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AAFS!</a></li> </ul></div> </nav> </header> <div id="main" class="site-main"> <div class="header-image"> <a href="https://allthingsaafs.com/" title="All Things AAFS!" rel="home"> <img src="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/header4.png" width="1015" height="237" alt="" /> </a> </div> <section id="primary" class="content-area"> <div id="content" class="site-content" role="main"> <header class="page-header"> <h1 class="page-title"> Estimate The Biological Sex Of A Human Skeleton </h1> </header> <article id="post-1113" class="post-1113 post type-post status-publish format-standard hentry category-anthropology category-archaeology category-estimate-the-biological-sex-of-a-human-skeleton category-quick-tips tag-aafs tag-ageing-skeletal-remains tag-anthropology tag-anthropology-essentials tag-anthropology-students tag-applied-anthropology tag-archaeological tag-archaeology tag-archaeology-essentials tag-bioarchaeology tag-biological-sex-of-a-skeleton tag-estimate-the-sex-of-a-skeleton tag-greater-sciatic-notch tag-how-to-estimate-the-biological-sex-of-a-human-skeleton tag-how-to-sex-a-skeleton tag-human-skeleton tag-ischiopubic-ramus tag-medial-aspect-of-the-ischiopubic-ramus tag-osteology tag-quick-tips tag-skeletal-remains tag-skeleton-sex tag-subpubic-concavity tag-using-the-pelvis-to-sex-skeleton tag-ventral-arc"> <header class="entry-header"> <div class="entry-meta"> <a href="https://allthingsaafs.com/2015/01/21/quick-tips-how-to-estimate-the-biological-sex-of-a-human-skeleton-pelvic-dimorphism/" title="5:00 pm" rel="bookmark"><time class="entry-date" datetime="2015-01-21T17:00:02+00:00" pubdate>21/01/2015</time></a><span class="byline"> by <span class="author vcard"><a class="url fn n" href="https://allthingsaafs.com/author/rosemaryhelenmayne/" title="View all posts by All Things AAFS!" rel="author">All Things AAFS!</a></span></span> </div> <h1 class="entry-title"><a href="https://allthingsaafs.com/2015/01/21/quick-tips-how-to-estimate-the-biological-sex-of-a-human-skeleton-pelvic-dimorphism/" rel="bookmark">Quick Tips: How to Estimate the Biological Sex of a Human Skeleton – Pelvic Dimorphism.</a></h1> </header> <div class="entry-content"> <p style="text-align:center;"><em>This is the 3<sup>rd</sup> blog post in this Quick Tips series on estimating the biological sex of human skeletal remains. If you haven’t read the first post on the basics of sexing skeletal remains, </em><a href="https://allthingsaafs.com/2014/07/21/quick-tips-how-to-estimate-the-biological-sex-of-a-human-skeleton-the-basics/"><em>click here</em></a><em> to start at the beginning or if you skipped the 2<sup>nd </sup>post focusing on the skull method if sex estimation, </em><a href="https://allthingsaafs.com/2014/07/23/quick-tips-how-to-estimate-the-biological-sex-of-a-human-skeleton-skull-method/"><em>click here</em></a><em>.</em></p> <p>When it comes to sexing skeletal remains by the pelvic elements there are a few trends, as stated in the first blog post in this series, the <strong>female pelvic bones, specifically the sacra and ossa coxa are smaller and less robust than their male counterparts</strong>.</p> <div data-shortcode="caption" id="attachment_1114" style="width: 530px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img aria-describedby="caption-attachment-1114" data-attachment-id="1114" data-permalink="https://allthingsaafs.com/2015/01/21/quick-tips-how-to-estimate-the-biological-sex-of-a-human-skeleton-pelvic-dimorphism/pelvic-comparison/#main" data-orig-file="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/pelvic-comparison.jpg" data-orig-size="590,394" data-comments-opened="1" data-image-meta="{"aperture":"0","credit":"","camera":"","caption":"","created_timestamp":"0","copyright":"","focal_length":"0","iso":"0","shutter_speed":"0","title":"","orientation":"1"}" data-image-title="Pelvic Comparison" data-image-description="" data-image-caption="<p>Figure 1: Side by side size comparison of a male (left) and female (right) pelvis.</p> " data-medium-file="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/pelvic-comparison.jpg?w=300" data-large-file="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/pelvic-comparison.jpg?w=590" class=" wp-image-1114" src="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/pelvic-comparison.jpg?w=520&h=347" alt="Figure 1: Side by side size comparison of a male (left) and female (right) pelvis." width="520" height="347" srcset="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/pelvic-comparison.jpg?w=520&h=347 520w, https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/pelvic-comparison.jpg?w=150&h=100 150w, https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/pelvic-comparison.jpg?w=300&h=200 300w, https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/pelvic-comparison.jpg 590w" sizes="(max-width: 520px) 100vw, 520px" /><p id="caption-attachment-1114" class="wp-caption-text">Figure 1: Side by side size comparison of a male (left) and female (right) pelvis.</p></div> <p>Although the female pelvic components are smaller in general, many aspects of the female pelvis are wider than males. The<strong> pelvic inlets on a female are relatively wider than those of males, as well as the greater sciatic notches</strong> – which is thought to aid childbirth.</p> <div data-shortcode="caption" id="attachment_1116" style="width: 567px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img aria-describedby="caption-attachment-1116" data-attachment-id="1116" data-permalink="https://allthingsaafs.com/2015/01/21/quick-tips-how-to-estimate-the-biological-sex-of-a-human-skeleton-pelvic-dimorphism/pelvis/#main" data-orig-file="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/pelvis.jpg" data-orig-size="2080,1134" data-comments-opened="1" data-image-meta="{"aperture":"0","credit":"","camera":"","caption":"","created_timestamp":"0","copyright":"","focal_length":"0","iso":"0","shutter_speed":"0","title":"","orientation":"1"}" data-image-title="Pelvis" data-image-description="" data-image-caption="<p>Figure 2: Basic annotated diagram of the pelvis.</p> " data-medium-file="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/pelvis.jpg?w=300" data-large-file="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/pelvis.jpg?w=660" class="wp-image-1116 " src="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/pelvis.jpg?w=557&h=304" alt="Figure 2: Basic annotated diagram of the pelvis." width="557" height="304" srcset="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/pelvis.jpg?w=557 557w, https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/pelvis.jpg?w=1114 1114w, https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/pelvis.jpg?w=150 150w, https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/pelvis.jpg?w=300 300w, https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/pelvis.jpg?w=768 768w, https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/pelvis.jpg?w=1024 1024w" sizes="(max-width: 557px) 100vw, 557px" /><p id="caption-attachment-1116" class="wp-caption-text">Figure 2: Basic labelled diagram of the pelvic anatomy.</p></div> <p>There are numerous features of the pelvic bones that are examined to identify the biological sex of an individual, alongside the trends stated about. These features are as follows;</p> <ul> <li><em>The <strong>ventral arc.</strong></em></li> <li><em>The <strong>subpubic concavity.</strong></em></li> <li><em>The <strong>medial aspect of the ischiopubic ramus</strong>.</em></li> <li><em>The <strong>greater sciatic notch</strong>.</em></li> </ul> <p>The first <strong>three features listed above, are known as the Phenice method</strong> – which was proposed by T. W. Phenice in 1969. His paper, “A Newly Developed Visual Method of Sexing the Os Pubis”, contributed greatly to the method of visual determination of sex, as beforehand the methods were subjective and based largely on the osteologist’s experience. The Phenice method should only be used <strong>for fully adult skeletal remains, where it is 96 to 100% accurate.</strong></p> <p>The <strong>ventral arc</strong> is a <strong>slightly raised ridge of bone that sweeps inferiorly and laterally across the central surface of the pubis</strong>. It joins with the medial border of the ischiopubic ramus. The <strong>ventral arc is only present in females</strong>, although males may have raised ridges in this area, but these do not take the wide, evenly arching appearance of the ventral arc.</p> <div data-shortcode="caption" id="attachment_1115" style="width: 310px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img aria-describedby="caption-attachment-1115" data-attachment-id="1115" data-permalink="https://allthingsaafs.com/2015/01/21/quick-tips-how-to-estimate-the-biological-sex-of-a-human-skeleton-pelvic-dimorphism/ventral-arc/#main" data-orig-file="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/ventral-arc.png" data-orig-size="468,259" data-comments-opened="1" data-image-meta="{"aperture":"0","credit":"","camera":"","caption":"","created_timestamp":"0","copyright":"","focal_length":"0","iso":"0","shutter_speed":"0","title":"","orientation":"0"}" data-image-title="Ventral Arc" data-image-description="" data-image-caption="<p>Figure 2: The ventral arc is characterised by a slightly raised ridge of bone. Males do not exhibit the ventral arc, where as females do. </p> " data-medium-file="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/ventral-arc.png?w=300" data-large-file="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/ventral-arc.png?w=468" class="wp-image-1115 size-medium" src="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/ventral-arc.png?w=300&h=166" alt="Figure 2: The ventral arc is characterised by a slightly raised ridge of bone. Males do not exhibit the ventral arc, where as females do. " width="300" height="166" srcset="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/ventral-arc.png?w=300 300w, https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/ventral-arc.png?w=150 150w, https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/ventral-arc.png 468w" sizes="(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px" /><p id="caption-attachment-1115" class="wp-caption-text">Figure 3: The ventral arc is characterised by a slightly raised ridge of bone. Males (left) do not exhibit the ventral arc, where as females (right) do.</p></div> <p>To observe the <strong>subpubic concavity</strong>, you should turn the pubis so that the convex dorsal surface if facing you. Then you should view the medial edge of the ischiopubic ramus. <strong>Females display a subpubic concavity</strong> here where the edge of the ramus is concaved, whereas <strong>males tend to have straight edges or very slightly concaved.</strong></p> <div data-shortcode="caption" id="attachment_1117" style="width: 310px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img aria-describedby="caption-attachment-1117" data-attachment-id="1117" data-permalink="https://allthingsaafs.com/2015/01/21/quick-tips-how-to-estimate-the-biological-sex-of-a-human-skeleton-pelvic-dimorphism/subpubic-concavity/#main" data-orig-file="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/subpubic-concavity.png" data-orig-size="495,313" data-comments-opened="1" data-image-meta="{"aperture":"0","credit":"","camera":"","caption":"","created_timestamp":"0","copyright":"","focal_length":"0","iso":"0","shutter_speed":"0","title":"","orientation":"0"}" data-image-title="Subpubic Concavity" data-image-description="" data-image-caption="<p>Figure 4: Females display a subpubic concavity here where the edge of the ramus is concaved, whereas males tend to have straight edges or very slightly concaved.</p> " data-medium-file="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/subpubic-concavity.png?w=300" data-large-file="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/subpubic-concavity.png?w=495" loading="lazy" class="wp-image-1117 size-medium" src="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/subpubic-concavity.png?w=300&h=190" alt="Figure 4: Females display a subpubic concavity here where the edge of the ramus is concaved, whereas males tend to have straight edges or very slightly concaved." width="300" height="190" srcset="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/subpubic-concavity.png?w=300 300w, https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/subpubic-concavity.png?w=150 150w, https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/subpubic-concavity.png 495w" sizes="(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px" /><p id="caption-attachment-1117" class="wp-caption-text">Figure 4: Females (right) display a subpubic concavity here where the edge of the ramus is concaved, whereas males (left) tend to have straight edges or very slightly concaved.</p></div> <p>To observe the<strong> medial aspect of the ischiopubic ramus, </strong>you should turn the pubis 90° so that the symphyseal surface is directly facing you. View the part of the ramus that is directly inferior to the pubis symphysis. In <strong>females, the ramus has a sharp, narrow edge</strong>, whereas in <strong>males it is flat and blunt</strong>.</p> <div data-shortcode="caption" id="attachment_1118" style="width: 310px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img aria-describedby="caption-attachment-1118" data-attachment-id="1118" data-permalink="https://allthingsaafs.com/2015/01/21/quick-tips-how-to-estimate-the-biological-sex-of-a-human-skeleton-pelvic-dimorphism/sharpmedial/#main" data-orig-file="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/sharpmedial.png" data-orig-size="396,258" data-comments-opened="1" data-image-meta="{"aperture":"0","credit":"","camera":"","caption":"","created_timestamp":"0","copyright":"","focal_length":"0","iso":"0","shutter_speed":"0","title":"","orientation":"0"}" data-image-title="sharpmedial" data-image-description="" data-image-caption="<p>Figure 5: In females (right), the medial aspect of the ischiopubic ramus has a sharp, narrow edge, whereas in males (left) it is flat and blunt.</p> " data-medium-file="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/sharpmedial.png?w=300" data-large-file="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/sharpmedial.png?w=396" loading="lazy" class="size-medium wp-image-1118" src="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/sharpmedial.png?w=300&h=195" alt="Figure 5: In females (right), the medial aspect of the ischiopubic ramus has a sharp, narrow edge, whereas in males (left) it is flat and blunt." width="300" height="195" srcset="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/sharpmedial.png?w=300 300w, https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/sharpmedial.png?w=150 150w, https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/sharpmedial.png 396w" sizes="(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px" /><p id="caption-attachment-1118" class="wp-caption-text">Figure 5: In females (right), the medial aspect of the ischiopubic ramus has a sharp, narrow edge, whereas in males (left) it is flat and blunt.</p></div> <p>As with the five features of the skull used to sex a skeleton in the previous, <strong>the greater sciatic notch has also been given a numerical score from 1 to 5 relating to the level of expression</strong>. It has been generally found that female os coxae are more likely to exhibit a lower level of expression, whereas male os coxae are more likely to have higher levels of expression.</p> <div data-shortcode="caption" id="attachment_1119" style="width: 501px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img aria-describedby="caption-attachment-1119" data-attachment-id="1119" data-permalink="https://allthingsaafs.com/2015/01/21/quick-tips-how-to-estimate-the-biological-sex-of-a-human-skeleton-pelvic-dimorphism/greater-sciatic-notch/#main" data-orig-file="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/greater-sciatic-notch.jpg" data-orig-size="694,297" data-comments-opened="1" data-image-meta="{"aperture":"0","credit":"","camera":"","caption":"","created_timestamp":"0","copyright":"","focal_length":"0","iso":"0","shutter_speed":"0","title":"","orientation":"1"}" data-image-title="greater sciatic notch" data-image-description="" data-image-caption="<p>Figure 6:</p> " data-medium-file="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/greater-sciatic-notch.jpg?w=300" data-large-file="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/greater-sciatic-notch.jpg?w=660" loading="lazy" class="wp-image-1119 " src="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/greater-sciatic-notch.jpg?w=491&h=210" alt="Figure 6: " width="491" height="210" srcset="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/greater-sciatic-notch.jpg?w=491 491w, https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/greater-sciatic-notch.jpg?w=150 150w, https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/greater-sciatic-notch.jpg?w=300 300w, https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/greater-sciatic-notch.jpg 694w" sizes="(max-width: 491px) 100vw, 491px" /><p id="caption-attachment-1119" class="wp-caption-text">Figure 6: It has been generally found that female os coxae are more likely to exhibit a lower level of expression, whereas male os coxae are more likely to have higher levels of expression, when it comes to the greater sciatic notch.</p></div> <p>To obtain the best results whist examining the os coxae, it should be <strong>held in the same orientation as the pictured above</strong>. This allows you to match the angle of the greater sciatic to the closest expression that represents it. It should be noted that this method is usually used as a secondary indicator.</p> <p><strong>References:</strong></p> <p>Buikstra, J.E., Ubelaker, D.H. 1994. <em>Standards for Data Collection From Human Skeletal Remains</em>. Fayetteville, Arkansas: Arkansas Archaeological Survey Report Number 44.</p> <p>Ubelaker, D.H. 1989. <em>Human Skeletal Remains: Excavation, Analysis, Interpretation (2nd Ed.). </em>Washington, DC: Taraxacum.</p> <p>White, T.D., Folkens, P.A. 2005. <em>The Human Bone Manual. </em>San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Pg 392-398.</p> <p><strong>This is the third post of the Quick Tips series on sex determination of skeletal remains. The next post in this series will focus on the use of DNA to determine biological sex. 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tag-cranial-method-of-sexing-skeletons tag-cranium tag-determine-sex tag-determine-sex-of-skeleton tag-glabella tag-how-to-sex-human-remains tag-human-bone-manual tag-human-remains-in-archaeology tag-mastoid-process tag-mental-eminence tag-nuchal-crest tag-osteology tag-prominence-of-glabella tag-quick-tips tag-sex tag-sexing-human-remains tag-sexing-skeletons tag-skeletal-remains tag-skeleton tag-skeletons tag-skull tag-skull-to-sex-skeletons tag-supraorbital-margin tag-supraorbital-ridge tag-use-of-skull-in-sexing-remains"> <header class="entry-header"> <div class="entry-meta"> <a href="https://allthingsaafs.com/2014/07/23/quick-tips-how-to-estimate-the-biological-sex-of-a-human-skeleton-skull-method/" title="7:36 pm" rel="bookmark"><time class="entry-date" datetime="2014-07-23T19:36:32+01:00" pubdate>23/07/2014</time></a><span class="byline"> by <span class="author vcard"><a class="url fn n" href="https://allthingsaafs.com/author/rosemaryhelenmayne/" title="View all posts by All Things AAFS!" rel="author">All Things AAFS!</a></span></span> </div> <h1 class="entry-title"><a href="https://allthingsaafs.com/2014/07/23/quick-tips-how-to-estimate-the-biological-sex-of-a-human-skeleton-skull-method/" rel="bookmark">Quick Tips: How To Estimate The Biological Sex Of A Human Skeleton – Skull Method.</a></h1> </header> <div class="entry-content"> <p style="text-align:center;"><em>This is the 2<sup>nd</sup> blog post in this Quick Tips series on estimating the biological sex of human skeletal remains. If you haven’t read the first post on the basics of sexing skeletal remains, <a href="https://allthingsaafs.com/2014/07/21/quick-tips-how-to-estimate-the-biological-sex-of-a-human-skeleton-the-basics/">click here</a> to start at the beginning.</em></p> <p>One of the most widely used methods of sexing skeletal remains is by examining the skull. The skull has <strong>five different features</strong> that are observed and scored. The five features are the:</p> <p><img data-attachment-id="1016" data-permalink="https://allthingsaafs.com/markers-together/" data-orig-file="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/markers-together.png" data-orig-size="513,159" data-comments-opened="1" data-image-meta="{"aperture":"0","credit":"","camera":"","caption":"","created_timestamp":"0","copyright":"","focal_length":"0","iso":"0","shutter_speed":"0","title":""}" data-image-title="Markers together" data-image-description="" data-image-caption="" data-medium-file="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/markers-together.png?w=300" data-large-file="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/markers-together.png?w=513" loading="lazy" class="aligncenter wp-image-1016 size-full" style="border:0 solid #000000;" src="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/markers-together.png?w=660" alt="Markers together" srcset="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/markers-together.png 513w, https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/markers-together.png?w=150&h=46 150w, https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/markers-together.png?w=300&h=93 300w" sizes="(max-width: 513px) 100vw, 513px" /></p> <p>Each of these markers is given a <strong>numerical score from 1 to 5 relating to the level of expression</strong>, with <strong>1 being minimal expression</strong> and <strong>5 being maximal expression</strong>. Each feature should be <strong>scored independently, and without influence from the other identifying features</strong>. It has been generally found that female skulls are more likely to have a lower level of expression in all features, whereas male skulls are more likely to have higher levels of expression.</p> <p>To observe the <strong>nuchal crest</strong>, one should view the skull from its <strong>lateral profile</strong> and feel for the <strong>smoothness</strong> <em>(1-minimal expression) </em>or <strong>ruggedness</strong> <em>(5-maximal expression) </em>of the occipital surface, and compare it with the scoring system of that feature (Figure 1).</p> <div data-shortcode="caption" id="attachment_1019" style="width: 657px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img aria-describedby="caption-attachment-1019" data-attachment-id="1019" data-permalink="https://allthingsaafs.com/nuchel-crest/" data-orig-file="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/nuchel-crest.png" data-orig-size="647,184" data-comments-opened="1" data-image-meta="{"aperture":"0","credit":"","camera":"","caption":"","created_timestamp":"0","copyright":"","focal_length":"0","iso":"0","shutter_speed":"0","title":""}" data-image-title="Nuchel Crest" data-image-description="" data-image-caption="<p>The scoring system for expression levels in the nuchal crest.</p> " data-medium-file="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/nuchel-crest.png?w=300" data-large-file="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/nuchel-crest.png?w=647" loading="lazy" class="wp-image-1019 size-full" style="border:0 solid #000000;" src="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/nuchel-crest.png?w=660" alt="The scoring system for expression levels in the nuchal crest." srcset="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/nuchel-crest.png 647w, https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/nuchel-crest.png?w=150&h=43 150w, https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/nuchel-crest.png?w=300&h=85 300w" sizes="(max-width: 647px) 100vw, 647px" /><p id="caption-attachment-1019" class="wp-caption-text">Figure 1: The scoring system for expression levels in the nuchal crest.</p></div> <p>To observe the <strong>mastoid process</strong>, one should view the skull from its <strong>lateral profile</strong> and compare its <strong>size and volume</strong>, not its length, with other features of the skull such as the zygomatic process of the temporal lobe and external auditory meatus. Visually compare its size with the scoring system of that feature (Figure 2). If the mastoid process only descend or projects only <strong>a small distance then it should be scored a 1</strong> (<em>minimal expression</em>), where as if it is <strong>several times the width and length of the external auditory meatus, then it should be scored as a 5</strong> (<em>maximal expression</em>).</p> <div data-shortcode="caption" id="attachment_1017" style="width: 657px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img aria-describedby="caption-attachment-1017" data-attachment-id="1017" data-permalink="https://allthingsaafs.com/mastoid-process/" data-orig-file="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/mastoid-process.png" data-orig-size="647,163" data-comments-opened="1" data-image-meta="{"aperture":"0","credit":"","camera":"","caption":"","created_timestamp":"0","copyright":"","focal_length":"0","iso":"0","shutter_speed":"0","title":""}" data-image-title="Mastoid Process" data-image-description="" data-image-caption="<p>Figure 2: The scoring system for the size and volume of the mastoid process.</p> " data-medium-file="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/mastoid-process.png?w=300" data-large-file="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/mastoid-process.png?w=647" loading="lazy" class="wp-image-1017 size-full" style="border:0 solid #000000;" src="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/mastoid-process.png?w=660" alt="Figure 2: The scoring system for the size and volume of the mastoid process." srcset="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/mastoid-process.png 647w, https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/mastoid-process.png?w=150&h=38 150w, https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/mastoid-process.png?w=300&h=76 300w" sizes="(max-width: 647px) 100vw, 647px" /><p id="caption-attachment-1017" class="wp-caption-text">Figure 2: The scoring system for the expression levels of the mastoid process.</p></div> <p>To observe the <strong>supraorbital margin</strong>, one should view the skull at it’s lateral profile and place their finger against the margin of the orbit and hold the edge to<strong> determine it’s thickness.</strong> If the edge feels<strong> ‘extremely sharp’ then it would score a 1</strong>, <em>minimal expression, </em>if it felt <strong>rounded and thick as a pencil it would score a 5</strong>, <em>maximal expression </em>(Figure 3).</p> <div data-shortcode="caption" id="attachment_1020" style="width: 656px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img aria-describedby="caption-attachment-1020" data-attachment-id="1020" data-permalink="https://allthingsaafs.com/supraorbital-margin/" data-orig-file="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/supraorbital-margin.png" data-orig-size="646,191" data-comments-opened="1" data-image-meta="{"aperture":"0","credit":"","camera":"","caption":"","created_timestamp":"0","copyright":"","focal_length":"0","iso":"0","shutter_speed":"0","title":""}" data-image-title="Supraorbital Margin" data-image-description="" data-image-caption="" data-medium-file="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/supraorbital-margin.png?w=300" data-large-file="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/supraorbital-margin.png?w=646" loading="lazy" class="wp-image-1020 size-full" style="border:0 solid #000000;" src="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/supraorbital-margin.png?w=660" alt="Supraorbital Margin" srcset="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/supraorbital-margin.png 646w, https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/supraorbital-margin.png?w=150&h=44 150w, https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/supraorbital-margin.png?w=300&h=89 300w" sizes="(max-width: 646px) 100vw, 646px" /><p id="caption-attachment-1020" class="wp-caption-text">Figure 3: The scoring system for the expression levels of the supraorbital margin.</p></div> <p>To observe the <strong>supraorbital ridge</strong>, one should view the skull from it’s profile and view the <strong>prominence of the supraorbital ridge.</strong> If the ridge is <strong>smooth with little or no projection, then it would score a 1</strong>, <em>minimal expression, </em>if it is <strong>pronounced and forms a rounded ‘loaf-shaped’ ridge then it would score a 5</strong>, <em>maximal expression </em>(Figure 4).</p> <div data-shortcode="caption" id="attachment_1021" style="width: 656px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img aria-describedby="caption-attachment-1021" data-attachment-id="1021" data-permalink="https://allthingsaafs.com/supraorbital-ridge-glabella/" data-orig-file="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/supraorbital-ridge-glabella.png" data-orig-size="646,193" data-comments-opened="1" data-image-meta="{"aperture":"0","credit":"","camera":"","caption":"","created_timestamp":"0","copyright":"","focal_length":"0","iso":"0","shutter_speed":"0","title":""}" data-image-title="Supraorbital Ridge – Glabella" data-image-description="" data-image-caption="" data-medium-file="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/supraorbital-ridge-glabella.png?w=300" data-large-file="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/supraorbital-ridge-glabella.png?w=646" loading="lazy" class="wp-image-1021 size-full" style="border:0 solid #000000;" src="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/supraorbital-ridge-glabella.png?w=660" alt="Supraorbital Ridge - Glabella" srcset="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/supraorbital-ridge-glabella.png 646w, https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/supraorbital-ridge-glabella.png?w=150&h=45 150w, https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/supraorbital-ridge-glabella.png?w=300&h=90 300w" sizes="(max-width: 646px) 100vw, 646px" /><p id="caption-attachment-1021" class="wp-caption-text">Figure 4: The scoring system for the expression levels of the supraorbital ridge.</p></div> <p>To observe the <strong>mental eminence</strong>, one should view the skull front facing, and hold the mandible between the thumbs and index fingers, with the thumbs placed either side of the mental eminence<strong>.</strong> If there is <strong>little or no projection of the mental eminence, then it would score a 1</strong>, <em>minimal expression, </em>if it is <strong>pronounced it would score a 5</strong>, <em>maximal expression </em>(Figure 5).</p> <div data-shortcode="caption" id="attachment_1018" style="width: 656px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img aria-describedby="caption-attachment-1018" data-attachment-id="1018" data-permalink="https://allthingsaafs.com/mental-eminence/" data-orig-file="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/mental-eminence.png" data-orig-size="646,152" data-comments-opened="1" data-image-meta="{"aperture":"0","credit":"","camera":"","caption":"","created_timestamp":"0","copyright":"","focal_length":"0","iso":"0","shutter_speed":"0","title":""}" data-image-title="Mental Eminence" data-image-description="" data-image-caption="" data-medium-file="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/mental-eminence.png?w=300" data-large-file="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/mental-eminence.png?w=646" loading="lazy" class="wp-image-1018 size-full" style="border:0 solid #000000;" src="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/mental-eminence.png?w=660" alt="Mental Eminence" srcset="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/mental-eminence.png 646w, https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/mental-eminence.png?w=150&h=35 150w, https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/mental-eminence.png?w=300&h=71 300w" sizes="(max-width: 646px) 100vw, 646px" /><p id="caption-attachment-1018" class="wp-caption-text">Figure 5: The scoring system for the expression levels of the mental eminence.</p></div> <p><strong>References:</strong></p> <p>Buikstra, J.E., Ubelaker, D.H. 1994. <em>Standards for Data Collection From Human Skeletal Remains</em>. Fayetteville, Arkansas: Arkansas Archaeological Survey Report Number 44.</p> <p>Ubelaker, D.H. 1989. <em>Human Skeletal Remains: Excavation, Analysis, Interpretation (2nd Ed.). </em>Washington, DC: Taraxacum.</p> <p>White, T.D., Folkens, P.A. 2005. <em>The Human Bone Manual. </em>San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Pg 360-385.</p> <p><strong>This is the second post of the Quick Tips series on sex determination of skeletal remains. The next post in this series will focus on the use of the pelvis and parturition scars to determine biological sex. 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href="https://allthingsaafs.com/2014/07/23/quick-tips-how-to-estimate-the-biological-sex-of-a-human-skeleton-skull-method/#comments">3 Comments</a></span> </footer> </article> <article id="post-1011" class="post-1011 post type-post status-publish format-standard hentry category-anthropology category-estimate-the-biological-sex-of-a-human-skeleton category-quick-tips tag-all-things-aafs-2 tag-anthropology tag-anthropology-quick-tips tag-anthropology-students tag-applied-anthropology tag-archaeology tag-biological-sex tag-estimation-of-human-sex tag-folkes-and-white tag-forensic-anthropology tag-how-to tag-how-to-anthropology tag-how-to-estimate-the-biological-sex-of-a-human-skeleton tag-how-to-sex-skeletons tag-human-bone-manual tag-human-remains tag-human-skeletons tag-osteology tag-osteology-quick-tips tag-quick-tips tag-sex-determination-of-skeletons tag-sex-of-skeleton tag-sexing tag-sexing-forensic-anthropology tag-sexing-human-remains tag-sexing-human-skeletons tag-sexing-skeletal-remains tag-sexing-skeletons tag-skeletons tag-ubelaker"> <header class="entry-header"> <div class="entry-meta"> <a href="https://allthingsaafs.com/2014/07/21/quick-tips-how-to-estimate-the-biological-sex-of-a-human-skeleton-the-basics/" title="9:14 pm" rel="bookmark"><time class="entry-date" datetime="2014-07-21T21:14:50+01:00" pubdate>21/07/2014</time></a><span class="byline"> by <span class="author vcard"><a class="url fn n" href="https://allthingsaafs.com/author/rosemaryhelenmayne/" title="View all posts by All Things AAFS!" rel="author">All Things AAFS!</a></span></span> </div> <h1 class="entry-title"><a href="https://allthingsaafs.com/2014/07/21/quick-tips-how-to-estimate-the-biological-sex-of-a-human-skeleton-the-basics/" rel="bookmark">Quick Tips: How To Estimate The Biological Sex Of A Human Skeleton – The Basics.</a></h1> </header> <div class="entry-content"> <blockquote> <p style="text-align:center;">Within anthropological and archaeological sciences, ‘sex’ refers to the biological sex of an individual, based on the chromosomal difference of XX being female, and XY being male. Whereas ‘gender’ refers to the socio-cultural differences placed on the biological differences. In recent times, the words ‘gender’ and sex’ have been used incorrectly as interchangeable words within this discipline.</p> <p style="text-align:center;">Therefore, it is important to remember that the word ‘gender’ refers an aspect of a person’s social identity, whereas ‘sex’ refers to the person’s biological identity.</p> </blockquote> <p>Sexual dimorphism as seen in the human skeleton is <strong>determined by the hormones</strong> that are produced by the body. There are <strong>numerous markers</strong> on a human skeleton which can provide archaeologists and anthropologists with an estimate sex of the deceased. The areas of the skeletal remains that are studied are the:</p> <ul> <li><a href="https://allthingsaafs.com/2014/07/23/quick-tips-how-to-estimate-the-biological-sex-of-a-human-skeleton-skull-method/" target="_blank"><strong>Skull.</strong></a></li> <li><strong>Dentition</strong>.</li> <li><a href="https://allthingsaafs.com/2015/01/21/quick-tips-how-to-estimate-the-biological-sex-of-a-human-skeleton-pelvic-dimorphism/" target="_blank"><strong>Pelvic dimorphism</strong></a>.</li> <li><strong>DNA.</strong></li> </ul> <p style="text-align:center;"><strong> </strong><em>If the skeletal marker listed above is a link, it means that I have already covered it in an individual blog post and can be found by following the link.</em></p> <p>The <strong>two most commonly used skeletal markers</strong> that are observed by osteologists are the <strong>skull and pelvic bone</strong>, as these show the<strong> most extreme differences.</strong></p> <p>It is generally noted that female skeleton elements are characterized by being smaller in size and lighter in construction, whereas males have larger, robust elements. Due to normal individual variation, there will always be smaller, dainty males and larger, robust females. Therefore, it is always <strong>important to observe a variety of skeletal markers</strong> to come to an accurate determination.</p> <p>It should be noted that it is <strong>a lot harder to reliably deduce a juvenile/sub-adult’s sex,</strong> as many of the differences in skeletal markers o<strong>nly become visible after maturation</strong>, when the <strong>skeletal changes occur due to puberty</strong>. Therefore, <strong>use of DNA</strong> has been widely used to sex sub-adult skeletal remains as DNA analysis can now <strong>detect and identify X and Y chromosome-specific sequences.</strong></p> <p><strong>References:</strong></p> <p>Buikstra, J.E., Ubelaker, D.H. 1994. <em>Standards for Data Collection From Human Skeletal Remains</em>. Fayetteville, Arkansas: Arkansas Archaeological Survey Report Number 44.</p> <p>Ubelaker, D.H. 1989. <em>Human Skeletal Remains: Excavation, Analysis, Interpretation (2nd Ed.). </em>Washington, DC: Taraxacum.</p> <p>White, T.D., Folkens, P.A. 2005. <em>The Human Bone Manual. </em>San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Pg 360-385.</p> <p><strong>This is the first of a Quick Tips series on sex determination of skeletal remains. The next post in this series will focus on the use of the skull to determine biological sex. 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