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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Early 3rd century Roman bandit leader</div> <p><b>Bulla Felix</b> was a legendary <a href="/wiki/Italy_(Roman_Empire)" class="mw-redirect" title="Italy (Roman Empire)">Italian</a> <a href="/wiki/Bandit" class="mw-redirect" title="Bandit">bandit</a> leader active around 205–207 AD,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> during the reign of the Roman emperor <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Severus" title="Septimius Severus">Septimius Severus</a>. He gathered a band of over 600 men, among them runaway <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">slaves</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_freedmen" title="Ancient Roman freedmen">imperial freedmen</a>, and eluded capture for more than two years despite pursuit by a force of Roman soldiers under the command of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">emperor</a> himself.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The story of Bulla Felix is told by the Greek historian and Roman senator <a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a>. Dio's story has several similarities to later legends of "good" bandits: Bulla "combined the attributes of <a href="/wiki/Zorro" title="Zorro">Zorro</a> and the <a href="/wiki/The_Scarlet_Pimpernel" title="The Scarlet Pimpernel">Scarlet Pimpernel</a> (he could never be caught) with a <a href="/wiki/Robin_Hood" title="Robin Hood">Robin Hood</a>-like concern for social justice."<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dio describes him as "never really seen when seen, never found when found, never caught when caught."<sup id="cite_ref-:3_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Latin name <i>Bulla Felix</i> means roughly "Lucky Charm", and he is likely to be a composite or <a href="/wiki/Historical_fiction" title="Historical fiction">historical fiction</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modus_operandi">Modus operandi</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bulla_Felix&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Modus operandi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to Dio, Bulla Felix operated an extensive intelligence network tracking travel and transport into the port at <a href="/wiki/Brundisium" class="mw-redirect" title="Brundisium">Brundisium</a> and out of Rome. Bulla gathered information on the size of parties making trips from and into Rome and what they were carrying.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His band of 600 brigands included runaway slaves who had been mistreated, and a significant number of imperial freedmen, former slaves of the emperor's household who would have been skilled or educated, and who had been cheated of their compensation.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These imperial freedmen may have been ousted from privileged positions as a result of the <a href="/wiki/Year_of_the_Five_Emperors" title="Year of the Five Emperors">civil wars</a> following the death of <a href="/wiki/Commodus" title="Commodus">Commodus</a>, from which Septimius Severus had emerged to reign as emperor (193–211).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Elsewhere, Dio indicates that a band of brigands with this kind of organizational capacity might also include men <a href="/wiki/Cashiering" title="Cashiering">cashiered</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_Guard" title="Praetorian Guard">Praetorian Guard</a>, the followers of <a href="/wiki/Roman_usurpers" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman usurpers">usurpers</a>, and those who had lost their property through confiscation during the civil wars. In Dio's view, the Severan reform of the Praetorian Guard that made it no longer a privilege of Italian youth left them at loose ends to become <a href="/wiki/Brigand" class="mw-redirect" title="Brigand">brigands</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gladiator" title="Gladiator">gladiators</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Though engaging in <a href="/wiki/Highway_robbery" class="mw-redirect" title="Highway robbery">highway robbery</a>, Bulla Felix did not resort to killing, and instead took only part of his targets' wealth before he released them. He then redistributed the wealth amongst the most in need. When the party included artisans (<i><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">technitai</i></span></i>), he detained them for a time in order to make use of their services. After benefiting from their skills, he gave them a generous gift and let them go.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Disguises_and_deceptions">Disguises and deceptions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bulla_Felix&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Disguises and deceptions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Dio's anecdotes, Bulla Felix is a master of deception, though he was also known to bribe his way out of a situation.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When two of his men have been <a href="/wiki/Damnatio_ad_bestias" title="Damnatio ad bestias">condemned to the beasts</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Recreation_and_spectacle_in_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Recreation and spectacle in the Roman Empire">arena</a>, Bulla dresses as a <a href="/wiki/Roman_governor" title="Roman governor">provincial governor</a> and visits the prison warden. He says he needs some men, presumably for the hard labor often performed by condemned men,<sup id="cite_ref-:2_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and tailors his requirements in such a way that the warden chooses Bulla's own bandits to release to him.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In another incident, he approached a <a href="/wiki/Centurion" title="Centurion">centurion</a> in command of the Roman force sent to capture him, pretended to be someone else, and offered to reveal the location of the bandits' hideout. The centurion went with him, and walked into an ambush. Bulla convened a mock tribunal, dressed himself as a presiding <a href="/wiki/Executive_magistrates_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Executive magistrates of the Roman Empire">magistrate</a>, and ordered that the centurion's head be partially shaved in the manner of slaves. He then released him, on the condition that he deliver a message to his "masters": "Feed your slaves, that they might not turn to <a href="/wiki/Brigandage" title="Brigandage">brigandage</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The incident may be fictional, but contemporary concern for the feeding and clothing of slaves is expressed by the jurist <a href="/wiki/Ulpian" title="Ulpian">Ulpian</a>, who served as <i><a href="/wiki/Assessor_(law)" title="Assessor (law)">assessor</a></i> to the <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefect" title="Praetorian prefect">praetorian prefect</a> who eventually brought Bulla Felix to trial.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Challenging_authority">Challenging authority</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bulla_Felix&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Challenging authority"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Septimius_Severus_Glyptothek_Munich_357_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Septimius_Severus_Glyptothek_Munich_357_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Septimius_Severus_Glyptothek_Munich_357_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Septimius_Severus_Glyptothek_Munich_357_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Septimius_Severus_Glyptothek_Munich_357_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Septimius_Severus_Glyptothek_Munich_357_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Septimius_Severus_Glyptothek_Munich_357_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="790" data-file-height="1052" /></a><figcaption>Bust of Septimius Severus, with modern restorations <i>(<a href="/wiki/Glyptothek" title="Glyptothek">Glyptothek</a>, Munich)</i></figcaption></figure> <p>Dio presents the activities of Bulla Felix as a personal affront to the emperor with a tactical ability as an orator.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Septimius Severus expresses indignation that while he was winning wars in <a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Britain</a>, one outlaw in Italy had eluded him.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bulla is portrayed as opposing unjust authority and social inequality, and administering his own brand of justice. He was regarded as a natural leader, with a strong ability to orate and rally people, known for being able to instill a sense of heroism into his men to achieve their missions despite being overpowered.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>His band was constituted as an alternative state to Rome, like that of the <a href="/wiki/Lusitania" title="Lusitania">Lusitanian</a> rebel <a href="/wiki/Viriatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Viriatus">Viriatus</a> and other "bandit states" idealized in Roman literature: "tightly run, based on the unconditional loyalty of their subjects to their leaders and characterised by absolute discipline".<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Saint_Augustine" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Augustine">Saint Augustine</a> would later argue that a bandit state <i>(<a href="/wiki/Latrocinium" title="Latrocinium">latrocinium</a>)</i>, as exemplified by the community organized under <a href="/wiki/Spartacus" title="Spartacus">Spartacus</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Third_Servile_War" title="Third Servile War">Third Servile War</a>, could not be distinguished structurally from a legitimate <i>regnum</i> ("rule, kingdom"), and a rule could be deemed just if its benefits were shared communally.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bulla Felix presides over a community of 600 men—the same as the number of seats in the <a href="/wiki/Senate_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Senate of the Roman Empire">Imperial Senate</a>—and like an emperor, he is a patron of the arts, since the term <i><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">technitai</i></span></i> for the artisans he employed includes practitioners of the <a href="/wiki/Performing_arts_in_ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Performing arts in ancient Rome">performing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">fine arts</a> as well as master craftsmen.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The possible meanings of the name <i>Bulla Felix</i> contribute to the fictional or symbolic qualities of the bandit leader. <i>Felix</i> was a <i><a href="/wiki/Cognomen" title="Cognomen">cognomen</a></i> adopted by Roman generals and heads of state from at least the time of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">dictator</a> <a href="/wiki/Sulla" title="Sulla">Sulla</a>, and had been used most recently by Severus's predecessor, <a href="/wiki/Commodus" title="Commodus">Commodus</a>. <i>Felix</i> advertised a leader as endowed with <i><a href="/wiki/Felicitas" title="Felicitas">felicitas</a></i>, good fortune that brings success not only for himself, but for those around him.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Bulla" recalls the bulbous <a href="/wiki/Bulla_(amulet)" title="Bulla (amulet)">amulet <i>(bulla)</i></a> worn by children and triumphing generals as a protective charm.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Dio, a Roman senator, may have intended the name to be a further allusion to an intimidating speech recently made by Severus to the senate. Just after he had defeated the usurper <a href="/wiki/Clodius_Albinus" title="Clodius Albinus">Clodius Albinus</a>, who had supporters of senatorial rank, Severus announced that he was disinclined toward the clemency of <a href="/wiki/Pompeius_Magnus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pompeius Magnus">Pompeius Magnus</a> or <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a>, and would instead favor a policy of severity, like <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Marius" title="Gaius Marius">Gaius Marius</a>, and Sulla. The similarity of <i>Sulla Felix</i> to <i>Bulla Felix</i>—whether the name was adopted by an actual man, or was Dio's choice for a fictional composite—helps cast the bandit as a satiric mirror image of the emperor.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bulla Felix is a model ruler and tactful advocate, uniting people to the cause and only taking a fair portion from the rich to distribute to the community, and distributing funds to creative members of society. He is cast as an avenger of those who suffered from the civil wars and heavy taxation. Dio encapsulates his perception of Severus by contrast with a deathbed anecdote in which the emperor is supposed to have told his sons to "enrich the soldiers, and scorn all other men".<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Capture">Capture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bulla_Felix&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Capture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After two years, Bulla Felix was finally captured through a dishonorable betrayal rather than direct confrontation. A <a href="/wiki/Military_tribune" title="Military tribune">military tribune</a> was given command of a substantial force of cavalry and ordered by the outraged emperor to bring Bulla Felix back alive or to face punishment <i>in extremis</i> himself. The tribune learned that Bulla was having an affair with a married woman, and had the wronged husband put pressure on his wife, promising immunity from prosecution in exchange for information. With the help of these informants, the tribune was able to catch Bulla while he was sleeping in a sea cave he used as a hideout.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bulla was brought before the praetorian prefect <a href="/wiki/Aemilius_Papinianus" class="mw-redirect" title="Aemilius Papinianus">Papinianus</a>, who demanded to know why he was a bandit. "Well, why are you a prefect?" Bulla responded, implying that Papinianus himself was no more than a bandit.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The encounter is a variation on a narrative theme found in other interrogations of a social renegade by an authority figure. <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> is supposed to have asked a captured pirate what drove him to harass the sea; the man replied, "The same thing that prompts you to harass the world. I do it with a little boat and am called a bandit; you do it with a big fleet, and are called emperor."<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A similar story was told of the runaway slave <a href="/wiki/Clemens_(impostor)" title="Clemens (impostor)">Clemens</a>, who was impersonating <a href="/wiki/Agrippa_Postumus" title="Agrippa Postumus">Agrippa Postumus</a> and leading a band of rebels when he was captured and brought before <a href="/wiki/Tiberius" title="Tiberius">Tiberius</a>: the emperor asked how he had made himself into Agrippa, and the impostor is reported to have said, "The same way you become <a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A public announcement was made that Bulla Felix had been condemned to death in the arena by wild beasts <i>(<a href="/wiki/Damnatio_ad_bestias" title="Damnatio ad bestias">damnatio ad bestias</a>)</i>. Without their charismatic<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> leader, his robber band simply broke up.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Banditry_in_the_later_Roman_Empire">Banditry in the later Roman Empire</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bulla_Felix&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Banditry in the later Roman Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bagaudae" title="Bagaudae">Bagaudae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Latrocinium" title="Latrocinium">latrocinium</a></div> <p>Roman Imperial historians use the Latin word <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">latro</i></span></i> (plural <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">latrones</i></span></i>) or Greek <i><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">leistes</i></span></i> (plural <i><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">leistai</i></span></i>) for more than 80 individuals, in a range of roles wider than English "bandit" or "robber" would indicate, including "rebel, rival, avenger".<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Imperial bureaucracy kept records on crime, and while none of these local archives has survived except for one from <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Egypt</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Brigandage" title="Brigandage">brigandage</a> had occurred throughout Roman history, and became acute among the social disturbances that characterized the <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The noble-sounding fiction that Bulla Felix preyed only on the rich, and not those of humble means, reflects the practical reality that there is no reason to rob from those who have little of value.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bandits appear frequently in the fiction of late antiquity, such as <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_novel" title="Ancient Greek novel">Greek romance novels</a> and the <i><a href="/wiki/The_Golden_Ass" title="The Golden Ass">Metamorphoses</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Apuleius</a>. <i>Latrones</i> in literature are of two character types: common and despicable, or noble and just.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The noble bandit, like Bulla Felix, typically can be captured only through treachery; ultimately, however, principled resistance is undone by corrupt authority.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dio writes about several glamorous or idealistic bandits, such as <a href="/wiki/Corocotta" title="Corocotta">Corocotta</a>, active in <a href="/wiki/Roman_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Spain">Roman Spain</a> under <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a>, and a Claudius in <a href="/wiki/Roman_Judaea" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Judaea">Judaea</a> a few years before Bulla Felix.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Roman_Palestine" title="Roman Palestine">Roman Palestine</a>, Jewish bandits became symbols of peasant resistance.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The depiction of noble bandits by historians such as Dio was clearly influenced by fiction,<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the story of Bulla Felix seems designed to sway elite attitudes toward the grievances of the lower classes, as well as to express Dio's social criticisms on the theme of just and moral authority.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bulla_Felix&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eustace_Folville" title="Eustace Folville">Eustace Folville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvatore_Giuliano" title="Salvatore Giuliano">Salvatore Giuliano</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bulla_Felix&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas Grünewald, <i>Bandits in the Roman Empire: Myth and Reality</i> (Routledge, 2004, originally published 1999 in German), p. 208.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brent D. Shaw, "Bandits in the Roman Empire," in <i>Studies in Ancient Greek and Roman Society</i> (Cambridge University Press, 2004), p. 366.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frank McLynn, <i>Marcus Aurelius: A Life</i> (Da Capo Press, 2009), p. 482.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cassius Dio 77.10.2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grünewald, <i>Bandits in the Roman Empire: Myth and Reality,</i> p. 111 (emphatically regarding Bulla Felix as a fiction); Christopher J. Fuhrmann, <i>Policing the Roman Empire: Soldiers, Administration, and Public Order</i> (Oxford University Press, 2012), p. 135; Shaw, "Bandits in the Roman Empire," p. 366.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cassius Dio 77.10.2, as cited by Shaw, "Bandits in the Roman Empire," p. 366.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cassius Dio 77.10.5; Grünewald, <i>Bandits in the Roman Empire</i>, pp. 116–117.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Grünewald, <i>Bandits in the Roman Empire</i>, p. 117.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cassius Dio 77.10.3; Grünewald, <i>Bandits in the Roman Empire</i>, pp. 113–114.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Shaw, "Bandits in the Roman Empire," p. 366.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cassius Dio 77.10.3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cassius Dio 77.10.4–5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grünewald, <i>Bandits in the Roman Empire</i>, p. 116.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cassius Dio 77.10.6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grünewald, <i>Bandits in the Roman Empire</i>, p. 63.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a>, <i>City of God</i> 3.26, 4.4–5, 19.2; Oliver O'Donovan and Joan Lockwood O'Donovan, <i>Bonds of Imperfection: Christian Politics, Past and Present</i> (William B. Eerdmans, 2004), pp. 61–62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grünewald, <i>Bandits in the Roman Empire</i>, pp. 112–114.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grünewald, <i>Bandits in the Roman Empire</i>, p. 111; <a href="/wiki/Mireille_Corbier" title="Mireille Corbier">Mireille Corbier</a>, <i>L'aerarium saturni et l'aerarium militare. Administration et prosopographie sénatoriale</i> (Publications de l'École française de Rome, 1974), p. 425. On <i>felicitas</i> as a quality, see also H.S. Versnel, <i>Triumphus: An Inquiry into the Origin, Development and Meaning of the Roman Triumph</i> (Brill, 1970), pp. 343, 348, 361ff.; and <a href="/wiki/J._Rufus_Fears" title="J. Rufus Fears">J. Rufus Fears</a>, "The Theology of Victory at Rome: Approaches and Problem," <i>Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt</i> II.17.2 (1981), p. 746.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Grünewald, <i>Bandits in the Roman Empire</i>, pp. 111–112.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cassius Dio 76.15.2; Grünewald, <i>Bandits in the Roman Empire</i>, pp. 114, 138.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cassius Dio 77.10.1, 6–7, as cited by Grünewald, <i>Bandits in the Roman Empire</i>, p. 118.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas N. Habinek, <i>The Politics of Latin Literature: Writing, Identity, and Empire in Ancient Rome</i> (Princeton University Press, 1998), p. 69; Jill Harries, <i>Law and Crime in the Roman World</i> (Cambridge University Press, 2007), p. 10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Augustine, <i>City of God</i> 4.4, elaborating on a passage from <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>, as cited by Habinek, <i>The Politics of Latin Literature</i>, p. 69.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a>, <i>Annales</i> 2.40; Cassius Dio, 57.16.4; Habinek, <i>The Politics of Latin Literature</i>, p. 69.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fuhrmann, <i>Policing the Roman Empire</i>, p. 135.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cassius Dio 77.10.7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grünewald, <i>Bandits in the Roman Empire</i>, pp. 1–3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grünewald, <i>Bandits in the Roman Empire</i>, p. 8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Oliver Hekster, <i>Rome and Its Empire, AD 193–284</i> (Edinburgh University Press, 2008), pp. 17–18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grünewald, <i>Bandits in the Roman Empire</i>, p. 113.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grünewald, <i>Bandits in the Roman Empire</i>, pp. 3, 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grünewald, <i>Bandits in the Roman Empire</i>, p. 108.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grünewald, <i>Bandits in the Roman Empire</i>, p. 112.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard A. Horsley, "Jesus and the Spiral of Violence: Popular Jewish Resistance in Roman Palestine" (Fortress Press, 1993), p. 37 (with comparison to Bulla Felix).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grünewald, <i>Bandits in the Roman Empire</i>, pp. 8–9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grünewald, <i>Bandits in the Roman Empire</i>, pp. 9, 117, 136.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bulla_Felix&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>The story of Bulla Felix, English translation of Cassius Dio, <i>Roman History</i> 77.10, at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/77*.html#10">LacusCurtius</a></li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bulla_Felix&oldid=1161963759">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bulla_Felix&oldid=1161963759</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:200s_deaths" title="Category:200s deaths">200s deaths</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:3rd-century_Romans" title="Category:3rd-century Romans">3rd-century Romans</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Roman_outlaws" title="Category:Ancient Roman outlaws">Ancient Roman outlaws</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Italian_bandits" title="Category:Italian bandits">Italian bandits</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Latin-language text">Articles containing Latin-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Year_of_birth_unknown" title="Category:Year of birth unknown">Year of birth unknown</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 26 June 2023, at 04:17<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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