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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Frequency and susceptibility</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Frequency_and_susceptibility-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mitigation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mitigation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Mitigation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mitigation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coordination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coordination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Coordination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coordination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Examples_in_real_elections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples_in_real_elections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Examples in real elections</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Examples_in_real_elections-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Examples in real elections subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Examples_in_real_elections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Canada</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>France</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Germany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Germany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Germany</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Germany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hong_Kong" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hong_Kong"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Hong Kong</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hong_Kong-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hungary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hungary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Hungary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hungary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lithuania" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lithuania"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Lithuania</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lithuania-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_Zealand" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_Zealand"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.7</span> <span>New Zealand</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_Zealand-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Poland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.8</span> <span>Poland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slovenia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slovenia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.9</span> <span>Slovenia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slovenia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.10</span> <span>Spain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taiwan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taiwan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.11</span> <span>Taiwan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Taiwan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.12</span> <span>United Kingdom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.13</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Puerto_Rico" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Puerto_Rico"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.13.1</span> <span>Puerto Rico</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Puerto_Rico-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rational_voter_model" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rational_voter_model"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Rational voter model</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Rational_voter_model-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Rational voter model subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Rational_voter_model-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Myerson–Weber_strategy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Myerson–Weber_strategy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Myerson–Weber strategy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Myerson–Weber_strategy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pre-election_influence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-election_influence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Pre-election influence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-election_influence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-By_method" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_method"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>By method</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-By_method-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle By method subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-By_method-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Plurality_voting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plurality_voting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Plurality voting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plurality_voting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plurality-runoff_family_(RCV,_two-round,_and_partisan_primaries)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plurality-runoff_family_(RCV,_two-round,_and_partisan_primaries)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Plurality-runoff family (RCV, two-round, and partisan primaries)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plurality-runoff_family_(RCV,_two-round,_and_partisan_primaries)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cardinal_single-winner_voting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cardinal_single-winner_voting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Cardinal single-winner voting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cardinal_single-winner_voting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ranked_single-winner_voting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ranked_single-winner_voting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>Ranked single-winner voting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ranked_single-winner_voting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Condorcet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Condorcet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.5</span> <span>Condorcet</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Condorcet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Multi-winner_voting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Multi-winner_voting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.6</span> <span>Multi-winner voting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Multi-winner_voting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Single_transferable_vote" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Single_transferable_vote"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.6.1</span> <span>Single transferable vote</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Single_transferable_vote-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " 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Available in 21 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-21" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">21 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B5%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%AA_%D8%AA%D9%83%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%83%D9%8A" title="تصويت تكتيكي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تصويت تكتيكي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taktiki_s%C9%99sverm%C9%99" title="Taktiki səsvermə – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Taktiki səsvermə" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vot_%C3%BAtil" title="Vot útil – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Vot útil" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategische_Wahl" title="Strategische Wahl – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Strategische Wahl" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voto_%C3%BAtil" title="Voto útil – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Voto útil" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boto_erabilgarri" title="Boto erabilgarri – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Boto erabilgarri" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A3%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%D8%AF%D9%87%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9%DB%8C" title="رأی‌دهی تاکتیکی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="رأی‌دهی تاکتیکی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vote_utile" title="Vote utile – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Vote utile" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%84%EB%9E%B5%EC%A0%81_%ED%88%AC%ED%91%9C" title="전략적 투표 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="전략적 투표" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D6%84%D5%BE%D5%A5%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%AF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Մարտավարական քվեարկություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մարտավարական քվեարկություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A6%D7%91%D7%A2%D7%94_%D7%98%D7%A7%D7%98%D7%99%D7%AA" title="הצבעה טקטית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הצבעה טקטית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategische_stem" title="Strategische stem – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Strategische stem" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%88%A6%E7%95%A5%E6%8A%95%E7%A5%A8" title="戦略投票 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="戦略投票" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C5%82osowanie_taktyczne" title="Głosowanie taktyczne – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Głosowanie taktyczne" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voto_t%C3%A1tico" title="Voto tático – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Voto tático" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Тактическое голосование – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Тактическое голосование" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tactical_voting" title="Tactical voting – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Tactical voting" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taktinen_%C3%A4%C3%A4nest%C3%A4minen" title="Taktinen äänestäminen – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Taktinen äänestäminen" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Стратегічне голосування – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Стратегічне голосування" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%AD%96%E7%95%A5%E6%80%A7%E6%8A%95%E7%A5%A8" title="策略性投票 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="策略性投票" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Category:Politics" title="Category:Politics">Politics series</a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="border-top:1px #fafafa solid; border-bottom:1px #fafafa solid; background:#efefef; background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Voting" title="Voting">Voting</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vote_icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Vote_icon.svg/75px-Vote_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Vote_icon.svg/113px-Vote_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Vote_icon.svg/150px-Vote_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="393" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="text-align:left;border-top:#ddd 1px solid;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Balloting</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, 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title="Electoral systems">Electoral systems</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Plurality_voting" title="Plurality voting">Plurality and majoritarian systems</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First-past-the-post_voting" title="First-past-the-post voting">First-past-the-post voting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-round_system" title="Two-round system">Two-round system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instant-runoff_voting" title="Instant-runoff voting">Instant-runoff voting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plurality-at-large_voting" class="mw-redirect" title="Plurality-at-large voting">Plurality-at-large voting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_ticket" title="General ticket">General ticket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usual_judgment" class="mw-redirect" title="Usual judgment">Usual judgment</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Proportional_representation" title="Proportional representation">Proportional and semi-proportional systems</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Single_non-transferable_vote" title="Single non-transferable vote">Single non-transferable vote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cumulative_voting" title="Cumulative voting">Cumulative voting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binomial_voting_system" title="Binomial voting system">Binomial system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Party-list_proportional_representation" title="Party-list proportional representation">Party-list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single_transferable_voting" class="mw-redirect" title="Single transferable voting">Single transferable voting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spare_vote" title="Spare vote">Spare vote</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Mixed_electoral_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixed electoral systems">Mixed-member systems</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mixed-member_proportional_representation" title="Mixed-member proportional representation">Mixed-member proportional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Additional_member_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Additional member system">Additional member system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_single_vote" title="Mixed single vote">Mixed single vote (positive vote transfer)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scorporo" title="Scorporo">Scorporo (negative vote transfer)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_ballot_transferable_vote" title="Mixed ballot transferable vote">Mixed ballot transferable vote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_Vote_Plus" class="mw-redirect" title="Alternative Vote Plus">Alternative Vote Plus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual-member_proportional_representation" class="mw-redirect" title="Dual-member proportional representation">Dual-member proportional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural%E2%80%93urban_proportional_representation" title="Rural–urban proportional representation">Rural–urban proportional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majority_bonus_system" title="Majority bonus system">Majority bonus system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_voting" title="Parallel voting">Parallel voting (Mixed member majoritarian)</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="text-align:left;border-top:#ddd 1px solid;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Voting strategies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Issue_voting" title="Issue voting">Issue voting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_fusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Electoral fusion">Fusion voting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Split-ticket_voting" title="Split-ticket voting">Split-ticket voting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Straight-ticket_voting" title="Straight-ticket voting">Straight-ticket voting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tactical_voting" class="mw-redirect" title="Tactical voting">Tactical voting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vote_pairing" title="Vote pairing">Vote pairing</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Protest_vote" title="Protest vote">Protest votes</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstention" title="Abstention">Abstention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donkey_vote" title="Donkey vote">Donkey vote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_boycott" title="Election boycott">Election boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/None_of_the_above" title="None of the above">None of the above</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refused_ballot" title="Refused ballot">Refused ballot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spoilt_vote" title="Spoilt vote">Spoilt vote</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="text-align:left;border-top:#ddd 1px solid;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Voting patterns and effects</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coattail_effect" title="Coattail effect">Coattail effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_advice_application" title="Voting advice application">Voting advice application</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_segments_in_political_polling" title="Voter segments in political polling">Likely voter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_voting" title="Paradox of voting">Paradox of voting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_electioneering" title="Passive electioneering">Passive electioneering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vote_splitting" class="mw-redirect" title="Vote splitting">Vote splitting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_apathy" title="Political apathy">Political apathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_fatigue" title="Voter fatigue">Voter fatigue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_turnout" title="Voter turnout">Voter turnout</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Protest_vote" title="Protest vote">Protest votes</a></th></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="text-align:left;border-top:#ddd 1px solid;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Electoral_fraud" title="Electoral fraud">Electoral fraud</a> and prevention</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ballot_harvesting" class="mw-redirect" title="Ballot harvesting">Ballot harvesting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballot_stuffing" class="mw-redirect" title="Ballot stuffing">Ballot stuffing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_intimidation" class="mw-redirect" title="Voter intimidation">Voter intimidation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vote_buying" title="Vote buying">Vote buying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_suppression" title="Voter suppression">Voter suppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_caging" title="Voter caging">Voter caging</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Prevention</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Election_ink" title="Election ink">Election ink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secret_ballot" title="Secret ballot">Secret ballot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_registration" title="Voter registration">Voter registration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End-to-end_verifiable_voting" class="mw-redirect" title="End-to-end verifiable voting">End-to-end verifiable voting</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="background:#efefef;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/16px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/24px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/32px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Voting" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Voting"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Voting" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:Voting"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Voting" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Voting"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Strategic</b> or <b>tactical voting</b> is voting in consideration of possible ballots cast by other voters in order to maximize one's satisfaction with the election's results.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Gibbard%27s_theorem" title="Gibbard's theorem">Gibbard's theorem</a> shows that no voting system has a single "always-best" strategy, i.e. one that always maximizes a voter's satisfaction with the result, regardless of other voters' ballots. This implies all voting systems can sometimes encourage voters to strategize. However, weaker guarantees can be shown under stronger conditions. Examples include <a href="/wiki/Single-peaked_preferences" class="mw-redirect" title="Single-peaked preferences">one-dimensional preferences</a> (where the <a href="/wiki/Median_voting_rule" title="Median voting rule">median rule</a> is strategyproof) and <a href="/wiki/Dichotomous_preferences" title="Dichotomous preferences">dichotomous preferences</a> (where <a href="/wiki/Approval_voting" title="Approval voting">approval</a> or <a href="/wiki/Score_voting" title="Score voting">score voting</a> are strategyproof). </p><p>With large electoral districts, <a href="/wiki/Electoral_list" title="Electoral list">party list</a> methods tend to be difficult to manipulate in the absence of an <a href="/wiki/Electoral_threshold" title="Electoral threshold">electoral threshold</a>. However, biased <a href="/wiki/Apportionment_(politics)" title="Apportionment (politics)">apportionment methods</a> can create opportunities for strategic voting, as can small electoral districts (e.g. those used most often with the <a href="/wiki/Single_transferable_vote" title="Single transferable vote">single transferable vote</a>). Proportional representation systems with small districts often involve large-scale <a href="/wiki/Vote_management" title="Vote management">vote management</a> operations, which are common in countries using <a href="/wiki/Single_transferable_vote" title="Single transferable vote">STV-PR</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland" title="Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Common_types_of_strategic_voting">Common types of strategic voting</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Strategic_voting&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Common types of strategic voting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Strategic_voting" title="Special:EditPage/Strategic voting">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Some types of strategic voting described in the literature are: </p> <dl><dt><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238216509">.mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}</style><span class="vanchor"><span id="Compromising"></span><span class="vanchor-text">Compromising</span></span>, includes <a href="/wiki/Favorite_betrayal_criterion" class="mw-redirect" title="Favorite betrayal criterion"><i>favorite betrayal</i></a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Armytage-SVN_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armytage-SVN-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 117">: 117 </span></sup></dt></dl> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Lesser-evil_voting" title="Lesser-evil voting">Lesser-evil voting</a></div> <dl><dd>A voter ranks or rates a candidate they dislike – a "lesser evil" – higher in the hope of getting them elected, thus preventing an even worse candidate from being elected.</dd> <dd>This type of strategic voting includes the <a href="/wiki/First-past-the-post_election_system" class="mw-redirect" title="First-past-the-post election system">first-past-the-post</a> strategy of voting for the <a href="/wiki/Lesser_of_two_evils_principle#In_modern_elections" title="Lesser of two evils principle">lesser of two evils</a>, as well as the more general <a href="/wiki/Favorite_betrayal_criterion" class="mw-redirect" title="Favorite betrayal criterion"><i>favorite betrayal</i></a> strategy. A sufficiently strong compromising incentive, possibly strengthened by a <a href="/wiki/Strategic_nomination" title="Strategic nomination">strategic exit</a> incentive,<sup id="cite_ref-Armytage-SVN_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armytage-SVN-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 118">: 118 </span></sup> can lead to or reinforce two-party rule as voters will abandon minor-party candidates to support stronger major-party candidates. This effect is called <a href="/wiki/Duverger%27s_law" title="Duverger's law">Duverger's law</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dd>While methods that pass the <a href="/wiki/Sincere_favorite_criterion" title="Sincere favorite criterion">sincere favorite criterion</a> never incentivize a voter to rank or rate a lesser evil above one's favorite, they may still incentivize voters to rank or rate the lesser evil <i>higher</i>. For instance, in <a href="/wiki/Approval_voting" title="Approval voting">approval voting</a>, a voter may have an incentive to strategically approve a lesser evil that they dislike. Although not considered favorite betrayal, this is also a type of compromise strategy.</dd> <dd><i>Most affects:</i> <a href="/wiki/Instant-runoff_voting" title="Instant-runoff voting">instant-runoff</a> (RCV), <a href="/wiki/Two-round_system" title="Two-round system">two-round system</a>, and (especially strong for) <a href="/wiki/Plurality_voting" title="Plurality voting">plurality</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hodge_Klima_2018_p._922_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hodge_Klima_2018_p._922-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dd><i>Also affected:</i> <a href="/wiki/Borda_count" title="Borda count">Borda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Score_voting" title="Score voting">Score</a>, <a href="/wiki/Approval_voting" title="Approval voting">approval voting</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Armytage-SVN_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armytage-SVN-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: prop. 4, note">: prop. 4, note </span></sup></dd> <dd><i>Immune:</i> <a href="/wiki/Coombs%27_method" title="Coombs' method">Coombs' method</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Armytage-SVN_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armytage-SVN-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: prop. 4, note">: prop. 4, note </span></sup> <a href="/wiki/Anti-plurality_voting" title="Anti-plurality voting">antiplurality</a>.</dd></dl> <dl><dt><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509"><span class="vanchor"><span id="Burial"></span><span id="Burying"></span><span class="vanchor-text">Burial</span></span></dt> <dd>A voter ranks or rates a candidate lower in the hope of defeating them. For example, a voter may insincerely rank or rate a perceived strong candidate last in order to help their preferred candidate win.<sup id="cite_ref-Armytage-SVN_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armytage-SVN-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dd>Game theory arguments suggest that if burial incentive is sufficiently severe, a method may induce a race to the bottom. Each voter follows a strategy that, in isolation, helps their candidate win, but the result is that a candidate that nobody likes gets elected instead.<sup id="cite_ref-Monroe_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Monroe-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dd><i>Most affects:</i> <a href="/wiki/Borda_count" title="Borda count">Borda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anti-plurality_voting" title="Anti-plurality voting">antiplurality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Approval_voting" title="Approval voting">approval voting</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Score_voting" title="Score voting">Score</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Armytage-SVN_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armytage-SVN-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dd><i>Also affected:</i> Most <a href="/wiki/Condorcet_method" title="Condorcet method">Condorcet methods</a>, with the exception of IRV-Condorcet hybrids.<sup id="cite_ref-Monroe_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Monroe-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Armytage-Hare_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armytage-Hare-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-h794_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-h794-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dd><i>Immune:</i> <a href="/wiki/Instant-runoff_voting" title="Instant-runoff voting">Instant-runoff voting</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plurality_voting" title="Plurality voting">plurality voting</a>.</dd></dl> <dl><dt><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509"><span class="vanchor"><span id="Turkey-raising"></span><span id="Pushover"></span><span id="Raiding"></span><span id="Pied-piper"></span><span class="vanchor-text">Turkey-raising</span></span> (sometimes called <i>pushover</i> or <i>pied-piper.</i> Includes <i><a href="/wiki/Party_raiding" class="mw-redirect" title="Party raiding">raiding</a></i>.)</dt> <dd>A voter gives a high rank to a weak (i.e. <i>pushover</i>) candidate, but not with the intent of getting them elected. Instead, the voter intends for the weak candidate to eliminate a strong alternative, who would otherwise keep the voter's preferred candidate from winning.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Party_Raiding" class="mw-redirect" title="Party Raiding">Party raiding</a> is a well-known example of such a strategy.<sup id="cite_ref-alvar99b2_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-alvar99b2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dd><i>Most affects:</i> Multi-round rules like <a href="/wiki/Instant-runoff_voting" title="Instant-runoff voting">instant-runoff</a>, <a href="/wiki/Two-round_system" title="Two-round system">two-round</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Partisan_primary" class="mw-redirect" title="Partisan primary">primary elections</a>.</dd> <dd><i>Immune:</i> <a href="/wiki/Plurality_voting" title="Plurality voting">Plurality</a> and all commonly-used <a href="/wiki/Rated_voting" title="Rated voting">rated voting</a> systems, including <a href="/wiki/Score_voting" title="Score voting">score voting</a> and <a href="/wiki/Approval_voting" title="Approval voting">approval voting</a>.</dd> <dt><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509"><span class="vanchor"><span id="Compression"></span><span id="Bullet_voting"></span><span id="Truncation"></span><span id="Exaggeration"></span><span class="vanchor-text">Compression</span></span> (sometimes called <i>leveling</i>. Includes <i><a href="/wiki/Bullet_voting" title="Bullet voting">bullet voting</a></i> and <i>truncation.</i>)</dt> <dd>Compression is a strategy where a voter refuses to disclose which of two candidates they honestly prefer (i.e. both candidates are given the same rating or ranking). Compression is unique in that it does not involve a rank reversal: in compression, a voter who prefers A to B doesn't claim to prefer B to A, only that they're indifferent between them.</dd> <dd>Like <i>compromising</i> and <i>burial</i>, the strategy involves <a href="/wiki/Exaggeration" title="Exaggeration">exaggerating</a> differences between candidates: ranking or rating lesser evils equal to one's favorite is similar to compromising, and ranking or rating okay candidates equal to one's most loathed candidate is similar to burial. The latter is also called <i>truncation</i>.</dd> <dd>Compression has the advantage of making it less likely for a disliked candidate to win, but the disadvantage that it reduces the chances of the best candidate winning.</dd> <dd><i>Most affects</i>: <a href="/wiki/Rated_voting" title="Rated voting">Rated voting</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Nagel_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nagel-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dd><i>Immune:</i> <a href="/wiki/Random_ballot" title="Random ballot">Random ballot</a> and methods that require strict rankings.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Frequency_and_susceptibility">Frequency and susceptibility</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Strategic_voting&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Frequency and susceptibility"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Strategic voting is highly dependent on the voting method being used. A strategic vote which improves a voter's satisfaction under one method could have no effect or be outright self-defeating under another method. <a href="/wiki/Gibbard%27s_theorem" title="Gibbard's theorem">Gibbard's theorem</a> shows that no deterministic single-winner voting method can be completely immune to strategy, but makes no claims about the severity of strategy or how often strategy succeeds. </p><p>Later results show that some methods are more manipulable than others.<sup id="cite_ref-Armytage-SVN_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armytage-SVN-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Durand_MCN_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Durand_MCN-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Michel_Balinski" title="Michel Balinski">Michel Balinski</a> and Rida Laraki, the inventors of the <a href="/wiki/Majority_judgment" title="Majority judgment">majority judgment</a> method, performed an initial investigation of this question using a set of <a href="/wiki/Monte_Carlo_method" title="Monte Carlo method">Monte Carlo</a> simulated elections based on the results from a poll of the <a href="/wiki/2007_French_presidential_election" title="2007 French presidential election">2007 French presidential election</a> which they had carried out using rated ballots. Comparing <a href="/wiki/Range_voting" class="mw-redirect" title="Range voting">range voting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Borda_count" title="Borda count">Borda count</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plurality_voting" title="Plurality voting">plurality voting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Approval_voting" title="Approval voting">approval voting</a> with two different absolute approval thresholds, <a href="/wiki/Condorcet_voting" class="mw-redirect" title="Condorcet voting">Condorcet voting</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Majority_judgment" title="Majority judgment">majority judgment</a>, they found that range voting had the highest (worst) strategic vulnerability, while their own method majority judgment had the lowest (best).<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further investigation would be needed to be sure that this result remained true with different sets of candidates. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Electoral_list" title="Electoral list">Party-list proportional</a> methods typically show less strategic voting,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although the existence of electoral thresholds can lead voters to vote strategically to avoid <a href="/wiki/Wasted_vote" title="Wasted vote">wasted votes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-v742_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-v742-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mitigation">Mitigation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Strategic_voting&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Mitigation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Switching from a method that is highly manipulable to one that is more resistant would help discourage widespread strategic voting, all else equal. </p><p>From a voting method, it's possible to design another voting method that attempts to strategize on behalf of the voter. Such methods are called <i>declared strategy voting</i> methods, and seek to improve a method's strategy resistance by moving the strategy into the method itself. DSV methods have been proposed for <a href="/wiki/Plurality_voting" title="Plurality voting">plurality voting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Approval_voting" title="Approval voting">approval voting</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Score_voting" title="Score voting">score voting</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cranor_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cranor-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-RLDSV1_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RLDSV1-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-RLDSV2_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RLDSV2-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Coordination">Coordination</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Strategic_voting&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Coordination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Strategic_voting" title="Special:EditPage/Strategic voting">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The nature of strategic voting requires some level of coordination. Because it is a system of voting that assesses outcomes before casting one's vote, coordination towards the outcome is a prerequisite for strategic voting. There must be some kind of coordination device in order to vote strategically. Coordination devices, though not the only device, are typically opinion polls. For example, if there was two similarly appealing majority candidates and a minority candidate and voters were given the choice between the three, polls are imperative to coordinating votes for either majority candidate.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Polls are then a tool used by voters to ensure that the minority candidate doesn't obtain office, which would be adverse to Duverger's law. </p><p>Tactical voting may occur in isolation or as part of an organized campaign. In the former situation, electors make their own judgement as to the most effective way to (typically) prevent the election of a specific candidate or party. In the latter, one or more parties or groups encourage their supporters to vote tactically in an effort to influence the outcome. </p><p>The form that coordinated tactical voting takes depends largely on the electoral system of the polity. For example, vote thresholds in a proportional representation electoral system are found to prompt voters to coordinate their votes.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, in the 2018 Swedish election, thresholds led voters who identified with a small party to consider the outcomes of their votes on the system of government as well as the other parties' outcomes.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The voting history of the polity also influences coordination efforts: in proportional representation systems with little voting history, voters tend to vote more sincerely than engage in strategic voting due to the unknown nature of what party will be most viable.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Organized tactical voting in which a political party mounts a campaign calling on its supporters not to vote for their own favored candidates, but for those of a party which it perceives as more likely to defeat a common opponent, is less common. An example is the <a href="/wiki/1906_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1906 United Kingdom general election">1906 United Kingdom general election</a>, where the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_(UK)" title="Liberal Party (UK)">Liberals</a> (incidentally, the predecessors of the Liberal Democrats from the previous example) and the then-insurgent <a href="/wiki/Labour_Party_(UK)" title="Labour Party (UK)">Labour Party</a> (founded in 1900) agreed on the <a href="/wiki/Gladstone-MacDonald_pact" class="mw-redirect" title="Gladstone-MacDonald pact">Gladstone-MacDonald pact</a>, under which certain Liberal candidates would stand aside in favor of Labour ones, again to ensure that the Conservative candidates would not win on the basis of a split anti-Tory vote. </p><p>An intermediate case also exists, where a non-party campaign attempts to coordinate tactical voting, typically with the goal of defeating a certain party. Cases of this include the Canadian <a href="/wiki/Anything_But_Conservative" title="Anything But Conservative">Anything But Conservative</a> campaign, which opposed the <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Party_of_Canada" title="Conservative Party of Canada">Conservative Party of Canada</a> in the <a href="/wiki/2008_Canadian_federal_election" title="2008 Canadian federal election">2008</a> and <a href="/wiki/2015_Canadian_federal_election" title="2015 Canadian federal election">2015 federal elections</a>, or the <a href="/wiki/Smart_Voting" title="Smart Voting">Smart Voting</a> campaign organized by Russia's <a href="/wiki/Anti-Corruption_Foundation" title="Anti-Corruption Foundation">Anti-Corruption Foundation</a> with the goal of opposing and weakening the <a href="/wiki/United_Russia" title="United Russia">United Russia</a> party in the <a href="/wiki/2021_Russian_legislative_election" title="2021 Russian legislative election">2021 Russian legislative election</a>. This also occurred in the UK 2019 General Election, where voting groups such as Tactical Vote and Turf Out The Tories, promoted tactical voting to prevent a Conservative majority.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples_in_real_elections">Examples in real elections</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Strategic_voting&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Examples in real elections"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Canada">Canada</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Strategic_voting&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Canada"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The observed effect of <a href="/wiki/Duverger%27s_law" title="Duverger's law">Duverger's law</a> in Canada is weaker than in other countries.<sup id="cite_ref-Duverger2_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Duverger2-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/1999_Ontario_general_election" title="1999 Ontario general election">1999 Ontario provincial election</a>, strategic voting was encouraged by opponents of the <a href="/wiki/Ontario_Progressive_Conservative_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Ontario Progressive Conservative Party">Progressive Conservative</a> government of <a href="/wiki/Mike_Harris" title="Mike Harris">Mike Harris</a>. This failed to unseat Harris but succeeded in suppressing the <a href="/wiki/Ontario_New_Democratic_Party" title="Ontario New Democratic Party">Ontario New Democratic Party</a> vote to a historic low. </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/2004_Canadian_federal_election" title="2004 Canadian federal election">2004 federal election</a>, and to a lesser extent in the <a href="/wiki/2006_Canadian_federal_election" title="2006 Canadian federal election">2006 election</a>, strategic voting was a concern for the federal <a href="/wiki/New_Democratic_Party" title="New Democratic Party">New Democratic Party</a> (NDP). In the 2004 election, the governing Liberal Party was able to convince many New Democratic voters to vote Liberal to avoid a Conservative government.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In the 2006 elections, the Liberal Party attempted the same strategy, with Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Paul_Martin" title="Paul Martin">Paul Martin</a> asking New Democrats and Greens to vote for the Liberal Party to prevent a Conservative win. The New Democratic Party leader <a href="/wiki/Jack_Layton" title="Jack Layton">Jack Layton</a> responded by asking voters to "lend" their votes to his party, suggesting that the Liberal Party was bound to lose the election regardless of strategic voting.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> This failed to prevent the Conservatives from winning the election, although they did not win a majority of seats.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/2015_Canadian_federal_election" title="2015 Canadian federal election">2015 federal election</a>, strategic voting was used extensively against the <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Party_of_Canada" title="Conservative Party of Canada">Conservative</a> government of <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Harper" title="Stephen Harper">Stephen Harper</a>, which had benefited from <a href="/wiki/Vote_splitting" class="mw-redirect" title="Vote splitting">vote splitting</a> among centrist and left-leaning parties in the <a href="/wiki/2011_Canadian_federal_election" title="2011 Canadian federal election">2011 election</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the landslide victory of the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_of_Canada" title="Liberal Party of Canada">Liberals</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Justin_Trudeau" title="Justin Trudeau">Justin Trudeau</a> over Harper's Conservatives, experts argued that this dramatic increase in support for the Liberals at the expense of the NDP and <a href="/wiki/Green_Party_of_Canada" title="Green Party of Canada">Green Party</a> was partially due to strategic voting for Liberal candidates.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In three weeks, 1.4 million voters switched from NDP to Liberal. In at least two closely-contested ridings, strategic voting websites obtained enough pledges to account for the victory margin of the Liberal candidate.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="France">France</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Strategic_voting&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: France"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Two-round_system" title="Two-round system">two-round system</a> in France shows strategic voting in the first round, due to considerations which candidate will reach the second round.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anti-Macron_stencil_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Anti-Macron_stencil_2.jpg/220px-Anti-Macron_stencil_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Anti-Macron_stencil_2.jpg/330px-Anti-Macron_stencil_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Anti-Macron_stencil_2.jpg/440px-Anti-Macron_stencil_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1632" data-file-height="1088" /></a><figcaption>Stenciling on a Parisian sidewalk ahead of the first round of the <a href="/wiki/2017_French_presidential_election" title="2017 French presidential election">2017 French presidential election</a> invoking "<span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">votez utile</i></span>" (strategic voting) as a reason for voters to vote for <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Fillon" title="François Fillon">François Fillon</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Macron" title="Emmanuel Macron">Emmanuel Macron</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Germany">Germany</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Strategic_voting&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Germany"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Mixed-member_proportional_representation" title="Mixed-member proportional representation">mixed-member proportional representation</a> allows to estimate the share of strategic voters in <a href="/wiki/First-past-the-post_voting" title="First-past-the-post voting">first-past-the-post voting</a> due to the separate votes for party-lists and local single-winner electoral district candidates. The vote for party-lists is considered sincere if the party vote share is significantly above the 5% electoral threshold in Germany. In Germany the share of strategic voters was found around 30%, which decreased to 9% if only non-allied party candidates were contenders for the electoral district winner.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a contentious election year the share of strategic voters increased to around 45%. </p><p>Due to electoral threshold in <a href="/wiki/Party-list_proportional_representation" title="Party-list proportional representation">party-list proportional representation</a> one party asked in several elections their voters to vote for another allied party to help this party cross the electoral threshold.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hong_Kong">Hong Kong</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Strategic_voting&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Hong Kong"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>, with its <a href="/wiki/Party-list_proportional_representation" title="Party-list proportional representation">party-list proportional representation</a> using <a href="/wiki/Largest_remainder_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Largest remainder method">largest remainder method</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Hare_quota" title="Hare quota">Hare quota</a>, voters supporting candidates of the <a href="/wiki/Pro-democracy_camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Pro-democracy camp">pro-democracy camp</a> often organize to divide their votes across different tickets, avoiding the concentration of votes on one or a few candidates.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on an unreliable source. (February 2024)">unreliable source?</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="The material near this tag is possibly inaccurate or nonfactual. (February 2024)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Strategic_voting#Dubious" title="Talk:Strategic voting">discuss</a></i>]</sup> In <a href="/wiki/2016_Hong_Kong_legislative_election" title="2016 Hong Kong legislative election">2016 Hong Kong Legislative Election</a>, the practices of strategic voting were expanded by <a href="/wiki/Benny_Tai" title="Benny Tai">Benny Tai</a>'s Project ThunderGo.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The anti-establishment camp gained 29 seats, a historical record. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hungary">Hungary</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Strategic_voting&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Hungary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a>, during the <a href="/wiki/2018_Hungarian_parliamentary_election" title="2018 Hungarian parliamentary election">2018 Hungarian parliamentary election</a>, several websites, such as taktikaiszavazas.hu<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (meaning "strategic voting"), promoted the idea to vote for opposition candidates with the highest probability of winning a given seat. About a quarter of opposition voters adopted this behavior, resulting in a total of 498,000 extra votes gained by opposition parties. A total of 14 extra single seats were taken by several parties and independent candidates. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lithuania">Lithuania</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Strategic_voting&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Lithuania"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a>, which has a <a href="/wiki/Parallel_voting" title="Parallel voting">parallel voting</a> system at parliamentary and district levels, most of strategic voting takes place in single-member constituencies (or districts in mayoral elections). These constituencies have two-round system when no candidate wins more than 50 per cent of the votes in the first round. A notable example of strategic voting at the parliamentary level could be the 10th <a href="/wiki/Naujoji_Vilnia" title="Naujoji Vilnia">Naujoji Vilnia</a> constituency in <a href="/wiki/2016_Lithuanian_parliamentary_election" title="2016 Lithuanian parliamentary election">2016 Lithuanian parliamentary election</a>. To prevent independent candidate <a href="/wiki/Algirdas_Paleckis" title="Algirdas Paleckis">Algirdas Paleckis</a>' victory, the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Movement_(Lithuania)" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal Movement (Lithuania)">Liberal Movement's</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Farmers_and_Greens_Union" title="Lithuanian Farmers and Greens Union">Lithuanian Farmers and Greens Union</a>'s and the <a href="/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Lithuania" title="Social Democratic Party of Lithuania">Social Democratic Party</a>'s candidates endorsed their supporters to vote for the <a href="/wiki/Homeland_Union" title="Homeland Union">Homeland Union</a>'s candidate <a href="/wiki/Monika_Navickien%C4%97" title="Monika Navickienė">Monika Navickienė</a> (who came in second place). Monika Navickienė eventually won the constituency by around 900 votes.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At a district level, an example could be Kėdainiai district's mayoral election in the 2015 municipal elections. In the first round, the <a href="/wiki/Labour_Party_(Lithuania)" title="Labour Party (Lithuania)">Labour Party</a> won 13 seats of 26 seats in district council and was just one seat short of absolute majority. Nijolė Naujokienė (candidate to the district's mayoral seat from the Labour Party) came short by 0.68 per cent in the mayoral election. Her opponent, Saulius Grinkevičius, had a 22 per cent gap to overcome.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the second round, Saulius Grinkevičius won by around 8 per cent (and 1,600 votes).<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_Zealand">New Zealand</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Strategic_voting&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: New Zealand"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since New Zealand moved to <a href="/wiki/Mixed-member_proportional_representation" title="Mixed-member proportional representation">mixed-member proportional representation</a> voting in 1996, the <a href="/wiki/Electoral_system_of_New_Zealand" title="Electoral system of New Zealand">electoral system of New Zealand</a> has seen strategic voting<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> regularly occur in several elections, including one party explicitly or implicitly encouraging voters to vote for a candidate other than theirs. This happened first in 1996 in the <a href="/wiki/Wellington_Central_(New_Zealand_electorate)" title="Wellington Central (New Zealand electorate)">Wellington Central</a>, and then in 1999 in the <a href="/wiki/Coromandel_(New_Zealand_electorate)" title="Coromandel (New Zealand electorate)">Coromandel</a>. From 1996 until 2005, it was a regular feature in the <a href="/wiki/Ohariu-Belmont_(New_Zealand_electorate)" title="Ohariu-Belmont (New Zealand electorate)">Ohariu-Belmont</a> electorate,<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which was won by <a href="/wiki/Peter_Dunne" title="Peter Dunne">Peter Dunne</a> throughout its existence and from 2005 in the <a href="/wiki/Epsom_(New_Zealand_electorate)" title="Epsom (New Zealand electorate)">Epsom</a> electorate which has been won solely by the <a href="/wiki/ACT_New_Zealand" title="ACT New Zealand">ACT</a> party since 2005.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Poland">Poland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Strategic_voting&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Poland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/2023_Polish_parliamentary_election" title="2023 Polish parliamentary election">2023 Polish parliamentary election</a>, websites like pogonimypis.pl<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (meaning "We'll chase the PiS") gave information for which voters should vote for in their constituency in order to maximize the chance of the opposition winning the extra seat. The campaign was a success, with <a href="/wiki/Law_and_Justice_(Poland)" class="mw-redirect" title="Law and Justice (Poland)">PiS</a> losing the majority in the <a href="/wiki/Sejm" title="Sejm">Sejm</a>. At the same time, a <a href="/wiki/2023_Polish_referendum" title="2023 Polish referendum">referendum</a> with the questions asked in a persuasive way took place, with the oppositing recommending to not take the referendal card.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The voter turnout of the referendum is 40%, making it non-binding and merely a suggestion for all the future governments.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slovenia">Slovenia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Strategic_voting&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Slovenia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to some media, in the <a href="/wiki/2011_Slovenian_parliamentary_election" title="2011 Slovenian parliamentary election">2011 Slovenian parliamentary election</a>, 30% of voters voted tactically. Public polls predicted an easy win for <a href="/wiki/Janez_Jan%C5%A1a" title="Janez Janša">Janez Janša</a>, the candidate of the <a href="/wiki/Slovenian_Democratic_Party" title="Slovenian Democratic Party">Slovenian Democratic Party</a>; however, his opponent <a href="/wiki/Zoran_Jankovi%C4%87_(politician)" title="Zoran Janković (politician)">Zoran Janković</a>, the candidate of <a href="/wiki/Positive_Slovenia" title="Positive Slovenia">Positive Slovenia</a>, won. Prominent Slovenian public opinion researchers claimed that such proportions of strategic voting had not been recorded anywhere else before.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spain">Spain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Strategic_voting&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Spain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 2016 General Election in Spain, the incentives for voting tactically were much larger than usual, following the rise of the Podemos and Ciudadanos and following the economic crisis and election in 2015.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The strategic voters successfully influenced the outcome of the election, despite a record low turnout of 66.5%. In a natural experiment in Andalusia 9% voted strategically when having opportunity, strategic behavior did not increase with time, and did not affect surrounding electoral areas, under the assumption that strategic voting happens only for <a href="/wiki/District_magnitude" class="mw-redirect" title="District magnitude">district magnitude</a> above 5.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Taiwan">Taiwan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Strategic_voting&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Taiwan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/1995_Taiwanese_legislative_election" title="1995 Taiwanese legislative election">1995 Legislative Yuan election</a>, strategic voting was implemented by the opposition parties, such as the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Progressive_Party" title="Democratic Progressive Party">Democratic Progressive Party</a><sup id="cite_ref-立委選舉中民進黨的「聯合競選策略」：_以北高兩市為例2_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-立委選舉中民進黨的「聯合競選策略」：_以北高兩市為例2-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/New_Party_(Taiwan)" title="New Party (Taiwan)">New Party</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the members were elected in multi-member districts, the parties urged their supporters to vote for a party-nominated candidate according to criteria, such as the last digit of the voter's <a href="/wiki/National_identification_card_(Taiwan)" title="National identification card (Taiwan)">National Identification Card Number</a> or the voter's birth month. This maximized the opposition's seat gains and resulted in the ruling <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a> losing 10 seats, receiving the lowest share of seats in history at the time. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Strategic_voting&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: United Kingdom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/1997_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1997 United Kingdom general election">1997 UK general election</a>, <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Left_(United_Kingdom)" class="mw-redirect" title="Democratic Left (United Kingdom)">Democratic Left</a> helped <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Kent" title="Bruce Kent">Bruce Kent</a> set up GROT (Get Rid Of Them) a strategic voter campaign whose aim was to help prevent the Conservative Party from gaining a 5th term in office. This coalition was drawn from individuals in all the main opposition parties, and many who were not aligned with any party. While it is hard to prove that GROT swung the election itself, it did attract significant media attention and brought strategic voting into the mainstream for the first time in UK politics. In 2001, the Democratic Left's successor organisation, the <a href="/wiki/New_Politics_Network" title="New Politics Network">New Politics Network</a>, organised a similar campaign. Since then strategic voting has become a consideration in British politics as is reflected in by-elections and by the growth in sites such as tacticalvote.co.uk, who encourage strategic voting as a way of defusing the two party system and empowering the individual voter. For the <a href="/wiki/2015_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="2015 United Kingdom general election">2015 UK general election</a>, voteswap.org attempted to prevent the Conservative Party staying in government by encouraging Green Party supporters to tactically vote for the Labour Party in listed marginal seats. In 2017 swapmyvote.uk was formed to help supporters of all parties swap their votes with people in other constituencies. </p><p>In the 2006 local elections in London, strategic voting was promoted by sites such as London Strategic Voter in a response to national and international issues.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In Northern Ireland, it is believed that (predominantly Protestant) Unionist voters in Nationalist strongholds have voted for the <a href="/wiki/Social_Democratic_and_Labour_Party" title="Social Democratic and Labour Party">Social Democratic and Labour Party</a> (SDLP) to prevent <a href="/wiki/Sinn_F%C3%A9in" title="Sinn Féin">Sinn Féin</a> from capturing such seats. This conclusion was reached by comparing results to the demographics of constituencies and polling districts.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/2017_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="2017 United Kingdom general election">2017 general election</a>, it is estimated that 6.5 million people (more than 20% of voters) voted tactically<sup id="cite_ref-sky.com2_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sky.com2-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> either as a way of preventing a "hard Brexit" or preventing another Conservative government led by the Tactical2017 campaign.<sup id="cite_ref-sky.com2_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sky.com2-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many Green Party candidates withdrew from the race in order to help the Labour Party<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> secure closely fought seats against the Conservatives. This ultimately led to the Conservatives losing seats in the election even though they increased their overall vote share.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/2019_Conservative_Party_leadership_election" title="2019 Conservative Party leadership election">2019 Conservative Party leadership election</a> to determine the final two candidates for the party vote, it was suggested that front-runner Boris Johnson's campaign encouraged some of its MPs to back <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Hunt" title="Jeremy Hunt">Jeremy Hunt</a> instead of Johnson, so that Hunt – seen as "a lower-energy challenger" – would finish in second place, allowing an easier defeat in the party vote.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Strategic voting was expected to play a major role in the <a href="/wiki/2019_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="2019 United Kingdom general election">2019 General Election</a>, with a <a href="/wiki/YouGov" title="YouGov">YouGov</a> poll suggesting that 19% of voters would be doing so tactically. 49% of strategic voters said they would do so in the hope of stopping a party whose views they opposed.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to a 2020 study, older voters in the UK vote strategically more than younger voters, and richer voters vote more strategically than poorer voters.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In an example of individuals voting tactically, <a href="/wiki/Labour_Party_(UK)" title="Labour Party (UK)">Labour</a> voters in the <a href="/wiki/2022_Tiverton_and_Honiton_by-election" title="2022 Tiverton and Honiton by-election">2022 Tiverton and Honiton by-election</a> in the UK tactically supported the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Democrats_(UK)" title="Liberal Democrats (UK)">Liberal Democrat</a> candidate in order to ensure the defeat of the <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Party_(UK)" title="Conservative Party (UK)">Conservatives</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This resulted in the Liberal Democrats winning what had previously been a Conservative <a href="/wiki/Safe_seat" title="Safe seat">safe seat</a>. </p><p>In 2024, tactical voting is again being advocated for the <a href="/wiki/2024_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="2024 United Kingdom general election">2024 general election</a>, as a means to defeat Conservative candidates in seats with traditional large Conservative majorities.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The date of the event predicted near this tag has passed. (August 2024)">needs update</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Strategic_voting&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Strategic voting in the US's <a href="/wiki/First-past-the-post_voting" title="First-past-the-post voting">first-past-the-post voting</a> and <a href="/wiki/Presidential_system" title="Presidential system">presidential system</a> contributes to a two-party system, where the observed effect of <a href="/wiki/Duverger%27s_law" title="Duverger's law">Duverger's law</a> is stronger than in most countries.<sup id="cite_ref-Duverger2_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Duverger2-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2000, 2016, and 2024, a significant number of voters in the Presidential elections opted to use <a href="/wiki/Vote_swapping" class="mw-redirect" title="Vote swapping">vote swapping</a> to increase Democratic turnout in swing states and third-party turnout in safe states.<sup id="cite_ref-Schneider2024_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schneider2024-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One high-profile example of strategic voting was the <a href="/wiki/2002_California_gubernatorial_election" title="2002 California gubernatorial election">2002 California gubernatorial election</a>. During the Republican primaries, Republicans <a href="/wiki/Richard_Riordan" title="Richard Riordan">Richard Riordan</a> (former mayor of <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles" title="Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Bill_Simon_(politician)" title="Bill Simon (politician)">Bill Simon</a> (a self-financed businessman) vied for a chance to compete against the unpopular incumbent Democratic <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_California" title="Governor of California">Governor of California</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gray_Davis" title="Gray Davis">Gray Davis</a>. Polls predicted that Riordan would defeat Davis, while Simon would not. At that time, the Republican primaries were partially closed primaries in which non-partisans and registered Republicans<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> could vote regardless of their party affiliation. Davis supporters (those were eligible to vote in the Republican primary) were rumored to have voted for Simon because Riordan was perceived as a greater threat to Davis; this, combined with a negative advertising campaign by Davis describing Riordan as a "big-city liberal", allowed Simon to win the primary despite a last-minute business <a href="/wiki/Scandal" title="Scandal">scandal</a>. The strategy to nominate Simon (if in fact it was a reality), was successful, as he lost in the general election against Davis. However, it resulted in the lowest gubernatorial general election turnout in modern California political history, thus requiring fewer signatures to qualify a <a href="/wiki/2003_California_gubernatorial_recall_election" title="2003 California gubernatorial recall election">recall that ultimately ousted Davis</a>. </p><p>Similarly, in 2012, <a href="/wiki/Claire_McCaskill" title="Claire McCaskill">Claire McCaskill</a> boosted <a href="/wiki/Todd_Akin" title="Todd Akin">Todd Akin</a> in the <a href="/wiki/2012_United_States_Senate_election_in_Missouri" title="2012 United States Senate election in Missouri">2012 US Senate election in Missouri</a>. In addition to running ads highlighting Akin's conservative stances, McCaskill also directed messages to surrogates to tell Akin to run ads which would increase his primary polling.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Puerto_Rico">Puerto Rico</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Strategic_voting&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Puerto Rico"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a>'s 2004 elections were affected by strategic voting. Pedro Rosselló, the <a href="/wiki/New_Progressive_Party_of_Puerto_Rico" class="mw-redirect" title="New Progressive Party of Puerto Rico">New Progressive Party</a>'s candidate of that year, was unpopular across much of the territory due to large corruption schemes and the privatization of public corporations. To prevent Rossell from winning, other factions supported the <a href="/wiki/Popular_Democratic_Party_(Puerto_Rico)" title="Popular Democratic Party (Puerto Rico)">Partido Popular Democratico</a>'s candidate. The elections were close; statehood advocates won a seat in the U.S. house of representatives and majorities in both legislative branches, but lost governance to <a href="/wiki/An%C3%ADbal_Acevedo_Vil%C3%A1" title="Aníbal Acevedo Vilá">Aníbal Acevedo Vilá</a>. (Puerto Ricans have the chance to vote by party or by candidate. Separatists voted under their ideology but for the center party's candidate, which caused major turmoil.) After a recount and a trial, Acevedo Vilá was certified as governor of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rational_voter_model">Rational voter model</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Strategic_voting&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Rational voter model"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Analysis of strategic voting is commonly based on a model of behavior where voters are <i>short-term instrumentally rational</i>. That is, voters are only voting in order to make an impact on one election at a time (not, say, to build the <a href="/wiki/Political_party" title="Political party">political party</a> for next election); voters have a set of sincere preferences, or utility rankings, by which to rate candidates; voters have some knowledge of each other's preferences; and voters understand how best to use strategic voting to their advantage. The extent to which this model resembles real-life elections is the subject of considerable academic debate. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Myerson–Weber_strategy"><span id="Myerson.E2.80.93Weber_strategy"></span>Myerson–Weber strategy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Strategic_voting&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Myerson–Weber strategy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An example of a rational voter strategy is described by <a href="/wiki/Roger_Myerson" title="Roger Myerson">Myerson</a> and Weber.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The strategy is broadly applicable to a number of single-winner voting methods that are additive point methods, such as <a href="/wiki/Plurality_voting_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Plurality voting method">Plurality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Borda_count" title="Borda count">Borda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Approval_voting" title="Approval voting">Approval</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Range_voting" class="mw-redirect" title="Range voting">Range</a>. The strategy is optimal in the sense that the strategy will maximize the voter's <a href="/wiki/Utility#Expected_utility" title="Utility">expected utility</a> when the number of voters is sufficiently large. </p><p>This rational voter model assumes that the voter's utility of the election result is dependent only on which candidate wins and not on any other aspect of the election, for example showing support for a losing candidate in the vote tallies. The model also assumes the voter chooses how to vote individually and not in collaboration with other voters. </p><p>Given a set of <i>k</i> candidates and a voter let: </p> <dl><dd><i>v<sub>i</sub></i> = the number of points to be voted for candidate <i>i</i></dd> <dd><i>u<sub>i</sub></i> = the voter's gain in utility if candidate <i>i</i> wins the election</dd> <dd><i>p<sub>ij</sub></i> = the (voter's perceived) <i>pivot probability</i> that candidates <i>i</i> and <i>j</i> will be tied for the most total points to win the election.</dd></dl> <p>Then the voter's <i>prospective rating</i> for a candidate <i>i</i> is defined as: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle R_{i}=\sum _{j\neq i}\;p_{ij}\cdot (u_{i}-u_{j})\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>R</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <munder> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>j</mi> <mo>≠</mo> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </munder> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <msub> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>⋅</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>u</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>u</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle R_{i}=\sum _{j\neq i}\;p_{ij}\cdot (u_{i}-u_{j})\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7d75e294920f08869902de2519c0e399eeda6dfd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.505ex; width:23.781ex; height:6.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle R_{i}=\sum _{j\neq i}\;p_{ij}\cdot (u_{i}-u_{j})\,}"></span></dd></dl> <p>The gain in expected utility for a given vote is given by: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle G(p,v,u)=\sum _{i=1}^{k}\;v_{i}\cdot R_{i}\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>G</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>p</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>v</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>u</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <munderover> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </munderover> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <msub> <mi>v</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>⋅</mo> <msub> <mi>R</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle G(p,v,u)=\sum _{i=1}^{k}\;v_{i}\cdot R_{i}\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/793960444f4bd4e248bfd44c8f0b7dbc7e62debe" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.005ex; width:23.374ex; height:7.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle G(p,v,u)=\sum _{i=1}^{k}\;v_{i}\cdot R_{i}\,}"></span></dd></dl> <p>The gain in expected utility can be maximized by choosing a vote with suitable values of <i>v<sub>i</sub></i>, depending on the voting method and the voter's prospective ratings for each candidate. For specific voting methods, the gain can be maximized using the following rules: </p> <ul><li>Plurality: Vote for the candidate with the highest prospective rating. This is different from choosing the best of the frontrunners, which is a common <a href="/wiki/Heuristic" title="Heuristic">heuristic</a> approach to voting. In rare cases, the highest prospective rating can belong to a weak candidate (one with a low probability of winning).</li> <li>Borda: Rank the candidates in decreasing order of prospective rating.</li> <li>Approval: Vote for all candidates that have a positive prospective rating.</li> <li>Range: Vote the maximum (minimum) for all candidates with a positive (negative) prospective rating.</li></ul> <p>Pivot probabilities are rarely estimated in <a href="/wiki/Political_forecasting" title="Political forecasting">political forecasting</a>, but can be estimated from predicted winning probabilities. An important special case occurs when the voter has no information about how other voters will vote. This is sometimes referred to as the <i>zero information strategy</i>. In this special case, the <i>p<sub>ij</sub></i> pivot probabilities are all equal and the rules for the specific voting methods become: </p> <ul><li>Plurality: Vote for the most preferred (highest utility) candidate. This is the sincere plurality vote.</li> <li>Borda: Rank the candidates in decreasing order preference (decreasing order of utility). This is the sincere ranking of the candidates.</li> <li>Approval: Calculate the average utility of all candidates. Vote for all candidates that have a higher-than-average utility; do not vote for any candidates that have a lower-than-average utility.</li> <li>Range: Calculate the average utility of all candidates. Vote the maximum points for all candidates that have a higher-than-average utility; vote the minimum points for all candidates that have a lower-than-average utility; vote any value for a candidate with a utility equal to the average.</li></ul> <p>Myerson and Weber also describe voting equilibria that require all voters use the optimal strategy and all voters share a common set of <i>p<sub>ij</sub></i> pivot probabilities. Because of these additional requirements, such equilibria may in practice be less widely applicable than the strategies. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pre-election_influence">Pre-election influence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Strategic_voting&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Pre-election influence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Strategic voting requires voters to be informed, as they can only gauge who is in the leading and who may not be a viable candidate through the information they are supplied.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because strategic voting relies heavily on voters' perception of how other voters intend to vote, campaigns in electoral methods that promote compromise frequently focus on affecting voters' perception of campaign viability. Most campaigns craft refined media strategies to shape the way voters see their candidacy. During this phase, there can be an analogous effect where campaign donors and activists may decide whether or not to support candidates tactically with their money and time. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Rolling_election" class="mw-redirect" title="Rolling election">rolling elections</a>, where some voters have information about previous voters' preferences (e.g. presidential <a href="/wiki/Partisan_primary" class="mw-redirect" title="Partisan primary">primaries</a> in the United States), candidates put disproportionate resources into competing strongly in the first few stages, because those stages affect the reaction of later stages. </p><p>Perceived influence on other voters also interacts with strategic voting. In a study of the Israeli voting system, presumed media influence was found to be a variable in the case of why voters partake in strategic voting.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because the Israeli electoral system is complex, with many parties, and parliamentary, this perceived media influence effect may have a larger and more observable effect on simpler systems such as the one in the United States. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Game_theory" title="Game theory">Game theory</a> has been used to search for some kind of "minimally manipulable" (<a href="/wiki/Incentive_compatibility" title="Incentive compatibility">incentive compatibility</a>) voting schemes. Game theory can also be used to analyze the pros and cons of different methods. For instance, when electors vote for their own preferences rather than tactically, <a href="/wiki/Condorcet_method" title="Condorcet method">Condorcet method</a>-like methods tend to settle on compromise candidates, while <a href="/wiki/Instant-runoff_voting" title="Instant-runoff voting">instant-runoff voting</a> favors those candidates with strong core support but otherwise narrower appeal due to holding more uncompromising positions. Thus, <a href="/wiki/Condorcet_methods" class="mw-redirect" title="Condorcet methods">Condorcet methods</a> incentivize candidates to position themselves closer to the <a href="/wiki/Median_voter" class="mw-redirect" title="Median voter">median voter</a> and appeal to a wider section of the electorate than <a href="/wiki/Instant-runoff_voting" title="Instant-runoff voting">instant-runoff voting</a> does.<sup id="cite_ref-k899_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-k899-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-r517_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-r517-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: Fig 4.1">: Fig 4.1 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="By_method">By method</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Strategic_voting&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: By method"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plurality_voting">Plurality voting</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Strategic_voting&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Plurality voting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Plurality_voting#Tactical_voting" title="Plurality voting">Plurality voting § Tactical voting</a></div> <p>Lesser-evil voting is exceedingly common in <a href="/wiki/Plurality_voting_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Plurality voting method">plurality</a> elections, where the first preference is all that counts (and thus lesser-evil voting is the only effective kind of strategic voting). The most typical tactic is to assess which two candidates are frontrunners (most likely to win) and to vote for the preferred one of those two, even if a third candidate is preferred over both. <a href="/wiki/Duverger%27s_law" title="Duverger's law">Duverger's law</a> is the observation that this kind of strategic voting and <a href="/wiki/Strategic_nomination" title="Strategic nomination">strategic nomination</a> is sufficiently common for any method based on first preferences to produce two-party domination. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plurality-runoff_family_(RCV,_two-round,_and_partisan_primaries)"><span id="Plurality-runoff_family_.28RCV.2C_two-round.2C_and_partisan_primaries.29"></span>Plurality-runoff family (RCV, two-round, and partisan primaries)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Strategic_voting&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Plurality-runoff family (RCV, two-round, and partisan primaries)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Instant-runoff_voting#Resistance_to_tactical_voting" title="Instant-runoff voting">Instant-runoff voting § Resistance to tactical voting</a></div> <p>Theoretical results indicate that, under two-round runoff voting with three candidates, strategic equilibria exist in which only two candidates receive votes.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been shown experimentally that voters are influenced by a candidate's perceived likelihood of winning the election.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Instant-runoff_voting" title="Instant-runoff voting">Instant runoff voting</a> is vulnerable to three of the four kinds of strategy discussed above. It is vulnerable to lesser-evil voting; to turkey-raising; and to strategic truncation. </p><p>There is a common misconception that instant-runoff is not affected by a kind of strategic voting called <a href="/wiki/Truncation_(voting)" class="mw-redirect" title="Truncation (voting)">truncation</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bullet_voting" title="Bullet voting">bullet voting</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, satisfying later-no-harm does not (by itself) provide resistance to such strategies, unless paired with the <a href="/wiki/Participation_criterion" class="mw-redirect" title="Participation criterion">participation criterion</a>. Systems like <a href="/wiki/Instant_runoff_voting" class="mw-redirect" title="Instant runoff voting">instant runoff</a> that pass later-no-harm but fail <a href="/wiki/Participation_criterion" class="mw-redirect" title="Participation criterion">participation</a> still incentivize truncation or bullet voting in some situations.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cardinal_single-winner_voting">Cardinal single-winner voting</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Strategic_voting&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Cardinal single-winner voting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Score_voting#Strategy" title="Score voting">Score voting § Strategy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Approval_voting#Strategy" title="Approval voting">Approval voting § Strategy</a></div> <p>Most cardinal, single-winner voting systems in large elections encourage similar strategies: </p> <ol><li>Calculate the expected (average) utility of the election result (the average <a href="/wiki/Utility" title="Utility">utility</a> if the election was repeated many times).</li> <li>Top-rate all candidates with above-average utility, and bottom-rate all candidates with below-average utility.</li></ol> <p>Such a strategy involves "semi-honest exaggeration". Unlike in most voting systems, voters rarely (if ever) have an incentive to lie about which of two candidates they prefer, which makes such far milder than under other voting systems. Voters exaggerate the difference between a certain pair of candidates but do not rank any less-preferred candidate over any more-preferred one. This form of exaggeration has an effect whenever the voter's honest rating for the intended winner is below that candidate's median rating; or when their honest rating for the intended loser is above it. In other words, half of voters will have an incentive to strategize, while half will not. </p><p>Typically, this would not be the case unless there were two similar candidates favored by the same set of voters. A strategic vote against a similar rival could result in a favored candidate winning; although if voters for both similar rivals used this strategy, it could cause a candidate favored by neither of these voter groups to win. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Michel_Balinski" title="Michel Balinski">Balinski</a> and Laraki noted that under majority judgment, many voters have no opportunity or incentive to use strategy. They argued based on a simulation that the highest median methods minimized the number of voters with an incentive to misrepresent their opinions, among the methods they studied.<sup id="cite_ref-mjrank_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mjrank-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Strategic voters are faced with the initial tactic as to how highly to score their second-choice candidate. The voter may want to retain expression of a high preference of their favorite candidate over their second choice. But that does not allow the same voter to express a high preference of their second choice over any others. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Approval_voting" title="Approval voting">approval voting</a>, because the only option is to approve of a candidate or not, optimal strategic voting rarely includes ranking a less-preferred candidate over a more-preferred candidate. However, strategy is in fact inevitable when a voter decides their "approval cutoff". <a href="/wiki/Steven_Brams" title="Steven Brams">Steven Brams</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dudley_R._Herschbach" title="Dudley R. Herschbach">Dudley R. Herschbach</a> argued in a paper in <i><a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i> magazine in 2001 that <a href="/wiki/Approval_voting" title="Approval voting">approval voting</a> was the method least amenable to tactical perturbations.<sup id="cite_ref-Heschbach2_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heschbach2-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Balinski and Laraki used rated ballots from a poll of the <a href="/wiki/2007_French_presidential_election" title="2007 French presidential election">2007 French presidential election</a> to show that, if unstrategic voters only approved candidates whom they considered "very good" or better, strategic voters would be able to sway the result frequently, but that if unstrategic voters approved all candidates they considered "good" or better, approval was the second most strategy-resistant method of the ones they studied, after majority judgment itself.<sup id="cite_ref-mjrank_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mjrank-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ranked_single-winner_voting">Ranked single-winner voting</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Strategic_voting&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Ranked single-winner voting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Borda_count#Potential_for_tactical_manipulation" title="Borda count">Borda count § Potential for tactical manipulation</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Borda_count" title="Borda count">Borda count</a> has both a strong incentive and a large vulnerability to burial. Here is a hypothetical example of both factors at the same time: if there are two candidates the most likely to win, the voter can maximize the impact on the contest between these candidates by ranking the candidate the voter likes more in first place, ranking the candidate whom they like less in last place. If neither candidate is the sincere first or last choice, the voter is using both the compromising and burying strategies at once. If many different groups voters use this strategy, this gives a paradoxical advantage to the candidate generally thought least likely to win.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Condorcet">Condorcet</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Strategic_voting&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Condorcet"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Condorcet_method#Potential_for_tactical_voting" title="Condorcet method">Condorcet method § Potential for tactical voting</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Condorcet_method" title="Condorcet method">Condorcet methods</a> are vulnerable to 3 of the 4 kinds of strategy listed above, because the <a href="/wiki/Condorcet_winner_criterion" title="Condorcet winner criterion">Condorcet winner criterion</a> is incompatible with the <a href="/wiki/Sincere_favorite_criterion" title="Sincere favorite criterion">sincere favorite criterion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Participation_criterion" class="mw-redirect" title="Participation criterion">participation criterion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Later-no-harm" class="mw-redirect" title="Later-no-harm">later-no-harm</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Later-no-help" class="mw-redirect" title="Later-no-help">later-no-help</a>. Strategy in Condorcet methods can become highly complex, but almost always involves burial or truncation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Multi-winner_voting">Multi-winner voting</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Strategic_voting&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Multi-winner voting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Single_transferable_vote">Single transferable vote</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Strategic_voting&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Single transferable vote"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Single_transferable_vote#Tactics" title="Single transferable vote">Single transferable vote § Tactics</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Single_transferable_vote" title="Single transferable vote">single transferable vote</a> may incentivize free-riding: if a voter expects their favorite candidate will almost-certainly be elected, insincerely ranking the second candidate first does not hurt the favored candidate.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some forms of STV allow strategic voters to gain an advantage by listing a candidate who is very likely to lose in first place.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This strategy, called <i>Woodall free riding</i>, is essentially eliminated by <a href="/wiki/Counting_single_transferable_votes#Meek" title="Counting single transferable votes">Meek's method</a>; however, Meek's method is rarely used because of its substantial complexity, having been adopted only for some local elections in New Zealand.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Malta's STV, the two-party system can cause strategic voting away from third parties.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Strategic_voting&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/28px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/42px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/56px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_fusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Electoral fusion">Electoral fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keynesian_beauty_contest" title="Keynesian beauty contest">Keynesian beauty contest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesser_of_two_evils" class="mw-redirect" title="Lesser of two evils">Lesser of two evils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partisan_primary" class="mw-redirect" title="Partisan primary">Primary election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ranked_voting" title="Ranked voting">Ranked voting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_nomination" title="Strategic nomination">Strategic nomination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vote_allocation" class="mw-redirect" title="Vote allocation">Vote allocation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vote_swapping" class="mw-redirect" title="Vote swapping">Vote swapping</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Strategic_voting&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFFarquharson1969" class="citation book cs1">Farquharson, Robin (1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fIMHAQAAMAAJ"><i>Theory of Voting</i></a>. Blackwell (Yale U.P., U.S.). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-12460-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-12460-3"><bdi>978-0-631-12460-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theory+of+Voting&rft.pub=Blackwell+%28Yale+U.P.%2C+U.S.%29&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0-631-12460-3&rft.aulast=Farquharson&rft.aufirst=Robin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfIMHAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStrategic+voting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Armytage-SVN-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Armytage-SVN_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Armytage-SVN_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Armytage-SVN_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Armytage-SVN_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Armytage-SVN_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Armytage-SVN_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Armytage-SVN_2-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreen-Armytage2014" class="citation journal cs1">Green-Armytage, James (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/32200/1/MPRA_paper_32200.pdf">"Strategic voting and nomination"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Social Choice and Welfare</i>. <b>42</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">111–</span>138. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00355-013-0725-3">10.1007/s00355-013-0725-3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0176-1714">0176-1714</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Choice+and+Welfare&rft.atitle=Strategic+voting+and+nomination&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E111-%3C%2Fspan%3E138&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00355-013-0725-3&rft.issn=0176-1714&rft.aulast=Green-Armytage&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de%2F32200%2F1%2FMPRA_paper_32200.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStrategic+voting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:12-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:12_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:12_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVolić2024" class="citation book cs1">Volić, Ismar (2024). "2: Duverger's law". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.2307/jj.7492228"><i>Making Democracy Count</i></a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fjj.7492228">10.2307/jj.7492228</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-24882-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-24882-0"><bdi>978-0-691-24882-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=2%3A+Duverger%27s+law&rft.btitle=Making+Democracy+Count&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2024&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2Fjj.7492228&rft.isbn=978-0-691-24882-0&rft.aulast=Voli%C4%87&rft.aufirst=Ismar&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.2307%2Fjj.7492228&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStrategic+voting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hodge_Klima_2018_p._922-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hodge_Klima_2018_p._922_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHodgeKlima2018" class="citation book cs1">Hodge, J.K.; Klima, R.E. (2018). "6". <i>The Mathematics of Voting and Elections: A Hands-On Approach</i>. Mathematical World. American Mathematical Society. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4704-4287-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4704-4287-3"><bdi>978-1-4704-4287-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=6&rft.btitle=The+Mathematics+of+Voting+and+Elections%3A+A+Hands-On+Approach&rft.series=Mathematical+World&rft.pub=American+Mathematical+Society&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-4704-4287-3&rft.aulast=Hodge&rft.aufirst=J.K.&rft.au=Klima%2C+R.E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStrategic+voting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Monroe-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Monroe_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Monroe_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMonroe2001" class="citation conference cs1">Monroe, Burt (September 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.accuratedemocracy.com/archive/condorcet/Monroe/004004MonroeBurt.pdf"><i>Raising Turkeys: An Extension and Devastating Application of Myerson-Weber Voting Equilibrium</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. American Political Science Association.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Raising+Turkeys%3A+An+Extension+and+Devastating+Application+of+Myerson-Weber+Voting+Equilibrium&rft.date=2001-09&rft.aulast=Monroe&rft.aufirst=Burt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accuratedemocracy.com%2Farchive%2Fcondorcet%2FMonroe%2F004004MonroeBurt.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStrategic+voting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Armytage-Hare-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Armytage-Hare_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreen-Armytage2011" class="citation journal cs1">Green-Armytage, James (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mcdougall.org.uk/voting-matters/ISSUE29/I29P1.pdf">"Four Condorcet-Hare hybrid methods for single-winner elections"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Voting Matters</i>. <b>29</b> (1).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Voting+Matters&rft.atitle=Four+Condorcet-Hare+hybrid+methods+for+single-winner+elections.&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Green-Armytage&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mcdougall.org.uk%2Fvoting-matters%2FISSUE29%2FI29P1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStrategic+voting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-h794-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-h794_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreen-Armytage2023" class="citation journal cs1">Green-Armytage, James (2023). "A Dodgson-Hare synthesis". <i>Constitutional Political Economy</i>. <b>34</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">458–</span>470. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10602-023-09392-2">10.1007/s10602-023-09392-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1043-4062">1043-4062</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Constitutional+Political+Economy&rft.atitle=A+Dodgson-Hare+synthesis&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E458-%3C%2Fspan%3E470&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10602-023-09392-2&rft.issn=1043-4062&rft.aulast=Green-Armytage&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStrategic+voting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatthew_S._Cook2011" class="citation web cs1">Matthew S. Cook (March 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111120014436/http://economics.stanford.edu/files/Matthew%20Cook%20Honors%20Thesis.pdf">"Voting with Bidirectional Elimination"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Voting with Bidirectional Elimination. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://economics.stanford.edu/files/Matthew%20Cook%20Honors%20Thesis.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 20 November 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 April</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Voting+with+Bidirectional+Elimination&rft.pub=Voting+with+Bidirectional+Elimination&rft.date=2011-03&rft.au=Matthew+S.+Cook&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feconomics.stanford.edu%2Ffiles%2FMatthew%2520Cook%2520Honors%2520Thesis.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStrategic+voting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-alvar99b2-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-alvar99b2_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFR._Michael_AlvarezJonathan_Nagler1999" class="citation web cs1">R. Michael Alvarez; Jonathan Nagler (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100625234325/http://polmeth.wustl.edu/media/Paper/alvar99b.pdf">"Analysis of Crossover and Strategic Voting"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Society for Political Methodology (American Political Science Association; Washington University in St. Louis). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://polmeth.wustl.edu/media/Paper/alvar99b.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 25 June 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 April</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Analysis+of+Crossover+and+Strategic+Voting&rft.pub=Society+for+Political+Methodology+%28American+Political+Science+Association%3B+Washington+University+in+St.+Louis%29&rft.date=1999&rft.au=R.+Michael+Alvarez&rft.au=Jonathan+Nagler&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpolmeth.wustl.edu%2Fmedia%2FPaper%2Falvar99b.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStrategic+voting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Negrin, Matt. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/OTUS/democrats-decide-winner-michigan/story?id=15809682">Could Democrats Decide the Winner in Michigan?</a>" <i>ABC News,</i> 28 Feb. 2012. Retrieved 9 Dec. 2017.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nagel-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nagel_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNagel2007" class="citation journal cs1">Nagel, Jack H. (February 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1111/j.1468-2508.2007.00493.x">"The Burr Dilemma in Approval Voting"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_Politics" title="The Journal of Politics">The Journal of Politics</a></i>. <b>69</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">43–</span>58. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-2508.2007.00493.x">10.1111/j.1468-2508.2007.00493.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1111/j.1468-2508.2007.00493.x">10.1111/j.1468-2508.2007.00493.x</a>. <q>Therefore, strategic approval voting consists primarily of truncation and expansion of the approved list...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Politics&rft.atitle=The+Burr+Dilemma+in+Approval+Voting&rft.volume=69&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E43-%3C%2Fspan%3E58&rft.date=2007-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1468-2508.2007.00493.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.1111%2Fj.1468-2508.2007.00493.x%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Nagel&rft.aufirst=Jack+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.1111%2Fj.1468-2508.2007.00493.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStrategic+voting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Durand_MCN-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Durand_MCN_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDurandMathieuNoirie2012" class="citation arxiv cs1">Durand, François; Mathieu, Fabien; Noirie, Ludovic (29 April 2012). "On the Manipulability of Voting Systems: Application to Multi-Carrier Networks". <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1204.6455">1204.6455</a></span> [<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/archive/cs.NI">cs.NI</a>].</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=preprint&rft.jtitle=arXiv&rft.atitle=On+the+Manipulability+of+Voting+Systems%3A+Application+to+Multi-Carrier+Networks&rft.date=2012-04-29&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1204.6455&rft.aulast=Durand&rft.aufirst=Fran%C3%A7ois&rft.au=Mathieu%2C+Fabien&rft.au=Noirie%2C+Ludovic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStrategic+voting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto2-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-auto2_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBalinskiLaraki2011" class="citation book cs1">Balinski, Michel; Laraki, Rida (2011). "Election by Majority Judgment: Experimental Evidence". <i>In Situ and Laboratory Experiments on Electoral Law Reform</i>. Studies in Public Choice. Vol. 25. pp. <span class="nowrap">13–</span>54. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-7539-3_2">10.1007/978-1-4419-7539-3_2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4419-7538-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4419-7538-6"><bdi>978-1-4419-7538-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Election+by+Majority+Judgment%3A+Experimental+Evidence&rft.btitle=In+Situ+and+Laboratory+Experiments+on+Electoral+Law+Reform&rft.series=Studies+in+Public+Choice&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E13-%3C%2Fspan%3E54&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4419-7539-3_2&rft.isbn=978-1-4419-7538-6&rft.aulast=Balinski&rft.aufirst=Michel&rft.au=Laraki%2C+Rida&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStrategic+voting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShikanoHerrmannThurner2009" class="citation journal cs1">Shikano, Susumu; Herrmann, Michael; Thurner, Paul W. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080/01402380902779147">"Strategic Voting under Proportional Representation: Threshold Insurance in German Elections"</a>. <i>West European Politics</i>. <b>32</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">634–</span>656. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01402380902779147">10.1080/01402380902779147</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154800908">154800908</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=West+European+Politics&rft.atitle=Strategic+Voting+under+Proportional+Representation%3A+Threshold+Insurance+in+German+Elections&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E634-%3C%2Fspan%3E656&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F01402380902779147&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154800908%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Shikano&rft.aufirst=Susumu&rft.au=Herrmann%2C+Michael&rft.au=Thurner%2C+Paul+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%2F01402380902779147&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStrategic+voting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-v742-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-v742_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJenssen2016" class="citation journal cs1">Jenssen, Anders Todal (2016). 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The 4 percent threshold on the distribution of compensatory seats, the competition for the last district seats and the composition of government coalitions triggered tactical voting.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scandinavian+Political+Studies&rft.atitle=Tactical+Voting+in+Norway%3A+Context%2C+Motives+and+Occurrence&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E22-%3C%2Fspan%3E51&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1467-9477.12057&rft.issn=0080-6757&rft.aulast=Jenssen&rft.aufirst=Anders+Todal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStrategic+voting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cranor-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cranor_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCranor1996" class="citation thesis cs1">Cranor, Lorrie Faith (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lorrie.cranor.org/pubs/diss/"><i>Declared-strategy voting: an instrument for group decision-making</i></a> (PhD thesis). USA: Washington University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Declared-strategy+voting%3A+an+instrument+for+group+decision-making&rft.degree=PhD&rft.inst=Washington+University&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Cranor&rft.aufirst=Lorrie+Faith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Florrie.cranor.org%2Fpubs%2Fdiss%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStrategic+voting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-RLDSV1-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-RLDSV1_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLegrand2008" class="citation thesis cs1">Legrand, Robert Hampton (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dl.acm.org/doi/abs/10.5555/1467782"><i>Computational aspects of approval voting and declared-strategy voting</i></a> (PhD thesis). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 May</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=The+Science+of+Elections&rft.volume=292&rft.issue=5521&rft.pages=1449&rft.date=2001-05-25&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.292.5521.1449&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11379606&rft.aulast=Hershbach&rft.aufirst=Dudley&rft.au=Brams%2C+Steven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.science.org%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.1126%2Fscience.292.5521.1449&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStrategic+voting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchulze" class="citation web cs1">Schulze, Markus. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://m-schulze.9mail.de/schulze2.pdf">"Free Riding and Vote Management under Proportional Representation by the Single Transferable Vote"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 March</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Free+Riding+and+Vote+Management+under+Proportional+Representation+by+the+Single+Transferable+Vote&rft.aulast=Schulze&rft.aufirst=Markus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fm-schulze.9mail.de%2Fschulze2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStrategic+voting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodall1994" class="citation web cs1">Woodall, Douglas R. (March 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.votingmatters.org.uk/ISSUE1/P3.HTM">"Computer counting in STV elections"</a>. McDougall Trust<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 March</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Computer+counting+in+STV+elections&rft.pub=McDougall+Trust&rft.date=1994-03&rft.aulast=Woodall&rft.aufirst=Douglas+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.votingmatters.org.uk%2FISSUE1%2FP3.HTM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStrategic+voting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarkus_Schulze2004" class="citation journal cs1">Markus Schulze (June 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.votingmatters.org.uk/ISSUE18/I18P2.PDF">"Free Riding"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Voting Matters</i> (18): <span class="nowrap">2–</span>8.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Voting+Matters&rft.atitle=Free+Riding&rft.issue=18&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2-%3C%2Fspan%3E8&rft.date=2004-06&rft.au=Markus+Schulze&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.votingmatters.org.uk%2FISSUE18%2FI18P2.PDF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStrategic+voting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Strategic_voting&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCox1997" class="citation book cs1">Cox, Gary (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150625023804/http://productsearch.barnesandnoble.com/search/results.aspx?store=book"><i>Making Votes Count : Strategic Coordination in the World's Electoral Systems</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 340. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-58527-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-58527-9"><bdi>978-0-521-58527-9</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://productsearch.barnesandnoble.com/search/results.aspx?store=BOOK&WRD=gary+cox+%22making+votes+count%22&box=gary%20cox%20%22making%20votes%20count%22">the original</a> on 25 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Making+Votes+Count+%3A+Strategic+Coordination+in+the+World%27s+Electoral+Systems&rft.pages=340&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-521-58527-9&rft.aulast=Cox&rft.aufirst=Gary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fproductsearch.barnesandnoble.com%2Fsearch%2Fresults.aspx%3Fstore%3DBOOK%26WRD%3Dgary%2Bcox%2B%2522making%2Bvotes%2Bcount%2522%26box%3Dgary%2520cox%2520%2522making%2520votes%2520count%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStrategic+voting" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Svensson, Lars-Gunnar (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://swopec.hhs.se/lunewp/abs/lunewp1999_001.htm">"The Proof of the Gibbard–Satterthwaite Theorem Revisited"</a></li> <li>Fisher, Stephen (2001). "Extending the Rational Voter Theory of Tactical Voting" <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Strategic_voting&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060428044816/http://emptymoat.blogspot.com/2004/07/tactical-voting-can-be-weak-strategy.html">Tactical Voting Can Be a Weak Strategy</a> – Article on strategic voting within larger strategic considerations [archived]</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080917080622/http://www.votepair.org/faq.php">"FAQs"</a>. <i>VotePair: Uniting Progressives Through Strategic Voting</i>. 20 October 2004. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.votepair.org/faq.php">the original</a> on 17 September 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=VotePair%3A+Uniting+Progressives+Through+Strategic+Voting&rft.atitle=FAQs&rft.date=2004-10-20&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.votepair.org%2Ffaq.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStrategic+voting" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.voteroll.com/">VoteRoll.com</a> VoteRoll is a blog roll voting system that offers tiered strategic voting to develop statistics for people voting online since 2010.</li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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