 and 100,000.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Herod_II" title="Herod II">Herod II</a> ruled <a href="/wiki/Ituraea" class="mw-redirect" title="Ituraea">Ituraea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trachonitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Trachonitis">Trachonitis</a> until his death in 34 CE when he was succeeded as tetrarch by <a href="/wiki/Herod_Agrippa_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Herod Agrippa I">Herod Agrippa I</a>, who had previously been ruler of <a href="/wiki/Chalcis" title="Chalcis">Chalcis</a>. Agrippa surrendered Chalcis to his brother Herod and ruled in Philip's stead. On the death of <a href="/wiki/Herod_Antipas" title="Herod Antipas">Herod Antipas</a> in 39 CE Herod Agrippa became ruler of <a href="/wiki/Galilee" title="Galilee">Galilee</a> also, and in 41 CE, as a mark of favour by the Emperor <a href="/wiki/Claudius" title="Claudius">Claudius</a>, succeeded the Roman prefect <a href="/wiki/Marullus_(prefect_of_Judea)" title="Marullus (prefect of Judea)">Marullus</a> as ruler of Judea. </p><p>The era from roughly 4 BCE to 33 CE is also notable as being the time period when <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus of Nazareth</a> should have lived, primarily in Galilee, under the reign of Herod Antipas. It is therefore considered in specifically Jewish history as being when <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> arose as a messianic sect from within Second Temple Judaism. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="First_Jewish–Roman_War"><span id="First_Jewish.E2.80.93Roman_War"></span>First Jewish–Roman War</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Temple_period&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: First Jewish–Roman War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/First_Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_War" title="First Jewish–Roman War">First Jewish–Roman War</a></div> <p>In 66 CE, the Jews of Judea rose in revolt against Rome, sparking the <a href="/wiki/First_Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_War" title="First Jewish–Roman War">First Jewish–Roman War</a> (66-73 CE), also known as the Great Jewish Revolt. <a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Flavius Josephus</a>, a contemporary Jewish historian who fought as the commander of Jewish forces in Galilee but later defected to the Roman side, chronicled the events of the war in his book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_War" title="The Jewish War">The Jewish War</a></i>. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:491px;max-width:491px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:167px;max-width:167px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:124px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D7%AA%D7%9C_%D7%99%D7%95%D7%93%D7%A4%D7%AA_%D7%95%D7%97%D7%A6%D7%91%D7%99%D7%9D.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/%D7%AA%D7%9C_%D7%99%D7%95%D7%93%D7%A4%D7%AA_%D7%95%D7%97%D7%A6%D7%91%D7%99%D7%9D.jpg/165px-%D7%AA%D7%9C_%D7%99%D7%95%D7%93%D7%A4%D7%AA_%D7%95%D7%97%D7%A6%D7%91%D7%99%D7%9D.jpg" decoding="async" width="165" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/%D7%AA%D7%9C_%D7%99%D7%95%D7%93%D7%A4%D7%AA_%D7%95%D7%97%D7%A6%D7%91%D7%99%D7%9D.jpg/248px-%D7%AA%D7%9C_%D7%99%D7%95%D7%93%D7%A4%D7%AA_%D7%95%D7%97%D7%A6%D7%91%D7%99%D7%9D.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/%D7%AA%D7%9C_%D7%99%D7%95%D7%93%D7%A4%D7%AA_%D7%95%D7%97%D7%A6%D7%91%D7%99%D7%9D.jpg/330px-%D7%AA%D7%9C_%D7%99%D7%95%D7%93%D7%A4%D7%AA_%D7%95%D7%97%D7%A6%D7%91%D7%99%D7%9D.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4608" data-file-height="3456" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:151px;max-width:151px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:124px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gamla_archaeology_site.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Gamla_archaeology_site.JPG/149px-Gamla_archaeology_site.JPG" decoding="async" width="149" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Gamla_archaeology_site.JPG/224px-Gamla_archaeology_site.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Gamla_archaeology_site.JPG/298px-Gamla_archaeology_site.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3290" data-file-height="2736" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:167px;max-width:167px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:124px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Davidson_Center_-_Jerusalem_Archaeological_Park_-_The_Western_Wall_overground_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Davidson_Center_-_Jerusalem_Archaeological_Park_-_The_Western_Wall_overground_2.jpg/165px-Davidson_Center_-_Jerusalem_Archaeological_Park_-_The_Western_Wall_overground_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="165" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Davidson_Center_-_Jerusalem_Archaeological_Park_-_The_Western_Wall_overground_2.jpg/248px-Davidson_Center_-_Jerusalem_Archaeological_Park_-_The_Western_Wall_overground_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Davidson_Center_-_Jerusalem_Archaeological_Park_-_The_Western_Wall_overground_2.jpg/330px-Davidson_Center_-_Jerusalem_Archaeological_Park_-_The_Western_Wall_overground_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4608" data-file-height="3456" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">The hill where ancient <a href="/wiki/Yodfat" title="Yodfat">Yodfat</a> stood (left); the ruins of <a href="/wiki/Gamla" title="Gamla">Gamla</a> (center); stone piles near the <a href="/wiki/Western_Wall" title="Western Wall">Western Wall</a> thought to have been thrown by Roman legionaries during the destruction of the Second Temple (right)</div></div></div></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Vespasian" title="Vespasian">Vespasian</a>, an experienced Roman general, was sent by emperor <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a> to crush the rebellion. He arrived at <a href="/wiki/Ptolemais_in_Phoenicia" title="Ptolemais in Phoenicia">Ptolemais</a> along with legions <a href="/wiki/Legio_X_Fretensis" title="Legio X Fretensis">X <i>Fretensis</i></a> and <a href="/wiki/Legio_V_Macedonica" title="Legio V Macedonica">V <i>Macedonica</i></a>. There he was joined by his son <a href="/wiki/Titus" title="Titus">Titus</a>, who arrived from <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> at the head of <a href="/wiki/Legio_XV_Apollinaris" title="Legio XV Apollinaris">Legio XV Apollinaris</a>, as well as by the armies of various local allies including that of king Agrippa II. During the <a href="/wiki/Galilee_campaign_(67)" title="Galilee campaign (67)">Galilee campaign</a>, many towns surrendered without a fight, and others were taken by force. <a href="/wiki/Yodfat" title="Yodfat">Yodfat</a>, a fortified town in the <a href="/wiki/Lower_Galilee" title="Lower Galilee">Lower Galilee</a>, was <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Yodfat" title="Siege of Yodfat">besieged for 47 days</a> before it fell to treachery; the city was razed, many people were killed, and the rest were enslaved. <a href="/wiki/Gamla" title="Gamla">Gamla</a>, the major Jewish stronghold in the <a href="/wiki/Golan_Heights" title="Golan Heights">Golan Heights</a>, fell after a one-month siege. Following a lull in military operations caused by <a href="/wiki/Year_of_the_Four_Emperors" title="Year of the Four Emperors">civil war and political turmoil in Rome</a>, Vespasian was summoned to Rome and appointed Emperor. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arch_of_Titus_Menorah.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Arch_of_Titus_Menorah.png/220px-Arch_of_Titus_Menorah.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Arch_of_Titus_Menorah.png/330px-Arch_of_Titus_Menorah.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Arch_of_Titus_Menorah.png/440px-Arch_of_Titus_Menorah.png 2x" data-file-width="1575" data-file-height="879" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Titus" title="Arch of Titus">Arch of Titus</a> in <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> depicts the <a href="/wiki/Roman_triumph" title="Roman triumph">Roman triumph</a> celebrating the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(70_CE)" title="Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)">fall of Jerusalem</a>. The procession includes the <a href="/wiki/Temple_menorah" title="Temple menorah">Menorah</a> and other Second Temple vessels.</figcaption></figure> <p>In early 70 CE, Titus moved to besiege Jerusalem, the center of rebel resistance in Judaea. The city had been taken over by several rebel factions following <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_riots_of_66" title="Jerusalem riots of 66">a period of massive unrest</a> and the collapse of a <a href="/wiki/Judean_provisional_government_(66%E2%80%9368)" class="mw-redirect" title="Judean provisional government (66–68)">short-lived provisional government</a>. The first two walls of Jerusalem were breached in three weeks, but the Roman Army was unable to breach the third and thickest wall due to a stubborn rebel standoff. According to <a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a>, a contemporary historian and the main source for the war, the city was ravaged by murder, <a href="/wiki/Famine" title="Famine">famine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Human_cannibalism" title="Human cannibalism">cannibalism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On <a href="/wiki/Tisha_B%27Av" title="Tisha B'Av">Tisha B'Av</a>, 70 CE (August 30),<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roman forces finally overwhelmed the defenders and set fire to the Temple.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Resistance continued for another month, but eventually the upper and lower parts of the city were taken as well, and the city was burned to the ground. Titus spared only the three towers of the Herodian citadel as a testimony to the city's former might.<sup id="cite_ref-Rocca2008_p.51-52_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rocca2008_p.51-52-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Josephus wrote that over a million people perished in the siege and the subsequent fighting.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While contemporary studies dispute this figure, all agree that the siege had a major toll on human life, with many people being killed and enslaved, and large parts of the city destroyed. </p><p>After the fall of Jerusalem, Titus returned to Rome, leaving the remaining Jewish strongholds, including <a href="/wiki/Herodium" title="Herodium">Herodium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Machaerus" title="Machaerus">Machaerus</a>, to the Roman Legions. The war ended in 73-74 CE with the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Masada" title="Siege of Masada">siege of Masada</a>. According to Josephus, the siege resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Mass_suicide" title="Mass suicide">mass suicide</a> of the Sicarii rebels and resident Jewish families, though the historicity of the mass suicide is debated. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D7%9E%D7%A6%D7%93%D7%94_%D7%91%D7%96%D7%9E%D7%9F_%D7%96%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%97%D7%94_-_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%94%D7%A6%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99_(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/%D7%9E%D7%A6%D7%93%D7%94_%D7%91%D7%96%D7%9E%D7%9F_%D7%96%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%97%D7%94_-_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%94%D7%A6%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99_%282%29.jpg/220px-%D7%9E%D7%A6%D7%93%D7%94_%D7%91%D7%96%D7%9E%D7%9F_%D7%96%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%97%D7%94_-_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%94%D7%A6%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99_%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/%D7%9E%D7%A6%D7%93%D7%94_%D7%91%D7%96%D7%9E%D7%9F_%D7%96%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%97%D7%94_-_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%94%D7%A6%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99_%282%29.jpg/330px-%D7%9E%D7%A6%D7%93%D7%94_%D7%91%D7%96%D7%9E%D7%9F_%D7%96%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%97%D7%94_-_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%94%D7%A6%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99_%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/%D7%9E%D7%A6%D7%93%D7%94_%D7%91%D7%96%D7%9E%D7%9F_%D7%96%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%97%D7%94_-_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%94%D7%A6%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99_%282%29.jpg/440px-%D7%9E%D7%A6%D7%93%D7%94_%D7%91%D7%96%D7%9E%D7%9F_%D7%96%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%97%D7%94_-_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%94%D7%A6%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99_%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1561" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>Aerial view of <a href="/wiki/Masada" title="Masada">Masada</a>, the last stronghold of the First Jewish-Roman War. The Roman siege ramp appears to the right.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Temple_period&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Aftermath"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_period" title="Rabbinic period">Rabbinic period</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt" title="Bar Kokhba revolt">Bar Kokhba revolt</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Roman Empire">History of the Jews in the Roman Empire</a></div> <p>The failure of the First Jewish Revolt eventually led to two subsequent Jewish uprisings against Rome: the <a href="/wiki/Diaspora_Revolt" title="Diaspora Revolt">Diaspora Revolt</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt" title="Bar Kokhba revolt">Bar Kokhba Revolt</a> in Judaea, both of which ended in catastrophic failure. The Diaspora Revolt, which erupted between 115 and 117 CE, was driven by messianic expectations and the local tensions and violence experienced by Jews in the diaspora.<sup id="cite_ref-Zeev-2006_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zeev-2006-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This revolt saw Jewish communities in the Roman provinces of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyrenaica" title="Cyrenaica">Cyrenaica</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Cyprus" title="Roman Cyprus">Cyprus</a> rise in rebellion, characterized by attacks on local populations, temples, public structures, and roads.<sup id="cite_ref-Zeev-2006_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zeev-2006-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Roman suppression was marked by severe retaliation and <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">ethnic cleansing</a>, involving local populations joining the Roman forces, which led to widespread devastation and the near-total expulsion or annihilation of Jews from these regions.<sup id="cite_ref-Zeev-2006_79-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zeev-2006-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Two generations after the First Jewish-Roman War, the <a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt" title="Bar Kokhba revolt">Bar Kokhba Revolt</a> (132-136 CE) erupted. One reason seems to be the re-establishment of Jerusalem as a <a href="/wiki/Colonia_(Roman)" title="Colonia (Roman)">Roman colony</a> under the name of <a href="/wiki/Aelia_Capitolina" title="Aelia Capitolina">Aelia Capitolina</a>. The revolt was brutally suppressed by the Romans and resulted in the extensive depopulation of Judea proper, more so than during the <a href="/wiki/First_Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_War" title="First Jewish–Roman War">First Jewish–Roman War</a> of 70 CE.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Taylor_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some scholars have described these events as <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a>, 580,000 Jews perished in the war and many more died of hunger and disease, 50 fortresses and 985 villages were destroyed. In addition, many Judean war captives were sold into slavery.<sup id="cite_ref-Mor,_M._2016._P471_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mor,_M._2016._P471-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some modern historians assert that Dio's numbers were somewhat exaggerated,<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but based on the archeological evidence, virtually all scholars support Dio's claim of massive depopulation.<sup id="cite_ref-:25_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:25-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The revolt put an end to Jewish aspirations for the reconstruction of Jerusalem and the Temple as well as, more concretely, for Jewish settlement in the district of Judea.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The province of Judaea was renamed <a href="/wiki/Syria_Palaestina" title="Syria Palaestina">Syria Palaestina</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-H.H._Ben-Sasson,_1976,_page_334_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-H.H._Ben-Sasson,_1976,_page_334-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ariel_Lewin_p._33_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ariel_Lewin_p._33-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jewish presence in Judaea significantly dwindled after the failure of the Bar Kokhba revolt.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, there was a continuous small Jewish presence and <a href="/wiki/Galilee" title="Galilee">Galilee</a> became its religious center.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jewish communities also continued to reside in the southern <a href="/wiki/Hebron_Hills" title="Hebron Hills">Hebron Hills</a> and on the coastal plain.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a> and part of the <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_Talmud" title="Jerusalem Talmud">Talmud</a>, central Jewish texts, were composed during the 2nd to 4th centuries CE in <a href="/wiki/Tiberias" title="Tiberias">Tiberias</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over the next centuries, more Jews emigrated to flourishing communities in the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Diaspora</a>. Others remained in the Land of Israel, and some <a href="/wiki/Conversion_to_Christianity" title="Conversion to Christianity">converted to Christianity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jewish historians occasionally refers to this time period, which corresponds with the world's late antiquity, as the Rabbinic or Talmudic period. </p><p>After the destruction of the Second Temple, Judaism separated into a linguistically Greek and a Hebrew / Aramaic sphere.<sup id="cite_ref-Ehrlich_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ehrlich-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 8–11">: 8–11 </span></sup> The theology and religious texts of each community were distinctively different.<sup id="cite_ref-Ehrlich_95-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ehrlich-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 11–13">: 11–13 </span></sup> Hellenized Judaism never developed yeshivas to study the Oral Law. <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">Rabbinic Judaism</a> (centered in the Land of Israel and Babylon) almost entirely ignores the Hellenized Diaspora in its writings.<sup id="cite_ref-Ehrlich_95-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ehrlich-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is unknown whether Hellenized Judaism ultimately vanished as its adherents assmiliated into the Christianized Greco-Roman society, or if it persisted as a distinct, bible-oriented community that later affected the development of <a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaite Judaism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ehrlich_95-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ehrlich-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 14–16">: 14–16 </span></sup> </p><p>By the first century, the Jewish community in <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a>, to which Jews were exiled after the Babylonian conquest as well as after the Bar Kokhba revolt in 135 CE, already held a speedily growing<sup id="cite_ref-Translation_1981,_pg._95_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Translation_1981,_pg._95-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> population of an estimated one million Jews, which increased to an estimated two million<sup id="cite_ref-Solomon_Gryazel_p._137_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Solomon_Gryazel_p._137-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> between the years 200 CE and 500 CE, both by natural growth and by immigration of more Jews from the <a href="/wiki/Land_of_Israel" title="Land of Israel">Land of Israel</a>, making up about one-sixth of the world Jewish population at that era.<sup id="cite_ref-Solomon_Gryazel_p._137_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Solomon_Gryazel_p._137-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religion">Religion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Temple_period&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_Judaism" title="Second Temple Judaism">Second Temple Judaism</a></div> <p>During the 600 years of the Second Temple period, multiple religious currents emerged and extensive religious developments occurred. The <a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_Hebrew_Bible_canon" title="Development of the Hebrew Bible canon">development of the Hebrew Bible canon</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue">synagogue</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jewish_eschatology" title="Jewish eschatology">Jewish eschatology</a> can all be traced back to the Second Temple period. </p><p>According to Jewish tradition, <a href="/wiki/Nevi%27im" title="Nevi'im">prophecy</a> ceased during the early Second Temple period; this left the Jews without their version of divine guidance at a time when they felt most in need of support and direction.<sup id="cite_ref-Wheat2ndTemp_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wheat2ndTemp-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the Hellenistic period, currents of Judaism were influenced by <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> developed from the 3rd century BCE, notably the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Jewish diaspora</a> in <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>, culminating in the compilation of the <a href="/wiki/Septuagint" title="Septuagint">Septuagint</a>. An important advocate of the symbiosis of Jewish theology and Hellenistic thought is <a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo</a>. The growing influence of <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism" title="Hellenistic Judaism">Hellenism in Judaism</a> became a source of dissent for some Jews; this was a major catalyst for the Maccabean revolt. </p><p>The sects of the <a href="/wiki/Pharisees" title="Pharisees">Pharisees</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sadducees" title="Sadducees">Sadducees</a> were formed, according to most scholars, around the mid 2nd century BCE. It is thought that the mystic sect of the Judaean desert, most likely the <a href="/wiki/Essenes" title="Essenes">Essenes</a>, was founded in the second third of the second century BCE. The sect serves as a useful illustration of the profound impact these years had on the emergence of new patterns, beliefs, and lifestyles. The sect members' flight into the desert was a direct protest against what was taking place in Jerusalem at the time. The emergence of a new leadership in the city, a leadership that would shape the course of Jewish history for more than a century, is what led to the cult's estrangement and alienation.<sup id="cite_ref-:21_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:21-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 170 BCE to 30 CE, five successive generations of <i><a href="/wiki/Zugot" title="Zugot">zugot</a></i> ("pairs of") leaders headed the Jews' spiritual affairs. </p><p>A number of <a href="/wiki/Messiah_in_Judaism" title="Messiah in Judaism">messianic ideas</a> developed during the later Second Temple period. <a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">Christianity first emerged</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_Judaism" title="Second Temple Judaism">Second Temple Judaic</a> sect <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_1st_century" title="Christianity in the 1st century">in the 1st century</a> <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism" title="Hellenistic Judaism">Hellenistic Judaism</a> in Roman Judea. <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus of Nazareth</a> was a first-century <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jewish</a> preacher and religious leader.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVermes198120,_26,_27,_29_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVermes198120,_26,_27,_29-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After his death, his <a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">apostles</a> and their followers <a href="/wiki/Early_centers_of_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Early centers of Christianity">spread</a> around the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/South_Caucasus" title="South Caucasus">South Caucasus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>, despite <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire">initial persecution</a>. It soon attracted <a href="/wiki/Gentile" title="Gentile">gentile</a> <a href="/wiki/God-fearer" title="God-fearer">God-fearers</a>, which led to a departure from Jewish customs, and, after the fall of Jerusalem which ended the Temple-based Judaism, Christianity slowly <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Christian#Split_of_early_Christianity_and_Judaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Christian">separated from Judaism</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature">Literature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Temple_period&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The religious literature of the Second Temple period can be split into three categories: the <a href="/wiki/Apocrypha" title="Apocrypha">Apocrypha</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pseudepigrapha" title="Pseudepigrapha">Pseudepigrapha</a>; the literature of the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism" title="Hellenistic Judaism">Greek-speaking diaspora</a>; and the <a href="/wiki/Dead_Sea_Scrolls" title="Dead Sea Scrolls">Dead Sea Scrolls</a>. The first two categories were preserved by Christians, while the third one was discovered in the 20th century in the <a href="/wiki/Qumran_Caves" title="Qumran Caves">Qumran caves</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:19_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:19-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Apocrypha ('hidden books') were accepted as canonical scripture by various Christian denominations, and includes books like <a href="/wiki/Books_of_the_Maccabees" title="Books of the Maccabees">1–4 Maccabees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Sirach" title="Book of Sirach">Sirach</a>, <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Wisdom" title="Book of Wisdom">Wisdom of Solomon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Baruch" title="Book of Baruch">Baruch</a> (inc. the <a href="/wiki/Letter_of_Jeremiah" title="Letter of Jeremiah">Letter of Jeremiah</a>), <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Tobit" title="Book of Tobit">Tobit</a> and <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Judith" title="Book of Judith">Judith</a>, along with <a href="/wiki/Esdras" title="Esdras">1–2 Esdras</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prayer_of_Manasseh" title="Prayer of Manasseh">Prayer of Manasseh</a> which are not considered as canonical by any church. The Pseudepigrapha ('false superscription') include books attributed to well-known biblical figures, including Enoch, Abraham, Moses and others. The Dead Sea Scrolls are generally believed to be the library of a mystic sectarian community that lived at Qumran, most likely the <a href="/wiki/Essenes" title="Essenes">Essenes</a>. Together with the works from the first two categories, it also contains other writings including the <a href="/wiki/Community_Rule" title="Community Rule">Community Rule</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Damascus_Document" title="Damascus Document">Damascus Document</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Temple_Scroll" title="Temple Scroll">Temple Scroll</a>, the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Sons_of_Light_Against_the_Sons_of_Darkness" title="War of the Sons of Light Against the Sons of Darkness">War Scroll</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Thanksgiving_Hymns" title="Thanksgiving Hymns">Thanksgiving Hymns</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Pesher" title="Pesher"><i>pesharim</i></a>, and others.<sup id="cite_ref-:19_100-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:19-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A fourth category would be some parts of the Hebrew Bible that were composed during the Second Temple period, including the <a href="/wiki/Prophetic_books" title="Prophetic books">prophetic books</a> of <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Zechariah" title="Book of Zechariah">Zechariah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Haggai" title="Book of Haggai">Haggai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Malachi" title="Book of Malachi">Malachi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Joel" title="Book of Joel">Joel</a>, and parts of <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Isaiah" title="Book of Isaiah">Isaiah</a> (24–7, 56–66), all dating from the Persian period, along extensive portions of the <i><a href="/wiki/Ketuvim" title="Ketuvim">Ketuvim</a></i>. However, these books are not typically included in scholarship as part of the Second Temple period literature.<sup id="cite_ref-:19_100-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:19-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economy">Economy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Temple_period&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Economy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Agriculture">Agriculture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Temple_period&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Agriculture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> Almost all of the national Jewish economy's needs during the Second Temple period were met domestically; there was very little exporting or importing.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">Agriculture</a> played a significant role in economic life. Josephus explains why earlier texts did not mention Jews by stating that: </p><blockquote><p>As for ourselves, therefore, we neither inhabit a maritime country, nor do we delight in merchandise, nor in such a mixture with other men as arises from it; but the cities we dwell in are remote from the sea, and having a fruitful country for our habitation, we take pains in cultivating that only.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:13_101-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p>It is believed that the majority of Judaea's farmland was used to grow grain, predominantly wheat but also hardier but less popular barley in drier areas. Archaeologists have found numerous <a href="/wiki/Olive_oil_extraction" title="Olive oil extraction">olive</a> and <a href="/wiki/Winepress" title="Winepress">winepresses</a>, indicating the importance of these products as well. <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_literature" title="Rabbinic literature">Rabbinic literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a>' writings, and the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> further reveal that <a href="/wiki/Herb" title="Herb">herbs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vegetable" title="Vegetable">garden vegetables</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Legume" title="Legume">legumes</a> were also grown. Legumes were especially important, because they could be stored for a long time and frequently flourished in years when other crops failed.<sup id="cite_ref-:23_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:23-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sources from the late first and early second centuries CE indicate that <a href="/wiki/Rice" title="Rice">rice</a> was introduced to Palestine by Jewish farmers during the early Roman period. The local crop was fine, large-kernel rice.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The main products of <a href="/wiki/Livestock" title="Livestock">livestock</a> were <a href="/wiki/Milk" title="Milk">milk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Butter" title="Butter">butter</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cheese" title="Cheese">cheese</a> (albeit these foods made up a small portion of the diet), <a href="/wiki/Wool" title="Wool">wool</a>, and food for the <a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Roman army</a>, whose <a href="/wiki/Roman_diet" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman diet">diet</a>, unusually for the time period, included a daily ration of <a href="/wiki/Meat" title="Meat">meat</a>. There was also <a href="/wiki/Fish_as_food" title="Fish as food">fish</a>, probably generally <a href="/wiki/Pickling" title="Pickling">pickled</a>, though not in great quantities. The Galilean city of <a href="/wiki/Tarichaea" title="Tarichaea">Tarichaeae</a>, located along the shore of the <a href="/wiki/Sea_of_Galilee" title="Sea of Galilee">Sea of Galilee</a>, got its name from <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>: ταρίχη, "pickled fish".<sup id="cite_ref-:23_103-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:23-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A few small areas in the province dedicated to the cultivation of cash crops. A famous example is the <a href="/wiki/Balsam" title="Balsam">balsam</a> plantations around <a href="/wiki/Jericho" title="Jericho">Jericho</a>. Josephus also indicates that in his day, the <a href="/wiki/Olive" title="Olive">olive</a> was extensively grown in some parts of <a href="/wiki/Upper_Galilee" title="Upper Galilee">Upper Galilee</a>, and that its <a href="/wiki/Olive_oil" title="Olive oil">oil</a> was occasionally sold to neighboring cities.<sup id="cite_ref-:23_103-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:23-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Import_and_export">Import and export</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Temple_period&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Import and export"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are several sources that do suggest there may have been a limited amount of importing. Wheat imports are mentioned in <a href="/wiki/Makhshirin" title="Makhshirin">Makhshirin</a> 3:4, and the rabbis' ruling that imported pottery and glass were ritually impure also seems to suggest that these products were brought into the region. The Hellenistic-period <a href="/wiki/Heftziba" title="Heftziba">Hefzibah</a> inscription demonstrates that there was some exchange of goods among the local communities, and there may have even been some export. it is also possible that the area served as a form of commerce enclave, as <a href="/wiki/Balsam" title="Balsam">balsam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Date_palm" title="Date palm">dates</a> from the Jericho area were sold outside the area and it is obvious that the locals there were not self-sufficient in other ways.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_101-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>But, when looking at the overall economic picture, the scale of imports and exports was insignificant. For instance, the Romans imposed a yearly land tax and harbor tax on <a href="/wiki/Hyrcanus_II" title="Hyrcanus II">Hyrcanus</a> in the sum of 20,665 modia, or around 135.5 tons of wheat for Joppa. A levy of 135.5 tons of wheat was absurdly low considering Joppa was the main Jewish port, indicating that the city only exported a little amount of goods.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_101-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Josephus, the main commercial hubs were the <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a> coastal cities. They took part in international trade in the Mediterranean sea and reportedly served as the main ports for the Land of Israel's meager import and export requirements. Some of those cities were conquered by the <a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_dynasty" title="Hasmonean dynasty">Hasmoneans</a>, while they may not have been completely abandoned, their economic situation and prestige degraded. During this period, only <a href="/wiki/Ashkelon" title="Ashkelon">Ascalon</a> remained an independent city, and Joppa continued to function as a small harbor city. The Phoenician coastal cities prospered once more and resumed their status as economic hubs after the Romans seized Palestine.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_101-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Importing food was important at times of drought or famine, as it was during the time of <a href="/wiki/Herod_the_Great" title="Herod the Great">Herod</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Helena_of_Adiabene" title="Helena of Adiabene">Helena</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:13_101-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nonetheless, as is evident from the <a href="/wiki/Testament_of_Job" title="Testament of Job">Testament of Job</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> trading at this time was often a characteristic of the coastal cities.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_101-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Goods">Goods</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Temple_period&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Goods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:408px;max-width:408px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D7%A2%D7%AA%D7%A8%D7%99.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/%D7%A2%D7%AA%D7%A8%D7%99.JPG/200px-%D7%A2%D7%AA%D7%A8%D7%99.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/%D7%A2%D7%AA%D7%A8%D7%99.JPG/300px-%D7%A2%D7%AA%D7%A8%D7%99.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/%D7%A2%D7%AA%D7%A8%D7%99.JPG/400px-%D7%A2%D7%AA%D7%A8%D7%99.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4256" data-file-height="2832" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Hurvat_Itri" class="mw-redirect" title="Hurvat Itri">Hurvat Itri</a>, a partially reconstructed village of the Second Temple period</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hurvat-Itri-5423.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Hurvat-Itri-5423.jpg/200px-Hurvat-Itri-5423.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Hurvat-Itri-5423.jpg/300px-Hurvat-Itri-5423.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Hurvat-Itri-5423.jpg/400px-Hurvat-Itri-5423.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4160" data-file-height="2336" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">A rock-cut <a href="/wiki/Wine_press" class="mw-redirect" title="Wine press">wine press</a> at Hurvat Itri</div></div></div></div></div> <p>Jerusalem during the late Second Temple period was a significant center of consumption at this time. This economic center developed to meet the needs of both the <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple" title="Second Temple">Temple</a> and pilgrims, as well as those of the locals who did not work in agriculture.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_101-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Doves were raised in the <a href="/wiki/Shephelah" title="Shephelah">Judean Lowlands</a> and sent to the Temple.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_101-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The locations from which the Temple received high-quality agricultural items are listed in the <a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Menachot" title="Menachot">Menachot tractate</a>. The highest quality fine flour was transported from farms in <a href="/wiki/Michmas" title="Michmas">Michmas</a> and Zonicha (now <a href="/wiki/Zanoah" title="Zanoah">Zanoah</a>). The <a href="/wiki/Taybeh" title="Taybeh">Aforayim</a> flour came in second. Olive trees near <a href="/wiki/Khirbet_Shema" title="Khirbet Shema">Teqoa of Galilee</a> served as the Temple's main source of olive oil. <a href="/wiki/Rajeb" title="Rajeb">Regev</a> in the Transjordan came in second. Qerouthim (Keruthim) and Hatoulim were the main producers of wine, followed by Beit Rima (now <a href="/wiki/Bani_Zeid_al-Gharbia" title="Bani Zeid al-Gharbia">Bani Zeid al-Gharbia</a>), Beit Lavan (now <a href="/wiki/Al-Lubban_al-Gharbi" title="Al-Lubban al-Gharbi">al-Lubban al-Gharbi</a>), and Kefar Signa (in the lower Galilee).<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Overview">Overview</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Temple_period&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Judea" title="Judea">Judea</a>'s linguistic situation during the Second Temple period is defined by the co-existence of two spoken languages: <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The meaning of the population's <a href="/wiki/Multilingualism" title="Multilingualism">bilingualism</a> is debated; opinions differ on whether speakers express themselves equally in Hebrew or Aramaic, or whether one language is preferred over the other depending on region. Aramaic became widely spoken in <a href="/wiki/Samaria" title="Samaria">Samaria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Galilee" title="Galilee">Galilee</a>, while Judea continued to use Hebrew.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_110-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although Aramaic had eventually surpassed Hebrew as the most widely spoken language in the region, many people learned Hebrew as a <a href="/wiki/Sacred_language" title="Sacred language">liturgical language</a>. </p><p>During the two centuries of Persian rule (538–332 BCE), the administrative language was <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Aramaic" title="Imperial Aramaic">Imperial Aramaic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_110-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Beginning in 333 BCE, <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a> became the official language of administration and was used to spread <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic culture</a>. Even under Roman rule, the administrative language in the eastern provinces, including Judaea, remained Greek. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">square script</a> (also known as <a href="/wiki/Ktav_Ashuri" title="Ktav Ashuri">Ktav Ashuri</a>) had probably already started to replace the <a href="/wiki/Paleo-Hebrew_alphabet" title="Paleo-Hebrew alphabet">paleo-Hebrew script</a> during the Persian period, though the transition was not complete until the Hellenistic period and traces of the previous script were still in use until the <a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt" title="Bar Kokhba revolt">Bar-Kokhba revolt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_110-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, the language of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Roman army</a> and higher levels of administration, had almost no impact on the linguistic landscape. It is less common in texts and archaeology. Only a few Latin papyri were discovered in the region; those discovered at <a href="/wiki/Masada" title="Masada">Masada</a> belonged to the Roman garrison. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aramaic">Aramaic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Temple_period&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Aramaic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> During the <a href="/wiki/Yehud_(Persian_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Yehud (Persian province)">Persian period</a>, Aramaic was the civil administration language. The contract texts were written in Aramaic. The <a href="/wiki/Ketubah" title="Ketubah">ketubah</a> (marriage contract), <a href="/wiki/Get_(divorce_document)" title="Get (divorce document)">get</a> (divorce certificate), and other legal documents mentioned in the <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a> are written in Aramaic. The formulas for the Aramaic texts of the ketubot have been preserved since the Persian period, even though they were modified during the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a>. <a href="/wiki/Elephantine" title="Elephantine">Elephantine</a>'s Jewish community has adopted Aramaic, and it was the main language used in the <a href="/wiki/Elephantine_papyri_and_ostraca" title="Elephantine papyri and ostraca">Elephantine papyri and ostraca</a>. <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a>, a native of the Galilee, and his disciples <a href="/wiki/Language_of_Jesus" title="Language of Jesus">spoke Aramaic</a>.</p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Levantine_-_Jewish_Ossuary_-_Walters_23240_-_Detail_A.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Levantine_-_Jewish_Ossuary_-_Walters_23240_-_Detail_A.jpg/220px-Levantine_-_Jewish_Ossuary_-_Walters_23240_-_Detail_A.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Levantine_-_Jewish_Ossuary_-_Walters_23240_-_Detail_A.jpg/330px-Levantine_-_Jewish_Ossuary_-_Walters_23240_-_Detail_A.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Levantine_-_Jewish_Ossuary_-_Walters_23240_-_Detail_A.jpg/440px-Levantine_-_Jewish_Ossuary_-_Walters_23240_-_Detail_A.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1442" /></a><figcaption>Funerary inscription in Aramaic: "Yehosef bar Aglon"</figcaption></figure><p>Despite the fact that Aramaic has become the most widely spoken language, there are few Aramaic texts that provide information on the language spoken in the region during the Second Temple period. Three books of the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a> contain passages in Aramaic: Ezra 4:8 to 6:18 and 7:12 to 26 and Daniel 2:4 to 7:28. The <i><a href="/wiki/Megillat_Taanit" title="Megillat Taanit">Megillat Ta'anit</a></i> ("The Scroll of Fasting") was written in Aramaic around the first century CE. This is also true of the <a href="/wiki/Targum" title="Targum">targumim</a>, or Aramaic paraphrases of the Bible, but dating them is difficult. </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hebrew">Hebrew</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Temple_period&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Hebrew"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Temple_Scroll.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Temple_Scroll.png/220px-Temple_Scroll.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Temple_Scroll.png/330px-Temple_Scroll.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Temple_Scroll.png/440px-Temple_Scroll.png 2x" data-file-width="1083" data-file-height="1189" /></a><figcaption>Portion of the <a href="/wiki/Temple_Scroll" title="Temple Scroll">Temple Scroll</a>, one of the <a href="/wiki/Dead_Sea_Scrolls" title="Dead Sea Scrolls">Dead Sea Scrolls</a>, written in Hebrew during the late Second Temple period</figcaption></figure> <p>Some of the later books of the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Ezra%E2%80%93Nehemiah" title="Ezra–Nehemiah">Ezra and Nehemiah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Esther" title="Book of Esther">Esther</a>, <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Daniel" title="Book of Daniel">Daniel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Books_of_Chronicles" title="Books of Chronicles">Chronicles</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Haggai" title="Book of Haggai">Haggai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Zechariah" title="Book of Zechariah">Zechariah</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Malachi" title="Book of Malachi">Malachi</a>, are explicitly dated to the Second Temple period. The first and second verses of the book of <a href="/wiki/Ezekiel" title="Ezekiel">Ezekiel</a> were written during the <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_captivity" title="Babylonian captivity">Babylonian exile</a>. There are varying opinions about when <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastes" title="Ecclesiastes">Ecclesiastes</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Song_of_Songs" title="Song of Songs">Song of Songs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Jonah" title="Book of Jonah">Jonah</a>, some of the <a href="/wiki/Psalms" title="Psalms">Psalms</a>, and possibly the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Job" title="Book of Job">Book of Job</a> were written. The majority of researchers, however, agree that they were composed during the Second Temple period. Most of these books were written in what linguistics call "Late <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical Hebrew</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-:10_110-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This later form of Biblical Hebrew is particularly notables in the Book of Chronicles since it occasionally rewrites sections from Samuel and Kings and modifies parts to conform to post-exilic usage.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_110-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, not all of the Second Temple literature exhibits the language traits of late <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical Hebrew</a> to the same degree; some of it is written in a manner that is strikingly reminiscent of classical Biblical Hebrew. </p><p>Hebrew was still a spoken language during the Second Temple period at least in some areas of Judea. It continued to be used up until 200 CE, and possibly even after. It is thought that the Hebrew spoken during the Second Temple period evolved from Biblical Hebrew, possibly from a distinct dialect. This form of Hebrew is now known as <a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Mishnaic Hebrew</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Hasideans" title="Hasideans">Hasideans</a>, who are believed to be the precursors of both the <a href="/wiki/Essenes" title="Essenes">Essenes</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Pharisees" title="Pharisees">Pharisees</a>, used a combination of Biblical Hebrew and Mishnaic Hebrew as their literary language, with Mishnaic Hebrew dominating.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_110-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The literature of the <a href="/wiki/Tannaim" title="Tannaim">Tannaim</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amoraim" title="Amoraim">Amoraim</a> of the Land of Israel and Babylonia is written in Mishnaic Hebrew, which is later found in the <a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a>. Among the earliest are the tractates of <a href="/wiki/Tamid" title="Tamid">Tamid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Interpunct" title="Interpunct">Middot</a>. It reflects a living Hebrew that is not just an artificial language reserved for Jewish scholars, despite the fact that this language has been fixed in rabbinic discussions. The Qumran group continued to use Late Biblical Hebrew, which was still a literary language, while fusing it with their own unique linguistic traits.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_110-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first century Jewish historian <a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Flavius Josephus</a> asserts that he addressed the people of Jerusalem in Hebrew. But as usual, his testimony is ambiguous and at odds with the Aramaic transcriptions he uses to describe Jewish traditions. Spoken Hebrew saw a brief resurgence in interest during the <a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt" title="Bar Kokhba revolt">Bar Kokhba revolt</a> (132–135 CE). The Mishna, however, was written down circa 200 CE because it could no longer be memorized and could no longer be transmitted orally due to the lack of Hebrew speakers who could memorize it. </p><p>Archaeology provides evidence of the usage of Mishnaic Hebrew in the Second Temple period. It can be found in texts found in the <a href="/wiki/Judaean_Desert" title="Judaean Desert">Judaean Desert</a> from the first and second centuries, including the <a href="/wiki/Copper_Scroll" title="Copper Scroll">Copper Scroll</a> found in Qumran and the Bar Kokhba letters and other writings found in caves near <a href="/wiki/Nahal_Hever" title="Nahal Hever">Nahal Hever</a>. These documents provide a glimpse of everyday Hebrew, without indicating which regions they pertain to. Judean Desert examples tend to indicate that it is a southern dialect. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Greek">Greek</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Temple_period&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Greek"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Samuel_and_Saidye_Bronfman_Archaeology_WingDSCN5007.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Samuel_and_Saidye_Bronfman_Archaeology_WingDSCN5007.JPG/150px-Samuel_and_Saidye_Bronfman_Archaeology_WingDSCN5007.JPG" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Samuel_and_Saidye_Bronfman_Archaeology_WingDSCN5007.JPG/225px-Samuel_and_Saidye_Bronfman_Archaeology_WingDSCN5007.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Samuel_and_Saidye_Bronfman_Archaeology_WingDSCN5007.JPG/300px-Samuel_and_Saidye_Bronfman_Archaeology_WingDSCN5007.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2736" data-file-height="3648" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Temple_Warning_inscription" title="Temple Warning inscription">Temple Warning inscription</a>, one of two tablets found.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This Greek inscription served as a warning to <a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">pagan</a> visitors to the Second Temple not to go any further.</figcaption></figure> <p>Greek was the primary language of the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Egypt#Ptolemaic_and_Roman" title="History of the Jews in Egypt">Jews of Hellenistic and Roman Egypt</a>, particularly those of <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>. Although the Jews of Egypt used Aramaic in the early Ptolemaic period, it was quickly abandoned in favor of Greek. It is only in the early Byzantine period that Egyptian Jewish communities communicated with one another in Hebrew, which again served as the official language.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The use of Greek was not limited to the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Jewish Diaspora</a>. From the third century BCE onward, almost all inscriptions in the Southern Levant were written in Greek, with the exception of tombs and ossuaries, as well as those in synagogues.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_112-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many <a href="/wiki/Ossuary" title="Ossuary">ossuaries</a> of the period bear inscriptions in Greek, either indicating the tombs of families descended from the Diaspora or assisting authorities in identifying the tombs. According to the <a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishna</a>, Greek was even present in the Temple of Jerusalem.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Jews of Alexandria celebrated the translation of the Scriptures into Greek with an annual festival on the island of Pharos, known for its <a href="/wiki/Lighthouse_of_Alexandria" title="Lighthouse of Alexandria">famed lighthouse</a>, featuring a grand beach picnic. The festival honored the translation as a divine gift and commemorated the site where, according to tradition, the translation was completed. This celebration reflected the profound importance of the Greek version for Diaspora Jews who could not access the original Hebrew texts.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Greek was widely used in Judaea, at least in a certain social stratum. Greek was also used in legal documents such as the <a href="/wiki/Babatha" title="Babatha">Babatha</a> Archives and the Bar Kokhba letters. The <a href="/wiki/Septuagint" title="Septuagint">Septuagint</a>, a Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, was not limited to Jews in the Diaspora - it was also used in Judea, as evidenced by the discovery of fragments at <a href="/wiki/Qumran" title="Qumran">Qumran</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nahal_Hever" title="Nahal Hever">Nahal Hever</a>. </p><p>Greek names like Jason, Menelaus, and Alexander were popular among Jews throughout most of the Second Temple period. Some <a href="/wiki/Pharisees" title="Pharisees">Pharisees</a>, too, had Greek names like <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_of_Sokho" title="Antigonus of Sokho">Antigonus of Sokho</a> or <a href="/wiki/Abtalion" title="Abtalion">P[t]ollion</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Identity">Identity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Temple_period&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Identity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Jewish_identity#History" title="Jewish identity">Jewish identity § History</a></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical antiquity</a>, the Jewish people were constantly identified by <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a>, and Jewish authors as an <i>ethnos</i>, one of the many <i>ethne</i> living in the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman world</a>. Van Maaren demonstrates why Jews of the late Second Temple period may be regarded as an ethnic group in modern terms by using the six characteristics that co-ethnics share as outlined by Hutchinson and Smith.<sup id="cite_ref-:18_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:18-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Those include: </p> <ol><li>An ethnonym, a common proper name, that identifies and conveys the "essence" of its community. In antiquity, three proper names were used to refer to the Jewish ethnos, namely: "Hebrew", "Israel", and "Jews". In Second Temple period texts, the term "Hebrew" was used to describe an individual from the <a href="/wiki/Israelites" title="Israelites">pre-monarchic period</a> of Jewish history. The term "Israel" was used as a timeless designation of the ethnos or to refer to members who were a part of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(united_monarchy)" title="Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)">united monarchy</a>, the earlier <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(Samaria)" title="Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)">northern kingdom</a>, or eschatological Israel. Members of the contemporary ethnos were usually referred to as "Jews," and the name can also apply to a geographically confined subgroup or to the descendants of the earlier <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">kingdom of Judah</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:18_115-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:18-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>A myth of common ancestry. In the Jewish case, of descent from eponymous ancestor <a href="/wiki/Jacob" title="Jacob">Jacob/Israel</a>; moreover, the purported descent from Abraham was exploited by the Hasmoneans to broaden definitions of Jewishness, although this claim was disputed by others.<sup id="cite_ref-:18_115-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:18-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Shared memories of the past, including historical events and heroes. Jewish sacred scriptures provide a fundamental collection of those historical stories. The community reading of the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a> and other texts in synagogues helped to further ingrain the stories and characters they contain in the collective Jewish identity. That includes figures such as the <a href="/wiki/Patriarchs_(Bible)" title="Patriarchs (Bible)">Patriarchs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a> and <a href="/wiki/David" title="David">David</a>, and events such as <a href="/wiki/The_Exodus" title="The Exodus">the Exodus</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Mount_Sinai_(Bible)" title="Mount Sinai (Bible)">covenant at Mount Sinai</a>, the heyday of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(united_monarchy)" title="Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)">united monarchy</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_captivity" title="Babylonian captivity">Babylonian captivity</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_IV_Epiphanes" title="Antiochus IV Epiphanes">Antiochene</a> persecutions, and the <a href="/wiki/Maccabean_Revolt" title="Maccabean Revolt">Maccabean revolt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:18_115-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:18-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>One or more elements of shared culture, which need not be specified, but usually include <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">customs</a>. There were significant overlaps between the religion, languages, customs, and other cultural aspects shared by ancient Jews; moreover, religion cannot be separated from other cultural aspects, especially in ancient times. The worship of the <a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">God of Israel</a>, the work of the <a href="/wiki/Temple_in_Jerusalem" title="Temple in Jerusalem">Temple in Jerusalem</a> and other cultic sites, and the following of particular <a href="/wiki/Minhag" title="Minhag">Jewish customs</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kashrut" title="Kashrut">dietary laws</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shabbat" title="Shabbat">Sabbath observance</a>, etc.) were major aspects of Jewishness at the period. Despite the fact that not all Jews spoke the same language, because many of the sacred writings were written in <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>, it also served as a symbol for Jews who did not speak the language.<sup id="cite_ref-:18_115-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:18-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>A connection to a <a href="/wiki/Homeland" title="Homeland">homeland</a>, which need not be physically occupied by the ethnic group in order for it to have symbolic attachment to their ancestral homeland, as is the case for diaspora populations. In the Jewish case, this is the <a href="/wiki/Land_of_Israel" title="Land of Israel">Land of Israel</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Judea" title="Judea">Judaea</a>/<a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palaestina</a>. For both the local Jews and those residing in the diaspora, the land held symbolic value. It endures despite the frequently shifting, occasionally nonexistent borders.<sup id="cite_ref-:18_115-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:18-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>A sense of solidary on the part of at least some sections of the ethnic population. The strength of this sentiment varies. <a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a> reports that when the <a href="/wiki/First_Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_War" title="First Jewish–Roman War">First Jewish–Roman War</a> broke out, the Jews of <a href="/wiki/Beit_She%27an" title="Beit She'an">Scythopolis</a> joined the city in fighting the Jewish rebels because they had weaker sense of solidarity for the Jewish ethnos.<sup id="cite_ref-:18_115-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:18-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p><a href="/wiki/Shaye_J._D._Cohen" title="Shaye J. D. Cohen">Shaye J. D. Cohen</a> defines Jewish identity in the late Second Temple period as being "<a href="/wiki/Ethnoreligious_group" title="Ethnoreligious group">ethno-religious</a>" in character.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the centuries following the First Jewish–Roman War and the destruction of the Second Temple, Jewish identity gradually transformed from an ethnos with a distinct religious identity to a religious community that also considered itself a nation.<sup id="cite_ref-:110_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:110-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nationalism">Nationalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Temple_period&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Nationalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Anthony_D._Smith" title="Anthony D. Smith">Anthony D. Smith</a>, an historical sociologist considered one of the founders of the <a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">interdisciplinary field</a> of <a href="/wiki/Nationalism_studies" title="Nationalism studies">nationalism studies</a>, wrote that the Jews of the late Second Temple period provide "a closer approximation to the ideal type of the <a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">nation</a> [...] than perhaps anywhere else in the ancient world." He adds that this observation "must make us wary of pronouncing too readily against the possibility of the nation, and even a form of <a href="/wiki/Religious_nationalism" title="Religious nationalism">religious nationalism</a>, before the onset of modernity."<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian David Goodblatt also supports the view that premodern groups can meet the criteria for a nation, with the Jews being a prime example. Agreeing with Smith, Goodblatt proposes dropping the qualifier "religious" in the definition of Jewish nationalism during this period, noting that according to Smith, a religious component in national memories and culture is common even in the modern era.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This perspective is echoed by political scientist <a href="/wiki/Tom_Garvin" title="Tom Garvin">Tom Garvin</a>, who writes that "something strangely like modern nationalism is documented for many peoples in medieval times and in classical times as well," citing the ancient Jews as one of several "obvious examples", alongside the <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">classical Greeks</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gauls</a> and the <a href="/wiki/British_Iron_Age" title="British Iron Age">British Celts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historian <a href="/wiki/Salo_Wittmayer_Baron" title="Salo Wittmayer Baron">Salo W. Baron</a> applied the term "ethnic-religious nationalism" to both ancient Jews and ancient Greeks.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Israel Levine, early Hellenistic Greek observers described the Jews as eastern philosophers living in a utopian <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_nationalism" title="Ethnic nationalism">ethno-national</a> context, apart from the political unrest of the time. Jewish texts from the Persian period show no political aspirations for independence, and in the early Hellenistic period, Jews viewed the Hellenistic rulers favorably. However, the circumstances leading up to the Maccabean revolt in the 170s and 160s BCE fostered a <a href="/wiki/Militarism" title="Militarism">militaristic</a>-zealot tradition that continued to play a key role in national life until the Bar Kokhba revolt in the 130s CE.<sup id="cite_ref-:21_98-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:21-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jewish_identity_in_the_Diaspora">Jewish identity in the Diaspora</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Temple_period&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Jewish identity in the Diaspora"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The homeland remained the common symbolic tie for Diaspora Jews, seen as the center of the universe, even though most Jews living abroad would not return and many loved both their native Greco-Roman cities and Jerusalem, the city of the temple.<sup id="cite_ref-:14_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:14-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is possible that the Jews of Smyrna, Asia Minor, donated money to support city projects. Trebilco refers to them as "former Judeans" rather than "former Jews," implying that they were being referred to as a group whose origins were in Judea but who were now devoted to their current city of residency and even made contributions to public enterprises. Jews in <a href="/wiki/Acmonia" title="Acmonia">Acmonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phrygia" title="Phrygia">Phrygia</a> made donations to their city and referred to it as their <i>patris</i>, "home city" or "native town".<sup id="cite_ref-:14_122-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:14-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Philo of Alexandria, writing in the early 1st century CE, provides valuable insight into the connection of Diaspora Jews with Judea. By Philo's time, Jews had long been present in the Diaspora and particularly in <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> for quite a long time. Because his fellow nationals had lived in Alexandria for many generations, Philo appears to have thought of it as his city. But on the same time, Philo wrote that while the Diaspora Jews refer to the place where they were born and raised as their fatherland, they consider Jerusalem to be their mother city:<sup id="cite_ref-:14_122-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:14-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:15_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><blockquote><p>...they hold the Holy City where the sacred Temple of the most high God to be their mother city, yet those which are an inheritance from their fathers, grandfathers, and ancestors even farther back, are in each case, accounted by them to be their fatherland in which they were born are reared.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:14_122-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:14-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p>In an effort to explain the situation of the Jews in terms that Greek readers would comprehend, Philo portrayed the Jews in the Diaspora as immigrants who founded colonies (<a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>: <i><a href="/wiki/Greek_colonisation" title="Greek colonisation">apoikiai</a></i>), with Jerusalem being their mother-city (<i>metropolis</i>). According to Kasher, Alexandria could only be considered a homeland in this case since it was where a Jewish "colony" was founded. The colony was organized as a distinct ethnic union with a recognized political and legal status (<i>politeuma)</i>, with Jerusalem serving as its mother-city.<sup id="cite_ref-:15_123-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Philo of Alexandria considered the ethnic distinctions between Egyptians and Jews to be more significant than those between Greeks and Jews, viewing native Egyptians as the lowest-class residents who practiced ridiculous habits. Around the same time, <a href="/wiki/Apion" title="Apion">Apion</a>, an Alexandrian possibly of Egyptian descent, spoke of the closeness between Jews and Egyptians and the inherent enmity between Jews and Greeks. Apion believed that Jews were descended from Egyptians, a claim Josephus denied. Philo noted that both Jews and Egyptians practiced circumcision and were passionate about their nationalistic and religious beliefs, though the majority of each population did not hold <a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Roman citizenship</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:14_122-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:14-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Demography">Demography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Temple_period&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Demography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This section refers to the late Second Temple period, unless specified. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="By_area">By area</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Temple_period&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: By area"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the late Second Temple period and up until the Bar Kokhba revolt, Judea proper, <a href="/wiki/Galilee" title="Galilee">Galilee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Perea" title="Perea">Peraea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sharon_plain" title="Sharon plain">Sharon</a>, and western <a href="/wiki/Samaria" title="Samaria">Samaria</a> constituted a band of nearly continuous Jewish settlement. Central and northern Samaria was inhabited by <a href="/wiki/Samaritans" title="Samaritans">Samaritans</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:25_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:25-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Galilee">Galilee</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Temple_period&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Galilee"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Galilee was sparsely populated up to the <a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_dynasty" title="Hasmonean dynasty">Hasmonean</a> conquest, with the majority of its inhabitants concentrated in fortified centers on the margins of the western and central valleys. During that time, the <a href="/wiki/Upper_Galilee" title="Upper Galilee">Upper Galilee</a> was home to a predominantly pagan populace with ties to the <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a> coast.<sup id="cite_ref-:07_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:07-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the Book of Maccabees, Jewish communities were already present in Galilee during the <a href="/wiki/Maccabean_Revolt" title="Maccabean Revolt">Maccabean Revolt</a> and before the area was incorporated into the Hasmonean kingdom.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Much of the Galilee was conquered and annexed by the first Hasmonean king <a href="/wiki/Aristobulus_I" title="Aristobulus I">Aristobulus I</a> around 104–103 BCE. This conquest encouraged a significant Jewish influx into Galilee. After the Roman conquest of Judaea in 63 BCE, a second, larger wave of Jewish immigration settled in the region. During the end of the first century BCE and the beginning of the first century CE, large and important towns were founded in Galilee.<sup id="cite_ref-:07_62-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:07-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Jewish population in Galilee continued to prosper after the Second Temple period and especially as a result of the <a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt" title="Bar Kokhba revolt">Bar Kokhba revolt</a>, when it replaced the depopulated Judea as the spiritual, demographic and cultural center of Jews in the <a href="/wiki/Land_of_Israel" title="Land of Israel">Land of Israel</a>. Judaism reached its political and cultural pinnacle in Galilee during the late second and early third century CE.<sup id="cite_ref-:07_62-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:07-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Perea">Perea</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Temple_period&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Perea"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Historical accounts and archaeological discoveries from the late Second Temple period provide evidence of the Jewish settlements in <a href="/wiki/Perea" title="Perea">Perea</a>. Based on the database of the Jordanian Antiquities Department, Sagiv's research of Jewish Transjordan revealed 160 settlement sites in Peraea with Late Hellenistic and/or Early Roman potsherds.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The little excavations that have been done there show that Jewish habitation there continued after the First Jewish Revolt, was abandoned or destroyed during the Bar Kokhba Revolt, and then there was a settlement gap throughout the Late Roman period.<sup id="cite_ref-:25_86-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:25-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Idumaea">Idumaea</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Temple_period&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Idumaea"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Even before the final collapse of the kingdom of Judah in 586 BCE, the <a href="/wiki/Edom" title="Edom">Edomites</a> were driven from their ancestral homeland and former kingdom east of the <a href="/wiki/Arabah" title="Arabah">Arabah</a> and began to settle in the southern parts of Judea, which came to be known in classical sources as "<i>Idumaea</i>". This settlement process was continuous, and it was carried out using both peaceful penetration and military invasion.<sup id="cite_ref-Advance2_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Advance2-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gunneweg2_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gunneweg2-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ostraca dating from the 4th century BCE from sites in Idumaea including <a href="/wiki/Tel_Arad" title="Tel Arad">Arad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tel_Be%27er_Sheva" title="Tel Be'er Sheva">Beer-sheba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tell_Jemmeh" title="Tell Jemmeh">Tell Jemmeh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maresha" title="Maresha">Maresha</a>, and others, indicate a very diverse population that inhabited the district during the late Persian period, with about 32% Arab names, 27% Idumean names, 25% general West Semitic names, 10% Judahite names, and 5% Phoenician names.<sup id="cite_ref-KlSt07_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KlSt07-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Around the mid-third century BCE, a Hellenized <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a> community from <a href="/wiki/Sidon" title="Sidon">Sidon</a> settled in Maresha.<sup id="cite_ref-:20_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:20-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the reign of Hasmonean leader <a href="/wiki/John_Hyrcanus" title="John Hyrcanus">John Hyrcanus</a> in the late second century BCE, the Edomites converted to Judaism and were assimilated into the Jewish people.<sup id="cite_ref-ReligionIdumea_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReligionIdumea-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Samaria">Samaria</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Temple_period&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Samaria"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The majority of Samaria's people in the first century CE are thought to have been <a href="/wiki/Samaritans" title="Samaritans">Samaritans</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:24_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:24-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Samaria was also inhabited by Jews (in southern and central Samaria<sup id="cite_ref-:25_86-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:25-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), native <a href="/wiki/Hellenization" title="Hellenization">Hellenized</a> Semitic people, descendants of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians" title="Ancient Macedonians">Macedonians</a> who settled in the city of Samaria under <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>, colonists who flocked there under the Roman governor of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">Syria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aulus_Gabinius" title="Aulus Gabinius">Gabinius</a>, and mercenaries "of the neighboring populations" who were brought to <a href="/wiki/Sebastia,_Nablus" title="Sebastia, Nablus">Sebaste</a> by <a href="/wiki/Herod_the_Great" title="Herod the Great">Herod the Great</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:24_131-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:24-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Samaritans and Jews had a hostile relationship; Josephus describes one instance in which Jews from the Galilee were attacked by Samaritans in <a href="/wiki/Jenin" title="Jenin">Ginae</a> while traveling to a festival in Jerusalem, resulting in the death of one of them.<sup id="cite_ref-:24_131-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:24-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Coastal_plain_(Paralia)"><span id="Coastal_plain_.28Paralia.29"></span>Coastal plain (Paralia)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Temple_period&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Coastal plain (Paralia)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Israeli_coastal_plain" title="Israeli coastal plain">coastal plain</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Paralia_(Seleucid_eparchy)" title="Paralia (Seleucid eparchy)">Paralia</a> as it was known since the Hellenistic period, did not have a Jewish majority. With the exception of a brief period of <a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_dynasty" title="Hasmonean dynasty">Hasmonean</a> rule, <a href="/wiki/Herod_the_Great" title="Herod the Great">Herod</a>'s reign, and <a href="/wiki/Herod_Agrippa" title="Herod Agrippa">Agrippa</a>'s brief reign, the region was not under Jewish rule for most of the Second Temple period. The coast was home to mostly Hellenistic-pagan settlements during Josephus' day, some of which were particularly significant from an economic, cultural, and political standpoint. Joppa was the only Jewish city on the coast and remained so up until the <a href="/wiki/First_Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_War" title="First Jewish–Roman War">First Jewish-Roman war</a> (66–73 CE), when there were significant Jewish minorities in <a href="/wiki/Caesarea_Maritima" title="Caesarea Maritima">Caesarea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yavne" title="Yavne">Jamnia</a>, and to a lesser degree, in <a href="/wiki/Ashkelon" title="Ashkelon">Ascalon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Acre,_Israel" title="Acre, Israel">Ptolemais</a> and other settlements along the coast.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Total_numbers">Total numbers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Temple_period&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Total numbers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The number of Jews residing in the world and in Judea in ancient times is almost impossible to determine, as it is with other ancient populations, and research in that area has fallen out of scholarly favor in recent years. Nonetheless, a few academics have offered estimates over the years using different approaches.<sup id="cite_ref-:16_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:16-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="In_Judaea">In Judaea</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Temple_period&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: In Judaea"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Broshi estimated that there were not much more than 1 million people living in Palestine during Roman and Byzantine times, by multiplying the estimated population of the 26 towns that were known during the Roman-Byzantine period (based on projected population density) by three, using the assumption that the urban population made up around a third of the total population.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:16_133-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:16-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Seth_Schwartz" title="Seth Schwartz">Seth Schwartz</a>, the most responsible estimates put the pre-modern sustainable population of Palestine at about one million, a figure that was attained in the middle of the first century, with about half of them being Jews.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Ze%27ev_Safrai" title="Ze'ev Safrai">Ze'ev Safrai</a>, "at this point we do not have exact information regarding the population of Provincia Judaea during the Roman period". He asserts that there were more people living in Palestine than the one million people suggested by Broshi.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:16_133-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:16-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although McGinn cautions that it is nearly impossible to estimate Judaea's carrying capacity, he estimates that Palestine's agricultural population at the same time period may have reached up to one million people, not all of whom were Jews. Also, he suggested a maximum population range for Jerusalem and Caesarea, of 70,000 to 100,000 and 38,000 to 47,500 respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-:16_133-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:16-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Worldwide">Worldwide</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Temple_period&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Worldwide"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 13th century, Christian writer <a href="/wiki/Bar_Hebraeus" title="Bar Hebraeus">Bar Hebraeus</a> claimed that 6,944,000 Jews were counted in the <a href="/wiki/Claudius" title="Claudius">Claudius</a> census, which was conducted in the middle of the 1st century CE. <a href="/wiki/Salo_Wittmayer_Baron" title="Salo Wittmayer Baron">Salo Wittmayer Baron</a> asserted that there were 8 million Jews in the first century, based on Bar Hebraeus' estimate of 7 million Jews living inside the Roman Empire and adding an estimated million people living outside the empire. However, these figures are much disputed by contemporary scholars.<sup id="cite_ref-:16_133-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:16-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Material_culture">Material culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Temple_period&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Material culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As archeological evidence reveals, Jewish communities in Judea, Galilee, and Gaulanitis were quite divided by cultural attitudes but were interconnected by religious customs and, likely, beliefs. Workshops for kitchen pottery, standardized oil jars, and household or community ritual baths (<i>mikvaot)</i> show that Jews began to incorporate explicitly religious practices and attitudes into their homes and everyday lives as early as the first century BCE. They started using <a href="/wiki/Stone_vessels_in_ancient_Judaea" title="Stone vessels in ancient Judaea">stone vessels</a> and a particular new type of oil lamps in the latter first century BCE and early first century CE to further distinguish and identify themselves. However, in the affluent neighborhoods of Jerusalem, the wealthy adopted the use of decorated tableware, Italian cooking utensils, foreign eating customs, and the construction of lavish display tombs, all of which reflect foreign, classicizing practices and attitudes. These findings are rare in Judea, the Jewish Galilee, and Gaulantis.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Burial">Burial</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Temple_period&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Burial"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:115px;max-width:115px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:113px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ossuaries_of_Jesus_son_of_Joseph_and_more.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Second Temple period ossuaries" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Ossuaries_of_Jesus_son_of_Joseph_and_more.JPG/113px-Ossuaries_of_Jesus_son_of_Joseph_and_more.JPG" decoding="async" width="113" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Ossuaries_of_Jesus_son_of_Joseph_and_more.JPG/170px-Ossuaries_of_Jesus_son_of_Joseph_and_more.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Ossuaries_of_Jesus_son_of_Joseph_and_more.JPG/226px-Ossuaries_of_Jesus_son_of_Joseph_and_more.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="2452" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Second Temple period ossuaries discovered in Jerusalem, Israel Museum.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:173px;max-width:173px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:113px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kayafa%27s_Ossuary_1.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Caiaphas ossuary" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Kayafa%27s_Ossuary_1.JPG/171px-Kayafa%27s_Ossuary_1.JPG" decoding="async" width="171" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Kayafa%27s_Ossuary_1.JPG/257px-Kayafa%27s_Ossuary_1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Kayafa%27s_Ossuary_1.JPG/342px-Kayafa%27s_Ossuary_1.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3888" data-file-height="2592" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The <a href="/wiki/Caiaphas_ossuary" title="Caiaphas ossuary">Caiaphas ossuary</a>, discovered in south Jerusalem. It mentions <a href="/wiki/Joseph_ben_Caiaphas" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph ben Caiaphas">Joseph ben Caiaphas</a> of <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> fame, high priest from 18-36 CE</div></div></div></div></div> <p>In contrast to earlier and later Jewish burial practices, the two acceptable types of burial during the late Second Temple period (1st–2nd centuries BCE and CE) were primary burial in coffins and secondary burial in ossuaries.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For primary burial, coffins were placed in <i><a href="/wiki/Kokhim" class="mw-redirect" title="Kokhim">kokhim</a></i>. After a while, bones were collected for secondary burial in <i>kokhim</i> and placed in <a href="/wiki/Ossuary" title="Ossuary">ossuaries</a>. Ossuaries, which were cut from local limestone, were either kept on the floor or on shelves in specially carved niches in the walls of the tomb. It was common for the ossuaries to be decorated with ornaments that included typical motifs of the period.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Jerusalem, for example, palm branches and flowers, especially the <a href="/wiki/Rosette_(design)" title="Rosette (design)">rosette</a>, were typical motives.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Funerary inscriptions with names etched or inscribed in Hebrew or Greek ossuaries are commonly found on ossuaries and sometimes on tombs.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_139-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Monumental_burial">Monumental burial</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Temple_period&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Monumental burial"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The earliest known Jewish burial monument was built by <a href="/wiki/Simon_Thassi" title="Simon Thassi">Simon Thassi</a>, a Hasmonean leader who ruled Judea from 143 to 134 BCE. Simon constructed an now-lost elaborate tomb complex for his family in <a href="/wiki/Modi%27in_(ancient_city)" title="Modi'in (ancient city)">Modi'in</a>. This tomb, described in 1 Maccabees and by Josephus, featured seven pyramids for his family members, surrounded by great columns adorned with suits of armor and carved ships, intended to be visible to all who sailed the sea.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="In_Jerusalem">In Jerusalem</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Temple_period&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: In Jerusalem"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:View_in_the_Valley_of_Jehoshaphat_(Tomb_of_Absalom_and_Tomb_of_Zechariah,_Kidron_Vallery,_Jerusalem)_RCIN_2700926.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/View_in_the_Valley_of_Jehoshaphat_%28Tomb_of_Absalom_and_Tomb_of_Zechariah%2C_Kidron_Vallery%2C_Jerusalem%29_RCIN_2700926.jpg/220px-View_in_the_Valley_of_Jehoshaphat_%28Tomb_of_Absalom_and_Tomb_of_Zechariah%2C_Kidron_Vallery%2C_Jerusalem%29_RCIN_2700926.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/View_in_the_Valley_of_Jehoshaphat_%28Tomb_of_Absalom_and_Tomb_of_Zechariah%2C_Kidron_Vallery%2C_Jerusalem%29_RCIN_2700926.jpg/330px-View_in_the_Valley_of_Jehoshaphat_%28Tomb_of_Absalom_and_Tomb_of_Zechariah%2C_Kidron_Vallery%2C_Jerusalem%29_RCIN_2700926.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/View_in_the_Valley_of_Jehoshaphat_%28Tomb_of_Absalom_and_Tomb_of_Zechariah%2C_Kidron_Vallery%2C_Jerusalem%29_RCIN_2700926.jpg/440px-View_in_the_Valley_of_Jehoshaphat_%28Tomb_of_Absalom_and_Tomb_of_Zechariah%2C_Kidron_Vallery%2C_Jerusalem%29_RCIN_2700926.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1715" data-file-height="1351" /></a><figcaption>The monumental tombs of the <a href="/wiki/Kidron_Valley" title="Kidron Valley">Kidron Valley</a>, photographed in 1862 by <a href="/wiki/Francis_Bedford_(photographer)" title="Francis Bedford (photographer)">Francis Bedford</a></figcaption></figure> <p>A number of especially lavish tombs were built around Jerusalem during the early Roman period. Examples are the so-called "<a href="/wiki/Tombs_of_the_Sanhedrin" title="Tombs of the Sanhedrin">Tombs of the Sanhedrin</a>", <a href="/w/index.php?title=Umm_al_Amad,_Jerusalem&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Umm al Amad, Jerusalem (page does not exist)">Umm al-Amad</a>, and the monumental tombs of the <a href="/wiki/Kidron_Valley" title="Kidron Valley">Kidron Valley</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Absalom" title="Tomb of Absalom">Tomb of Absalom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Zechariah" title="Tomb of Zechariah">Tomb of Zechariah</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Benei_Hezir" title="Tomb of Benei Hezir">Tomb of Benei Hezir</a>. As a common practice in the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman world</a>, these tombs were built along ancient roads that have since disappeared. Scholars believe these tombs were built by individuals seeking to elevate themselves and their families in the eyes of Jews in both the Land of Israel and the Diaspora by employing temple-like architectural designs.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the most well known sites of the period, also built near Jerusalem, is the rock-cut funerary complex known as the "<a href="/wiki/Tombs_of_the_Kings_(Jerusalem)" title="Tombs of the Kings (Jerusalem)">Tombs of the Kings</a>", which may be associated with <a href="/wiki/Helena_of_Adiabene" title="Helena of Adiabene">Helena of Adiabene</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rahmani3_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rahmani3-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Jewish Law</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bava_Batra" title="Bava Batra">Bava Batra</a> tractate), due to the <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_in_Judaism" title="Jerusalem in Judaism">sanctity of Jerusalem</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Corpse_uncleanness" title="Corpse uncleanness">impurity of the dead</a>, burial was only allowed beyond the city's walls and fifty cubits away.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the city expanded, the cemeteries were removed (except for the graves of the <a href="/wiki/Davidic_line" title="Davidic line">House of David</a> and <a href="/wiki/Huldah" title="Huldah">Huldah</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been suggested that the <a href="/wiki/Uzziah" title="Uzziah">Uzziah</a> Tablet, which says "Hither were brought the bones of Uzziah, king of Judah. Not to be opened", might indicate that king Uzziah's tomb was relocated beyond the city's walls during this period.<sup id="cite_ref-Millard_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Millard-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Jericho" title="Jericho">Jericho</a>'s cemetery was also located outside the town's limits.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_138-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="In_rural_Judea">In rural Judea</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Temple_period&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: In rural Judea"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Qarawat-Bani-Hassan-Deir-ad-Derb-094803.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Qarawat-Bani-Hassan-Deir-ad-Derb-094803.jpg/220px-Qarawat-Bani-Hassan-Deir-ad-Derb-094803.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Qarawat-Bani-Hassan-Deir-ad-Derb-094803.jpg/330px-Qarawat-Bani-Hassan-Deir-ad-Derb-094803.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Qarawat-Bani-Hassan-Deir-ad-Derb-094803.jpg/440px-Qarawat-Bani-Hassan-Deir-ad-Derb-094803.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4160" data-file-height="2336" /></a><figcaption>The funerary complex of <a href="/wiki/Deir_ed_Darb" title="Deir ed Darb">Deir ed Darb</a>, Western <a href="/wiki/Samaria" title="Samaria">Samaria</a>, modern-day <a href="/wiki/Qarawat_Bani_Hassan" title="Qarawat Bani Hassan">Qarawat Bani Hassan</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Elaborate rock-cut tombs with designs resembling those found in Jerusalem were found in multiple sites in western <a href="/wiki/Samaria" title="Samaria">Samaria</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Khirbet_Kurkush" title="Khirbet Kurkush">Khirbet Kurkush</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deir_ed_Darb" title="Deir ed Darb">Deir ed-Darb</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aboud" title="Aboud">Mokata 'Aboud</a>, and in the Western <a href="/wiki/Hebron_Hills" title="Hebron Hills">Hebron Hills</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Khirbat_al-Simia" title="Khirbat al-Simia">Khirbat al-Simia</a>, Rujm el-Fihjeh and Khirbet el Jof. The great similarity between these tombs and the Jerusalem tombs and the lack of a local Hellenistic prototype have led the researchers to the assumption that the decorated tombs in western Samaria and the western Hebron Hills are not the result of an internal development of the burial system there but rather the result of a deliberate copying of the Jerusalem tombs, at the special request of local, affluent families.<sup id="cite_ref-Raviv2013_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Raviv2013-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:17_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:17-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While most scholars agree that the tombs of the elaborate tombs of western Samaria and the western <a href="/wiki/Hebron_Hills" title="Hebron Hills">Hebron Hills</a> date to the same period as their Jerusalem counterparts, Yuval Magen offers a contrasting view, proposing that differences in design quality and craftsmanship indicate a chronological gap between them. Magen suggests dating the tombs of Western Samaria and the Western Hebron Hills to a later period—possibly the end of the first century or the beginning of the second century CE. Magen also posits a connection between the construction of these tombs and the influx of Jewish artisans who fled Jerusalem during or shortly before its siege in 70 CE, when job opportunities in the city diminished, leaving many quarrymen unemployed.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:17_147-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:17-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Peleg-Barkat suggests distinguishing between the rock-cut tombs of western Samaria and those of the western Hebron Hills. According to her analysis, the tombs in western Samaria closely emulate the style seen in Jerusalem, mimicking its architectural features. Conversely, the tombs in the Hebron Hills show less direct imitation of the facade decorations of the Jerusalem tombs, but are influenced by them to a certain degree, and display Judean and <a href="/wiki/Nabataean_architecture" title="Nabataean architecture">Nabatean</a> influences at the same time. She suggests dating these tombs to a period preceding the destruction of the Temple in 70 CE, although she acknowledges the possibility that the Jerusalem style of decoration persisted beyond this time. This phenomenon indicates that the ornate tombs of the Jewish elite in Jerusalem influenced the burial practices of local elites across towns and rural areas in Judaea.<sup id="cite_ref-:17_147-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:17-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Temple_period&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_Israel" title="Archaeology of Israel">Archaeology of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah" title="History of ancient Israel and Judah">History of ancient Israel and Judah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Roman Empire">History of the Jews in the Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertestamental_period" title="Intertestamental period">Intertestamental period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_during_the_Second_Temple_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Jerusalem during the Second Temple Period">Jerusalem during the Second Temple Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_Judaism" title="Second Temple Judaism">Second Temple Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Jewish_history" title="Timeline of Jewish history">Timeline of Jewish history</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Temple_period&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Temple_period&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFJonathan_Stökl,_Caroline_Waerzegger2015" class="citation book cs1">Jonathan Stökl, Caroline Waerzegger (2015). <i>Exile and Return: The Babylonian Context</i>. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. pp. 7–11, 30, 226.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Exile+and+Return%3A+The+Babylonian+Context&rft.pages=7-11%2C+30%2C+226&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter+GmbH+%26+Co&rft.date=2015&rft.au=Jonathan+St%C3%B6kl%2C+Caroline+Waerzegger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Encyclopaedia Judaica</i>. Vol. 3 (2nd ed.). p. 27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Judaica&rft.pages=27&rft.edition=2nd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:03-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:03_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:03_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:03_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:03_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:03_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:03_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHelyerMcDonald2013" class="citation book cs1">Helyer, Larry R.; McDonald, Lee Martin (2013). "The Hasmoneans and the Hasmonean Era". In Green, Joel B.; McDonald, Lee Martin (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/961153992"><i>The World of the New Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts</i></a>. Baker Academic. pp. 45–47. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8010-9861-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8010-9861-1"><bdi>978-0-8010-9861-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/961153992">961153992</a>. <q>The ensuing power struggle left Hyrcanus with a free hand in Judea, and he quickly reasserted Jewish sovereignty... Hyrcanus then engaged in a series of military campaigns aimed at territorial expansion. He first conquered areas in the Transjordan. He then turned his attention to Samaria, which had long separated Judea from the northern Jewish settlements in Lower Galilee. In the south, Adora and Marisa were conquered; (Aristobulus') primary accomplishment was annexing and Judaizing the region of Iturea, located between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountains</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Hasmoneans+and+the+Hasmonean+Era&rft.btitle=The+World+of+the+New+Testament%3A+Cultural%2C+Social%2C+and+Historical+Contexts&rft.pages=45-47&rft.pub=Baker+Academic&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F961153992&rft.isbn=978-0-8010-9861-1&rft.aulast=Helyer&rft.aufirst=Larry+R.&rft.au=McDonald%2C+Lee+Martin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F961153992&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto1-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBen-Sasson1976" class="citation book cs1">Ben-Sasson, H.H. (1976). <i>A History of the Jewish People</i>. Harvard University Press. p. 226. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-39731-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-39731-2"><bdi>0-674-39731-2</bdi></a>. <q>The expansion of Hasmonean Judea took place gradually. Under Jonathan, Judea annexed southern Samaria and began to expand in the direction of the coast plain... The main ethnic changes were the work of John Hyrcanus... it was in his days and those of his son Aristobulus that the annexation of Idumea, Samaria and Galilee and the consolidation of Jewish settlement in Trans-Jordan was completed. Alexander Jannai, continuing the work of his predecessors, expanded Judean rule to the entire coastal plain, from the Carmel to the Egyptian border... and to additional areas in Trans-Jordan, including some of the Greek cities there.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Jewish+People&rft.pages=226&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=0-674-39731-2&rft.aulast=Ben-Sasson&rft.aufirst=H.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:22-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:22_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:22_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:22_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1999" class="citation cs2">Smith, Morton (1999), Sturdy, John; Davies, W. D.; Horbury, William (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-history-of-judaism/gentiles-in-judaism-125-bcece-66/1AC78E99125BFE8E215AC8137DD8FE32">"The Gentiles in Judaism 125 BCE - 66 CE"</a>, <i>The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 3: The Early Roman Period</i>, The Cambridge History of Judaism, vol. 3, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 192–249, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fchol9780521243773.008">10.1017/chol9780521243773.008</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24377-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24377-3"><bdi>978-0-521-24377-3</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-03-20</span></span>, <q>These changes accompanied and were partially caused by the great extension of the Judaeans' contacts with the peoples around them. Many historians have chronicled the Hasmonaeans' territorial acquisitions. In sum, it took them twenty-five years to win control of the tiny territory of Judaea and get rid of the Seleucid colony of royalist Jews (with, presumably, gentile officials and garrison) in Jerusalem. [...] However, in the last years before its fall, the Hasmonaeans were already strong enough to acquire, partly by negotiation, partly by conquest, a little territory north and south of Judaea and a corridor on the west to the coast at Jaffa/Joppa. This was briefly taken from them by Antiochus Sidetes, but soon regained, and in the half century from Sidetes' death in 129 to Alexander Jannaeus' death in 76 they overran most of Palestine and much of western and northern Transjordan. First John Hyrcanus took over the hills of southern and central Palestine (Idumaea and the territories of Shechem, Samaria and Scythopolis) in 128–104; then his son, Aristobulus I, took Galilee in 104–103, and Aristobulus' brother and successor, Jannaeus, in about eighteen years of warfare (103–96, 86–76) conquered and reconquered the coastal plain, the northern Negev, and western edge of Transjordan.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Judaism%3A+Volume+3%3A+The+Early+Roman+Period&rft.atitle=The+Gentiles+in+Judaism+125+BCE+-+66+CE&rft.volume=3&rft.pages=192-249&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fchol9780521243773.008&rft.isbn=978-0-521-24377-3&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Morton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Fcambridge-history-of-judaism%2Fgentiles-in-judaism-125-bcece-66%2F1AC78E99125BFE8E215AC8137DD8FE32&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBen-Eliyahu2019" class="citation book cs1">Ben-Eliyahu, Eyal (30 April 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/1103519319"><i>Identity and Territory: Jewish Perceptions of Space in Antiquity</i></a>. Univ of California Press. p. 13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-29360-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-29360-1"><bdi>978-0-520-29360-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1103519319">1103519319</a>. <q>From the beginning of the Second Temple period until the Muslim conquest—the land was part of imperial space. This was true from the early Persian period, as well as the time of Ptolemy and the Seleucids. The only exception was the Hasmonean Kingdom, with its sovereign Jewish rule—first over Judah and later, in Alexander Jannaeus's prime, extending to the coast, the north, and the eastern banks of the Jordan.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Identity+and+Territory%3A+Jewish+Perceptions+of+Space+in+Antiquity&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=Univ+of+California+Press&rft.date=2019-04-30&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1103519319&rft.isbn=978-0-520-29360-1&rft.aulast=Ben-Eliyahu&rft.aufirst=Eyal&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1103519319&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wheat2ndTemp-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wheat2ndTemp_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wheat2ndTemp_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kME8nQEACAAJ">The Jewish Backgrounds of the New Testament: Second Commonwealth Judaism in Recent Study</a>, Wheaton College, Previously published in <i>Archaeology of the Biblical World</i>, 1/2 (1991), pp. 40–49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaresh2006" class="citation book cs1">Karesh, Sara E. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/1162305378"><i>Encyclopedia of Judaism</i></a>. Facts On File. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-78785-171-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-78785-171-0"><bdi>1-78785-171-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1162305378">1162305378</a>. <q>Until the modern period, the destruction of the Temple was the most cataclysmic moment in the history of the Jewish people. Without the Temple, the Sadducees no longer had any claim to authority, and they faded away. The sage Yochanan ben Zakkai, with permission from Rome, set up the outpost of Yavneh to continue develop of Pharisaic, or rabbinic, Judaism.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Judaism&rft.pub=Facts+On+File&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1162305378&rft.isbn=1-78785-171-0&rft.aulast=Karesh&rft.aufirst=Sara+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1162305378&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlföldy1995" class="citation journal cs1">Alföldy, Géza (1995). "Eine Bauinschrift aus dem Colosseum". <i><a href="/wiki/Zeitschrift_f%C3%BCr_Papyrologie_und_Epigraphik" title="Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik">Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik</a></i>. <b>109</b>: 195–226. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20189648">20189648</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Papyrologie+und+Epigraphik&rft.atitle=Eine+Bauinschrift+aus+dem+Colosseum&rft.volume=109&rft.pages=195-226&rft.date=1995&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20189648%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Alf%C3%B6ldy&rft.aufirst=G%C3%A9za&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:4_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWestwood2017" class="citation journal cs1">Westwood, Ursula (2017-04-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.18647/3311/jjs-2017">"A History of the Jewish War, AD 66–74"</a>. <i>Journal of Jewish Studies</i>. <b>68</b> (1): 189–193. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.18647%2F3311%2Fjjs-2017">10.18647/3311/jjs-2017</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-2097">0022-2097</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Jewish+Studies&rft.atitle=A+History+of+the+Jewish+War%2C+AD+66%E2%80%9374&rft.volume=68&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=189-193&rft.date=2017-04-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.18647%2F3311%2Fjjs-2017&rft.issn=0022-2097&rft.aulast=Westwood&rft.aufirst=Ursula&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.18647%2F3311%2Fjjs-2017&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:8-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:8_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaclean_Rogers2021" class="citation book cs1">Maclean Rogers, Guy (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/1294393934"><i>For the Freedom of Zion: The Great Revolt of Jews against Romans, 66-74 CE</i></a>. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. pp. 3–5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-26256-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-26256-8"><bdi>978-0-300-26256-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1294393934">1294393934</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=For+the+Freedom+of+Zion%3A+The+Great+Revolt+of+Jews+against+Romans%2C+66-74+CE&rft.place=New+Haven+and+London&rft.pages=3-5&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1294393934&rft.isbn=978-0-300-26256-8&rft.aulast=Maclean+Rogers&rft.aufirst=Guy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1294393934&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldenberg1977" class="citation journal cs1">Goldenberg, Robert (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jaarel/xlv.3.353">"The Broken Axis: Rabbinic Judaism and the Fall of Jerusalem"</a>. <i>Journal of the American Academy of Religion</i>. <b>XLV</b> (3): 353. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjaarel%2Fxlv.3.353">10.1093/jaarel/xlv.3.353</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-7189">0002-7189</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Academy+of+Religion&rft.atitle=The+Broken+Axis%3A+Rabbinic+Judaism+and+the+Fall+of+Jerusalem&rft.volume=XLV&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=353&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjaarel%2Fxlv.3.353&rft.issn=0002-7189&rft.aulast=Goldenberg&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1093%2Fjaarel%2Fxlv.3.353&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Klutz_2002-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Klutz_2002_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlutz2002" class="citation book cs1">Klutz, Todd (2002) [2000]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6fyCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA178">"Part II: Christian Origins and Development – Paul and the Development of Gentile Christianity"</a>. In Esler, Philip F. (ed.). <i>The Early Christian World</i>. Routledge Worlds (1st ed.). <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a> and <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. pp. 178–190. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781032199344" title="Special:BookSources/9781032199344"><bdi>9781032199344</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Part+II%3A+Christian+Origins+and+Development+%E2%80%93+Paul+and+the+Development+of+Gentile+Christianity&rft.btitle=The+Early+Christian+World&rft.place=New+York+and+London&rft.series=Routledge+Worlds&rft.pages=178-190&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9781032199344&rft.aulast=Klutz&rft.aufirst=Todd&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6fyCAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA178&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-rennert-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-rennert_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rennert_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biu.ac.il/js/rennert/history_4.html">"Second Temple Period (538 BCE. to 70 CE) Persian Rule"</a>. Biu.ac.il<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 March</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Second+Temple+Period+%28538+BCE.+to+70+CE%29+Persian+Rule&rft.pub=Biu.ac.il&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.biu.ac.il%2Fjs%2Frennert%2Fhistory_4.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Harper's Bible Dictionary</i>, ed. by Achtemeier, etc., Harper & Row, San Francisco, 1985, p. 103</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Becking-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Becking_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Becking_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBecking2006" class="citation book cs1">Becking, Bob (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1zi2i_C1aNkC&pg=PA8">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"We All Returned as One!": Critical Notes on the Myth of the Mass Return"</a>. In Lipschitz, Oded; Oeming, Manfred (eds.). <i>Judah and the Judeans in the Persian Period</i>. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-104-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-104-7"><bdi>978-1-57506-104-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%22We+All+Returned+as+One%21%22%3A+Critical+Notes+on+the+Myth+of+the+Mass+Return&rft.btitle=Judah+and+the+Judeans+in+the+Persian+Period&rft.place=Winona+Lake%2C+IN&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-57506-104-7&rft.aulast=Becking&rft.aufirst=Bob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1zi2i_C1aNkC%26pg%3DPA8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grabbe355-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Grabbe355_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrabbe2004" class="citation book cs1">Grabbe, Lester L. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-MnE5T_0RbMC&q=gave+the+Jews+permission+to+return+to+Yehud+province+and+to+rebuild+the&pg=PA355"><i>A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period: Yehud - A History of the Persian Province of Judah v. 1</i></a>. 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London: T&T Clark. pp. 28–30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-567-21617-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-567-21617-5"><bdi>978-0-567-21617-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/747041289">747041289</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Jews+and+Judaism+in+the+Second+Temple+Period%3A+Yehud%2C+the+Persian+Province+of+Judah&rft.place=London&rft.pages=28-30&rft.pub=T%26T+Clark&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F747041289&rft.isbn=978-0-567-21617-5&rft.aulast=Grabbe&rft.aufirst=Lester+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F747041289&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLipschitsTal2007" class="citation book cs1">Lipschits, Oded; Tal, Oren (2007). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 January</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Livy%27s+History+of+Rome&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmcadams.posc.mu.edu%2Ftxt%2Fah%2FLivy%2FLivy45.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kasher-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kasher_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kasher_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKasher1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Aryeh_Kasher" title="Aryeh Kasher">Kasher, Aryeh</a> (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SNfZ4OjH_ukC&pg=PA55">"2: The Early Hasmonean Era"</a>. <i>Jews and Hellenistic cities in Eretz-Israel: Relations of the Jews in Eretz-Israel with the Hellenistic cities during the Second Temple Period (332 BCE – 70 CE)</i>. Texte und Studien zum Antiken Judentum. Vol. 21. <a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCbingen" title="Tübingen">Tübingen</a>: <a href="/wiki/Mohr_Siebeck" title="Mohr Siebeck">Mohr Siebeck</a>. pp. 55–65. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-16-145241-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-16-145241-3"><bdi>978-3-16-145241-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=2%3A+The+Early+Hasmonean+Era&rft.btitle=Jews+and+Hellenistic+cities+in+Eretz-Israel%3A+Relations+of+the+Jews+in+Eretz-Israel+with+the+Hellenistic+cities+during+the+Second+Temple+Period+%28332+BCE+%E2%80%93+70+CE%29&rft.place=T%C3%BCbingen&rft.series=Texte+und+Studien+zum+Antiken+Judentum&rft.pages=55-65&rft.pub=Mohr+Siebeck&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-3-16-145241-3&rft.aulast=Kasher&rft.aufirst=Aryeh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSNfZ4OjH_ukC%26pg%3DPA55&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=1%20Maccabees%202:27&version=nrsvae">1 Maccabees 2:27</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jan Assmann: <i>Martyrium, Gewalt, Unsterblichkeit. Die Ursprünge eines religiösen Syndroms.</i> In: Jan-Heiner Tück (Hrsg.): <i>Sterben für Gott – Töten für Gott? Religion, Martyrium und Gewalt.</i> [Deutsch]. Herder Verlag, Freiburg i. Br. 2015, 122–147, hier: S. 136.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Menahem Stern: <i>Die Zeit des Zweiten Tempels</i>. In: Haim Hillel Ben-Sasson (Hrsg.): <i>Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes</i>, Band 1: <i>Von den Anfängen bis zum 7. Jahrhundert</i>. München 1978, S. 229–273, hier S. 259.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chabad.org/holidays/chanukah/article_cdo/aid/102911/jewish/What-Is-Hanukkah.htm">"What Is Hanukkah?"</a>. Chabad-Lubavitch Media Center. <q>In the second century BCE, the Holy Land was ruled by the Seleucids (Syrian-Greeks), who tried to force the people of Israel to accept Greek culture and beliefs instead of mitzvah observance and belief in G‑d. Against all odds, a small band of faithful but poorly armed Jews, led by Judah the Maccabee, defeated one of the mightiest armies on earth, drove the Greeks from the land, reclaimed the Holy Temple in Jerusalem and rededicated it to the service of G‑d. ... To commemorate and publicize these miracles, the sages instituted the festival of Chanukah.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+Is+Hanukkah%3F&rft.pub=Chabad-Lubavitch+Media+Center&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.chabad.org%2Fholidays%2Fchanukah%2Farticle_cdo%2Faid%2F102911%2Fjewish%2FWhat-Is-Hanukkah.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Menahem Stern: <i>Die Zeit des Zweiten Tempels</i>. In: Haim Hillel Ben-Sasson (Hrsg.): <i>Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes</i>, Band 1: <i>Von den Anfängen bis zum 7. Jahrhundert</i>. München 1978, S. 229–273, hier S. 262.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Menahem Stern: <i>Die Zeit des Zweiten Tempels</i>. In: Haim Hillel Ben-Sasson (Hrsg.): <i>Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes</i>, Band 1: <i>Von den Anfängen bis zum 7. Jahrhundert</i>. München 1978, S. 229–273, hier S. 265.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Menahem Stern: <i>Die Zeit des Zweiten Tempels</i>. In: Haim Hillel Ben-Sasson (Hrsg.): <i>Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes</i>, Band 1: <i>Von den Anfängen bis zum 7. Jahrhundert</i>. München 1978, S. 229–273, hier S. 267.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SmithFuller20042-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SmithFuller20042_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_SmithJohn_Mee_Fuller2004" class="citation book cs1">William Smith; John Mee Fuller (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iEj7FA8InCoC&q=hyrcanus+medeba+110&pg=PA287"><i>Encyclopaedic dictionary of the Bible</i></a>. Vol. 5. Concept Publishing Company. p. 287. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7268-095-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7268-095-4"><bdi>978-81-7268-095-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedic+dictionary+of+the+Bible&rft.pages=287&rft.pub=Concept+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-81-7268-095-4&rft.au=William+Smith&rft.au=John+Mee+Fuller&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiEj7FA8InCoC%26q%3Dhyrcanus%2Bmedeba%2B110%26pg%3DPA287&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHjelm2010" class="citation book cs1">Hjelm, Ingrid (2010). "Mt. Gerizim and Samaritans in Recent Research". In Mor, Menachem; Reiterer, Friedrich V. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/1059032652"><i>Samaritans - Past and Present: Current Studies</i></a>. De Gruyer. p. 35. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-021283-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-021283-9"><bdi>978-3-11-021283-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1059032652">1059032652</a>. <q>The destruction of the Samaritan temple, Josephus argues, had taken place at the beginning of the reign of John Hyrcanus (135-104 BCE), rather than at the end of his reign. From the coinage, a dating later than 111 BCE is the more probable.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mt.+Gerizim+and+Samaritans+in+Recent+Research&rft.btitle=Samaritans+-+Past+and+Present%3A+Current+Studies&rft.pages=35&rft.pub=De+Gruyer&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1059032652&rft.isbn=978-3-11-021283-9&rft.aulast=Hjelm&rft.aufirst=Ingrid&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1059032652&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Berlin_20112-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Berlin_20112_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerlin2011" class="citation book cs1">Berlin, Adele (2011). <i>The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion</i>. Oxford University Press. p. 330. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199730049" title="Special:BookSources/9780199730049"><bdi>9780199730049</bdi></a>. <q>John Hyrcanus I, who embarked upon further territorial conquests, forcing the non-Jewish populations of the conquered regions to adopt the Jewish way of life and destroying the Samaritan temple on Mount Gerizim.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+the+Jewish+Religion&rft.pages=330&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780199730049&rft.aulast=Berlin&rft.aufirst=Adele&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sievers, 142</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Josephus, <i>Antiquities of the Jews</i>, 13.257–258</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">George W. E. Nickelsburg. <i>Jewish Literature Between The Bible And The Mishnah</i>, with CD-ROM, Second Edition. (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2005), 93</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Sartre" title="Maurice Sartre">Maurice Sartre</a>. <i>The Middle East Under Rome</i>. Harvard University Press, 2005: p. 15</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kai_Trampedach&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kai Trampedach (page does not exist)">Kai Trampedach</a>: <i>Between Hellenistic Monarchy and Jewish Theocracy. The Contested Legitimacy of Hasmonean Rule.</i> In: <a href="/wiki/Nino_Luraghi" title="Nino Luraghi">Nino Luraghi</a> (Hrsg.): <i>The Splendors and Miseries of Ruling Alone.</i> Franz Steiner, Stuttgart 2013, S. 231–259.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:04-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:04_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeibner2009" class="citation book cs1">Leibner, Uzi (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/43969"><i>Settlement and History in Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine Galilee: An Archaeological Survey of the Eastern Galilee</i></a>. Mohr Siebeck. p. 336. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12657%2F43969">20.500.12657/43969</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-16-151460-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-16-151460-9"><bdi>978-3-16-151460-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Settlement+and+History+in+Hellenistic%2C+Roman%2C+and+Byzantine+Galilee%3A+An+Archaeological+Survey+of+the+Eastern+Galilee&rft.pages=336&rft.pub=Mohr+Siebeck&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F20.500.12657%2F43969&rft.isbn=978-3-16-151460-9&rft.aulast=Leibner&rft.aufirst=Uzi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flibrary.oapen.org%2Fhandle%2F20.500.12657%2F43969&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:07-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:07_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:07_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:07_62-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:07_62-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeibner2009" class="citation book cs1">Leibner, Uzi (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/43969"><i>Settlement and History in Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine Galilee: An Archaeological Survey of the Eastern Galilee</i></a>. Mohr Siebeck. pp. 321–324, 362–371, 396–400, 414–416. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12657%2F43969">20.500.12657/43969</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-16-151460-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-16-151460-9"><bdi>978-3-16-151460-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Settlement+and+History+in+Hellenistic%2C+Roman%2C+and+Byzantine+Galilee%3A+An+Archaeological+Survey+of+the+Eastern+Galilee&rft.pages=321-324%2C+362-371%2C+396-400%2C+414-416&rft.pub=Mohr+Siebeck&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F20.500.12657%2F43969&rft.isbn=978-3-16-151460-9&rft.aulast=Leibner&rft.aufirst=Uzi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flibrary.oapen.org%2Fhandle%2F20.500.12657%2F43969&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Davies 1992, pp. 149–50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Philip R. Davies in <i>The Canon Debate</i>, p. 50: "With many other scholars, I conclude that the fixing of a canonical list was almost certainly the achievement of the Hasmonean dynasty."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen1999" class="citation book cs1">Cohen, Shaye (1999). <i>Ancient Israel: From Abraham to the Roman Destruction of the Temple</i>. Biblical Archeology Society. p. 273. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1880317540" title="Special:BookSources/1880317540"><bdi>1880317540</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Israel%3A+From+Abraham+to+the+Roman+Destruction+of+the+Temple&rft.pages=273&rft.pub=Biblical+Archeology+Society&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=1880317540&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=Shaye&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ben-Sasson (1976), p. 246.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ERPplaces-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ERPplaces_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLehmann2007" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Lehmann, Clayton Miles (22 February 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080310053428/http://www.usd.edu/erp/Palestine/history.htm">"Palestine: History"</a>. <i>The On-line Encyclopedia of the Roman Provinces</i>. The University of South Dakota. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.usd.edu/erp/Palestine/history.htm">the original</a> on 10 March 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 April</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Palestine%3A+History&rft.btitle=The+On-line+Encyclopedia+of+the+Roman+Provinces&rft.pub=The+University+of+South+Dakota&rft.date=2007-02-22&rft.aulast=Lehmann&rft.aufirst=Clayton+Miles&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.usd.edu%2Ferp%2FPalestine%2Fhistory.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HarEl68-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HarEl68_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHar-El1977" class="citation book cs1">Har-El, Menashe (1977). <i>This Is Jerusalem</i>. Canaan Publishing House. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/thisisjerusalem0000hare/page/68">68–95</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86628-002-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-86628-002-2"><bdi>0-86628-002-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=This+Is+Jerusalem&rft.pages=68-95&rft.pub=Canaan+Publishing+House&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=0-86628-002-2&rft.aulast=Har-El&rft.aufirst=Menashe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wilkinson, "Ancient Jerusalem, Its Water Supply and Population", PEFQS 106, pp. 33–51 (1974).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Estimating the Population of Ancient Jerusalem, Magen Broshi, BAR 4:02, Jun 1978</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"According to Levine, because the new area encompassed by the Third Wall was not densely populated, assuming that it contained half the population of the rest of the city, there were between 60,000 and 70,000 people living in Jerusalem.", Rocca, "Herod's Judaea: A Mediterranean State in the Classical World", p. 333 (2008). Mohr Siebeck.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cousland, "The Crowds in the Gospel of Matthew", p. 60 (2002). Brill.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:7-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:7_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaclean_Rogers2021" class="citation book cs1">Maclean Rogers, Guy (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/1294393934"><i>For the Freedom of Zion: The Great Revolt of Jews against Romans, 66–74 CE</i></a>. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. pp. 3–5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-26256-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-26256-8"><bdi>978-0-300-26256-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1294393934">1294393934</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=For+the+Freedom+of+Zion%3A+The+Great+Revolt+of+Jews+against+Romans%2C+66%E2%80%9374+CE&rft.place=New+Haven+and+London&rft.pages=3-5&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1294393934&rft.isbn=978-0-300-26256-8&rft.aulast=Maclean+Rogers&rft.aufirst=Guy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1294393934&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBunson1995" class="citation book cs1">Bunson, Matthew (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HsrGEFpW80UC&pg=PA212"><i>A Dictionary of the Roman Empire</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 212. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195102338" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195102338"><bdi>978-0195102338</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+the+Roman+Empire&rft.pages=212&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0195102338&rft.aulast=Bunson&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHsrGEFpW80UC%26pg%3DPA212&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The destruction of both the <a href="/wiki/Solomon%27s_Temple" title="Solomon's Temple">First</a> and Second Temples is still mourned annually during the Jewish fast of <a href="/wiki/Tisha_B%27Av" title="Tisha B'Av">Tisha B'Av</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rocca2008_p.51-52-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rocca2008_p.51-52_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_during_the_Second_Temple_Period#Rocca2008" class="mw-redirect" title="Jerusalem during the Second Temple Period">Rocca (2008)</a>, pp. 51-52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:1_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodman2008" class="citation book cs1">Goodman, Martin (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/1016414322"><i>Rome and Jerusalem: The Clash of Ancient Civilizations</i></a>. Penguin. p. 25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-029127-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-029127-8"><bdi>978-0-14-029127-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1016414322">1016414322</a>. <q>The capitulation of the rest of Jerusalem was rapid. Those parts of the lower city already under Roman control were deliberately set on fire. The erection of new towers to break down the walls of the upper city was completed on 7 Elul (in mid-August), and the troops forced their way in. By 8 Elul the whole city was in Roman hands – and in ruins. In recompense for the ferocious fighting they had been required to endure, the soldiers were given free rein to loot and kill, until eventually Titus ordered that the city be razed to the ground, "leaving only the loftiest of the towers, Phasael, Hippicus and Mariamme, and the portion of the wall enclosing the city on the west: the latter as an encampment for the garrison that was to remain, and the towers to indicate to posterity the nature of the city and of the strong defences which had yet yielded to Roman prowess. All the rest of the wall encompassing the city was so completely levelled to the ground as to leave future visitors to the spot no ground for believing that it had ever been inhabited."<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rome+and+Jerusalem%3A+The+Clash+of+Ancient+Civilizations&rft.pages=25&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1016414322&rft.isbn=978-0-14-029127-8&rft.aulast=Goodman&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1016414322&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSebag_Montefiore2012" class="citation book cs1">Sebag Montefiore, Simon (2012). <i>Jerusalem: The Biography</i> (First Vintage books ed.). New York. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0307280503" title="Special:BookSources/978-0307280503"><bdi>978-0307280503</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jerusalem%3A+The+Biography&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=11&rft.edition=First+Vintage+books&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0307280503&rft.aulast=Sebag+Montefiore&rft.aufirst=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zeev-2006-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Zeev-2006_79-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zeev-2006_79-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zeev-2006_79-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZeev2006" class="citation cs2">Zeev, Miriam Pucci Ben (2006-06-22), Katz, Steven T. (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/CBO9781139055130A007/type/book_part">"The uprisings in the Jewish Diaspora, 116–117"</a>, <i>The Cambridge History of Judaism</i> (1 ed.), Cambridge University Press, pp. 93–106, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fchol9780521772488.005">10.1017/chol9780521772488.005</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05513-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05513-0"><bdi>978-1-139-05513-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-09-08</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Judaism&rft.atitle=The+uprisings+in+the+Jewish+Diaspora%2C+116%E2%80%93117&rft.pages=93-106&rft.date=2006-06-22&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fchol9780521772488.005&rft.isbn=978-1-139-05513-0&rft.aulast=Zeev&rft.aufirst=Miriam+Pucci+Ben&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fproduct%2Fidentifier%2FCBO9781139055130A007%2Ftype%2Fbook_part&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmallwood1976" class="citation book cs1">Smallwood, E. Mary (1976). <i>The Jews under Roman Rule from Pompey to Diocletian</i>. SBL Press. p. 397. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-50204-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-50204-8"><bdi>978-90-04-50204-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jews+under+Roman+Rule+from+Pompey+to+Diocletian&rft.pages=397&rft.pub=SBL+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-90-04-50204-8&rft.aulast=Smallwood&rft.aufirst=E.+Mary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKerkeslager2006" class="citation book cs1">Kerkeslager, Allen (2006). "The Jews in Egypt and Cyrenaica, 66–c. 235 CE". In Katz, Steven T. (ed.). <i>The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period</i>. The Cambridge History of Judaism. Vol. 4th. Cambridge University Press. pp. 61–62. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-77248-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-77248-8"><bdi>978-0-521-77248-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Jews+in+Egypt+and+Cyrenaica%2C+66%E2%80%93c.+235+CE&rft.btitle=The+Late+Roman-Rabbinic+Period&rft.series=The+Cambridge+History+of+Judaism&rft.pages=61-62&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-521-77248-8&rft.aulast=Kerkeslager&rft.aufirst=Allen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:02-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:02_82-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_82-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMor2016" class="citation book cs1">Mor, Menahem (2016-04-18). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1163/9789004314634"><i>The Second Jewish Revolt</i></a>. BRILL. pp. 483–484. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004314634">10.1163/9789004314634</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-31463-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-31463-4"><bdi>978-90-04-31463-4</bdi></a>. <q>Land confiscation in Judaea was part of the suppression of the revolt policy of the Romans and punishment for the rebels. But the very claim that the <a href="/wiki/Sicaricon" title="Sicaricon">sikarikon laws</a> were annulled for settlement purposes seems to indicate that Jews continued to reside in Judaea even after the Second Revolt. There is no doubt that this area suffered the severest damage from the suppression of the revolt. Settlements in Judaea, such as Herodion and Bethar, had already been destroyed during the course of the revolt, and Jews were expelled from the districts of Gophna, Herodion, and Aqraba. However, it should not be claimed that the region of Judaea was completely destroyed. Jews continued to live in areas such as Lod (Lydda), south of the Hebron Mountain, and the coastal regions. In other areas of the Land of Israel that did not have any direct connection with the Second Revolt, no settlement changes can be identified as resulting from it.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Second+Jewish+Revolt&rft.pages=483-484&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2016-04-18&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789004314634&rft.isbn=978-90-04-31463-4&rft.aulast=Mor&rft.aufirst=Menahem&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1163%2F9789004314634&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Taylor-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Taylor_83-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Taylor_83-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor2012" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, J. E. (15 November 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XWIMFY4VnI4C&pg=PA243"><i>The Essenes, the Scrolls, and the Dead Sea</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199554485" title="Special:BookSources/9780199554485"><bdi>9780199554485</bdi></a>. <q>These texts, combined with the relics of those who hid in caves along the western side of the Dead Sea, tells us a great deal. What is clear from the evidence of both skeletal remains and artefacts is that the Roman assault on the Jewish population of the Dead Sea was so severe and comprehensive that no one came to retrieve precious legal documents, or bury the dead. Up until this date the Bar Kokhba documents indicate that towns, villages and ports where Jews lived were busy with industry and activity. Afterwards there is an eerie silence, and the archaeological record testifies to little Jewish presence until the Byzantine era, in En Gedi. This picture coheres with what we have already determined in Part I of this study, that the crucial date for what can only be described as genocide, and the devastation of Jews and Judaism within central Judea, was 135 CE and not, as usually assumed, 70 CE, despite the siege of Jerusalem and the Temple's destruction</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Essenes%2C+the+Scrolls%2C+and+the+Dead+Sea&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012-11-15&rft.isbn=9780199554485&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=J.+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXWIMFY4VnI4C%26pg%3DPA243&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mor,_M._2016._P471-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mor,_M._2016._P471_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mor, M. <i>The Second Jewish Revolt: The Bar Kokhba War, 132-136 CE</i>. Brill, 2016. P471/</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Powell, <i>The Bar Kokhba War AD 132-136</i>, Osprey Publishing, Oxford, ç2017, p.80</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:25-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:25_86-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:25_86-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:25_86-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:25_86-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRavivDavid2021" class="citation journal cs1">Raviv, Dvir; David, Chaim Ben (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1047759421000271">"Cassius Dio's figures for the demographic consequences of the Bar Kokhba War: Exaggeration or reliable account?"</a>. <i>Journal of Roman Archaeology</i>. <b>34</b> (2): 585–607. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1047759421000271">10.1017/S1047759421000271</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1047-7594">1047-7594</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:245512193">245512193</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Roman+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Cassius+Dio%27s+figures+for+the+demographic+consequences+of+the+Bar+Kokhba+War%3A+Exaggeration+or+reliable+account%3F&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=585-607&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A245512193%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1047-7594&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS1047759421000271&rft.aulast=Raviv&rft.aufirst=Dvir&rft.au=David%2C+Chaim+Ben&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS1047759421000271&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span><i><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="//creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" title="creativecommons:by/4.0/"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Creative_Commons_by_small.svg/80px-Creative_Commons_by_small.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Creative_Commons_by_small.svg/120px-Creative_Commons_by_small.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Creative_Commons_by_small.svg/160px-Creative_Commons_by_small.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="80" data-file-height="15" /></a></span> This article incorporates text from this source, which is available under the <a href="//creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" class="extiw" title="creativecommons:by/4.0/">CC BY 4.0</a> license.</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwartz2009" class="citation book cs1">Schwartz, Seth (2009). "Historiography on the Jews in the 'Talmudic Period' (70–640 ce)". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199280322.013.0005"><i>The Oxford Handbook of Early Christian Studies</i></a>. Oxford. pp. 79–114. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199280322.013.0005">10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199280322.013.0005</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199280322" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199280322"><bdi>978-0199280322</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Historiography+on+the+Jews+in+the+%E2%80%98Talmudic+Period%E2%80%99+%2870%E2%80%93640+ce%29&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Early+Christian+Studies&rft.pages=79-114&rft.pub=Oxford&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199280322.013.0005&rft.isbn=978-0199280322&rft.aulast=Schwartz&rft.aufirst=Seth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199280322.013.0005&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-H.H._Ben-Sasson,_1976,_page_334-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-H.H._Ben-Sasson,_1976,_page_334_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H.H. Ben-Sasson, <i>A History of the Jewish People</i>, Harvard University Press, 1976, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-39731-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-39731-2">0-674-39731-2</a>, page 334: "In an effort to wipe out all memory of the bond between the Jews and the land, Hadrian changed the name of the province from Judaea to Syria-Palestina, a name that became common in non-Jewish literature."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ariel_Lewin_p._33-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ariel_Lewin_p._33_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ariel Lewin. <i>The archaeology of Ancient Judea and Palestine</i>. Getty Publications, 2005 p. 33. "It seems clear that by choosing a seemingly neutral name - one juxtaposing that of a neighboring province with the revived name of an ancient geographical entity (Palestine), already known from the writings of Herodotus - Hadrian was intending to suppress any connection between the Jewish people and that land." <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89236-800-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-89236-800-4">0-89236-800-4</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Oppenheimer, A'haron and Oppenheimer, Nili. <i>Between Rome and Babylon: Studies in Jewish Leadership and Society</i>. Mohr Siebeck, 2005, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohn-Sherbok1996" class="citation book cs1">Cohn-Sherbok, Dan (1996). <i>Atlas of Jewish History</i>. Routledge. p. 58. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-08800-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-08800-8"><bdi>978-0-415-08800-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atlas+of+Jewish+History&rft.pages=58&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-415-08800-8&rft.aulast=Cohn-Sherbok&rft.aufirst=Dan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLehmann2007" class="citation web cs1">Lehmann, Clayton Miles (18 January 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130407005423/http://sunburst.usd.edu/~clehmann/erp/Palestine/palestin.htm">"Palestine"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia of the Roman Provinces</i>. University of South Dakota. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sunburst.usd.edu/~clehmann/erp/Palestine/palestin.htm">the original</a> on 7 April 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 February</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Roman+Provinces&rft.atitle=Palestine&rft.date=2007-01-18&rft.aulast=Lehmann&rft.aufirst=Clayton+Miles&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsunburst.usd.edu%2F~clehmann%2Ferp%2FPalestine%2Fpalestin.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorçöl2006">Morçöl 2006</a>, p. 304</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEhrlich2022" class="citation book cs1">Ehrlich, Michael (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/1302180905"><i>The Islamization of the Holy Land, 634-1800</i></a>. Leeds, UK: Arc Humanities Press. pp. 3–4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-64189-222-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-64189-222-3"><bdi>978-1-64189-222-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1302180905">1302180905</a>. <q>The Jewish community strove to recover from the catastrophic results of the Bar Kokhva revolt (132–135 CE). Although some of these attempts were relatively successful, the Jews never fully recovered. During the Late Roman and Byzantine periods, many Jews emigrated to thriving centres in the diaspora, especially Iraq, whereas some converted to Christianity and others continued to live in the Holy Land, especially in Galilee and the coastal plain.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Islamization+of+the+Holy+Land%2C+634-1800&rft.place=Leeds%2C+UK&rft.pages=3-4&rft.pub=Arc+Humanities+Press&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1302180905&rft.isbn=978-1-64189-222-3&rft.aulast=Ehrlich&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1302180905&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ehrlich-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ehrlich_95-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ehrlich_95-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ehrlich_95-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ehrlich_95-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMark_Avrum_Ehrlich2009" class="citation book cs1">Mark Avrum Ehrlich, ed. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NoPZu79hqaEC&q=jewish+diaspora"><i>Encyclopedia of the Jewish Diaspora: Origins, Experiences, and Culture, Volume 1</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-873-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-873-6"><bdi>978-1-85109-873-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Jewish+Diaspora%3A+Origins%2C+Experiences%2C+and+Culture%2C+Volume+1&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-85109-873-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNoPZu79hqaEC%26q%3Djewish%2Bdiaspora&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Translation_1981,_pg._95-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Translation_1981,_pg._95_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת "עם ישראל – תולדות 4000 שנה – מימי האבות ועד חוזה השלום", ע"מ 95. (Translation: Mordechai Vermebrand and Betzalel S. Ruth – "The People of Israel – the history of 4000 years – from the days of the Forefathers to the Peace Treaty", 1981, p. 95)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Solomon_Gryazel_p._137-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Solomon_Gryazel_p._137_97-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Solomon_Gryazel_p._137_97-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Dr. Solomon Gryazel, "History of the Jews – From the destruction of Judah in 586 BC to the present Arab Israeli conflict", p. 137</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:21-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:21_98-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:21_98-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFלוין1995" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">לוין, ישראל ל' (1995). "המאבק הפוליטי בין הפרושים לצדוקים בתקופה החשמונאית" [The political struggle between the Pharisees and Sadducees during the Hasmonean period]. In שוורץ, דניאל (ed.). <i>מחקרים בתולדות ישראל בתקופת הבית השני</i> [<i>Studies in the history of Israel during the Second Temple period</i>] (in Hebrew). ירושלים: מרכז זלמן שזר לתולדות ישראל. pp. 287–290. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/965-227-103-9" title="Special:BookSources/965-227-103-9"><bdi>965-227-103-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%91%D7%A7+%D7%94%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%98%D7%99+%D7%91%D7%99%D7%9F+%D7%94%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A9%D7%99%D7%9D+%D7%9C%D7%A6%D7%93%D7%95%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%9D+%D7%91%D7%AA%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%94+%D7%94%D7%97%D7%A9%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%90%D7%99%D7%AA&rft.btitle=%D7%9E%D7%97%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9D+%D7%91%D7%AA%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%93%D7%95%D7%AA+%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%9C+%D7%91%D7%AA%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%AA+%D7%94%D7%91%D7%99%D7%AA+%D7%94%D7%A9%D7%A0%D7%99&rft.place=%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A9%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%9D&rft.pages=287-290&rft.pub=%D7%9E%D7%A8%D7%9B%D7%96+%D7%96%D7%9C%D7%9E%D7%9F+%D7%A9%D7%96%D7%A8+%D7%9C%D7%AA%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%93%D7%95%D7%AA+%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%9C&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=965-227-103-9&rft.aulast=%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%99%D7%9F&rft.aufirst=%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%9C+%D7%9C%27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVermes198120,_26,_27,_29-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVermes198120,_26,_27,_29_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVermes1981">Vermes 1981</a>, pp. 20, 26, 27, 29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:19-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:19_100-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:19_100-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:19_100-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ._Collins2019" class="citation book cs1">J. Collins, John (2019). "The Literature of the Second Temple Period". In Goodman, Martin (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199280322.013.0004"><i>The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies</i></a>. Oxford. pp. 53–78. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199280322.013.0004">10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199280322.013.0004</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199280322" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199280322"><bdi>978-0199280322</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Literature+of+the+Second+Temple+Period&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Biblical+Studies&rft.pages=53-78&rft.pub=Oxford&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199280322.013.0004&rft.isbn=978-0199280322&rft.aulast=J.+Collins&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199280322.013.0004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:13-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:13_101-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_101-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_101-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_101-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_101-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_101-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_101-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_101-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_101-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSafrai2003" class="citation book cs1">Safrai, Zeev (2003). "Trade in the Land of Israel during the Second Temple period". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/814404092"><i>The Economy of Roman Palestine</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. pp. 125–128. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-280-09423-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-280-09423-0"><bdi>1-280-09423-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/814404092">814404092</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Trade+in+the+Land+of+Israel+during+the+Second+Temple+period&rft.btitle=The+Economy+of+Roman+Palestine.&rft.pages=125-128&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F814404092&rft.isbn=1-280-09423-0&rft.aulast=Safrai&rft.aufirst=Zeev&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F814404092&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Josephus, <i>Against Apion</i>, 1.12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:23-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:23_103-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:23_103-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:23_103-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwartz2006" class="citation cs2">Schwartz, Seth (2006), Katz, Steven T. 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Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 109–110. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-956528-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-956528-3"><bdi>978-0-19-956528-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/316430311">316430311</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tilling+the+Hateful+Earth%3A+Agricultural+Production+and+Trade+in+the+Late+Antique+East&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=109-110&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F316430311&rft.isbn=978-0-19-956528-3&rft.aulast=Decker&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F316430311&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Josephus, <i>Antiquities of the Jews</i>. 299–316</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Josephus, <i>Ant</i>. 20.102</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Testament of Job</i>, 11:3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mishnah, Hagigah 3:3–4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mishnah, Menachot, 8:1-6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:10-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:10_110-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_110-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_110-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_110-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_110-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_110-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_110-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_110-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSáenz-BadillosElwolde1993" class="citation cs2">Sáenz-Badillos, Angel; Elwolde, John, eds. 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A&C Black. p. 88. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780567083487" title="Special:BookSources/9780567083487"><bdi>9780567083487</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reading+and+Writing+in+the+Time+of+Jesus%3A+Understanding+the+Bible+and+Its+World&rft.pages=88&rft.pub=A%26C+Black&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780567083487&rft.aulast=Millard&rft.aufirst=Allan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5UGRW4UvfYwC%26pg%3DPA88&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Raviv2013-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Raviv2013_146-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Raviv D., 2013, "Magnificent Tombs from the Second Temple Period in Western Samaria - New Insights", <i>In the Highland's Depth - Ephraim Range and Binyamin Research Studies</i>, Vol. 3, Ariel-Talmon ,pp. 109-142. (Hebrew)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:17-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:17_147-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:17_147-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:17_147-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Peleg-Barkat, O., 2015. “Decorated Tomb Façades in Early Roman Jerusalem and their Influence on the Decoration of Tombs in Judaea and Samaria,” in: Ben-Arieh, Y. et. al (eds.), Study of Jerusalem through the Ages, Jerusalem: Yad Yitzhak Ben Zvi, pp. 73−121. (Hebrew)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMagen2008" class="citation book cs1">Magen, Y. (2008). "Tombs Ornamented in Jerusalem Style in Samaria and the Hebron Hills". <i>Judea and Samaria Researches and Discoveries</i>. Vol. 6. Jerusalem. p. 163.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Tombs+Ornamented+in+Jerusalem+Style+in+Samaria+and+the+Hebron+Hills&rft.btitle=Judea+and+Samaria+Researches+and+Discoveries&rft.place=Jerusalem&rft.pages=163&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Magen&rft.aufirst=Y.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Temple_period&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Second_Temple_period" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Second Temple period">Second Temple period</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreen2008" class="citation book cs1">Green, P (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qYkiAQAAIAAJ"><i>Alexander The Great and the Hellenistic Age</i></a>. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. p. xiii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7538-2413-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7538-2413-9"><bdi>978-0-7538-2413-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+The+Great+and+the+Hellenistic+Age&rft.pages=xiii&rft.pub=Weidenfeld+%26+Nicolson&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-7538-2413-9&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=P&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqYkiAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrei2001" class="citation book cs1">Frei, Peter (2001). "Persian Imperial Authorization: A Summary". In Watts, James (ed.). <i>Persia and Torah: The Theory of Imperial Authorization of the Pentateuch</i>. Atlanta, GA: SBL Press. p. 6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781589830158" title="Special:BookSources/9781589830158"><bdi>9781589830158</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Persian+Imperial+Authorization%3A+A+Summary&rft.btitle=Persia+and+Torah%3A+The+Theory+of+Imperial+Authorization+of+the+Pentateuch&rft.place=Atlanta%2C+GA&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=SBL+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9781589830158&rft.aulast=Frei&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorçöl2006" class="citation book cs1">Morçöl, Göktuğ (2006). <i>Handbook of Decision Making</i>. CRC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57444-548-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57444-548-0"><bdi>978-1-57444-548-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Decision+Making&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-57444-548-0&rft.aulast=Mor%C3%A7%C3%B6l&rft.aufirst=G%C3%B6ktu%C4%9F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRomer2008" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Romer, Thomas (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201021035437/http://www.jhsonline.org/Articles/article_92.pdf">"Moses Outside the Torah and the Construction of a Diaspora Identity"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of Hebrew Scriptures</i>. 8, article 15: 2–12. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jhsonline.org/Articles/article_92.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2020-10-21<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-09-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Hebrew+Scriptures&rft.atitle=Moses+Outside+the+Torah+and+the+Construction+of+a+Diaspora+Identity&rft.volume=8%2C+article+15&rft.pages=2-12&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Romer&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jhsonline.org%2FArticles%2Farticle_92.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVermes1981" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Geza_Vermes" class="mw-redirect" title="Geza Vermes">Vermes, Geza</a> (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RvSEK2HALnwC"><i>Jesus the Jew: A Historian's Reading of the Gospels</i></a>. Philadelphia: First Fortress. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8006-1443-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8006-1443-0"><bdi>978-0-8006-1443-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222037/https://books.google.com/books?id=RvSEK2HALnwC">Archived</a> from the original on 8 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jesus+the+Jew%3A+A+Historian%27s+Reading+of+the+Gospels&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=First+Fortress&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-8006-1443-0&rft.aulast=Vermes&rft.aufirst=Geza&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRvSEK2HALnwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Temple+period" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output 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history</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Jewish_historiography" title="Modern Jewish historiography">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_and_Judaism_in_the_Land_of_Israel" title="History of the Jews and Judaism in the Land of Israel">Jewish history in Israel/Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Jewish_population_comparisons" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical Jewish population comparisons">Population history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_military_history" title="Jewish military history">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic studies on Jews">Genetic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_languages" title="Jewish languages">Languages</a></li> <li><a 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Judah">Ancient Israel and Judah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">Kingdom of Judah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(Samaria)" title="Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)">Kingdom of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Captivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian Captivity">Assyrian Captivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judah%27s_revolts_against_Babylon" title="Judah's revolts against Babylon">Judah's revolts against Babylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_captivity" title="Babylonian captivity">Babylonian captivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yehud_(Babylonian_province)" title="Yehud (Babylonian province)">Babylonian Yehud</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Second Temple period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Second_Temple_period" title="Timeline of the Second Temple period">Timeline of the Second Temple period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_Judaism" title="Second Temple Judaism">Second Temple Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism" title="Hellenistic Judaism">Hellenistic Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yehud_Medinata" title="Yehud Medinata">Yehud Medinata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_dynasty" title="Hasmonean dynasty">Hasmonean kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian_kingdom" title="Herodian kingdom">Herodian kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Judaea" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Judaea">Roman Judaea</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Wars and revolts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maccabean_Revolt" title="Maccabean Revolt">Maccabean Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judean_Civil_War" title="Judean Civil War">Judean Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish-Roman_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish-Roman Wars">Jewish-Roman Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Jewish-Roman_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First Jewish-Roman War">First Jewish-Roman War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Beth_Horon_(66)" title="Battle of Beth Horon (66)">Battle of Beth Horon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galilee_campaign_(67)" title="Galilee campaign (67)">Galilee campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Masada" title="Siege of Masada">Siege of Masada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diaspora_revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Diaspora revolt">Diaspora revolt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kitos_War" title="Kitos War">Kitos War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt" title="Bar Kokhba revolt">Bar Kokhba revolt</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Diaspora</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Greece" title="History of the Jews in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Carthage" title="History of the Jews in Carthage">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Egypt" title="History of the Jews in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iran" title="History of the Jews in Iran">Persia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iraq" title="History of the Jews in Iraq">Mesopotamia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_period" title="Rabbinic period">Rabbinic period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">Rabbinic Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Synagogal_Judaism" title="Synagogal Judaism">Synagogal Judaism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasi_(Hebrew_title)" title="Nasi (Hebrew title)">Nasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanhedrin" title="Sanhedrin">Sanhedrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chazal" title="Chazal">Chazal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tannaim" title="Tannaim">Tannaim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amoraim" title="Amoraim">Amoraim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savoraim" title="Savoraim">Savoraim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geonim" title="Geonim">Geonim</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talmudic_academies_in_Babylonia" title="Talmudic academies in Babylonia">Talmudic academies in Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_revolt_against_Constantius_Gallus" title="Jewish revolt against Constantius Gallus">Revolt against Gallus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_revolt_against_Heraclius" title="Jewish revolt against Heraclius">Revolt against Heraclius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_the_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Mohammedan Wars <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Banu_Qurayza" title="Siege of Banu Qurayza">Siege of Banu Qurayza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Banu_Qaynuqa" title="Siege of Banu Qaynuqa">Siege of Banu Qaynuqa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Khaybar" title="Battle of Khaybar">Battle of Khaybar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Banu_Nadir" title="Invasion of Banu Nadir">Invasion of Banu Nadir</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_under_Muslim_rule" title="History of the Jews under Muslim rule">Under Muslim rule</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Golden_age_of_Jewish_culture_in_Spain" title="Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain">Sephardic Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kairouan" title="History of the Jews in Kairouan">Kairouan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire">Byzantium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_and_the_Crusades" title="History of the Jews and the Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_Jews_from_Spain" title="Expulsion of Jews from Spain">Expulsion of Jews from Spain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anusim" title="Anusim">Anusim</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_antisemitism" title="Medieval antisemitism">Medieval antisemitism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_question" title="Jewish question">Jewish question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disabilities_(Jewish)" title="Disabilities (Jewish)">Disabilities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_emancipation" title="Jewish emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Zionism" title="History of Zionism">Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="History of the Jews in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States" title="History of the Jews in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_during_World_War_II" title="History of the Jews during World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_resistance_in_German-occupied_Europe" title="Jewish resistance in German-occupied Europe">Resistance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Israel" title="History of Israel">Israeli history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Yishuv" class="mw-redirect" title="New Yishuv">New Yishuv</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <dl><dt><span class="nobold">See also</span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:JH" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:JH">WP:Jewish history</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Israel_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Israel_topics" title="Template:Israel topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Israel_topics" title="Template talk:Israel topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Israel_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Israel topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Israel_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_Israel-related_articles" title="Index of Israel-related articles">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Israel" title="History of Israel">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah" title="History of ancient Israel and Judah">Antiquity</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Second Temple period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jerusalem_during_the_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Jerusalem during the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Syria" title="Ottoman Syria">Ottoman Syria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Yishuv" title="Old Yishuv">Old Yishuv</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yishuv" title="Yishuv">Yishuv</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine" title="Mandatory Palestine">British mandate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Israeli Declaration of Independence">Independence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict" title="Arab–Israeli conflict">Arab–Israeli conflict</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Israeli%E2%80%93Palestinian_conflict" title="Israeli–Palestinian conflict">Israeli–Palestinian conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli%E2%80%93Palestinian_peace_process" title="Israeli–Palestinian peace process">Peace process</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Israel_proxy_conflict" title="Iran–Israel proxy conflict">Iran–Israel proxy conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Israeli_history" title="Timeline of Israeli history">Timeline</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_Israel" title="List of years in Israel">by year</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Israel" title="Geography of Israel">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_Israel" title="Borders of Israel">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Israel" title="List of cities in Israel">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Districts_of_Israel" title="Districts of Israel">Districts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_Israel" title="List of lakes of Israel">Lakes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dead_Sea" title="Dead Sea">Dead Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_of_Galilee" title="Sea of Galilee">Sea of Galilee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_of_Israel" title="Land of Israel">Land of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_parks_and_nature_reserves_of_Israel" title="National parks and nature reserves of Israel">National parks and nature reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Israel" title="List of rivers of Israel">Rivers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jordan_River" title="Jordan River">Jordan River</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Israel" title="Wildlife of Israel">Wildlife</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Israel" title="Politics of Israel">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_Israel" title="Cabinet of Israel">Cabinet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Israel" title="Prime Minister of Israel">Prime Minister</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Israel" title="Elections in Israel">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Israel" title="Foreign relations of Israel">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knesset" title="Knesset">Knesset</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Israel" title="List of political parties in Israel">Parties</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_law" title="Israeli law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basic_Laws_of_Israel" title="Basic Laws of Israel">Basic Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Israel" title="Judiciary of Israel">Judiciary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Israel" title="President of Israel">President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_system_of_government" title="Israeli system of government">System of government</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Israeli_security_forces" title="Israeli security forces">Security</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_Israel" title="Censorship in Israel">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_defense_in_Israel" title="Civil defense in Israel">Civil defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Intelligence_Community" title="Israeli Intelligence Community">Intelligence Community</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_Intelligence_Directorate_(Israel)" title="Military Intelligence Directorate (Israel)">Aman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mossad" title="Mossad">Mossad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shin_Bet" title="Shin Bet">Shin Bet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel_Defense_Forces" title="Israel Defense Forces">Israel Defense Forces</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Israel" title="Conscription in Israel">Conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structure_of_the_Israel_Defense_Forces" title="Structure of the Israel Defense Forces">Structure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel_Police" title="Israel Police">Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Israel" title="List of wars involving Israel">Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_West_Bank_barrier" class="mw-redirect" title="Israeli West Bank barrier">West Bank barrier</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Israel" title="Economy of Israel">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Israel" title="Agriculture in Israel">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_Israel" title="Banking in Israel">Banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Israel" title="List of companies of Israel">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diamond_industry_in_Israel" title="Diamond industry in Israel">Diamond industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Israel" title="Energy in Israel">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Israel" title="Science and technology in Israel">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Israel" title="Taxation in Israel">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tel_Aviv_Stock_Exchange" title="Tel Aviv Stock Exchange">Tel Aviv Stock Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Israel" title="Tourism in Israel">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Israel" title="Transport in Israel">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Israel" title="Water supply and sanitation in Israel">Water supply and sanitation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Israel" title="Category:Society of Israel">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Israel" title="Crime in Israel">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Israel" title="Demographics of Israel">Demographics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aliyah" title="Aliyah">Aliyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israelis" title="Israelis">People</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Israel" title="Education in Israel">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Israel" title="Healthcare in Israel">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Israel" title="Human rights in Israel">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Israel">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kibbutz" title="Kibbutz">Kibbutz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Israel" title="Languages of Israel">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_language_in_Israel" title="Arabic language in Israel">Arabic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Israel" title="Racism in Israel">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Israel" title="Religion in Israel">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_Israel" title="Standard of living in Israel">Standard of living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Israel" title="Women in Israel">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Israel" title="Feminism in Israel">Feminism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Israel" title="Culture of Israel">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_Israel" title="Archaeology of Israel">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Israel" title="Architecture of Israel">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Israel" title="Cinema of Israel">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_cuisine" title="Israeli cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_literature" title="Israeli literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Israel" title="Mass media in Israel">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Israeli_museums" title="List of Israeli museums">Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Israel" title="Music of Israel">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_symbols_of_Israel" title="List of national symbols of Israel">National symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Israel" title="Public holidays in Israel">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Israel" title="Sport in Israel">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_arts_in_Israel" title="Visual arts in Israel">Visual arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Israel" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Israel">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Israel" title="Outline of Israel">Outline</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Israel-related_articles" title="Index of Israel-related articles">Index</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Israel" title="Category:Israel">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Israel" title="Portal:Israel">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    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{\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-bndbt","timestamp":"20241124053406","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Second Temple period","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Second_Temple_period","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q2911414","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q2911414","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2008-10-22T16:46:07Z","dateModified":"2024-10-28T05:39:06Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/6\/68\/The_temple_menorah_on_the_Magdala_Stone_%28replica%29.png","headline":"period in Jewish history lasting between 516 BCE and 70 CE"}</script> </body> 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