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src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/46.042/series/icons/arrow_right.svg" alt="" data-v-1c1d1c9a></a></div></div></section> <section class="featured" data-v-1c5094ba data-v-1c1d1c9a><h2 class="featured__title" data-v-1c5094ba>World's first Open Access book publisher</h2> <div class="stats-circle stats-circle--openAccessBooks" data-v-1c5094ba><p class="stats-circle__text" data-v-1c5094ba> 7,400 <span data-v-1c5094ba>Open Access Books</span></p></div> <div class="stats-circle stats-circle--wosCitations" data-v-1c5094ba><p class="stats-circle__text" data-v-1c5094ba> +184,650 <span data-v-1c5094ba>Citations in Web of Science</span></p></div> <div class="stats-circle stats-circle--visitorsPerMonth" data-v-1c5094ba><p class="stats-circle__text" data-v-1c5094ba> +3.3 MILLION <span data-v-1c5094ba>Unique Visitors per Month</span></p></div> <div class="ParallaxContainer parallax" data-v-1c5094ba><div class="ParallaxElement absolute book book-1" style="transform:translate3d(0, 0px, 0);" data-v-1c5094ba><div class="book" data-v-44bc9216 data-v-1c5094ba><figure class="cover-wrap z-index middle" data-v-eb7322e6 data-v-44bc9216><a href="/books/5787" data-v-eb7322e6><span class="lazy-image ar1" data-v-c6fa12ae data-v-eb7322e6><img alt="Cutting Edge Robotics" class="image cover-image-6daf" data-v-c6fa12ae data-v-c6fa12ae></span>    <svg viewBox="0 0 300 270" preserveAspectRatio="xMidYMid meet" class="svg" data-v-eb7322e6><rect width="300" height="270" style="fill:#e10000;" data-v-eb7322e6></rect> <text x="150" y="35" font-family="Arial" text-anchor="middle" fill="#fffad2" font-size="12" data-v-eb7322e6>IntechOpen</text> <g transform="translate(140, 220)" fill="#FFFAD2" data-v-eb7322e6><g transform="scale(0.7)" data-v-eb7322e6><path d="M18.4091275,7.09361268 L3.66754648,15.3478697 C2.61853239,15.939493 1.9668669,17.0549331 1.9668669,18.2588838 L1.9668669,33.0542958 L0.869542958,32.6455599 C0.346761268,32.4507676 -3.45070423e-05,31.9516232 -3.45070423e-05,31.3936444 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style="font-size:150em;" data-v-eb7322e6> <span class="title" data-v-eb7322e6>Cutting Edge Robotics</span>   <span class="editors" data-v-eb7322e6>Edited by Vedran Kordic</span></div></a></figure> <div class="book__label" data-v-44bc9216><span data-v-44bc9216>1st oa book published in 2005</span></div> </div></div> <div class="ParallaxElement absolute book book-2" style="transform:translate3d(0, 0px, 0);" data-v-1c5094ba><div class="book" data-v-44bc9216 data-v-1c5094ba><figure class="cover-wrap z-index middle" data-v-eb7322e6 data-v-44bc9216><a href="/books/1003597" data-v-eb7322e6><span class="lazy-image ar1" data-v-c6fa12ae data-v-eb7322e6><img alt="Towards the Eradication of <em>Helicobacter pylori</em> Infection" class="image cover-image-230c" data-v-c6fa12ae data-v-c6fa12ae></span>    <svg viewBox="0 0 300 270" preserveAspectRatio="xMidYMid meet" class="svg" data-v-eb7322e6><rect width="300" height="270" style="fill:#e10000;" data-v-eb7322e6></rect> <text x="150" y="35" 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<div class="text text-style-774d" style="font-size:150em;" data-v-eb7322e6> <span class="title" data-v-eb7322e6>Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and...</span>   <span class="editors" data-v-eb7322e6>Edited by Sahra Kırmusaoğlu</span></div></a></figure> <div class="book__label" data-v-44bc9216><span data-v-44bc9216>Women in science book program</span></div> </div></div> <div class="ParallaxElement absolute book book-5" style="transform:translate3d(0, 0px, 0);" data-v-1c5094ba><div class="book" data-v-44bc9216 data-v-1c5094ba><figure class="cover-wrap z-index middle" data-v-eb7322e6 data-v-44bc9216><a href="/books/1591" data-v-eb7322e6><span class="lazy-image ar1" data-v-c6fa12ae data-v-eb7322e6><img alt="Infrared Spectroscopy" class="image cover-image-d923" data-v-c6fa12ae data-v-c6fa12ae></span>    <svg viewBox="0 0 300 270" preserveAspectRatio="xMidYMid meet" class="svg" data-v-eb7322e6><rect width="300" height="270" style="fill:#e10000;" 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style="font-size:150em;" data-v-eb7322e6> <span class="title" data-v-eb7322e6>Theriogenology</span> <span class="sub-title" data-v-eb7322e6>Recent Advances in the Field</span>  <span class="editors" data-v-eb7322e6>Edited by Alexandre Silva</span></div></a></figure>  </div></div>  <div class="ParallaxElement absolute book book-8" style="transform:translate3d(0, 0px, 0);" data-v-1c5094ba><div class="book" data-v-44bc9216 data-v-1c5094ba><figure class="cover-wrap z-index middle" data-v-eb7322e6 data-v-44bc9216><a href="/books/11220" data-v-eb7322e6><span class="lazy-image ar1" data-v-c6fa12ae data-v-eb7322e6><img alt="Congenital Heart Defects" class="image cover-image-fd9a" data-v-c6fa12ae data-v-c6fa12ae></span>    <svg viewBox="0 0 300 270" preserveAspectRatio="xMidYMid meet" class="svg" data-v-eb7322e6><rect width="300" height="270" style="fill:#e10000;" data-v-eb7322e6></rect> <text x="150" y="35" font-family="Arial" text-anchor="middle" fill="#fffad2" font-size="12" data-v-eb7322e6>IntechOpen</text> <g transform="translate(140, 220)" fill="#FFFAD2" data-v-eb7322e6><g transform="scale(0.7)" data-v-eb7322e6><path d="M18.4091275,7.09361268 L3.66754648,15.3478697 C2.61853239,15.939493 1.9668669,17.0549331 1.9668669,18.2588838 L1.9668669,33.0542958 L0.869542958,32.6455599 C0.346761268,32.4507676 -3.45070423e-05,31.9516232 -3.45070423e-05,31.3936444 L-3.45070423e-05,1.37079225 C-3.45070423e-05,0.417880282 0.94908169,-0.243792254 1.84298662,0.08575 L18.3356275,6.16347535 C18.7472965,6.3151338 18.791638,6.87932394 18.4091275,7.09361268 M38.2955359,22.6833768 C38.178212,23.1238592 37.8226169,23.4794542 37.382307,23.5967782 C36.3688352,23.8671408 35.4695817,22.9675423 35.7401169,21.9540704 C35.8576134,21.5139331 36.2132085,21.158338 36.6536908,21.0411866 C37.6666451,20.7715141 38.565381,21.6704225 38.2955359,22.6833768 M48.0927754,30.247493 C47.5629197,30.0078415 46.9350641,30.1798592 46.5494479,30.614993 L46.5221873,30.6455317 C45.2633704,32.0789542 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data-v-eb7322e6><path d="M18.4091275,7.09361268 L3.66754648,15.3478697 C2.61853239,15.939493 1.9668669,17.0549331 1.9668669,18.2588838 L1.9668669,33.0542958 L0.869542958,32.6455599 C0.346761268,32.4507676 -3.45070423e-05,31.9516232 -3.45070423e-05,31.3936444 L-3.45070423e-05,1.37079225 C-3.45070423e-05,0.417880282 0.94908169,-0.243792254 1.84298662,0.08575 L18.3356275,6.16347535 C18.7472965,6.3151338 18.791638,6.87932394 18.4091275,7.09361268 M38.2955359,22.6833768 C38.178212,23.1238592 37.8226169,23.4794542 37.382307,23.5967782 C36.3688352,23.8671408 35.4695817,22.9675423 35.7401169,21.9540704 C35.8576134,21.5139331 36.2132085,21.158338 36.6536908,21.0411866 C37.6666451,20.7715141 38.565381,21.6704225 38.2955359,22.6833768 M48.0927754,30.247493 C47.5629197,30.0078415 46.9350641,30.1798592 46.5494479,30.614993 L46.5221873,30.6455317 C45.2633704,32.0789542 43.7110711,33.1881831 41.9971063,33.9233556 C41.9917577,33.9255986 41.9971063,22.341757 41.9971063,22.341757 C41.9971063,13.8637218 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21.6765993,17.0811585 21.6765993,17.6893451 L21.6765993,22.2984507 L21.6821204,22.287581 C21.6821204,22.2912042 21.6817754,22.2948275 21.6817754,22.2984507 C21.6817754,30.752331 28.5590289,37.6295845 37.0127366,37.6295845 C37.7863845,37.6295845 38.5527859,37.5676444 39.3076275,37.4532535 L39.3076275,47.5686479 C39.3076275,48.3079613 39.9071873,48.9076937 40.6466732,48.9076937 C41.3859866,48.9076937 41.9853739,48.3079613 41.9853739,47.5686479 L41.9853739,36.796757 C44.484719,35.9396021 46.7488986,34.4454472 48.5267014,32.4212641 L48.5669021,32.3755423 C49.1533493,31.7199085 48.9746028,30.6460493 48.0927754,30.247493" data-v-eb7322e6></path></g></g></svg> <div class="text text-style-a3ea" style="font-size:150em;" data-v-eb7322e6> <span class="title" data-v-eb7322e6>Advanced Ceramic Materials</span> <span class="sub-title" data-v-eb7322e6>Emerging Technologies</span>  <span class="editors" data-v-eb7322e6>Edited by Amparo Borrell Tomás</span></div></a></figure>  </div></div>  <div 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4.66255704,17.1022077 C4.23846549,17.3401338 3.97845493,17.7871725 3.97845493,18.2733768 L3.97845493,47.5848662 C3.97845493,48.5941972 5.06456408,49.230507 5.9451838,48.7372289 L19.0174866,41.4119014 C19.4345042,41.1781162 19.6927894,40.7374613 19.6927894,40.2593662 L19.6927894,17.7378275 C19.6927894,17.2512782 20.0211239,16.8006162 20.5000817,16.7141761 C21.1293176,16.6008204 21.6765993,17.0811585 21.6765993,17.6893451 L21.6765993,22.2984507 L21.6821204,22.287581 C21.6821204,22.2912042 21.6817754,22.2948275 21.6817754,22.2984507 C21.6817754,30.752331 28.5590289,37.6295845 37.0127366,37.6295845 C37.7863845,37.6295845 38.5527859,37.5676444 39.3076275,37.4532535 L39.3076275,47.5686479 C39.3076275,48.3079613 39.9071873,48.9076937 40.6466732,48.9076937 C41.3859866,48.9076937 41.9853739,48.3079613 41.9853739,47.5686479 L41.9853739,36.796757 C44.484719,35.9396021 46.7488986,34.4454472 48.5267014,32.4212641 L48.5669021,32.3755423 C49.1533493,31.7199085 48.9746028,30.6460493 48.0927754,30.247493" data-v-eb7322e6></path></g></g></svg> <div class="text text-style-ce4e" style="font-size:150em;" data-v-eb7322e6> <span class="title" data-v-eb7322e6>Topics on Quantum Information Science</span>   <span class="editors" data-v-eb7322e6>Edited by Sergio Curilef</span></div></a></figure> <div class="book__label" data-v-44bc9216><span data-v-44bc9216>Chapter by nobel prize winning author</span></div> </div></div>  <div class="ParallaxElement absolute series series-1" style="transform:translate3d(0, 0px, 0);" data-v-1c5094ba><div class="series" data-v-7e9acbb1 data-v-1c5094ba><div class="series__cover" style="background-image:url('https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg');" data-v-7e9acbb1></div> <a href="/series/6" class="series__content" data-v-7e9acbb1><p class="series__title" data-v-7e9acbb1>Infectious Diseases</p> <p class="series__stat" data-v-7e9acbb1><span data-v-7e9acbb1> 4 </span> <span data-v-7e9acbb1>Topics</span></p>  <p class="series__stat" 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books</span></a> <p class="subject-card__stats subject-card__stats--underlined" data-v-af5163b0> 9,341 <span data-v-af5163b0>Authors and Editors</span></p> <a href="/series" class="subject-card__stats subject-card__stats--underlined" data-v-af5163b0> 4 <span data-v-af5163b0>book series</span></a> <p class="subject-card__stats empty" data-v-af5163b0><span data-v-af5163b0> </span></p></div></div></div> </div></div> <div class="navigation" data-v-32859338 data-v-49fde616><div id="subject-pagination" class="pages" data-v-32859338 data-v-49fde616></div></div></div></section> <section id="journals" data-v-58a57bdc data-v-1c1d1c9a><div class="journals" data-v-58a57bdc><video autoplay="autoplay" playsinline loop="loop" muted="muted" src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/46.042/journals/intro.mp4" class="journals-bg" data-v-58a57bdc></video> <a href="/journals" data-v-58a57bdc><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/46.042/journals/journals.svg" class="journals-logo" data-v-58a57bdc></a> <div class="banner" data-v-76977df2 data-v-58a57bdc><p class="banner-text" data-v-76977df2>IntechOpen <i>Journals</i> are a new publishing venue for academics in areas of rapid interdisciplinary growth at the cutting edge of technology, environmental sciences and human health.</p> <div class="cards" data-v-b4ba15be data-v-76977df2><div class="box" data-v-0ac54c23 data-v-b4ba15be><div class="icon-box" data-v-0ac54c23><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/46.042/journals/OpenAccessLock.svg" alt="open-access-&-open-science" class="icon" data-v-0ac54c23></div> <p class="icon-text" data-v-0ac54c23> Open Access & <span data-v-0ac54c23 data-v-b4ba15be>Open Science</span></p></div> <div class="box" data-v-0ac54c23 data-v-b4ba15be><div class="icon-box" data-v-0ac54c23><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/46.042/journals/BookSectionOpen.svg" alt="paid-publication-and-dissemination" class="icon invert" data-v-0ac54c23></div> <p class="icon-text" 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data-v-2f43366a><div class="journal-info__data-text" data-v-2f43366a><p data-v-2f43366a><strong data-v-2f43366a>ISSN</strong> 2754-6292</p> <p data-v-2f43366a><strong data-v-2f43366a>DOI</strong> 10.5772/acrt</p></div> <a href="https://www.intechopen.com/journals/1" target="_blank" class="icon-arrow" data-v-2f43366a><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/46.042/series/icons/arrow_right-ivory.svg" alt data-v-2f43366a></a></div></div></div></div> <div class="journal" data-v-2f43366a data-v-638f2516><div class="journal-card" data-v-2f43366a><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/46.042/journals/dmht-bg.jpg" class="journal-card--img" data-v-2f43366a> <div class="journal-info" style="background-color:#8d0c3b;" data-v-2f43366a><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/46.042/journals/logo/dmht-logo.svg" class="journal-info--img dmht-img" data-v-2f43366a> <img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/46.042/journals/logo/dmht-vertical.svg" class="journal-info--img-vertical dmht-img-vertical" data-v-2f43366a> <div class="journal-info__data" data-v-2f43366a><div class="journal-info__data-text" data-v-2f43366a><p data-v-2f43366a><strong data-v-2f43366a>ISSN</strong> 2754-6306</p> <p data-v-2f43366a><strong data-v-2f43366a>DOI</strong> 105772/dmht</p></div> <a href="https://www.intechopen.com/journals/4" target="_blank" class="icon-arrow" data-v-2f43366a><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/46.042/series/icons/arrow_right-ivory.svg" alt data-v-2f43366a></a></div></div></div></div> <div class="journal" data-v-2f43366a data-v-638f2516><div class="journal-card" data-v-2f43366a><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/46.042/journals/geet-bg.jpg" class="journal-card--img" data-v-2f43366a> <div class="journal-info" style="background-color:#105e58;" data-v-2f43366a><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/46.042/journals/logo/geet-logo.svg" class="journal-info--img geet-img" data-v-2f43366a> <img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/46.042/journals/logo/geet-vertical.svg" class="journal-info--img-vertical geet-img-vertical" data-v-2f43366a> <div class="journal-info__data" data-v-2f43366a><div class="journal-info__data-text" data-v-2f43366a><p data-v-2f43366a><strong data-v-2f43366a>ISSN</strong> 2754-6314</p> <p data-v-2f43366a><strong data-v-2f43366a>DOI</strong> 10.5772/geet</p></div> <a href="https://www.intechopen.com/journals/7" target="_blank" class="icon-arrow" data-v-2f43366a><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/46.042/series/icons/arrow_right-ivory.svg" alt data-v-2f43366a></a></div></div></div></div></div></div></div> </section> <section class="benifits" data-v-1c1d1c9a><div class="benifits__copy" data-v-1c1d1c9a><h2 class="section-title" data-v-1c1d1c9a>Benefits of Publishing with Us</h2> <p data-v-1c1d1c9a>Join IntechOpen in its mission to publish the best scientific research while increasing your work's visibility. We connect you with peers all over the world and help you advance your career through wide readership, dissemination, and higher citation counts.</p> <a href="/how-open-access-publishing-with-intechopen-works" data-v-1c1d1c9a><button data-v-1c1d1c9a>Learn more</button></a></div> <div class="benifit-card top-left benifit-card--outlined" data-v-9adedfe4 data-v-1c1d1c9a><div class="benifit-card__header" data-v-9adedfe4><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/46.042/series/icons/authors_first.svg" alt="" data-v-9adedfe4 data-v-1c1d1c9a> <h3 data-v-9adedfe4 data-v-1c1d1c9a>Author in the Center</h3></div> <div class="benifit-card__body" data-v-9adedfe4><p data-v-9adedfe4 data-v-1c1d1c9a>Built by scientists, for scientists. Our unique personal approach, day-to-day support and all of the tools you need to make your work accessible worldwide</p></div></div> <div class="benifit-card top-right benifit-card--outlined" data-v-9adedfe4 data-v-1c1d1c9a><div class="benifit-card__header" data-v-9adedfe4><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/46.042/series/icons/peer_review.svg" alt="" data-v-9adedfe4 data-v-1c1d1c9a> <h3 data-v-9adedfe4 data-v-1c1d1c9a>Peer-review</h3></div> <div class="benifit-card__body" data-v-9adedfe4><p data-v-9adedfe4 data-v-1c1d1c9a>Robust peer-review ensures your work is suitable for publication and of interest to the scientific community</p></div></div> <div class="benifit-card bottom-left benifit-card--outlined" data-v-9adedfe4 data-v-1c1d1c9a><div class="benifit-card__header" data-v-9adedfe4><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/46.042/series/icons/online_first_2.svg" alt="" data-v-9adedfe4 data-v-1c1d1c9a> <h3 data-v-9adedfe4 data-v-1c1d1c9a>Online First</h3></div> <div class="benifit-card__body" data-v-9adedfe4><p data-v-9adedfe4 data-v-1c1d1c9a>Early online publication after acceptance assures research is made available to the scientific community without delay</p></div></div> <div class="benifit-card bottom-right benifit-card--outlined" data-v-9adedfe4 data-v-1c1d1c9a><div class="benifit-card__header" data-v-9adedfe4><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/46.042/series/icons/open_access.svg" alt="" data-v-9adedfe4 data-v-1c1d1c9a> <h3 data-v-9adedfe4 data-v-1c1d1c9a>Open Access</h3></div> <div class="benifit-card__body" data-v-9adedfe4><p data-v-9adedfe4 data-v-1c1d1c9a>Your work will be permanently available online, free to download, share and read</p></div></div> </section> <section class="institutions" data-v-4f9f2e6c data-v-1c1d1c9a><div class="institutions__container" data-v-4f9f2e6c><h2 class="section-title section-title--light" data-v-4f9f2e6c>7,140 Research Institutions Support Open Access at IntechOpen</h2> <div class="institutions__parallax" data-v-4f9f2e6c><div class="ParallaxContainer" data-v-4f9f2e6c><div class="ParallaxElement" style="transform:translate3d(0, 0px, 0);" data-v-4f9f2e6c><div class="institutions__placeholder" data-v-4f9f2e6c><a href="/institution/1544" data-v-4f9f2e6c><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/46.042/universities/CityUniversityofHongKong.svg" alt="City University Of Hong Kong" class="img--hongkong" data-v-4f9f2e6c></a></div><div class="institutions__placeholder" data-v-4f9f2e6c><a href="/institution/1528" data-v-4f9f2e6c><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/46.042/universities/IowaUniversity.png" alt="Iowa State University" class="img--consortium" data-v-4f9f2e6c></a></div><div class="institutions__placeholder" data-v-4f9f2e6c><a href="/institution/596" data-v-4f9f2e6c><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/46.042/universities/FudanUniversity.png" alt="Fudan University" class="img--fudan" data-v-4f9f2e6c></a></div><div class="institutions__placeholder" data-v-4f9f2e6c><a href="/institution/935" data-v-4f9f2e6c><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/46.042/universities/kingsCollege.svg" alt="Kings College" class="img--kings" data-v-4f9f2e6c></a></div><div class="institutions__placeholder" data-v-4f9f2e6c><a href="/institution/815" data-v-4f9f2e6c><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/46.042/universities/PekingUniversity.png" alt="Peking University" class="img--peking" data-v-4f9f2e6c></a></div></div></div> <div class="ParallaxContainer" data-v-4f9f2e6c><div class="ParallaxElement" style="transform:translate3d(0, 0px, 0);" data-v-4f9f2e6c><div class="institutions__placeholder" data-v-4f9f2e6c><a href="/institution/1480" data-v-4f9f2e6c><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/46.042/universities/seoul.svg" alt="Seoul" class="img--seoul" data-v-4f9f2e6c></a></div><div class="institutions__placeholder" data-v-4f9f2e6c><a href="/institution/916" data-v-4f9f2e6c><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/46.042/universities/TsinghuaUniversity.png" alt="Tsinghua University" class="img--tsinghua" data-v-4f9f2e6c></a></div><div class="institutions__placeholder" data-v-4f9f2e6c><a href="/institution/3266" data-v-4f9f2e6c><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/46.042/universities/UMassAmherst.png" alt="UMass Amherst" class="img--umass" data-v-4f9f2e6c></a></div><div class="institutions__placeholder" data-v-4f9f2e6c><a href="/institution/453" data-v-4f9f2e6c><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/46.042/universities/UniversidaddeBuenosAires.jpeg" alt="Universidadde Buenos Aires" class="img--buenosaires" data-v-4f9f2e6c></a></div><div class="institutions__placeholder" data-v-4f9f2e6c><a href="/institution/1425" data-v-4f9f2e6c><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/46.042/universities/UniversidadReyJuanCarlosdeMadrid.png" alt="Universidad Rey Juan Carlosde" class="img--madrid" data-v-4f9f2e6c></a></div></div></div> <div class="ParallaxContainer" data-v-4f9f2e6c><div class="ParallaxElement" style="transform:translate3d(0, 0px, 0);" data-v-4f9f2e6c><div class="institutions__placeholder" data-v-4f9f2e6c><a href="/institution/301" data-v-4f9f2e6c><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/46.042/universities/UniversitatdeBarcelona.png" alt="Universitatde Barcelona" class="img--barcelona" data-v-4f9f2e6c></a></div><div class="institutions__placeholder" data-v-4f9f2e6c><a href="/institution/874" data-v-4f9f2e6c><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/46.042/universities/UniversitedeStrasbourg.png" alt="Universitéde Strasbourg" class="img--strasbourg" data-v-4f9f2e6c></a></div><div class="institutions__placeholder" data-v-4f9f2e6c><a href="/institution/3252" data-v-4f9f2e6c><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/46.042/universities/UniversityofKansas.png" alt="University of Kansas" class="img--kansas" data-v-4f9f2e6c></a></div><div class="institutions__placeholder" data-v-4f9f2e6c><a href="/institutions" data-v-4f9f2e6c><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/46.042/universities/LogoCSIC.png" alt="CSIC" class="img--csic" data-v-4f9f2e6c></a></div><div class="institutions__placeholder" data-v-4f9f2e6c><a href="/institution/252" data-v-4f9f2e6c><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/46.042/universities/universityofsurreylogo.png" alt="University of Surrey" class="img--surrey" data-v-4f9f2e6c></a></div></div></div></div></div></section> <section class="news" data-v-1c1d1c9a><div class="news-slider" style="transform:translate3d(20%, 0, 0);" data-v-643f4fdc data-v-1c1d1c9a><div class="swiper-body" data-v-32859338 data-v-643f4fdc><div data-v-32859338><div class="swiper-wrapper" data-v-32859338><div class="swiper-slide" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc><div class="news-slider__item" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc><img src="/media/original/530" class="news-slider__img" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc> <div class="news-slider__content" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc><span class="news-slider__timestamp" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc>25 March 2025</span> <h5 class="news-slider__title" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc>ResearchGate and IntechOpen Announce New Journal Home Partnership</h5> <div class="news-slider__summary" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc><p>As part of our ongoing commitment to expanding the reach and visibility of open access research, we are excited to announce a new partnership with ResearchGate, the leading professional network for researchers. This collaboration will increase the reach and brand visibility of our journals through ResearchGate’s Journal Home platform.</p></div> <a href="/news/researchgate-and-intechopen-announce-new-journal-home-partnership-20250325" class="read-more" data-v-643f4fdc>Read more</a></div></div></div><div class="swiper-slide" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc><div class="news-slider__item" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc><img src="/media/original/410" class="news-slider__img" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc> <div class="news-slider__content" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc><span class="news-slider__timestamp" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc>08 July 2024</span> <h5 class="news-slider__title" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc>IntechOpen Presents Interviews for Young Scientists with Science's Leading Minds</h5> <div class="news-slider__summary" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc><p>We are pleased to present a series of inspirational interviews for young researchers with some of today's leading scientists, ranging from a Nobel laureate to pioneers and innovators in various fields, including pharmacogenomics, pharmaceutical leadership, and academia.</p></div> <a href="/news/intechopen-presents-interviews-for-young-scientists-with-science-s-leading-minds-20240708" class="read-more" data-v-643f4fdc>Read more</a></div></div></div><div class="swiper-slide" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc><div class="news-slider__item" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc><img src="/media/original/405" class="news-slider__img" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc> <div class="news-slider__content" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc><span class="news-slider__timestamp" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc>07 June 2023</span> <h5 class="news-slider__title" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc>IntechOpen Becomes a UKSG Member</h5> <div class="news-slider__summary" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc><p>IntechOpen is now an official member of the UKSG, the UK's largest scholarly communications community. Founded almost half a century ago, it connects the knowledge community and encourages the exchange of ideas in scholarly communication.</p></div> <a href="/news/intechopen-becomes-a-uksg-member-20230607" class="read-more" data-v-643f4fdc>Read more</a></div></div></div><div class="swiper-slide" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc><div class="news-slider__item" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc><img src="/media/original/406" class="news-slider__img" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc> <div class="news-slider__content" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc><span class="news-slider__timestamp" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc>22 May 2024</span> <h5 class="news-slider__title" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc>IntechOpen Reaches New Milestone: 7,000 Books Open for All</h5> <div class="news-slider__summary" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc><p>IntechOpen has achieved a significant milestone in its mission to democratise scientific knowledge by announcing the publication of its 7,000th open access book, 'Towards the Eradication of<em> Helicobacter pylori</em> Infection - Rapid Diagnosis and Precision Treatment.' Guided by the expertise of Dr Liang Wang, Dr Alfred Chin Yen Tay, and 2005 Nobel Prize Laureate Prof. Barry J. Marshall, this book offers insightful research and novel approaches, contributing to the continuous discourse on <em>Helicobacter pylori</em>-related research.</p></div> <a href="/news/intechopen-reaches-new-milestone-7-000-books-open-for-all-20240522" class="read-more" data-v-643f4fdc>Read more</a></div></div></div><div class="swiper-slide" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc><div class="news-slider__item" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc><img src="/media/original/402" class="news-slider__img" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc> <div class="news-slider__content" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc><span class="news-slider__timestamp" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc>11 March 2024</span> <h5 class="news-slider__title" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc>IntechOpen Signs Open Access Institutional Agreement with Iowa State University</h5> <div class="news-slider__summary" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc><p>IntechOpen signs an institutional agreement with Iowa State University of Science and Technology to support open access and cover open access publishing fees for their faculty.</p></div> <a href="/news/intechopen-signs-open-access-institutional-agreement-with-iowa-state-university-20240311" class="read-more" data-v-643f4fdc>Read more</a></div></div></div><div class="swiper-slide" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc><div class="news-slider__item" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc><img src="/media/original/386" class="news-slider__img" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc> <div class="news-slider__content" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc><span class="news-slider__timestamp" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc>26 June 2023</span> <h5 class="news-slider__title" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc>Connecting with the Robotics Community and Celebrating Open Science: The IntechOpen Journals Highlights from ICRA 2023</h5> <div class="news-slider__summary" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc><p>The IntechOpen Journals team reflects on a collaborative and informative visit to the IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA)  in London.</p></div> <a href="/news/connecting-with-the-robotics-community-and-celebrating-open-science-the-intechopen-journals-highlights-from-icra-2023-20230626" class="read-more" data-v-643f4fdc>Read more</a></div></div></div><div class="swiper-slide" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc><div class="news-slider__item" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc><img src="/media/original/325" class="news-slider__img" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc> <div class="news-slider__content" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc><span class="news-slider__timestamp" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc>28 March 2023</span> <h5 class="news-slider__title" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc>IntechOpen Book Wins the 2022 International Academy of Astronautics Life Science Book Award</h5> <div class="news-slider__summary" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc><p>We are thrilled that the International Academy of Astronautics has chosen IntechOpen's book "Preparation of Space Experiments", edited by Dr. Vladimir Pletser, to receive the IAA Life Science Book Award. The award is given annually to recognize excellence in publication by an Academy member or corresponding member in the field of life sciences.</p></div> <a href="/news/intechopen-book-wins-the-2022-international-academy-of-astronautics-life-science-book-award-20230328" class="read-more" data-v-643f4fdc>Read more</a></div></div></div><div class="swiper-slide" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc><div class="news-slider__item" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc><img src="/media/original/357" class="news-slider__img" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc> <div class="news-slider__content" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc><span class="news-slider__timestamp" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc>17 February 2023</span> <h5 class="news-slider__title" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc>IntechOpen Retains Its Dominant Position in Growing OA Market</h5> <div class="news-slider__summary" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc><p>In their analysis of the latest data from the Directory of Open Access Books (DOAB), Delta Think, a strategic consulting and advisory firm, confirmed that IntechOpen remains the largest publisher across all years, with a share of 9.6%.</p></div> <a href="/news/intechopen-retains-its-dominant-position-in-growing-oa-market-20230217" class="read-more" data-v-643f4fdc>Read more</a></div></div></div><div class="swiper-slide" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc><div class="news-slider__item" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc><img src="/media/original/132" class="news-slider__img" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc> <div class="news-slider__content" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc><span class="news-slider__timestamp" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc>15 September 2021</span> <h5 class="news-slider__title" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc>Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books</h5> <div class="news-slider__summary" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc><p>We are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format for OA books: IntechOpen Book Series. Designed to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Series feature a Topic structure, <strong>always open for submissions</strong>, covering the most relevant sub-disciplines.</p></div> <a href="/news/introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915" class="read-more" data-v-643f4fdc>Read more</a></div></div></div><div class="swiper-slide" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc><div class="news-slider__item" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc><img src="/media/original/323" class="news-slider__img" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc> <div class="news-slider__content" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc><span class="news-slider__timestamp" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc>07 April 2023</span> <h5 class="news-slider__title" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc>IntechOpen Journals Presents: 'Engaging with Open Science 2023' Webinar Series</h5> <div class="news-slider__summary" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-643f4fdc><p>This year, to continue to support our community, we are launching our 'Engaging with Open Science 2023' webinar series, where we will discuss key developments in open science with industry-leading experts and academics. The webinars are organised in three sessions which tell you what you need to know about preprints, open data and open peer review.</p></div> <a href="/news/intechopen-journals-presents-engaging-with-open-science-2023-webinar-series-20230407" class="read-more" data-v-643f4fdc>Read more</a></div></div></div> </div></div> <div class="news-slider__pagination" data-v-32859338 data-v-643f4fdc><div id="pagination-news" class="pages" data-v-32859338 data-v-643f4fdc></div> <div class="controlls" data-v-32859338 data-v-643f4fdc><button class="nav-btn" style="background-image:url('//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/46.042/series/icons/ic-arrow-left-ivory.svg');" data-v-32859338 data-v-643f4fdc></button> <button class="nav-btn" style="background-image:url('//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/46.042/series/icons/arrow_right-ivory.svg');" data-v-32859338 data-v-643f4fdc></button></div></div></div></div></section> <section class="in-good-company" data-v-327abc8b data-v-1c1d1c9a><h2 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ORCID metadata will be integrated into all IntechOpen systems and trusted metadata will be added to its researchers’ or users’ ORCID records.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EIntechOpen \u003Cem\u003EJournals\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E have implemented ORCID on its article submission and peer review platform - ReView from River Valley Technologies to increase the efficiency of the workflow and improve the integrity of submission, review, and discovery processes with reliable author and reviewer information. Through the River Valley platform, IntechOpen will also give credit to reviewers and allow reviewers who use the platform to update their ORCID records automatically with their reviews.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EWe are happy to be connected to, and contributing to an initiative that aligns with our goals around openness, trust and inclusivity and encourages authors to use ORCID IDs.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EAbout ORCID \u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EAbout ORCID--ORCID’s vision is a world where all who participate in research and innovation, from imagining to building and managing, are uniquely identified and connected to their contributions across disciplines, borders, and time. ORCID seeks to reduce administrative burden for researchers and help organisations understand the impact of the research they are facilitating or funding by providing an identifier for individuals to use with their name as they engage in research and innovation activities, as well as the tools that enable transparent and trustworthy connections between researchers, their contributions, and affiliations. Learn more at https:\u002F\u002Forcid.org.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\"}]","published":true,"mainMedia":{"caption":"","originalUrl":"\u002Fmedia\u002Foriginal\u002F343"}},"components":[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"\u003Cp\u003EIntechOpen is now a member of ORCID, an independent not-profit group, built by the community to increase transparency in the research process. ORCID stands for Open Researcher and Contributor ID. Researchers register for an ORCID iD and the organisation assigns a unique persistent digital signature to link all of their publications, affiliations, name variations, and other relevant information to their ORCID record. It creates a permanent, unambiguous record enabling reliable attribution of authors and contributors. ORCID metadata will be integrated into all IntechOpen systems and trusted metadata will be added to its researchers’ or users’ ORCID records.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EIntechOpen \u003Cem\u003EJournals\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E have implemented ORCID on its article submission and peer review platform - ReView from River Valley Technologies to increase the efficiency of the workflow and improve the integrity of submission, review, and discovery processes with reliable author and reviewer information. 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In our modern, Covid-racked world, educational institutions and their respective delivery methodologies have been forcibly and forever transformed. Most educators realize that these transformations are likely permanent and that procedures and systems of the past will no longer be relevant for the emerging post-Covid educational environment. The future provides countless challenges and great opportunities. Those embracing the transformation will be poised to usher in a new age of educational achievement. They will certainly unleash new educational methodologies, techniques, and strategies. These institutions and educators will chart tomorrow’s pathway.","isbn":"978-1-83968-700-6","printIsbn":"978-1-83968-699-3","pdfIsbn":"978-1-83968-701-3","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.95220","price":139,"priceEur":155,"priceUsd":155,"priceCbs":null,"slug":"higher-education-new-approaches-to-accreditation-digitalization-and-globalization-in-the-age-of-covid","numberOfPages":324,"isOpenForSubmission":false,"isInWos":null,"isInBkci":false,"hash":"223a02337498e535e967174c1f648fbc","bookSignature":"Lee Waller and Sharon Waller","publishedDate":"July 13th 2022","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fbooks\u002Fimages_new\u002F10911.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F10911\u002F1718280848-1739684330\u002Fweb-cover.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F10911\u002F1718280848-1739684330\u002Fweb-cover-300.jpg","numberOfDownloads":8777,"numberOfViews":null,"numberOfWosCitations":0,"numberOfCrossrefCitations":21,"numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook":1,"numberOfDimensionsCitations":46,"numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook":3,"hasAltmetrics":0,"totalAltmetricsMentions":0,"numberOfTotalCitations":67,"isAvailableForWebshopOrdering":true,"dateEndFirstStepPublish":"May 26th 2021","dateEndSecondStepPublish":"June 16th 2021","dateEndThirdStepPublish":"August 15th 2021","dateEndFourthStepPublish":"November 3rd 2021","dateEndFifthStepPublish":"January 2nd 2022","currentStepOfPublishingProcess":5,"indexedIn":"1,2,3,4,5,6","editedByType":"Edited by","kuFlag":false,"sdgRelated":false,"featuredMarkup":null,"isPublished":true,"isPublisherCbs":false,"cbsWebsiteURL":null,"noAds":0,"editors":[{"id":"263301","title":"Dr.","name":"Lee","middleName":null,"surname":"Waller","slug":"lee-waller","fullName":"Lee Waller","cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F263301\u002F1729057494\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.png","biography":"Prof. Lee Waller is a Distinguished Professor of Education at the Baptist University of the Americas, Texas, USA. He previously served as the president of European University College, Dubai, UAE, and as an associate provost at the American University of Ras Al Khaimah (AURAK), UAE. Prof. Waller earned his BS in Education and MS in Mathematics from Stephen F. Austin State University, Texas, USA. He completed a Ph.D. in Higher Education Administration from the University of North Texas, USA. 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Latin America has been especially shaken, due to e.g., political changes resulting from massive expressions of social discontent following 2019; or the arrival of COVID-19, its interruption of the quotidian, and its impetus for technology to burst into professional work. In this context, three major crossroads for higher education – resulting from bibliographical and document analysis and integration – are presented in the paper, “Rethinking undergraduate training in social sciences from the imaginaries of the future about professional work”. The paper discusses development in the current context, the future of professional work, and subjective well-being in professionals. To face these challenges, the conclusions propose the exercise of prognostic intelligence as an alternative. Prognostic intelligence is a professional skill that can be developed during higher education. Its practice would eschew the presentism characteristic of our turbulent times in favor of expanding the possibilities of outlining the future of higher education on the basis of relevance, quality, and stability.","signatures":"Sandra Iturrieta Olivares","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F78525","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F78525","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"420936","title":"Dr.","name":"Sandra","surname":"Iturrieta Olivares","slug":"sandra-iturrieta-olivares","fullName":"Sandra Iturrieta Olivares"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"78595","title":"Globalization and Education: Trends towards Sustainability","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.99974","slug":"globalization-and-education-trends-towards-sustainability","totalDownloads":374,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":1,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":2,"abstract":"Higher Education Institutions (IES) have a very relevant role in the path towards sustainability. The problem of the implementation of curricular sustainability is the disparity of solutions that can be adopted depending on the political and economic situation of each country. The study of a practical case in the south of Honduras allows the student to approach key decisions in a real scenario to bring improvements to a very disadvantaged population, lacking basic services, such as water and electricity, under the premise of sustainability, facing aspects as relevant such as sustainable mobility, water resources management, energy and construction models, in a context where globalization and technological innovation play a very important role. It is essential to know in depth the real context where structural changes will be applied to understand that there is no single reality, that actions are built adapting to specific situations and that the effectiveness of the measures that can be adopted to establish models that prioritize that part of sustainability that best weighs the balance between the environment, society and the economy for each case.","signatures":"Maria Olga Bernaldo and Gonzalo Fernandez-Sanchez","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F78595","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F78595","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"297996","title":"Dr.","name":"Gonzalo","surname":"Fernandez-Sanchez","slug":"gonzalo-fernandez-sanchez","fullName":"Gonzalo Fernandez-Sanchez"},{"id":"420460","title":"Ph.D.","name":"Maria Olga","surname":"Bernaldo","slug":"maria-olga-bernaldo","fullName":"Maria Olga Bernaldo"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"77467","title":"A Demographic Shift in College Students: A Preparatory Guide for Political Scientists and the Discipline","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.98804","slug":"a-demographic-shift-in-college-students-a-preparatory-guide-for-political-scientists-and-the-discipl","totalDownloads":364,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":1,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":3,"abstract":"As United States higher education moves from the gilded age to a more challenging one, this research examines how the changing demographics of American college students should influence how political science faculty teach their classes. With more first-generation, underrepresented students (FGUS) on college campuses, the study offers five best practices to improve student success for political science faculty. Additionally, the research proposes that the content in political science courses should reflect the changing demographics of our students – both in revising our existing courses and offering new ones. Finally, diversification of faculty in political science is vital when teaching students of underrepresented groups.","signatures":"John R. Hermann","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F77467","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F77467","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"422052","title":"Associate Prof.","name":"John","surname":"Hermann","slug":"john-hermann","fullName":"John Hermann"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"78223","title":"Institutional Accreditation and the Professionalisation of Teaching in the HE Sector","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.99805","slug":"institutional-accreditation-and-the-professionalisation-of-teaching-in-the-he-sector","totalDownloads":545,"totalCrossrefCites":1,"totalDimensionsCites":2,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":4,"abstract":"Institutional accreditation is an integral part of moves to professionalise teaching and learning in higher education (HE). Despite this growing trend, there is a paucity of literature which examines the benefits and challenges of institutional accreditation. In this chapter we draw on survey data collected in 2020 from 55 HE institutions globally which are accredited by Advance HE to award Fellowships. These teaching Fellowships are aligned to the UK Professional Standards Framework for Teaching and Supporting Learning (UKPSF). Findings show that institutional accreditation supports the career development of teaching-focused academics and impacts on teaching and learning in a number of ways. These impacts include providing an external benchmark, raising the profile and quality of teaching and encouraging teaching-related professional development, including engagement with scholarship in teaching and learning. Accreditation was also found to align with neoliberal agendas of quality, league tables and marketization. The perennial issue of how to evaluate the impact on student learning is something respondents continue to grapple with. Finally, these data demonstrate there is a clear need to develop a more systematic and embedded approach to evaluation that captures the outcomes of teaching-related professional development.","signatures":"Lucy Spowart and Rebecca Turner","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F78223","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F78223","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"421210","title":null,"name":"Lucy","surname":"Spowart","slug":"lucy-spowart","fullName":"Lucy Spowart"},{"id":"423234","title":"Dr.","name":"Rebecca","surname":"Turner","slug":"rebecca-turner","fullName":"Rebecca Turner"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"78597","title":"Public-Private Participation in Funding University Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Nigerian Case-Study for Sustainable Development","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.99940","slug":"public-private-participation-in-funding-university-education-in-sub-saharan-africa-a-nigerian-case-s","totalDownloads":518,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":2,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":5,"abstract":"The developing countries in Africa still cannot withstand the pressure of the highly competitive global education market. Together with the large numbers of people who make a living in various innovative companies, these countries have solved key contemporary issues affecting global education. For this reason, it is necessary to actively respond to current technological innovation and educational challenges and to eliminate new technology graduates who can effectively interact with students through the responsive expansion of education and training. Expansion of education can produce effective expansion that promotes educational development, but due to budget constraints, most African governments cannot successfully and sustainably implement such educational programs. This is difficult. However, public-private partnership efforts provide a way out of this financial dilemma. The Sub-Saharan Africa initiative has achieved important educational objectives, such as: ensuring relevance for quality; secure funding for sustainability and establish resource mobilization partnerships and connections; and promote international cooperation. This discussion is relevant to the basic conditions for a successful public-private partnership with educational institutions and extended education and sheds light on the impact, lessons, and challenges. The public is increasingly concerned about the importance of higher education in the 21st century. This chapter explores some of the key functions of an innovative education system that supports the development of education in Nigeria and enhances people’s ability to use information. Nigeria’s education system re-emphasizes the importance of public and private universities, but the country does not have a sustainable education system and well-equipped educational institutions to support people’s ability to use information, learning, education, and research activities.","signatures":"Lawrence Jones-Esan","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F78597","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F78597","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"421306","title":"Dr.","name":"Lawrence","surname":"Jones-Esan","slug":"lawrence-jones-esan","fullName":"Lawrence Jones-Esan"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"78158","title":"Strategies Used by UNISA Student Teachers in Teaching English First Additional Language","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.99662","slug":"strategies-used-by-unisa-student-teachers-in-teaching-english-first-additional-language","totalDownloads":520,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":1,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":6,"abstract":"The teaching of English to non-English speakers in historically disadvantaged areas of South Africa is a difficult task for student teachers. This study was conducted in the township schools at Ekurhuleni North District, in the Gauteng province of South Africa. The purpose of the study was to determine the extent to which students at the University of South Africa (UNISA) used interactive teaching strategies in the teaching of English as a First Additional Language (EFAL). The study also intended to highlight the support provided by UNISA lecturers to these student teachers. The study was grounded in interpretivism with self-determination theory (SDT) informing it. The study was a qualitative descriptive case study with document analysis, observations and semi-structured interviews utilised to collect data. Purposive sampling assisted in selecting six student teachers, of which three were male and three were female. The student teachers were studying in their 3rd and 4th years of the Bachelor of Education degree (B.Ed.), specialising in English. Data collected were categorised into codes and themes. The findings reveal that student teachers only used pictures, charts and flashcards as interactive teaching strategies in teaching EFAL. It was concluded that student teachers were not well-prepared in the use of interactive teaching strategies in the teaching of EFAL and were not adequately supported by the university. It is recommended that UNISA lecturers should regularly visit student teachers during their teaching practice offering support, motivation and advice.","signatures":"Margaret Malewaneng Maja and Masilonyana Motseke","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F78158","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F78158","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"235895","title":"Dr.","name":"Margaret Malewaneng","surname":"Maja","slug":"margaret-malewaneng-maja","fullName":"Margaret Malewaneng Maja"},{"id":"278947","title":"Prof.","name":"Masilonyana","surname":"Motseke","slug":"masilonyana-motseke","fullName":"Masilonyana Motseke"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"79255","title":"Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) in Africa Embracing the “New Normal” for Knowledge Production and Innovation: Barriers, Realities, and Possibilities","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.101063","slug":"higher-education-institutions-heis-in-africa-embracing-the-new-normal-for-knowledge-production-and-i","totalDownloads":577,"totalCrossrefCites":2,"totalDimensionsCites":5,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":7,"abstract":"If Africa is to remain relevant and competitive in today’s knowledge-based economy, it has to rely on higher education institutions (HEIs) as centers of excellence for knowledge production. HEIs nurture and sustain the production of highly-skilled individuals to support Africa’s growing economies. Among all possible ways, this could be achievable through strategic curricula innovation driven by emerging mobile technologies. Consequently, Africa’s HEIs need to embrace the ‘New Normal’ by optimizing online teaching and learning in their pursuit to expand information and communications technology (ICT) literacy as a means to increase students’ opportunities in higher education (HE). However, Africa’s ability to embrace the ‘New Normal’ has been marred by inadequate ICT infrastructures, low connectivity, unreliable power supply, and national budget constraints that may undermine Africa’s HEIs’ potential to augment knowledge production and innovation.","signatures":"Christopher B. Mugimu","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F79255","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F79255","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"420637","title":"Prof.","name":"Christopher B.","surname":"Mugimu","slug":"christopher-b.-mugimu","fullName":"Christopher B. Mugimu"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"79738","title":"Higher Education in India: New Educational Policy – 2020 and Educational Issues in the Post-COVID-19 Pandemic","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.101592","slug":"higher-education-in-india-new-educational-policy-2020-and-educational-issues-in-the-post-covid-19-pa","totalDownloads":479,"totalCrossrefCites":1,"totalDimensionsCites":1,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":8,"abstract":"The Indian higher education system is one of the largest systems in the world. India has seen a big development in the higher education sector as enrolment and the numbers of higher educational institutions have increased almost four-time in the last two decades. Service economies in developed countries tend to have a great demand for higher education. India contributes to the global workforce is only marginal. Education produces social justice in the future as well as being a benefit to young people in the present. Education suggests that the power of intellectual curiosity and the love of learning were equally strong motives as the need for a social leader. The recent NEP 2020 seeks equity and inclusion through education. Online education used to be an outlier until the Covid-19 pandemic placed it at center stage. The story of India education system is obsessed with examinations and grades. With no financial support to build new facilities or open new universities, enrolling students online seems the logical solution to boost capacity. The growing demand for admission in higher educational institutions in India coupled with the inadequacy of public expenditure on the same sector.","signatures":"Suwa Lal Jangu","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F79738","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F79738","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"420520","title":"Assistant Prof.","name":"Suwa","surname":"Lal Jangu","slug":"suwa-lal-jangu","fullName":"Suwa Lal Jangu"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"78588","title":"Relevancy of New Higher Education Approaches in ‘Second Republic Zimbabwe’","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.99934","slug":"relevancy-of-new-higher-education-approaches-in-second-republic-zimbabwe-","totalDownloads":670,"totalCrossrefCites":5,"totalDimensionsCites":9,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":9,"abstract":"Through face-to-face interviews with lecturers, this research explored the relevancy of new higher education approaches in Zimbabwe particularly Education 5.0 and virtual learning environments (VLEs). The main finding suggests that the five missions of Education 5.0 are not new in higher education and training in the country. However, they being nigh on greased following the outbreak of the coronavirus disease (COVID 19) is exceptional and unplanned for up take. Education 5.0 charges that turned to be virtually oiled have already been cherished under the auspices of Education 3.0. Thus, lecturers do not perceive it as new. But, only the means and ways upon which it is delivered to learners in the COVID 19 era. The hype around it coming from the ‘Second Republic’ government is factory-made and politically calculated. Besides, it is difficult to underpin the development given the economic problems the country is currently facing. This research also finds out that VLEs are just more than a saga in Zimbabwe since she still lags behind the world order of internet of things. A few of the interviewees were of the view that teaching and learning though virtual means and ways is not different from the old face-to-face model.","signatures":"Kudakwashe Keche","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F78588","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F78588","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"422662","title":"Ph.D. Student","name":"Kudakwashe","surname":"Keche","slug":"kudakwashe-keche","fullName":"Kudakwashe Keche"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"78715","title":"Mapping the Policy Regulatory Environment of Transnational Education (TNE) in the Ghanaian Tertiary Education System","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.99933","slug":"mapping-the-policy-regulatory-environment-of-transnational-education-tne-in-the-ghanaian-tertiary-ed","totalDownloads":388,"totalCrossrefCites":1,"totalDimensionsCites":1,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":10,"abstract":"Given the critical role of public policy in TNE arrangements of countries, and the fact that TNE partnerships are growing steadily in the Ghanaian tertiary education sector, a robust and resilient public policy environment is imperative. However, the public policy environment of TNE partnerships in the tertiary education sector in Ghana is unexamined by any scientific study to guide decision on TNE partnerships in Ghanaian tertiary education institutions (TEIs). Against this backdrop, this chapter examines the level of influence of public policy frameworks on TNE partnerships in TEIs in Ghana to ignite a national discourse on TNE regulation. A multiphase mixed-method research design, informed by exploratory and explanatory sequential designs was adopted for the study. The findings reveal that TNE partnerships are an emerging concept in the Ghanaian tertiary education system with less than 20% of the over 200 TEIs engaged in TNE partnerships. More importantly, the findings indicate that the policy environment of TNE partnerships of TEIs in Ghana is not sufficiently robust because no tailor-made policy regulatory frameworks exist to regulate TNE partnerships in TEIs. To this end, the study concludes that the existing policy regulatory frameworks for the Ghanaian tertiary education system are incapable of helping the country maximise the full benefits of TNE partnerships by ensuring win-win situations for TEIs engaged in TNE partnerships. In view of this, the study recommends that the government should develop a tailor-made policy framework for regulating TNE partnerships in Ghanaian TEIs.","signatures":"Francis Ansah, Hope Pius Nudzor, Gloria Nyame and Ophelia Affreh","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F78715","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F78715","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"196436","title":"Dr.","name":"Francis","surname":"Ansah","slug":"francis-ansah","fullName":"Francis Ansah"},{"id":"325512","title":"Dr.","name":"Hope","surname":"Pius Nudzor","slug":"hope-pius-nudzor","fullName":"Hope Pius Nudzor"},{"id":"429071","title":"Dr.","name":"Gloria","surname":"Nyame","slug":"gloria-nyame","fullName":"Gloria Nyame"},{"id":"429072","title":"Dr.","name":"Ophelia","surname":"Affreh","slug":"ophelia-affreh","fullName":"Ophelia Affreh"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"80280","title":"Adoption of Online Learning during the Covid19 Pandemic Lockdown by Universities in Garowe","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.99941","slug":"adoption-of-online-learning-during-the-covid19-pandemic-lockdown-by-universities-in-garowe","totalDownloads":450,"totalCrossrefCites":1,"totalDimensionsCites":3,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":11,"abstract":"In response to the Covid-19 outbreak the world closed and therefore countries like Somalia have not been exceptional. The government of Somalia and all higher education institutions adopted crisis intervention measures on implementation of blended learning approaches like online teaching and learning. In this chapter we explore the process and challenges of adopting online learning in response to the world wide lockdown due to the pandemic. Given that this was an abrupt requirement, the survey was interested in finding out whether universities adopted and adapted easily. Researchers compared findings from previous studies and theoretical inclinations on online learning. Results indicate that the adoption of online learning among universities in Garowe was as a matter of crisis management whereby administration, lecturers and students were all not ready and had no prior grounding in this pedagogical learning platform. Just like previous studies online learning implementers have continued to encounter several challenges like intermittent internet network, cost of gadgets and facilities, inadequate skills of both the instructors and students, aspects of communication and satisfaction from stakeholders. With the research survey in Garowe, results show that this is still pervading and therefore need for more rigorous contextualised research on this subject.","signatures":"Tumwebaze Alicon Auf and Omer Abdi Hamdi","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F80280","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F80280","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"428303","title":"Ph.D. Student","name":"Tumwebaze","surname":"Alicon Auf","slug":"tumwebaze-alicon-auf","fullName":"Tumwebaze Alicon Auf"},{"id":"429614","title":"Dr.","name":"Omer Abdi","surname":"Hamdi","slug":"omer-abdi-hamdi","fullName":"Omer Abdi Hamdi"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"79196","title":"Embracing Technological Change in Higher Education","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.100431","slug":"embracing-technological-change-in-higher-education","totalDownloads":877,"totalCrossrefCites":5,"totalDimensionsCites":6,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":12,"abstract":"Access to information has never been easier, thanks to the rapid development of the internet and communication technologies, and the ubiquity of smartphones and other internet-enabled devices. In traditional classroom learning, teachers provide students with various sources of information that are known to be reliable. Nowadays, especially in a post-pandemic era, students increasingly rely on a host of resources available on the internet. Exposure to vast amounts of scattered information could adversely affect students’ learning process. Meanwhile, pedagogical approaches, classroom learning practices, and student learning activities have evolved significantly to cope with contemporary challenges. This study reviews the current learning practices and the technological interventions in a rapidly evolving higher education landscape. In particular, the challenges when integrating technology into higher education are considered in detail and ways put forward for doing so in that context.","signatures":"Mohammed Bahja, Mohammad Amin Kuhail and Rawad Hammad","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F79196","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F79196","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"312757","title":"Dr.","name":"Mohammed","surname":"Bahja","slug":"mohammed-bahja","fullName":"Mohammed Bahja"},{"id":"436411","title":"Dr.","name":"Rawad","surname":"Hammad","slug":"rawad-hammad","fullName":"Rawad Hammad"},{"id":"436412","title":"Dr.","name":"Mohammad Amin","surname":"Kuhail","slug":"mohammad-amin-kuhail","fullName":"Mohammad Amin Kuhail"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"81937","title":"Socialization Experiences among Undergraduate Students in Higher Learning Institutions (HLI)","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.99007","slug":"socialization-experiences-among-undergraduate-students-in-higher-learning-institutions-hli-","totalDownloads":628,"totalCrossrefCites":1,"totalDimensionsCites":1,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":13,"abstract":"This work portrays the problems of socialization among undergraduate students in higher learning institutions. The socialization processes in higher learning institution are significant for the successful navigation of students in the academic programs and university environment in preparing the next generation of professional practitioners and scholars. But the undergraduate student socialization experiences of students at university environment are overlooked. To navigate in the higher learning institutions, students should be socialized effectively to the normative contexts of the higher learning institutions. The normative contexts of the higher learning institutions are generally categorized into social and academic contexts, because these context academic and social context integration have been linked to student retention and success. Social integration involves interpersonal relationships, support, interactions with others, and a sense of belonging at a university, which stems from extracurricular activities, informal dealings with peer groups, and interactions with faculty and staff, whereas academic integration is described through grade performance and intellectual development that reflects an ability to meet the standards of the academic system; intellectual development involves a student valuing their education as a process of development in which they gain knowledge and ideas. Students’ background is also the contributing factor for students’ socialization in the University.","signatures":"Mulusew Birhanu Ayalew","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F81937","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F81937","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"421322","title":"Ph.D. Student","name":"Mulusew Birhanu","surname":"Ayalew","slug":"mulusew-birhanu-ayalew","fullName":"Mulusew Birhanu Ayalew"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"78083","title":"The Influence of Indian Ancient Educational Systems on India’s Educational Strategy","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.99455","slug":"the-influence-of-indian-ancient-educational-systems-on-india-s-educational-strategy","totalDownloads":249,"totalCrossrefCites":1,"totalDimensionsCites":3,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":14,"abstract":"The study of the nature of knowledge and philosophical traditions is the foundation of the ancient Indian education system, which aims to enable human life not only to improve personal economic conditions, but also to improve the social, moral, and spiritual aspects of life. People are not only concerned about improving human life, but also realizing the “higher truth” from darkness to light, that is, “Tamaso Ma Jyotirgamaya”. Therefore, education is not only a means of making money but also contributes to the development of mankind along with enriching society. Therefore, our Indian sages or masters are committed to understanding the super-smart world and the use of spiritual power and adjusting their lives accordingly. The ultimate goal of education appears in Chitti Vrittinirodha (controlling spiritual activities related to the so-called materialist world). Therefore, education is an important means to make people’s potential development in a positive direction so that people can live in a society full of dignity. In the latest “National Education Policy-2020 (NEP-2020)” issued by the Indian government, many suggestions are made to integrate the current education system into the ancient education system. The rich heritage of ancient and eternal Indian knowledge and thought has always been the guiding principle of this policy. In Indian thought and philosophy, the pursuit of knowledge (Jnan), wisdom (Pragyaa), and truth (Satya) have always been regarded as the highest of mankind.","signatures":"Sukanta Kumar Naskar and Sushovan Chatterjee","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F78083","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F78083","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"420418","title":"Associate Prof.","name":"Dr. Sukanta Kumar","surname":"Naskar","slug":"dr.-sukanta-kumar-naskar","fullName":"Dr. Sukanta Kumar Naskar"},{"id":"427676","title":"Dr.","name":"Sushovan","surname":"Chatterjee","slug":"sushovan-chatterjee","fullName":"Sushovan Chatterjee"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"78784","title":"Online Teaching and Learning Ecology in Thai Higher Education during the COVID-19 Pandemic","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.100222","slug":"online-teaching-and-learning-ecology-in-thai-higher-education-during-the-covid-19-pandemic","totalDownloads":433,"totalCrossrefCites":1,"totalDimensionsCites":7,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":15,"abstract":"The chapter presents the impact of COVID-19 on Thai higher education the national, and university reactions and policies to cope with the situation. Parallel with the technology disruption, most universities have been attempting to promote online teaching due to the new learning environments and learning style of students, while faculty members are still reluctant. However, the COVID-19 has inevitably changed the ways the faculty members handle their classes. In this chapter, the findings on the components of online teaching and learning ecology (OTLE) in Thai higher education during the COVID-19 is summarized and proposed, covering the following topics: learning and teaching method, technology and learning resources, teacher roles, and student roles and responsibilities. Finally, the key success factors for the development of learning ecology at the higher education level are also covered.","signatures":"Anucha Somabut and Kulthida Tuamsuk","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F78784","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F78784","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"420939","title":"Prof.","name":"Kulthida","surname":"Tuamsuk","slug":"kulthida-tuamsuk","fullName":"Kulthida Tuamsuk"},{"id":"424307","title":"Dr.","name":"Anucha","surname":"Somabut","slug":"anucha-somabut","fullName":"Anucha Somabut"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"78581","title":"The Imperative—and the Challenges—of Introducing a Citizen-Leader Development Program in an Undergraduate Liberal Arts Setting","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.100002","slug":"the-imperative-and-the-challenges-of-introducing-a-citizen-leader-development-program-in-an-undergra","totalDownloads":242,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":16,"abstract":"Leadership, especially that associated with collaborative endeavors, is important for addressing emerging, increasingly complex challenges. That development is relevant to liberal arts colleges that are dedicated to educating generalists rather than specialists. The author maintains that such an education helps young people cultivate three sets of individual characteristics: values, capabilities, and aspirations. As well, it provides young people opportunities to become involved in a six-part iterative process intended to promote positive change. In spring of 2019, the author’s home institution Dickinson College launched a call for proposals from faculty, staff, and alumni that were consistent with the College’s mission and strategic priorities; and would strengthen its competitive position and deepen its relationships with stakeholders. Over a two-year period, the author played a central role in (1) helping shape a proposal originated by two alumni and (2) with several Dickinson community members, translating the proposal to an implementation plan. The efforts fell short; but the author learned lessons about such an endeavor. A well-conceived plan must find the areas of intersection among the interests of key stakeholders. A plan must be of scale that enables organizational practicality and financial feasibility. Successful implementation hinges on the components of good collaborative leadership highlighted above. Explanation and launch of a plan must create excitement among sponsors and potential beneficiaries.","signatures":"Michael J. Fratantuono","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F78581","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F78581","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"240805","title":"Dr.","name":"Michael","surname":"Fratantuono","slug":"michael-fratantuono","fullName":"Michael Fratantuono"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"78465","title":"Influence of Initial Study Activities on Final Academic Performance – An Analysis of Higher Education Students","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.99804","slug":"influence-of-initial-study-activities-on-final-academic-performance-an-analysis-of-higher-education-","totalDownloads":334,"totalCrossrefCites":1,"totalDimensionsCites":1,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":17,"abstract":"The academic performance of the first weeks of the study period, determine or project the final academic performance; This phenomenon, mainly, is since the student seeks and finds stimulus in her results, even if they are very short-term. This article proposes a way of modeling the evolution of academic performance intraperiod, to guide the accompanying actions during the process and not after it. The degree cohort of the distance study system, April–August 2019 (6,675 students), from the Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja, was followed up, through probability models, on the four moments of performance measurement academic and it was found that, at the first moment of measurement, students who accumulated a result equal to or greater than 75% of the possible grade, had a high probability of passing the course.","signatures":"Luis Fabián Moncada Mora, Pablo Ramiro Armijos Valdivieso, José Fernando Negrete Zambrano and Max Alejandro Arias Monteros","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F78465","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F78465","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"421276","title":"Ph.D.","name":"Pablo Ramiro","surname":"Armijos Valdivieso","slug":"pablo-ramiro-armijos-valdivieso","fullName":"Pablo Ramiro Armijos Valdivieso"},{"id":"428527","title":"MSc.","name":"Luis","surname":"Fabián Moncada Mora","slug":"luis-fabian-moncada-mora","fullName":"Luis Fabián Moncada Mora"},{"id":"428528","title":"MSc.","name":"Max","surname":"Alejandro Arias Monteros","slug":"max-alejandro-arias-monteros","fullName":"Max Alejandro Arias Monteros"},{"id":"428529","title":"MSc.","name":"José Fernando","surname":"Negrete Zambrano","slug":"jose-fernando-negrete-zambrano","fullName":"José Fernando Negrete Zambrano"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"78765","title":"Approach to Writing from Readers’ Perspectives: Incorporating Self-Evaluation, Peer Feedback, and Self-Reflection into Academic Writing","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.100308","slug":"approach-to-writing-from-readers-perspectives-incorporating-self-evaluation-peer-feedback-and-self-r","totalDownloads":476,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":1,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":18,"abstract":"In teaching academic writing, it is important that teachers encourage students to consider the expectations of readers, which vary depending on the genre and context of writing. Peer feedback, a collaborative learning method, provides students with opportunities to read peers’ writing and give and receive feedback. This study investigated the perceptions of first-year university students’ writing and revising academic essays through self-evaluation, peer feedback, and self-reflection. A total of 122 students wrote and evaluated the first drafts of their essays, read their peers’ essays to evaluate good and problematic areas, revised the drafts, and reflected on the peer feedback. The results indicated that self-evaluation enhanced students’ attention to readers’ expectations and that peer feedback was considered useful by the majority of them. While their essay scores and views on peer feedback did not correlate, the high-graded essay group appreciated peers’ comments on the essay organization. In contrast, the medium-graded group valued comments on the content, whereas the low-graded group viewed citation-related comments as useful. The results suggest that clear, specific, and critical feedback comments were received positively. Self-evaluation and peer feedback enhance students’ collaborative learning, analytical skills, and awareness of readers and their own writing.","signatures":"Masumi Ono","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F78765","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F78765","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"423150","title":"Dr.","name":"Masumi","surname":"Ono","slug":"masumi-ono","fullName":"Masumi Ono"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"79197","title":"University Teachers’ Conceptions of What University Is: Implications for the Future of Higher Education","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.100813","slug":"university-teachers-conceptions-of-what-university-is-implications-for-the-future-of-higher-educatio","totalDownloads":329,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":19,"abstract":"This chapter presents the perception of university teachers about the university, the most recent changes and how they have influenced their activity. The phenomenographic study was conducted with 10 university teachers, nine females and one male with more than 15 years of professional activity. The perception of the university emerges, in the teachers’ voice, focused on the description of its mission, namely as a context for the production and diffusion of knowledge to society, as a space for creative and critical thinking about the world, as an interdisciplinary space and as a system focused on teaching and research. It also includes characteristics related to its structure and functioning, such as the level of hierarchization, bureaucratization, competitiveness, dehumanization and bibliometrics overvaluation. Regarding the perceived changes, they are related to the structural reforms resulting from the Bologna Process, diverse student populations, research and internationalization, new technologies, institutional cooperation, bureaucratization and relationship with the community. 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Anwarul Haque"},{"id":"487537","title":"Dr.","name":"Mohammad","surname":"Nurul Islam","slug":"mohammad-nurul-islam","fullName":"Mohammad Nurul Islam"}]},{"id":"83686","title":"Phosphate Solubilization Improvement for Plant Uptake from Phosphate Rock and Phosphate Solubilizing Microbes Consortium: Impact on Food Security","slug":"phosphate-solubilization-improvement-for-plant-uptake-from-phosphate-rock-and-phosphate-solubilizing","totalDownloads":127,"totalCrossrefCites":1,"authors":[{"id":"415047","title":"Dr.","name":"Zainab","surname":"Muhammad Bello","slug":"zainab-muhammad-bello","fullName":"Zainab Muhammad Bello"},{"id":"415742","title":"Prof.","name":"Sanusi","surname":"Muhammad","slug":"sanusi-muhammad","fullName":"Sanusi Muhammad"},{"id":"415747","title":"Dr.","name":"Ibrahim","surname":"Aliyu Dabai","slug":"ibrahim-aliyu-dabai","fullName":"Ibrahim Aliyu Dabai"},{"id":"486333","title":"Prof.","name":"Adamu","surname":"Aliyu Aliero","slug":"adamu-aliyu-aliero","fullName":"Adamu Aliyu Aliero"},{"id":"486335","title":"Prof.","name":"Adamou","surname":"Rabani","slug":"adamou-rabani","fullName":"Adamou Rabani"}]},{"id":"85060","title":"Taking Stock of Local Land Rush and Their Development Benefits for Women Farmers and Rural Livelihoods in Cameroon","slug":"taking-stock-of-local-land-rush-and-their-development-benefits-for-women-farmers-and-rural-livelihoo","totalDownloads":124,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"authors":[{"id":"161683","title":"Dr.","name":"Christiana V.","surname":"Abonge","slug":"christiana-v.-abonge","fullName":"Christiana V. Abonge"}]},{"id":"83835","title":"Review of Food Access in the Shade of Critical Times","slug":"review-of-food-access-in-the-shade-of-critical-times","totalDownloads":169,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"authors":[{"id":"470427","title":"Ph.D. Student","name":"Abrar","surname":"Almalki","slug":"abrar-almalki","fullName":"Abrar Almalki"},{"id":"471539","title":"Dr.","name":"Balakrishna","surname":"Gokaraju","slug":"balakrishna-gokaraju","fullName":"Balakrishna Gokaraju"},{"id":"487652","title":"Dr.","name":"Raymond C.","surname":"Tesiero","slug":"raymond-c.-tesiero","fullName":"Raymond C. Tesiero"}]}],"productType":{"id":"1","title":"Edited Volume","chapterContentType":"chapter","authoredCaption":"Edited by"},"series":null,"subseries":{"id":"91","series":{"id":"24","title":"Sustainable Development","issn":"2753-6580","editor":{"id":"262440","name":"Usha","middleName":null,"surname":"Iyer-Raniga","fullName":"Usha Iyer-Raniga","cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F262440\u002F1734011562\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"RMIT University","country":{"name":"Australia"}}}}},"personalPublishingAssistant":{"id":"466997","firstName":"Patricia","lastName":"Kerep","middleName":null,"title":"Ms.","imageUrl":"https:\u002F\u002Fmts.intechopen.com\u002Fstorage\u002Fusers\u002F466997\u002Fimages\u002F21565_n.jpg","email":"patricia@intechopen.com","biography":"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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Introduction \u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp\u003EGas sensors are generally defined as devices to detect or measure concentration of (bio-) chemicals in gaseous state. The demands of highly sensitive gas sensors for industry, environmental monitoring, safety, biomedicine, and pharmaceutics have provoked the intensive research interests in micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) and nanotechnology. The nanotechnology in conjunction with MEMS has created huge potential to build highly sensitive, low cost, compact gas sensors with low power consumption. (\u003Ca href=\"#B3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003EGraf et al.,2006\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B17\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003EPanchanpakesan et al.,2006\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B26\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003EUdrea et al.,2007\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B14\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003EMaeng et al., 2008-b\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F1\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F17079\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage2.jpeg\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 1.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003EAn example of MEMS sensor system integrated with nanostructured sensing materials. The darkish areas are covered with multi-walled CNTs.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp\u003EThere exist various types of MEMS gas sensors: two terminal resistance type, field-effect transistor (FET) type, capacitance type, and surface acoustic wave (SAW) type, etc. Among them, the two terminal resistance type gas sensors are most widely used and investigated as the manufacturing process is very cost effective. In the manufacturing of two terminal resistance type gas sensors, semiconducting materials such as SnO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E, ZnO and WO\u003Csub\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E are used as sensing elements. Among them, nanocryatalline SnO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E has been focused in gas sensor applications as this material was first commercialized for industrial resistance type gas sensors. (Göpel & Schierbaum,1995; \u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003ECheng et al.,2004\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) As the demand for sensors both highly sensitive and very compact increases, however, the problems of this material have been revealed. The conventional semiconducting materials need high temperature operation for enhancement of the sensitivity. If the grain size of the sensing elements becomes very small, the coalescence of the grains is inevitable and this leads to the change of the base-line resistance of the sensors. (\u003Ca href=\"#B21\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003EShukla et al.,2003\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) Another problem is the thickness and uniformity control of the semiconducting sensing materials. The conventional sensors adopt thick layer of sensing materials and the control of the thickness uniformity is not difficult. In the MEMS gas sensors, ultrathin layer of nanostructured sensing materials is needed as this facilitates both the high sensitive detection of gases and the low power operation of the sensors. (\u003Ca href=\"#B27\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003EUdrea et al., 2009\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) The thickness uniformity control of extremely thin films is not as easy as the thick film cases. Recent development of metal oxide semiconducting nanowires, nanobelts, and nanosheets overcomes the problem of coalescence of materials by thermal heating and accelerates the progress of MEMS gas sensors. (\u003Ca href=\"#B18\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003EPark et al., 2010\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B16\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003EMoon et al., 2010\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B15\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003EMaeng et al., 2011\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) However, the thickness uniformity control problem still remains. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp\u003EThe use of semiconducting CNTs as gas sensing elements instead of metal oxide nano-materals proposed couple of decades before and have been studied intensively due to their inherent properties such as high strength, high electrical and thermal conductivity and high surface-to-volume ratio. In this chapter, the recent development of two terminal resistance type single-walled carbon nanotube (SWCNT) network gas sensors will be reviewed.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_2\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E2. Individual SWCNT gas sensor \u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp\u003EThe early work by Kong et al. showed that the electrical resistance of individual semiconducting SWCNTs dramatically changes when exposed to gaseous molecules such as nitrogen dioxide, ammonia, and oxygen under applied gate voltages. These FET type SWCNT gas sensors exhibited very good sensitivity and fast response time at room temperature. The electrical properties of individual metallic SWCNTs in various chemical environments were also investigated under gate modulation. The resulting electrical conductance changes turned out to be negligible compared to the semiconducting counterparts. (\u003Ca href=\"#B8\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003EKong, J. Et al.(2000\u003C\u002Fa\u003E))\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp\u003EIt is difficult to pick up an individual semiconducting SWCNT from as-grown samples, which are mixtures of both metallic and semiconducting SWCNTs. Furthermore, the alignment of an individual semiconducting SWCNT between pre-patterned electrodes is very complicated process. Therefore, the individual semiconducting FET type SWCNT gas sensor is impractical. More practical way of making semiconducting SWCNT sensors is to use mat or network of SWCNTs, which consist of both metallic and semiconducting SWCNTs, as sensing elements. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_3\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E3. SWCNT network gas sensor fabricated by direct CVD\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp\u003EDirect growth of SWCNTs network from selectively arranged catalyst by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) has been atempted by various authors.(\u003Ca href=\"#B19\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003EQi et al., 2003\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B22\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003EStardermann, et al.,2004\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B30\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003EWongwiriyapan et al., 2006\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp\u003EQi et al. fabricated SWCNT FET sensors by using direct CVD growth technique at 900º C and reported that all the devices showed highly sensitive chemical gatings, which indicates that the charge transfer is predominantly through semiconducting SWCNTs. This cannot be easily understood. The nanotubes formed at the devices are mixture of both semiconducting and metallic SWCNTs as the chirality control of SWCNTs is impossible for present day CVD technology. Since the average conductance of a metallic SWCNT is about two orders of magnitude higher than that of semiconducting counterpart( \u003Ca href=\"#B11\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003ELiang et al.,2007\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), the main charge transfer would be through metallic SWCNTs for many of the devices.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F2\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F17079\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage3.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 2.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Ea) Optical image of an array of SWCNT network devices. (b) Optical image of one device. The black regions contain catalyst patterned on top of opposing Mo source and drain electrodes. (c) Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image of a SWCNT network bridging two opposing Mo electrodes in a device. Excepted from \u003Cxref rid=\"B19\" ref-type=\"bibr\"\u003EQi et al.,2003\u003C\u002Fxref\u003E. © American Chemical Society\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp\u003EStadermann et al. grew SWCNT networks directly onto silicon dioxide substrates using CVD. Gold was deposited onto the surface and patterned to form the electrodes. The devices were tested as FETs by applying sufficient back gate voltage (10V) to show conductance changes between 1% and 50%. These data demonstrate that, in a network of SWCNT between two electrodes, a large part of the current is carried by a small number of highly conductive metallic connections, and the connections involving semiconducting tubes, even though much more numerous, carry a comparable or smaller portion of the current. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp\u003EWongwiriyapan et al. synthesized SWCNT film directly on a substrate by thermal CVD. Vertically aligned SWCNTs with a high density were grown at 750º C, while horizontally lying SWCNT networks with a low density were grown in the temperature range 800–950º C. \u003Ca href=\"#F3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E shows the varieties of SWCNT networks depending on the growth temperatures. \u003Ca href=\"#F5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. in conjunction with \u003Ca href=\"#F4\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 4\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. shows the relationship between the surface coverage of SWCNTs and the normalized sensor response: the SWCNT networks with the lowest density exhibited the highest normalized sensor response. Here the normalized sensor response is defined as \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003E∆G\u002FG\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003Csub\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003E0\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E, where \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003EG\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003Csub\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003E0\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E and \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003EG\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E represent the conductance values of the junction \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Ebefore\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E and \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Eafter\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E the exposure to target gas respectively and \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003E∆G\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E &equiv; \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003EG - G\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003Csub\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003E0\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E. The \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Esensitivty\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E of a sensor at certain concentration values of target gas is defined as the maximum achievable normalized sensor response. The poor sensitivities for high density SWCNT network sensor can be attribute to the conduction of carriers through predorminantly metallic pathways in the network. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F3\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F17079\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage4.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 3.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003ESEM image of SWCNT network synthesized at different teperatures: (a)750º C, (b)850º C, (c)900º C and (d)950º C. Excepted from \u003Cxref rid=\"B30\" ref-type=\"bibr\"\u003EWongwiriyapan et al., 2006\u003C\u002Fxref\u003E. © IOP Publishing Ltd\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F4\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F17079\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage5.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 4.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003ESurface coverage of SWCNTs synthesized at different growth temperatures. Excepted from \u003Cxref rid=\"B30\" ref-type=\"bibr\"\u003EWongwiriyapan et al., 2006\u003C\u002Fxref\u003E. © IOP Publishing Ltd\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F5\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F17079\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage6.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 5.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003ENormalized sensor response to NO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E of SWCNTs systhesized at A: 750º C, B:850º C, C:900º C, D:950º C. Excepted from \u003Cxref rid=\"B30\" ref-type=\"bibr\"\u003EWongwiriyapan et al., 2006\u003C\u002Fxref\u003E. © IOP Publishing Ltd\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp\u003EThis direct growth of SWCNT networks by CVD exhibits complexity with low yield in manufacturing point of view. Furthermore, the SWCNT network sensors can be fabricated on conventional bulky sensor platforms only. The maximum temperature achieved by MEMS gas sensor platform is limited below 700º C at present. (\u003Ca href=\"#B4\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003EHaque et al., 2008-a\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E2008-b\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_4\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E4. Drop-deposited SWCNT network gas sensor \u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp\u003EThe most widely reported SWCNT gas sensor is drop-deposited SWCNT network sensor. (\u003Ca href=\"#B10\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003ELi, et al.,2003\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B12\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003ELu et al.,2006\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) In this case, the purified SWCNTs are generally dispersed in solutions (surfactants) and then drop-deposited onto interdigitated area of electrodes pre-patterned on the insulating substrate. \u003Ca href=\"#F6\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 6\u003C\u002Fa\u003E shows the SEM image of a SWCNT network device fabricated by the drop-deposition method. \u003Ca href=\"#F7\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E shows the normalized sensing response of a SWCNT network sensor for various concentrations of NO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E gas at room temperature. Here 10 minute UV light illumination was introduced to accelerate NO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E desorption. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F6\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F17079\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage7.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 6.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003ESEM image of SWCNT network bridging two gold electrodes. Excepted from \u003Cxref rid=\"B10\" ref-type=\"bibr\"\u003ELi et al., 2003\u003C\u002Fxref\u003E. © American Chemical Society\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F7\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F17079\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage8.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 7.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003ENormalized sensor response of a drop-deposited SWCNT network sensor upon exposure to various concentration of NO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E gas. Excepted from \u003Cxref rid=\"B10\" ref-type=\"bibr\"\u003ELi et al., 2003\u003C\u002Fxref\u003E. © American Chemical Society\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp\u003EThis type of fabrication of network sensor is preferred at the research level as it is very simple. But, as shown in \u003Ca href=\"#F6\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 6\u003C\u002Fa\u003E the deposited SWCNT network exhibits non-uniformity, which leads to poor reproducibility of the sensor. Thus, this method is not adequate for mass-production.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_5\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E5. Vacuum filtered SWCNT network gas sensor \u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp\u003EIn order to enhance non-local uniformity of the SWCNT network sensors, Cho et al. used vacuum filtration method. In this process, 30 nm average pore size AAO filter membrane was installed inside the vacuum filteration system. Then, vacuum filtration of SWCNT solution containing 1% surfactant (SDS) was achieved as shown in \u003Ca href=\"#F8\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 8(a)\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. The SWCNT network deposited on the AAO, then were transferred onto sensor platform as shown in \u003Ca href=\"#F8\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 8(b)\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. By changing the weight of SWCNTs added to the solution, the thickness of the SWCNT network was controlled. As shown in \u003Ca href=\"#F9\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 9\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, it was revealed that the lower the SWCNT density, the higher the sensitivity of the SWCNT network sensor. The study by Cho et al. gives important information: The SWCNT network sensors must be very thin in order to get high sensitivity. (\u003Ca href=\"#B2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003ECho et al., 2006\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) Hu et al. reported ultrathin uniform SWCNT network deposition by vacuum filtration method. However, no gas sensors have ever reported by them. (\u003Ca href=\"#B6\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003EHu et al., 2004\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F8\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F17079\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage9.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 8.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003ESchematic illustration of (a) the vacuum filtration method using AAO filter membrane and (b) PDMS mold transfer of SWCNT network. Excepted from \u003Cxref rid=\"B2\" ref-type=\"bibr\"\u003ECho et al.,2006\u003C\u002Fxref\u003E. © Materials Research Society\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F9\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F17079\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage10.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 9.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003ESEM images of the SWCNT network formed on the filter membrane. The initial SWCNT densities used to form each of the thin film were (a) 0.04mg\u002Fml, (b)0.08mg\u002Fml, (c)0.12mg\u002Fml, and (d)0.16mg\u002Fml. The tool bar all indicate 2μm. Excepted from \u003Cxref rid=\"B2\" ref-type=\"bibr\"\u003ECho et al.,2006\u003C\u002Fxref\u003E. © Materials Research Society\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F10\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F17079\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage11.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 10.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003ENormalized sensor responses to the 50% NH\u003Csub\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E gas diluted in N\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E for various sensors with different nanotube densities. Excepted from \u003Cxref rid=\"B2\" ref-type=\"bibr\"\u003ECho et al.,2006\u003C\u002Fxref\u003E. © Materials Research Society\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_6\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E6. AC dielectrophoretically assembled SWCNT network gas sensor \u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp\u003ETo form very uniform and thin SWCNT network, AC dielectrophoresis technique was introduced.(\u003Ca href=\"#B23\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003ESuehiro et al., 2005\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B9\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003ELee et al., 2006\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) By using the technique,FET and resistance type sensors were fabricated and tested for various gases. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F11\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F17079\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage12.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 11.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Ea) Optical image of a SWCNT network sensor. (b) AFM image of SWCNT network deposited between the Au gap by ac dielectrophoresis. Excepted from \u003Cxref rid=\"B9\" ref-type=\"bibr\"\u003ELee et al.,2006\u003C\u002Fxref\u003E. © American Chemical Society\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F12\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F17079\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage13.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 12.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003EDependence of channel current upon gate bias of a SWCNT network FET fabricated by ac dielectrophoresis. The FET characteristics were measured at different SOCl\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E concentrations. Small on\u002Fof ratio (~1) and vertical shift confirms that the charge transfer between SWCNT network and SOCl\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E occurs mainly through metallic pathways. Excepted from \u003Cxref rid=\"B9\" ref-type=\"bibr\"\u003ELee et al.,2006\u003C\u002Fxref\u003E. © American Chemical Society\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#F11\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 11\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. exhibits a SWCNT network FET device fabricated by Lee et al. and \u003Ca href=\"#F12\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 12\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. shows its perforamance under both gate modulation and gas adsorption. From the observation that gate voltage does not modulate the drain current Lee et al. reached a conclusion that the semiconducting nanotubes do not mainly contribute to the signal. They attributed this to the high density of the nanotube network. If the nanotube density is too high, the signal transduction occurs through metallic pathways, which leads to poor sensitivity.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F13\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F17079\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage14.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 13.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003ESEM image of SWCNT network device fabricated by ac dielectrophresis for 3 hours. The inset is magnified image near an electrode corner. Excepted from \u003Cxref rid=\"B23\" ref-type=\"bibr\"\u003ESuehiro et al.,2005\u003C\u002Fxref\u003E. © Elsevier B.V.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#F13\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 13\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. exhibits a SWCNT network device fabricated by Suehiro et al.. By monitoring impedence of the devices during the ac dielectrophresis Suehiro et al. controlled the assembly of SWCNT and reached a conclusion that the semiconducting SWCNT \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Edo\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E contribute to the sensing. \u003Ca href=\"#F14\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 14\u003C\u002Fa\u003E exhibits normalized sensor response of a SWCNT network sensor fabricated by Suehiro et al..\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F14\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F17079\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage15.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 14.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003EThe dependence of NO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E gas concentration upon the normalized sensor response of a SWCNT network gas sensor fabricated by ac dielectrophresis. Excepted from \u003Cxref rid=\"B23\" ref-type=\"bibr\"\u003ESuehiro et al.,2005\u003C\u002Fxref\u003E. © Elsevier B.V.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_7\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E7. SWCNT network gas sensor fabricated by surface-programmed assembly technique\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp\u003ERecently, ultra uniform and thin SWCNT network sensors fabricated by ‘surface-programmed assembly’ technique were reported by several authors.(\u003Ca href=\"#B29\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003EWang et al.,2009\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B25\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003ETran et al.,2008\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B13\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003EMaeng et al.,2008-a\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) As this technique enables very precise control of nanotube density, it is expected that semiconducting nanotubes contribute to the sensing mechanism as is predicted by percolation theory which leads to high sensitivity. In addition, this technique is expected to facilitate wafer scale production of SWCNT sensor. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp\u003EWang et al. reported SWCNT sensors fabricated by using self-assembled monolayer (SAM) of hydrophilic 3- aminoprophiltrimethysilane(APS) as shown in \u003Ca href=\"#F15\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 15\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. In this process very thin SWCNT network patterns were selectively formed on the functionalized region. From the DMMP detection experiments, they revealed that the sensitivity reaches a maximum when networks of overlapped nanotubes disappear, i.e. the nanotubes are assembled to form a monolayer network. This conclusion supports the observations by Cho et al. that the thinner the SWCNT network the higher the sensitivity of the sensor.(\u003Ca href=\"#B2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003ECho et al., 2006\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) It is further revealed that SWCNT monolayer with maximum connectivity is ideal for making highest sensitivity gas sensors.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F15\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F17079\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage16.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 15.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Ea) Optical image of the electrode arrays, where deposited SWCNT networks are separated by Au electrodes. (b) SEM image of SWCNT networks bridging Au electrodes deposited on Si\u002FSiO2 substrate. (c) An enlarged SEM image of (b). Excepted from Wang et al.,2006. © IOP Publishing Ltd\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp\u003ETran et al. fabricated SWCNT sensors on both functionalized substrate with hydrophilic monolayer of 3-aminoprophilethoxysilane(APTES) and bare substrate as shown in \u003Ca href=\"#F16\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 16\u003C\u002Fa\u003E.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F16\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F17079\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage17.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 16.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003ESEM image of (a) the sensor device which consist of interdigitate electrodes and SWCNTs (b) the SWCNT networks formed on bare surface (c) the SWCNt networks formed on the APTES-treated surface. Excepted from \u003Cxref rid=\"B25\" ref-type=\"bibr\"\u003ETran et al.,2008\u003C\u002Fxref\u003E. © Elsevier B.V.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp\u003EThen, they tried to compare NO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E detection response of the two sensors as shown in \u003Ca href=\"#F17\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 17\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. The response time of the functionalized substrate-based gas sensor is very fast (a few seconds), while that of the bare substrate-based one is very slow(hundreds of seconds). It is conjectured that the interaction between APTES and sidewall of SWCNTs gives easier accessibility to the gas molecules. The sensitivity of the sensor on APTES- treated substrate is also shown to be higher than that on bare substrate.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F17\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F17079\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage18.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 17.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003EComparision of the normalized sensor reponses to 10 ppm NO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E gas between the SWCNT sensor on a bare and APTES-treated surface. Excepted from \u003Cxref rid=\"B25\" ref-type=\"bibr\"\u003ETran et al.,2008\u003C\u002Fxref\u003E. © Elsevier B.V.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp\u003EMaeng et al. reported highly uniform SWCNT monolayer sensors fabricated by using hydrophobic octadecyltrichlorosiline (OST) surface functionalization. This time, SWCNTs are selectively assembled on non-functionalized or bare surface regions of the substrates. The atomic force microscopy (AFM) image of a SWCNT junction shows a low-density monolayer of SWCNT network between the Au\u002FTi electrodes. (\u003Ca href=\"#F18\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 18)\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F18\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F17079\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage19.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 18.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003ESchematic illustrations of (a) top view and (b) side-view depicting the structure of the SWCNT network sensor. (c) Optical image of the 10 x 10 array of SWCNT network sensors. (d) AFM topography image of a SWCNT sensor. Excepted from Maeng et al.,2008-a. © American Institute of Physics\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#F19\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 19\u003C\u002Fa\u003E shows the normalized responses of typical SWCNT monolayer network sensor fabricated on bare surface to various NO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E gas concentrations at room temperature. If we compare \u003Ca href=\"#F19\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 19\u003C\u002Fa\u003E with \u003Ca href=\"#F17\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 17\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, it seems that SWCNT monolayer sensor formed on bare substrate exhibits higher sensitivity than that formed on APTES-functionalized substrate for the same concentration of NO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E. This is contradictory to the observation by Tran et al.. It is likely that Tran et al. could not optimize the sensor fabrication conditions and further researches are necessary to determine whether or not SWCNT monolayer sensor formed on bare substrate assumes higher sensitivity than that formed on APTES-functionalized substrate. Considerably high sensitivity of the sensor indicates that semiconducting SWCNTs are involved in the sensing as percolation theory describes. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#F20\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 20(a)\u003C\u002Fa\u003E shows the responses of various SWCNT monolayer network sensors to 500 ppb NO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E gas at room temperature. \u003Ca href=\"#F20\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 20(b)\u003C\u002Fa\u003E shows the dependence of sensitivity upon base-line conductance. Unexpectedly, the sensitivity of SWCNT network sensors linearly proportional to the inverse of based-line conductance as shown in \u003Ca href=\"#F20\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 20(b)\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F19\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F17079\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage20.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 19.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003EThe dependence of normalized sensing response of a SWCNT network sensor to the concentration of exposed NO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E gas at room temperature. Excepted from \u003Cxref rid=\"B13\" ref-type=\"bibr\"\u003EMaeng et al.,2008-a\u003C\u002Fxref\u003E. © American Institute of Physics\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp\u003EIn order to construct a conduction model of the SWCNT network sensor, Suehiro et al. assumed that the base-line conductance G\u003Csub\u003E0\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E = N\u003Csub\u003Et\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E g\u003Csub\u003E0,\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E where N\u003Csub\u003Et\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E is the total number of SWCNTs and g\u003Csub\u003E0\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E is the average conductance of one SWCNT. It was implicitly assumed that all SWCNT had the same electrical property. After NO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E adsorption, the conductance of individual SWCNT is further assumed to be increases by ∆g on average, which leads to the total increase of sensor conductance ∆G = N\u003Csub\u003Et\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E ∆g. From this relations, they further derived the relation that normalized sensor response ∆G\u002FG\u003Csub\u003E0\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E = ∆g\u002F g\u003Csub\u003E0\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E. However, they gave no thought to the fact that the random network both follows percolation theory and consists of very different types of SWCNTs. According to the percolation theory, G\u003Csub\u003E0\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E&prop;(N\u003Csub\u003Et\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E -N\u003Csub\u003Ec\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E)\u003Csup\u003Eν\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E when all the nanotubes have the similar electrical conductance. Here N\u003Csub\u003Ec\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E =1\u002Fπ(4.236\u002FL\u003Csub\u003Etube\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E)\u003Csup\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E is the critical number corresponding to percolation threshold, and ν ~1.94 is the critical exponent. (\u003Ca href=\"#B20\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003EStauffer, 1985\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) If some of the constituents have totally different electrical conductances as was the case of SWCNT network, the calculation becomes a bit complicated.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F20\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F17079\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage21.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 20.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Ea) Normalized sensor response ∆G\u002FG\u003Csub\u003E0\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E of SWCNT network sensor to 500 ppb NO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E gas. (b) Sensitivity R\u003Csub\u003Es\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E vs base-line conductance G\u003Csub\u003E0\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E graph. (Inset) Sensitivity R\u003Csub\u003Es\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E lineraly proportional to the inverse of the base-line conductance. Excepted from \u003Cxref rid=\"B13\" ref-type=\"bibr\"\u003EMaeng et al.,2008-a\u003C\u002Fxref\u003E. © American Institute of Physics\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_8\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E8. Theoretical explanation of the inverse proportionality of sensitivity to the base-line conductance of SWCNT network sensor based on the percolation theory \u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp\u003EThe sensing characteristics shown in \u003Ca href=\"#F20\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 20\u003C\u002Fa\u003E can be attributed to both the mixing nature of metallic and semiconducting SWCNTs and the randomly assembled network. Even though the SWCNT monolayer network is so uniformly deposited that each devices have equal number of SWCNTs and fixed ratio of metallic SWCNT\u002Fsemiconducting SWCNT, the fluctuations of the base-line conductance can occur depending on the numbers of metallic SWCNTs which contact with electrodes. If the width of the electrode is comparable to the size of nanotubes as was in the case of the work by Maeng et al. the numbers may differ from device to device. Now, it should be explained how the difference of base-line conductance of devices influence the sensitivity of the devices. \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003EG\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E(\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Ec\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E), the sheet conductance of a device at a gas concentration \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Ec\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, can be described as:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\"df_E1\" class=\"formula panel\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" display=\"block\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mtable columnalign=\"left\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mtr\u003E\u003Cmml:mtd\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EG\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mo stretchy=\"false\"\u003E(\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ec\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mo stretchy=\"false\"\u003E)\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E=\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eg\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Es\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mo stretchy=\"false\"\u003E(\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ec\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mo stretchy=\"false\"\u003E)\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EP\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Es\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E+\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eg\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Em\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mo stretchy=\"false\"\u003E(\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ec\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mo stretchy=\"false\"\u003E)\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EP\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Em\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mtd\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mtr\u003E\u003Cmml:mtr\u003E\u003Cmml:mtd\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mtd\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mtr\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mtable\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"equ\"\u003EE1\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cp\u003Ewhere \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Eg\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003Csub\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Em\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E(\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Ec\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E) and \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Eg\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003Csub\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Es\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E(\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Ec\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E) are average conductance per a metallic-only pathway and that including semiconducting nanotubes at a gas concentration 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xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Eν\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E, the relation ∆\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Eg\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003Csub\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Em\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E \u002F∆\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Eg\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003Csub\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Es\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E ≪ 1, and the relation \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Eg\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003Csub\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Es\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E(0) \u002F \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Eg\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003Csub\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Em\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E(0) ≪ 1, where \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003EP\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003Csub\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Et\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E is the total conduction paths, \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003EP\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003Csub\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Em\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E is the number of metallic-only paths, \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003EP\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003Csub\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Eo\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E is a constant, \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003EN\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003Csub\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Em\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E is the number of metallic SWCNTs in the network, ∆\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Eg\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003Csub\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Em\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E = \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Eg\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003Csub\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Em\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E(c) - \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Eg\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003Csub\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Em\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E(0), and ∆\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Eg\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003Csub\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Es\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E = \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Eg\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003Csub\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Es\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E(c) - \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Eg\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003Csub\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Es\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E(0), it is obtained \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\"df_E2\" class=\"formula panel\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" display=\"block\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mtable columnalign=\"left\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mtr\u003E\u003Cmml:mtd\u003E\u003Cmml:mfrac\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EΔ\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EG\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EG\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eo\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mfrac\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E≈\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mfrac\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EΔ\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eg\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Es\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EP\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Et\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EG\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eo\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mfrac\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E−\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mfrac\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EΔ\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eg\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Es\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eg\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Em\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mo stretchy=\"false\"\u003E(\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mn\u003E0\u003C\u002Fmml:mn\u003E\u003Cmml:mo stretchy=\"false\"\u003E)\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mfrac\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E×\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mo stretchy=\"false\"\u003E[\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mn\u003E1\u003C\u002Fmml:mn\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E−\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mfrac\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eg\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Es\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mo stretchy=\"false\"\u003E(\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mn\u003E0\u003C\u002Fmml:mn\u003E\u003Cmml:mo stretchy=\"false\"\u003E)\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eg\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Em\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mo stretchy=\"false\"\u003E(\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mn\u003E0\u003C\u002Fmml:mn\u003E\u003Cmml:mo stretchy=\"false\"\u003E)\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mfrac\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E{\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:msup\u003E\u003Cmml:mo stretchy=\"false\"\u003E(\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mfrac\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eε\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E−\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eδ\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mn\u003E1\u003C\u002Fmml:mn\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E−\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eδ\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mfrac\u003E\u003Cmml:mo stretchy=\"false\"\u003E)\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eν\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msup\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E−\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mn\u003E1\u003C\u002Fmml:mn\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E}\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mo stretchy=\"false\"\u003E]\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mtd\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mtr\u003E\u003Cmml:mtr\u003E\u003Cmml:mtd\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E≈\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mfrac\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EΔ\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eg\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Es\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EP\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Et\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EG\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eo\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mfrac\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E−\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mfrac\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EΔ\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eg\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Es\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eg\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Em\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E(\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mn\u003E0\u003C\u002Fmml:mn\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E)\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mfrac\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mtd\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mtr\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mtable\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"equ\"\u003EE2\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cp\u003Ewhere \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Eε\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E &equiv; \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003EN\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003Csub\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Et\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003E\u002F\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003EN\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003Csub\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Em\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E = 1.5 ~ 3 and \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Eδ\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E &equiv; \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003EN\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003Csub\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Ec\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003E\u002F\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003EN\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003Csub\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Em\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp\u003EFor a specific gas concentration, the achievable maximum value of ∆\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Eg\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003Csub\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Es\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E &equiv; ∆\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Eg\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003Csub\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Es,max\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E is a constant. Furthermore, if it is assumed that the SWCNTs are dispersed so uniformly that the total number \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003EP\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003Csub\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Et\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E of all conduction paths is a constant, the sensitivity for the specific gas concentration can have the form \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\"df_E3\" class=\"formula panel\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" display=\"block\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext\u003ESensitivity   g\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Es\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E≈\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext\u003E a\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E\u002F\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EG\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mn\u003E0\u003C\u002Fmml:mn\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E–\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext\u003E \u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eβ\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"equ\"\u003EE3\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cp\u003Ewhere \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Eα\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E &equiv; ∆\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Eg\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003Csub\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Es,max\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003EP\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003Csub\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Et\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E = constant and \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Eβ\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E &equiv; ∆\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Eg\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003Csub\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Es,max\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E \u002F\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Eg\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003Csub\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Em\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E(0) = constant. (\u003Ca href=\"#B13\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003EMaeng et al., 2008-a\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) This result explains the linear proportionality of sensitivity to the inverse of the initial conductance \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003EG\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003Csub\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003E0\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_9\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E9. Future prospects of SWCNT network gas sensor\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp\u003ETo secure the reproducibility of the SWCNT monolayer network sensor, the size of the electrodes must be large enough so that the numbers of metallic SWCNTs contacting with electrodes are averaged out. The SWCNT monolayer sensor is very promising not only in the perspective of sensitivity but also in the perspective of sensor operation. Even though the response time of semiconducting SWCNT sensor is about one order of magnitude faster than conventional metal oxide sensors, the recovery time of the sensor is about one order of magnitude slower than the metal oxide counterparts. This slow recovery time of the SWCNT sensors are due to irreversible binding of gas molecules on the SWCNT surface and is a primary hurdle for most SWCNT sensors that have appeared in the literature to date. MEMS-based metal oxide sensors usually adopt microheaters to enhance gas adsorption rate at moderate temperature range (200 ~ 400º C) and the desorption rate at higher temperature range. The integration of microheater with SWCNT network sensor will be also very useful for acceleration of desorption rate of adsorbed species even though some authors suggest to use UV source for the same purpose. (\u003Ca href=\"#B10\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003ELi et al., 2003\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B7\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003EKarthigeyan, et al., 2008\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B13\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003EMaeng, et al., 2008-a\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) The use of microheaters is highly recommendable as the characteristics of SWCNT devices are affected by humidity. (\u003Ca href=\"#B24\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003ESung et al, 2006\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) Carbon nanotubes are also known to exhibit higher sensitivity at moderately elevated temperature range.(\u003Ca href=\"#B28\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003EValentini, et al.,2003\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) It is, thus, desirable for SWCNTs network to become monolayer so that the temperature of microheater and the nanotubes coincides during the operation. In this regards, the attempt to fabricate mass-production scale SWCNT sensors by depositing SWCNT monolayer onto mocroheaters of the MEMS sensor platforms is much needed and to be explored in the future. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_10\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E10. Conclusion\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp\u003EIn this chapter, an attempt has been made to provide overview of resistance and FET type SWCNT network gas sensors. In the thick SWCNT network sensor, the conduction of charge carriers occurs primarily through metallic-only pathways and the sensor sensitivity is poor. As the thickness of the sensor is reduced, the sensitivity tends to be enhanced. There exist a critical point where main conduction begin to occur through semiconducting-metallic mixed pathways. The critical point is determined by the density of SWCNT network. When the network becomes non-overlapping monolayer, the semiconducting nanotubes contribute to the electrical conduction so significantly that sensitivity reaches a maximum value. The behavior of the sensor sensitivity can be explained satisfactorily by the percolation theory at this condition. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_11\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003EAcknowledgments\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp\u003EThis work was supported by the RIC program of MKE in Woosuk university.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n","keywords":null,"chapterPDFUrl":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fpdfs\u002F17079.pdf","chapterXML":"https:\u002F\u002Fmts.intechopen.com\u002Fsource\u002Fxml\u002F17079.xml","webChapterXML":"s3:\u002F\u002Fintech-chapter-xmls\u002Fxmls-chapter\u002F17079\u002F1671867280\u002F","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F17079","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F17079","cdnMediaBaseUrl":"s3:\u002F\u002Fintech-cdn\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F17079\u002F1512345123\u002F","totalDownloads":4248,"totalViews":495,"totalCrossrefCites":2,"totalDimensionsCites":5,"totalAltmetricsMentions":0,"introChapter":null,"impactScore":1,"impactScorePercentile":54,"impactScoreQuartile":3,"hasAltmetrics":0,"dateSubmitted":"October 23rd 2010","dateReviewed":"April 15th 2011","datePrePublished":null,"datePublished":"August 9th 2011","dateFinished":null,"readingETA":"0","abstract":null,"reviewType":"peer-reviewed","bibtexUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fbibtex\u002F17079","risUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fris\u002F17079","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"isDeactivated2":0,"noAds":0,"deactCorrection":null,"subseries":null,"book":{"id":"180","type":"book","title":"Carbon Nanotubes","subtitle":"Growth and Applications","fullTitle":"Carbon Nanotubes - Growth and Applications","slug":"carbon-nanotubes-growth-and-applications","publishedDate":"August 9th 2011","bookSignature":"Dr. Mohammad Naraghi","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fbooks\u002Fimages_new\u002F180.jpg","cdnCoverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F180\u002F1713431611-1221401956\u002Fcover.jpg","cdnCoverURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F180\u002F1713431611-1221401956\u002Fcover-300.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F180\u002F1718266097-240481306\u002Fweb-cover.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F180\u002F1718266097-240481306\u002Fweb-cover-300.jpg","cdnCoverWithTextURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F180\u002F1718104551-690227534\u002Fcover-text.jpg","cdnCoverWithTextURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F180\u002F1718104551-690227534\u002Fcover-text-300.jpg","licenceType":"CC BY-NC-SA 3.0","editedByType":"Edited by","isbn":null,"price":159,"printIsbn":"978-953-307-566-2","pdfIsbn":"978-953-51-4462-5","reviewType":"peer-reviewed","numberOfWosCitations":132,"isAvailableForWebshopOrdering":true,"isPublished":true,"isPublisherCbs":false,"kuFlag":false,"noAdsSub":0,"editors":[{"id":"67361","title":"Dr.","name":"Mohammad","middleName":null,"surname":"Naraghi","slug":"mohammad-naraghi","fullName":"Mohammad Naraghi"}],"equalEditorOne":null,"equalEditorTwo":null,"equalEditorThree":null,"coeditorOne":null,"coeditorTwo":null,"coeditorThree":null,"coeditorFour":null,"coeditorFive":null,"topics":[{"id":"1167"}],"productType":{"id":"1","title":"Edited Volume","chapterContentType":"chapter","authoredCaption":"Edited by"},"chapters":[{"id":"17063","type":"chapter","title":"Carbon Nanotubes and Carbon Nanotubes\u002FMetal Oxide Heterostructures: Synthesis, Characterization and Electrochemical Property","slug":"carbon-nanotubes-and-carbon-nanotubes-metal-oxide-heterostructures-synthesis-characterization-and-el","totalDownloads":8549,"totalCrossrefCites":12,"signatures":"Yong Hu and Changfa Guo","reviewType":"peer-reviewed","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"21460","title":"Dr.","name":"Yong","middleName":null,"surname":"Hu","fullName":"Yong Hu","slug":"yong-hu"},{"id":"35972","title":"Mr.","name":"Changfa","middleName":null,"surname":"Guo","fullName":"Changfa Guo","slug":"changfa-guo"}]},{"id":"17064","type":"chapter","title":"Synthesis of Carbon Nanomaterials in a Swirled Floating Catalytic Chemical Vapour Deposition Reactor for Continuous and Large Scale Production","slug":"synthesis-of-carbon-nanomaterials-in-a-swirled-floating-catalytic-chemical-vapour-deposition-reactor","totalDownloads":4039,"totalCrossrefCites":1,"signatures":"Sunny E. 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Introduction ","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_2","title":"2. Individual SWCNT gas sensor ","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_3","title":"3. SWCNT network gas sensor fabricated by direct CVD","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_4","title":"4. Drop-deposited SWCNT network gas sensor ","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_5","title":"5. Vacuum filtered SWCNT network gas sensor ","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_6","title":"6. AC dielectrophoretically assembled SWCNT network gas sensor ","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_7","title":"7. SWCNT network gas sensor fabricated by surface-programmed assembly technique","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_8","title":"8. Theoretical explanation of the inverse proportionality of sensitivity to the base-line conductance of SWCNT network sensor based on the percolation theory ","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_9","title":"9. Future prospects of SWCNT network gas sensor","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_10","title":"10. Conclusion","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_11","title":"Acknowledgments","level":"1"}],"chapterReferences":[{"id":"B1","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B1\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation\u003E\u003Cperson-group\u003E\u003Cname\u003E\u003Csurname\u003ECheng\u003C\u002Fsurname\u003E\u003Cgiven-names\u003EB.\u003C\u002Fgiven-names\u003E\u003C\u002Fname\u003E\u003Cname\u003E\u003Csurname\u003ERussell\u003C\u002Fsurname\u003E\u003Cgiven-names\u003EJ. M.\u003C\u002Fgiven-names\u003E\u003C\u002Fname\u003E\u003Cname\u003E\u003Csurname\u003EShi\u003C\u002Fsurname\u003E\u003Cgiven-names\u003EW.\u003C\u002Fgiven-names\u003E\u003C\u002Fname\u003E\u003Cname\u003E\u003Csurname\u003EZhang\u003C\u002Fsurname\u003E\u003Cgiven-names\u003EL.\u003C\u002Fgiven-names\u003E\u003C\u002Fname\u003E\u003Cname\u003E\u003Csurname\u003ESamulski\u003C\u002Fsurname\u003E\u003Cgiven-names\u003EE. 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Y.\u003C\u002Fgiven-names\u003E\u003C\u002Fname\u003E\u003Cname\u003E\u003Csurname\u003EMoon\u003C\u002Fsurname\u003E\u003Cgiven-names\u003ES. E.\u003C\u002Fgiven-names\u003E\u003C\u002Fname\u003E\u003Cname\u003E\u003Csurname\u003EPark\u003C\u002Fsurname\u003E\u003Cgiven-names\u003EK.\u003C\u002Fgiven-names\u003E\u003C\u002Fname\u003E\u003Cname\u003E\u003Csurname\u003E\u003C\u002Fsurname\u003E\u003Cgiven-names\u003EH.\u003C\u002Fgiven-names\u003E\u003C\u002Fname\u003E\u003Cname\u003E\u003Csurname\u003EKim\u003C\u002Fsurname\u003E\u003Cgiven-names\u003EJ.\u003C\u002Fgiven-names\u003E\u003C\u002Fname\u003E\u003Cname\u003E\u003Csurname\u003EMaeng\u003C\u002Fsurname\u003E\u003Cgiven-names\u003ES.\u003C\u002Fgiven-names\u003E\u003C\u002Fname\u003E\u003Cname\u003E\u003Csurname\u003EUdrea\u003C\u002Fsurname\u003E\u003Cgiven-names\u003EF.\u003C\u002Fgiven-names\u003E\u003C\u002Fname\u003E\u003Cname\u003E\u003Csurname\u003EMilne\u003C\u002Fsurname\u003E\u003Cgiven-names\u003EW. 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C. .\u003C\u002Fgiven-names\u003E\u003C\u002Fname\u003E\u003Cname\u003E\u003Csurname\u003ERahman\u003C\u002Fsurname\u003E\u003Cgiven-names\u003EZ. .\u003C\u002Fgiven-names\u003E\u003C\u002Fname\u003E\u003Cname\u003E\u003Csurname\u003EDu\u003C\u002Fsurname\u003E\u003Cgiven-names\u003ET. .\u003C\u002Fgiven-names\u003E\u003C\u002Fname\u003E\u003Cname\u003E\u003Csurname\u003ELudwig\u003C\u002Fsurname\u003E\u003Cgiven-names\u003EL. .\u003C\u002Fgiven-names\u003E\u003C\u002Fname\u003E\u003Cname\u003E\u003Csurname\u003EParish\u003C\u002Fsurname\u003E\u003Cgiven-names\u003EC.\u003C\u002Fgiven-names\u003E\u003C\u002Fname\u003E\u003Cname\u003E\u003Csurname\u003ESeal\u003C\u002Fsurname\u003E\u003Cgiven-names\u003ES.\u003C\u002Fgiven-names\u003E\u003C\u002Fname\u003E\u003C\u002Fperson-group\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cyear\u003E2003\u003C\u002Fyear\u003E Synthesis and characterization of Sol-Gel derived nanocrystalline tin oxide thin film as a hydrogen gas sensor. \u003Csource\u003ESensor and Actuators B\u003C\u002Fsource\u003E, \u003Cvolume\u003E76\u003C\u002Fvolume\u003E 343-353\u003C\u002Fmixed-citation\u003E\u003C\u002Fref\u003E"},{"id":"B22","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B22\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation\u003E\u003Cperson-group\u003E\u003Cname\u003E\u003Csurname\u003EStadermann\u003C\u002Fsurname\u003E\u003Cgiven-names\u003EM.\u003C\u002Fgiven-names\u003E\u003C\u002Fname\u003E\u003Cname\u003E\u003Csurname\u003EPapadakis\u003C\u002Fsurname\u003E\u003Cgiven-names\u003ES.j.\u003C\u002Fgiven-names\u003E\u003C\u002Fname\u003E\u003Cname\u003E\u003Csurname\u003EFalvo\u003C\u002Fsurname\u003E\u003Cgiven-names\u003EM. 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Capaz","slug":"rodrigo-b.-capaz"},{"id":"20581","title":"Prof.","name":"Luiz Gustavo","middleName":null,"surname":"Cançado","fullName":"Luiz Gustavo Cançado","slug":"luiz-gustavo-cancado"}]},{"id":"15284","title":"Superconductivity and Electron-Phonon Coupling in Graphite Intercalation Compunds","slug":"superconductivity-and-electron-phonon-coupling-in-graphite-intercalation-compunds","signatures":"Tonica Valla and Zhihui Pan","authors":[{"id":"20522","title":"Dr.","name":"Tonica","middleName":null,"surname":"Valla","fullName":"Tonica Valla","slug":"tonica-valla"},{"id":"20528","title":"Dr.","name":"Zhihui","middleName":null,"surname":"Pan","fullName":"Zhihui Pan","slug":"zhihui-pan"}]},{"id":"15285","title":"Graphene Transistors","slug":"graphene-transistors","signatures":"Kristóf Tahy, Tian Fang, Pei Zhao, Aniruddha Konar, Chuanxin Lian, Huili (Grace) Xing, Michelle Kelly and Debdeep Jena","authors":[{"id":"17437","title":"Dr.","name":"Kristof","middleName":null,"surname":"Tahy","fullName":"Kristof Tahy","slug":"kristof-tahy"},{"id":"20651","title":"Dr.","name":"Debdeep","middleName":null,"surname":"Jena","fullName":"Debdeep Jena","slug":"debdeep-jena"},{"id":"20658","title":"Dr.","name":"Chuanxin","middleName":null,"surname":"Lian","fullName":"Chuanxin Lian","slug":"chuanxin-lian"},{"id":"24047","title":"MSc.","name":"Tian","middleName":null,"surname":"Fang","fullName":"Tian Fang","slug":"tian-fang"},{"id":"24048","title":"Mr.","name":"Pei","middleName":null,"surname":"Zhao","fullName":"Pei Zhao","slug":"pei-zhao"},{"id":"24049","title":"Dr.","name":"Michelle","middleName":null,"surname":"Kelly","fullName":"Michelle Kelly","slug":"michelle-kelly"},{"id":"24118","title":"Dr.","name":"Huili (Grace)","middleName":null,"surname":"Xing","fullName":"Huili (Grace) Xing","slug":"huili-(grace)-xing"}]},{"id":"15286","title":"Graphene Transistors and RF Applications","slug":"graphene-transistors-and-rf-applications","signatures":"Jeong-Sun Moon, Kurt Gaskill and Paul Campbell","authors":[{"id":"23176","title":"Dr.","name":"Jeong-Sun","middleName":null,"surname":"Moon","fullName":"Jeong-Sun Moon","slug":"jeong-sun-moon"},{"id":"126707","title":"Dr.","name":"Kurt","middleName":null,"surname":"Gaskill","fullName":"Kurt Gaskill","slug":"kurt-gaskill"},{"id":"126709","title":"Dr.","name":"Paul","middleName":null,"surname":"Campbell","fullName":"Paul Campbell","slug":"paul-campbell"}]},{"id":"15287","title":"Chemical and Biosensing Applications Based on Graphene Field-Effect Transistors","slug":"chemical-and-biosensing-applications-based-on-graphene-field-effect-transistors","signatures":"Yasuhide Ohno, Kenzo Maehashi and Kazuhiko Matsumoto","authors":[{"id":"17146","title":"Dr.","name":"Yasuhide","middleName":null,"surname":"Ohno","fullName":"Yasuhide Ohno","slug":"yasuhide-ohno"},{"id":"19333","title":"Prof.","name":"Kenzo","middleName":null,"surname":"Maehashi","fullName":"Kenzo Maehashi","slug":"kenzo-maehashi"},{"id":"19334","title":"Prof.","name":"Kazuhiko","middleName":null,"surname":"Matsumoto","fullName":"Kazuhiko Matsumoto","slug":"kazuhiko-matsumoto"}]},{"id":"15288","title":"Graphene-Supported Platinum and Platinum-Ruthenium Nanoparticles for Fuel Cell Applications","slug":"graphene-supported-platinum-and-platinum-ruthenium-nanoparticles-for-fuel-cell-applications","signatures":"Lifeng Dong, Qianqian Liu, Li Wang and Kezheng Chen","authors":[{"id":"15985","title":"Prof.","name":"Lifeng","middleName":null,"surname":"Dong","fullName":"Lifeng Dong","slug":"lifeng-dong"},{"id":"24405","title":"Ms.","name":"Qianqian","middleName":null,"surname":"Liu","fullName":"Qianqian Liu","slug":"qianqian-liu"},{"id":"24406","title":"Ms.","name":"Li","middleName":null,"surname":"Wang","fullName":"Li Wang","slug":"li-wang"},{"id":"24407","title":"Prof.","name":"Kezheng","middleName":null,"surname":"Chen","fullName":"Kezheng Chen","slug":"kezheng-chen"}]}]}],"publishedBooks":[],"publishedBooksByAuthor":[]},"onlineFirst":{"chapter":{"type":"chapter","id":"74323","title":"The Novel Nanomaterials Based Biosensors and Their Applications","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.94930","slug":"the-novel-nanomaterials-based-biosensors-and-their-applications","body":"\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_1\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E1. Introduction\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p2\"\u003EA biosensor device is defined as a biological or bio-inspired receptor unit with unique specificities for analytes. These analytes are generally of biological origin. One of the challenges in biosensor development is that efficient signal capture can be achieved with biological recognition. Novel nanomaterials represent a rapidly developing field in bioanalysis applications. The sensitivity and performance of biosensors can be improved by using nanomaterials. Typical schemeatic presentation of a biosensor is illuatrated in \u003Ca href=\"#F1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F1\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F74323\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002FF1.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 1.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" id=\"p3\"\u003ESchematic presentation of a biosensor.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p4\"\u003EWith the development of nanotechnology, many new nanomaterials such as gold nanostructure, magnetic nanoparticles, nanozymes, and carbon-based nanomaterials have been synthesized [\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Nanomaterials have been widely applied in the areas of invivo imaging [\u003Ca href=\"#B2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], cancer treatment [\u003Ca href=\"#B3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], drug delivery [\u003Ca href=\"#B4\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E4\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], catalysis [\u003Ca href=\"#B5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], bacteriostasis [\u003Ca href=\"#B6\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E6\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], and so on. Due to the outstanding physical and chemical properties of nanomaterials, nanomaterial-based biosensors have been developed [\u003Ca href=\"#B7\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p5\"\u003EIn this chapter, synthesis, properties and possible applications of these materials in biosensors were examined. The high sensitivity and selectivity of nanomaterial-based biosensors have led to major advances in the development of new methodologies for early detection. Due to its submicron dimensions, it allows simple and fast analysis in vivo. Their reactivity, toughness and other properties are also dependent on their unique shape, size and structure. In addition, the application of nanomaterials to biosensors provides different detection limits depending on the samples to be analyzed and facilitates the adjustment of the sensitivity level according to the needs.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_2\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E2. Experimental\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_2_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E2.1 Synthesize of the novel nanomaterials\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_2_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E2.1.1 Graphdiyne\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p6\"\u003EThe synthesis of the GDY was reported in the literature as follows:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p7\"\u003EGraphdiyne (GDY) was prepared on the copper surface by a cross-linking reaction using hexaetynylbenzene (HEB) as a monomer. Firstly, hexakis [(trimethylsilyl) ethynyl] benzene (HEB-TMS) was prepared using Negishi cross-linking reaction. Then HEB monomer was obtained by the addition of tetrabutylammonium fluoride into tetrahydrofuran solution of HEB-TMS with stirring at 0°C for 10 minutes. Finally, GDY in the presence of pyridine was successfully grown on the surface of copper foils by a cross-coupling reaction of the HEB monomer for 72 hours at 60°C under a nitrogen atmosphere. After the reaction was completed, GDY grown on copper foils was removed by ultrasonic treatment and concentrated by rotary evaporator, and then washed with heated acetone and N,N-dimethylformamide. The GDY powder was refluxed with dilute hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide, respectively at 80°C for 3 hours. It was then washed repeatedly and centrifuged. Finally, black GDY powder was obtained by centrifugation and drying vacuum [\u003Ca href=\"#B8\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E8\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_3_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E2.1.2 Gold nanostructures\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p8\"\u003EAccording to the modified El-Sayed method the synthesis of the gold nanorods (GNRs) was performed as follows:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p9\"\u003ETtwo solutions were prepared as seed solution and growth solution. For the seed solution, ice-cold sodium borohydride (NaBH\u003Csub\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E) (0.3 mL, 0.01 M) was added to the solution mixture containing hydrogen tetrachloroaurate (HAuCl\u003Csub\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E) (0.5 mM) and cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) (0.2 M) in a volume ratio of 1:1, and the entire reaction mixture was incubated at room temperature for 3 hours. For the growth solution, a 200 mL solution containing HAuCl\u003Csub\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E (0.5 mM) and CTAB (0.1 M) was made and 6 mL of silver nitrate (AgNO\u003Csub\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E) (4 mM) was added to it. Following this, 0.5 M sulfuric acid (H\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003ESO\u003Csub\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E) (1 mL) and 0.0788 M ascorbic acid (1.4 mL) were added and mixed gently. In the last step, the seed solution (0.24 mL) was added to the growth solution mixture and left at room temperature for a period of 12 hours. The brownish colored solution was centrifuged at 9000 rpm (2 times) for 30 minutes to remove unbound CTAB and stored at room temperature (28°C) [\u003Ca href=\"#B9\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E9\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_4_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E2.1.3 Inorganic nanomaterials\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p10\"\u003EThe synthesis of Zirconium Phosphate Nanoparticle (ZrP-NP) is described in this section as one of the inorganic nanomaterials.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p11\"\u003EZirconium Phosphate (ZrP), one of the inorganic nanomaterials, has been synthesized by hydrothermal process. First, 1.6 g of ZrOCl\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E.8H\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003EO was added to 30 mL of DI water and stirred continuously. Then 15 M H\u003Csub\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsub\u003EPO\u003Csub\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E (10 mL) was added to this prepared solution and stirred continuously for 30 minutes. The solution was transferred to a hydrothermal autoclave (50 mL) and heated in an air oven at 200°C for 24 hours. The products obtained were collected by centrifugation and washed several times with ethanol and deionized water. In the last step, the purified ZrP powder was dried in an air oven at 50°C [\u003Ca href=\"#B10\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E10\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_5_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E2.1.4 Nanozymes\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p12\"\u003EThe synthesis of the core-shell Au@Co-Fe hybrid nanoparticles is described as peroxidase mimetic nanozyme.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p13\"\u003EIn the synthesis of the core-shell Au@Co-Fe hybrid nanoparticles as the peroxidase mimetic nanozyme, gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) with the average diameter of 22 nm were synthesized by citrate reduction of HAuCl\u003Csub\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E. Briefly, 1.5 mL of 1% (w\u002Fv) sodium citrate solution was added to 21 mL of 0.8 mM HAuCl\u003Csub\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E.3H\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003EO solution at boiling point while the solution was stirred vigorously. After hanging its color from pale yellow to deep red, the mixture was stirred for 15 min and let to cool to room temperature and, then stored at 4°C until use. In the second step, 1 μL tween 20 was added to 1.5 mL of the synthesized AuNPs. Then, 100 μL of FeSO\u003Csub\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E 0.18 M and 180 μL of CoCl\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E 0.1 M were added to the mixture, and incubated at the room temperature for 24 h. After that, the mixture was centrifuged and washed with deionized water [\u003Ca href=\"#B11\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E11\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_6_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E2.1.5 Hybrid nanocomposites\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p14\"\u003EOne of the hybrid nanocomposites is reduced graphene oxide-magnetite nanoparticle (RGO-Fe\u003Csub\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsub\u003EO\u003Csub\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E NP) and its synthesis is described below according to the literature [\u003Ca href=\"#B12\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E12\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p15\"\u003EReduce graphene oxide magnetite nanoparticle (RGO-Fe\u003Csub\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsub\u003EO\u003Csub\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E NP) hybrid was synthesized by alkaline reduction. For this purpose, the powder was redispersed in the 0.5 mg mL\u003Csup\u003E−1\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E graphene oxide (GO) suspension. Citric and ascorbic acids were added and the mixture was stirred at 55°C (12 hours). 1 M NaOH was added and the mixture It was stirred again at 95°C (6 hours). After centrifugation at 10000 rpm (RCF = 1118 x g), the solid is filtered, washed, and dried in vacuum during 24 hours [\u003Ca href=\"#B12\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E12\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_7_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E2.1.6 DNA nanomaterials\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p16\"\u003EY-DNA was prepared by mixing equimolar amounts of three single stranded DNA (ssDNA), two long and one short. The two long sequences have regions that hybridize to the shorter one. One of the fields is not completely linked to the corresponding fragment. Thus, the target miRNA became able to replace this fragment and remove the Y-DNA nanostructure. ssDNAs were dissolved in hybridization buffer at 10 μM final concentration per sequence and annealed to form the desired Y-shaped DNA: annealed at 95°C for 2 minutes, cooled to 65°C and incubated for 5 minutes, followed by 2 minutes while its temperature dropped to 60°C and cooled to 20°C at a rate of 1° per minute. The final products were stored at 4°C. Double stranded substrates were formed by mixing in the hybridization buffer. The mixture was heated to 95°C for 5 minutes and slowly cooled to 4°C, then allowed to stand at room temperature for 20 minutes to form a specific double stranded substrate [\u003Ca href=\"#B13\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E13\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_8_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E2.1.7 DNAzyme\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p17\"\u003EDNA phosphorylation was made by incubating 200 pmol of FS1 with 20 units of T4 polynucleotide kinase (PNK) at 37°C for 30 min in a 100 μL reaction mixture containing 50 mM Tris–HCl (pH 7.6 at 25°C), 10 mM MgCl\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E, 5 mM 1,4-Dithiothreitol (DTT), 0.1 mM spermidine and 1 mM adenosine 5′-triphosphate (ATP). The reaction was stopped by heating the mixture at 90° C for 5 minutes. RFT1 (100 μM) and 2 μL RFS1 (100 μM) were then added to the solution, and the mixture was heated to 90°C for 40 seconds and cooled to room temperature for 10 minutes. In the last step, 10 units of T4 DNA ligase were added for DNA ligation at 25°C for 2 hours. The ligation mix contains 10 mM MgCl\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E, (150 μL) 40 mM Tris–HCl (pH 7.6 at 25°C), 10 mM DTT and 0.5 mM ATP. The products were concentrated by standard ethanol precipitation and further purified by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis [\u003Ca href=\"#B14\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E14\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_9_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E2.1.8 Carbon Nanodots\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p18\"\u003EThe syntheses of carbon nanodots (CDs) will describe according to the literature [\u003Ca href=\"#B15\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E15\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p19\"\u003ECDs were synthesized hydrothermally with citric acid and ethylenediamine (EDA). Initially citric acid (3.0 g) and ethylenediamine (1875 μL) were dissolved in 30 mL of distilled water. The solution was then transferred to a 500 mL round bottom flask and heated at 150°C for 5 hours. The product was dialyzed against ddH\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003EO to obtain CDs. CDs powder was obtained by evaporating, redispersed in deionized water, and stored at 4°C for later use [\u003Ca href=\"#B15\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E15\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_10_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E2.1.9 Carbon black nanomaterials\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p20\"\u003ECarbon black (CB) is produced by the reaction of a hydrocarbon fuel such as gas or oil with a limited supply of combustion air at temperatures of 1320 to 1540°C. The hydrocarbons which were degraded from polyethylene (PE) or high density polyethylene (HDPE) at the pyrolysis step were injected into decomposing chamber. They were introduced to pass through dc-plasma jet, and were decomposed into the carbon particles. The carbon particles were cooled down in the stream of nitrogen and they were deposited on the surface of outer graphite chamber after decomposition by the plasma jet. As-synthesized carbon black samples were characterized by the analytical instrument without further purification in the case of carbon black synthesis. Two major processes are the oil furnace process and the thermal process. The oil furnace process accounts for about 90 percent of production, and the thermal, about 10 percent. Two other processes are, the lamp for production of lamp black and the cracking of acetylene to produce acetylene black. However, these are small-volume specialty black operations that constitute less than 1 percent of total production in this country [\u003Ca href=\"#B16\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E16\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_11_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E2.1.10 Nanodiamonds\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p21\"\u003EFor the nanodiamond synthesis the graphitic C\u003Csub\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsub\u003EN\u003Csub\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E (g-C\u003Csub\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsub\u003EN\u003Csub\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E) used for the starting material which prepared by a benzenethermal reaction between C\u003Csub\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsub\u003EN\u003Csub\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsub\u003ECl\u003Csub\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E and NaNH\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E at 220°C for 12 hours. For the synthesis of the C\u003Csub\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsub\u003EN\u003Csub\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E, 1.10 g (6.0 mmol) C\u003Csub\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsub\u003EN\u003Csub\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsub\u003ECl\u003Csub\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E(1,3,5-trichlorotriazine) and 0.70 g (18.0 mmol) NaNH\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E (sodium amide) powders were put into a 50 mL teflon-lined autoclave, which was then filled with benzene up to 90% of the total volume. The autoclave was sealed and maintained at 180–220°C for 8–12 h, then allowed to cool to room temperature naturally. The mixed product was washed three times with distilled water, acetone and again distilled water to remove NaCl impurities, some organic-like impurities. The g-C\u003Csub\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsub\u003EN\u003Csub\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E obtained in such a way is a light yellowish brown powder of amorphous-like, poorly crystalline particles [\u003Ca href=\"#B8\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E8\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The resulting yellow powders was dried in vacuum at 50°C for several hours. The sample was compressed to a desired pressure at room temperature, heated to 800–2000°C for 5–30 min, and then quenched and decompressed to ambient condition [\u003Ca href=\"#B17\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E17\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_12_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E2.1.11 Magnetic nanoparticles\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p22\"\u003EMagnetic nanoparticles (MNP) were prepared by chemical co-precipitation and then processed under hydrothermal conditions. Briefly, iron (II) chloride and iron (III) chloride (1:2) were chemically precipitated at room temperature (25°C) by adding 30% ammonium hydroxide at pH=10.0–10.4. The precipitates were heated at 80°C for 35 minutes with continuous stirring and washed in deionized water and ethanol [\u003Ca href=\"#B18\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E18\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_15\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E3. Result and discussion\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_15_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.1 Graphdiyne\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p23\"\u003EGraphdiyne (GDY) is a new two-dimensional all-carbon allotrope composed of benzene rings and alkyne unites.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p24\"\u003EThe carbon based nanomaterials are usually used to build electrochemical biosensors because of their physical and chemical properties. According to conventional carbon nanomaterials, GDY possesses richer carbon chemical bonds, which are of great importance for their practical applications. More importantly, GDY has a typical 2D structure similar to graphene, but also has the properties of three-dimensional materials such as a hard carbon network and uniformly distributed pores that can greatly increase active bonding areas [\u003Ca href=\"#B19\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E19\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B20\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E20\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p25\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#F2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E illustrates surface characterization of GDY [\u003Ca href=\"#B21\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E21\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F2\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F74323\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002FF2.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 2.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" id=\"p26\"\u003EA) SEM, B) TEM and C) HRTEM of GDY.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p27\"\u003EAs can be seen from this figure it is clear that GDY has a porous structure which is very important in sensor design to the effective diffusion of the analyte to the sensor surface.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p28\"\u003EThere are studies in which GDY has been used in the preparation of electrochemical enzyme biosensors [\u003Ca href=\"#B21\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E21\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], for microRNA testing [\u003Ca href=\"#B22\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E22\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] and in the determination of bacterium [\u003Ca href=\"#B23\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E23\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. GDY was investigated as matrix for tyrosinase (a model enzyme) immobilization to create a mediator-free GDY based biosensor for rapid detection of bisphenol A (BPA). In this study between different carbon nanomaterial based biosensors including carbon nanotube and graphene was compared and it was reported, GDY-based tyrosinase biosensor performed better analytical for BPA detection than CNTs and graphene-based biosensors [\u003Ca href=\"#B21\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E21\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. A new photoactive material has been synthesized that integrates the properties of MoS\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E and GDY to implement ultra-sensitive detection of microRNA [\u003Ca href=\"#B22\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E22\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Controllable synthesis of two-dimensional graphite nanosheet (GDY NS) is of great importance for the clinical diagnosis and treatment of tuberculosis [\u003Ca href=\"#B23\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E23\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p29\"\u003EIt is though that as a new promising 2D all-carbon nanomaterial after graphene, graphdiyne with intriguing properties would inevitably attract the general interest of scientists.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_16_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.2 Gold nanostructures\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p30\"\u003EMetal nanoparticles (NPs) such as gold and silver NPs have gained immense recognition in nanosensing and diagnostic applications [\u003Ca href=\"#B24\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E24\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B25\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E25\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Therefore, ease of synthesis, versatile surface functionalization and long term stability of gold nanomaterials increases their potential as efficient detection probes [\u003Ca href=\"#B26\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E26\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p31\"\u003EGold nanostars modified with biotin were used for streptavidin determination [\u003Ca href=\"#B27\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E27\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Sensing applications using other shapes of gold nanomaterials include the use of gold nanowires and nanocubes for detection of bacteria in human kidney infection and catechol, respectively [\u003Ca href=\"#B28\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E28\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B29\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E29\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p32\"\u003EGold nanorods have also employed as a SERS substrate where in they have achieved highly sensitive and selective detection of DNA [\u003Ca href=\"#B30\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E30\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p33\"\u003EIt has been reported that the nanosensor based on gold nanorodes is highly reproducible and has excellent selectivity. It was also reported the nanosensing platform is reliable, facile, cost-effective and less labor intensive. The nanomaterial with aspect ratio tunable property can be possibly used for several biomedical applications.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p34\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#F3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E illusrates TEM and SEM images of some kind of gold nanosructures [\u003Ca href=\"#B27\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E27\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B28\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E28\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B29\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E29\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B30\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E30\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F3\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F74323\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002FF3.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 3.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" id=\"p35\"\u003ETEM (A,B) and SEM (C,D) images of gold nanostar (A) [\u003Cxref ref-type=\"bibr\" rid=\"B27\"\u003E27\u003C\u002Fxref\u003E], gold nanorods (B) [\u003Cxref ref-type=\"bibr\" rid=\"B28\"\u003E28\u003C\u002Fxref\u003E], gold nanoparticle (C) [\u003Cxref ref-type=\"bibr\" rid=\"B29\"\u003E29\u003C\u002Fxref\u003E] and gold nanowire (D) [\u003Cxref ref-type=\"bibr\" rid=\"B30\"\u003E30\u003C\u002Fxref\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_17_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.3 Inorganic novel nanomaterials\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p36\"\u003ERecently, inorganic nanostructured materials have gained widespread attention as potential electrode materials of electrochemical sensors with excellent structural adjustability and other properties [\u003Ca href=\"#B31\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E31\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B32\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E32\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p37\"\u003EIn the past few years, binary metal oxides (denoted BMOs) are considered as one of the state-of-the-art electrocatalyst materials for various electrochemical applications [\u003Ca href=\"#B33\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E33\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B34\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E34\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Among the different categories of BMOs, transition-metal phosphates\u002Fphosphides (denoted TMPs) have attracted increasing attention as a promising electrocatalyst [\u003Ca href=\"#B35\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E35\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B36\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E36\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B37\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E37\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Ultrathin cobalt phosphate-based modified electrode was used for the non enzymatic electrochemical determination of glucose [\u003Ca href=\"#B38\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E38\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. α-zirconium phosphate (α-ZrP) based electrocatalysts have been recognized as crucial for numerous electrochemical applications [\u003Ca href=\"#B39\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E39\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The sensitive electrochemical sensing probe using the ZrP nanoplates was successfully applied for Furazolidone detection [\u003Ca href=\"#B10\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E10\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p38\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#F4\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 4\u003C\u002Fa\u003E illustrates surface characterization of ZrP [\u003Ca href=\"#B10\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E10\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F4\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F74323\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002FF4.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 4.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" id=\"p39\"\u003E(A−C) FEG-SEM image, (D−F) TEM images, (G) EDX spectrum, and (H−J) elemental mapping of ZrP.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F5\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F74323\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002FF5.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 5.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" id=\"p40\"\u003EComparison of (A) natural enzyme-based immunoassays and (B) nanozyme-based immunoassays [\u003Cxref ref-type=\"bibr\" rid=\"B46\"\u003E46\u003C\u002Fxref\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_18_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.4 Nanozymes\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p41\"\u003EIn the last decade, artificial nanomaterials, which exhibit properties similar to enzymes, have been shown as highly stable and low-cost alternatives to enzymes in electrochemical biosensing.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p200\"\u003ENanozymes, combining the advantages of chemical catalysts and enzymes [\u003Ca href=\"#B40\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E40\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B41\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E41\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], outperform natural enzymes because they are usually synthetized using low-cost, simple, and mass-production methods and offer high operational stability and self-life, robust catalytic performance [\u003Ca href=\"#B42\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E42\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B43\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E43\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B44\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E44\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B45\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E45\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Moreover, the smooth surface modification of nanomaterials provides more room for modifications than the natural enzymes. In addition, their inherent nanomaterial properties impart them both tunable and tenable catalytic activity [\u003Ca href=\"#B46\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E46\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B47\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E47\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p300\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#F5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E illustrates the schematic presentation of the enzyme-based and nanozyme-based immunoassay.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p43\"\u003EThe lack of selectivity of nanozymes is compensated for by using specific bioreceptors. However, it is important to be aware of the current lack of bio-ligands for emerging analytes and that their use compromises both stability and the low cost of nanozymes [\u003Ca href=\"#B48\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E48\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p44\"\u003EAffinity ligand-based electrochemical biosensors using nanozymes have been successfully developed and exhibit some excellent merits such as higher selectivity and sensitivity, lower cost, shorter detection time, and better signal readout [\u003Ca href=\"#B49\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E49\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p45\"\u003ENanozymes, being a special type of nanomaterial, can be exploited in electrochemical affinity biosensing as electrode modifiers, nanocarriers, and\u002For catalytic labels. These multi functional nanozymes, which include PtNPs\u002FCoTPP\u002FrGO [\u003Ca href=\"#B49\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E49\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], Pd\u002FAPTES-MCeO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E-GS [\u003Ca href=\"#B50\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E50\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], rGO-NR-Au@Pt [\u003Ca href=\"#B51\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E51\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], Mn\u003Csub\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsub\u003EO\u003Csub\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E and Pd@Pt nanoflowers [\u003Ca href=\"#B52\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E52\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], Fe\u003Csub\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsub\u003EO\u003Csub\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E\u002FPDDA\u002FAu@Pt [\u003Ca href=\"#B53\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E53\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], MWCNTs\u002F GQDs [\u003Ca href=\"#B54\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E54\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B55\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E55\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], and FeS\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E-AuNPs [\u003Ca href=\"#B56\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E56\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], have been decorated with detector antibody (Ab\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E) [\u003Ca href=\"#B49\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E49\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B50\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E50\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], detector antibody (Ab\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E) + HRP [\u003Ca href=\"#B51\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E51\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B54\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E54\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B55\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E55\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], AuNPs + Ab\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B56\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E56\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], detector aptamer (Apt\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E) + HRP [\u003Ca href=\"#B47\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E47\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], or (Apt\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E) + HRP + G-quadruplex\u002Fhemin DNAzyme [\u003Ca href=\"#B46\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E46\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. It is important to note that these nanozymes are often dressed with the natural enzyme to further enhance the sensitivity [\u003Ca href=\"#B51\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E51\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B54\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E54\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B55\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E55\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p46\"\u003EThe combination of nanozyme-based electrochemical affinity biosensors with personalized equipment such as smartphones and\u002For portable low-cost devices will also be exciting to move forward in point-of-care testing. This nanozymes development to achieve catalytic activity and efficiency comparable or even better than natural enzymes will bring a revolution to conventional electrochemical biosensing and more practical applications in other expectation fields.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_19_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.5 Hybrid nanocomposites\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p47\"\u003EHybrid sensing materials, which are organized by interaction of organic molecules onto inorganic supports, have been developed as a novel and hopeful class of hybrid sensing probes. Magnetic silica hybrid rather than other hybrid materials such as polymer, titania, and selfassembled monolayers [\u003Ca href=\"#B57\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E57\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B58\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E58\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B59\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E59\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B60\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E60\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] provides low toxicity, simple separation via external magnetic field, stability, biocompatibility and thermally stable advantages [\u003Ca href=\"#B61\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E61\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B62\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E62\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B63\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E63\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p48\"\u003EBiosensors prepared using hybrid materials were used to detect biological materials by thermal, electrical or optical signals. Examples of various applications of biosensors can be mentioned as environmental monitoring [\u003Ca href=\"#B64\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E64\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], forensic science [\u003Ca href=\"#B65\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E65\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B66\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E66\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B67\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E67\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], water characteristic testing [\u003Ca href=\"#B68\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E68\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], defense and the military [\u003Ca href=\"#B69\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E69\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], biomedicine, food industry and medical diagnosis [\u003Ca href=\"#B70\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E70\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p49\"\u003EMagnetic silica hybrids were reported as fluorescent, colorimetric, electrochemical and Surface-enhanced raman spectroscopy (SERS) sensing probes [\u003Ca href=\"#B71\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E71\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Inorganic mesoporous material is one of the best materials as molecular catalysts due to its thermal stability, easy production and modification. It used in the fields of biomedicine, electronics, and physicochemistry. Silica-coated Fe\u003Csub\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsub\u003EO\u003Csub\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E nanoparticle (Fe\u003Csub\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsub\u003EO\u003Csub\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E@SiO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E NPs), have good excellent conductivity, electrochemical transducers, biocompatibility, catalytic activity, separation ability and low toxicity properties to produce “electronic wires” to increase the electron transfer between redox centers and electrode surfaces in proteins [\u003Ca href=\"#B72\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E72\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p50\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#F6\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 6\u003C\u002Fa\u003E illustrates the surface characterization of Fe\u003Csub\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsub\u003EO\u003Csub\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E@ SiO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E nanoparticles performed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) [\u003Ca href=\"#B57\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E57\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F6\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F74323\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002FF6.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 6.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" id=\"p51\"\u003ETEM images of Fe\u003Csub\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsub\u003EO\u003Csub\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E@ SiO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E NPs with Fe\u003Csub\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsub\u003EO\u003Csub\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E sizes of (a) 8.8 nm and (b−d) 12.2 nm.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_20_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.6 DNA nanomaterials\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p52\"\u003EDNA nanomaterials have been widely used in bioassays due to their promising properties for sensitive and specific detection of biomolecules. The electrochemical biosensor has received greater attention in clinical diagnosis due to its high sensitivity, easy controllability and low cost [\u003Ca href=\"#B72\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E72\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. For this reason, the biomolecular recognition and signal amplification based on electrochemical platform to achieve miRNAs detection still need to be considered.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p53\"\u003EIn recent years, legion nucleic acid nanostructures have been applied to biological detection, including DNA tetrahedron, DNA gels, DNA dendrimers, and so on [\u003Ca href=\"#B73\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E73\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B74\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E74\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B75\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E75\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Y-shaped DNA (Y-DNA), as a constant nanostructure with high selectivity, provides an effective method for completely measuring target molecules [\u003Ca href=\"#B76\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E76\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Y-DNA consists of three oligonucleotides that are partially hybridized to each other. Some older biosensors used this feature to perform DNA detections where one DNA stand is fixed to the surface, another DNA stand and target DNA are added to form a specific structure [\u003Ca href=\"#B77\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E77\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p54\"\u003ENumbers of signal amplification strategies have been developed, including hybridization chain reaction (HCR), strand displacement amplification (SDA), catalytic hairpin assembly (CHA) and rolling circle amplification (RCA) [\u003Ca href=\"#B78\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E78\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B79\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E79\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B80\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E80\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B81\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E81\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The HCR consists of a trigger sequence and two partially complementary hairpin probes. Once triggered, the two hairpin probes can autonomously hybridize continuously [\u003Ca href=\"#B82\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E82\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p55\"\u003ECompared to HCR, this reaction consists of more complex components, including a trigger sequence, two double stranded substrates with bridging loops in the middle, and two helper sequences [\u003Ca href=\"#B83\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E83\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Thus, non-linear HCR can achieve higher rates of amplification and molecular weights [\u003Ca href=\"#B84\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E84\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p56\"\u003ETo join non-linear HCR and Y-DNA nanostructures, the Y-DNA’s terminals were designed as triggers that could initiate the amplification reaction. As a result, the new biosensing method can provide high-precision and selective detection of biological molecules. An unlabeled DNA nanostructured electrochemical biosensor was designed to detect miRNA-25, which is reported to be a potential molecular biomarker for non-small cell lung cancer and heart failure [\u003Ca href=\"#B85\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E85\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B86\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E86\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p57\"\u003EExpanding the application of DNA nanomaterials to bioassays in the future may enable early and effective detection of various diseases.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_21_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.7 DNAzyme\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p58\"\u003EDNAzymes are single-stranded (ss) DNA sequences are able to catalyze a number of reactions, including cleavage of the phosphodiester backbone at a ribonucleotide or deoxyribonucleotide site [\u003Ca href=\"#B87\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E87\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. It has been shown that metal ions play an important role in the catalytic process and are essential for the catalytic activity of most known DNAzymes [\u003Ca href=\"#B88\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E88\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p59\"\u003EThe ability to select a DNAzyme with metal ion specific activity without previous chemical knowledge of the DNAzyme structure, and then to subsequently modify DNAzyme binding arms and other insignificant nucleotides with minimal to no effect on sensitivity and selectivity has made DNAzymes ideal metal-selective components for new metal ion sensing technologies. RNA-cleaving DNAzyme is a very useful biomaterial for the determination of metal ions, but some parts of DNAzymes can be cleaved by several metal ions, which makes different concentrations of metal ions difficult to distinguish [\u003Ca href=\"#B89\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E89\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p60\"\u003EIn the last two decades, the rapid development of nanomaterials and biomaterials [\u003Ca href=\"#B90\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E90\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] offers more opportunities to improve electrochemical sensor performance. For the determination of Cu (II) and Hg (II), many highly sensitive sensors are manufactured using small molecules, peptides, proteins and antibodies at low cost.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p61\"\u003EThe ligand sites of proteases composed of nitrogen, oxygen or sulfur can combine with heavy metal ions to form a stable complex [\u003Ca href=\"#B91\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E91\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Cu(II) is a small ion that has to be chelated first and then bind to the antibody recognition [\u003Ca href=\"#B92\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E92\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Both antibody and enzyme work best under physiological conditions that limit application in real environment. DNA is not only the genetic material of most living organisms, but also an excellent biological functional material [\u003Ca href=\"#B93\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E93\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p62\"\u003EMetal ions can be specifically bound with a single-stranded DNA to form a stable metal-mediated DNA, and this mechanism is applied to detect metal ions [\u003Ca href=\"#B94\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E94\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B95\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E95\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Therefore, numerous studies have focused on the newly discovered biosensor using different DNA-based aptamers functionalized with nanomaterials to increase sensitivity. DNAzymes that break down RNA as DNA-based catalysts are obtained through in vitro selection, which turned out to be a very useful platform for the identification of metal ions. After binding with heavy metal ions, many biochemical and biophysical studies have been conducted on DNAzymes due to their high metal ion selectivity and high catalytic efficiency [\u003Ca href=\"#B96\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E96\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Therefore, DNAzymes have been applied in various biosensors (colorimetric, electrochemical and fluorescent) that realize the detection of various metal ions such as Mg(II) [\u003Ca href=\"#B97\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E97\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], Ag(I) [\u003Ca href=\"#B98\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E98\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], Pb(II) [\u003Ca href=\"#B99\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E99\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], Zn(II) [\u003Ca href=\"#B100\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E100\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], Hg(II) [\u003Ca href=\"#B101\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E101\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], UO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E(II) [\u003Ca href=\"#B102\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E102\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p63\"\u003EThe field of DNAzyme-based metal ion sensing is continuing to develop for future cellular and portable detection technologies.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_22_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.8 Carbon nanodots\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p64\"\u003ECarbon dots (CDs) are nanomaterials less than 10 nm in size and became the new potential material for the electrode modifier [\u003Ca href=\"#B103\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E103\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Formerly, CDs have been applied in electrochemical sensing platforms, mainly focusing on their electrocatalytic properties toward analytes of interest [\u003Ca href=\"#B104\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E104\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B105\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E105\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] rather than electrode modifiers. Thus, the studies on carbon dots owing a noticeable potential to be used as electrode modifiers in electrochemical techniques to increase the sensitivity of the electrochemical sensor has been exploited.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p65\"\u003ERecently, a new member of CDs, have gained attention because of their water solubility, fine properties, high luminescence, low cytotoxicity and good conductivity [\u003Ca href=\"#B106\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E106\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Depending on the precursors employed in their synthesis, CNDs are surrounded by different functional groups including, among others, hydroxyl, amide groups and carboxyl which facilitate the immobilization of biomolecules. Hence, due to their ability to be modified with a wide variety of biomolecules, and in conjunction with the excellent properties mentioned above, CNDs have been employed in many biological applications such as solar cell development and photocatalysis [\u003Ca href=\"#B107\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E107\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B108\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E108\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Concerning the employment of CNDs for electrochemical biosensors, it should be highlighted that despite the previously mentioned advantages, very few attempts to incorporate CNDs into electrodes are reported. Reporting the application of CNDs in electrochemical sensors are focused on the electrocatalytic properties of this nanomaterial toward oxygen reduction [\u003Ca href=\"#B109\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E109\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], biomedical application [\u003Ca href=\"#B110\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E110\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], exploited for glucose biosensing [\u003Ca href=\"#B111\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E111\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] and DNA sensing [\u003Ca href=\"#B112\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E112\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p66\"\u003ETransmission electron microscopy (TEM) of carbon nanodots in different scale from 20 nm to 2 nm are illustrate in \u003Ca href=\"#F7\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B110\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E110\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F7\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F74323\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002FF7.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 7.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" id=\"p67\"\u003EHigh resolution transmission electron microscopic images of fish scale derived carbon nanodots (a-c).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_23_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.9 Carbon black nanomaterials\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p68\"\u003ESince the discovery of carbon nanotubes, carbon-based nanomaterials being researched in various disciplines including electrochemistry. An old and cost-effective material recently called carbon black (CB) reinvented. CB has good electrical conductivity, dispersible in solvents, possibility of easy functionalization and has a large number of defect areas and fast electron transfer kinetics [\u003Ca href=\"#B113\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E113\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B114\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E114\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B115\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E115\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B116\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E116\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p69\"\u003EPreviously, CB’s main application in the electrochemical field was based on the design of sensors for analyte detection in fuel cell and gas phases for lithium and sodium batteries [\u003Ca href=\"#B117\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E117\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B118\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E118\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. However, until 2009, only a few CB-based electrochemical sensors were reported for analyte detection.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p70\"\u003EAmong nanomaterials, CB demonstrated high potential in customizing all from the oldest carbon paste to glassy carbon and printed electrodes thanks to their fascinating electrochemical properties combined with cost effectiveness.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p71\"\u003EOne of the main properties of CB is its ability to produce easily stable dispersions in a variety of solvents such as ethanol, acetonitrile, a mixture of dimethylformamide water [\u003Ca href=\"#B119\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E119\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], chitosan [\u003Ca href=\"#B120\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E120\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], or di hexadecylphosphate water solution [\u003Ca href=\"#B121\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E121\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], usually at a concentration of 1 mg\u002FmL.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p72\"\u003ECB is widely used in the design of biosensors with a variety of biological recognition elements including enzymes, DNA and antibodies. The main potential of the enzyme combination with CB is based on the outstanding advantages this nanomaterial has in enhancing the biosensor sensitivity. CB can increase both conductivity and enzyme loading areas, thus causing increased signals and hence higher sensitivity. Some examples have shown that CB is a compatible substrate for the immobilization of enzymes in the design of amperometric biosensors [\u003Ca href=\"#B122\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E122\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p73\"\u003EImmunosensors have attracted great attention for specific, sensitive, cost-effective and in-field analysis. Examples of CB-based immunosensors in unlabeled configuration have been reported in the literature [\u003Ca href=\"#B123\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E123\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B124\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E124\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p74\"\u003EAlongside traditional bioreceptors such as enzymes, antibodies, and nucleic acids, CB also demonstrated the ability to improve their analytical performance by combining with alternative biological recognition elements or molecularly imprinted polymers [\u003Ca href=\"#B125\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E125\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p75\"\u003EBesides the biosensor application, CB was used in sensor design for both single analyte detection and multiple analysis, showing increased sensitivity thanks to its high conductivity, number of defective areas and surface area. Nowadays, most CB-based detection systems are mainly sensors, but in recent years there has been a sharp increase in publications in the development of enzymatic, immuno, and DNA biosensors [\u003Ca href=\"#B126\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E126\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p76\"\u003ECB is a new generation material due to its environmentally friendly properties in terms of costs and environmental impact.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p77\"\u003EThe morphological properties of the synthesized carbon black by using commercial and waste polystyrene (PS) and high density polyethylene in different pyrolysis conditions were illustrated in \u003Ca href=\"#F8\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 8\u003C\u002Fa\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B16\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E16\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F8\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F74323\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002FF8.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 8.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" id=\"p78\"\u003EFE-SEM images of the carbon black obtained from: A commercial PS pyrolyzed at 500°C; b commercial PS pyrolyzed at 900°C; c waste PS pyrolyzed at 500°C; d waste PS pyrolyzed at 900°C; e high density polyethylene (HDPE) pyrolyzed at 500°C; f HDPE pyrolyzed at 900°C.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_24_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.10 Nanodiamonds\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p79\"\u003ENanodiamonds (ND), a new member of the carbon nanoparticle class, has recently received much attention in drug delivery, bio-imaging, and biosensor applications due to its physical and chemical properties [\u003Ca href=\"#B127\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E127\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p80\"\u003ENanodiamond (ND) is of great interest in various fields of material science due to its various functional groups. An electrochemical biosensor containing copper, nano-diamond (ND) and carbon nanotube (CNT) was built to detect the amino acids of Parkia Seeds (PS). Electrochemical reaction of PS was carried out with composite electrodes prepared using nanodiamond [\u003Ca href=\"#B128\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E128\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p81\"\u003EThe AFM and SEM characterization of nanocrystalline diamond (NCD) and boron doped nanocrystalline diamond (BDND) were illustrated in \u003Ca href=\"#F9\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 9\u003C\u002Fa\u003E respectively [\u003Ca href=\"#B129\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E129\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B130\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E130\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F9\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F74323\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002FF9.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 9.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" id=\"p82\"\u003E(a) AFM topographic images of NCD films and (b) SEM image of BDND film grown on a Si substrate.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_25_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.11 Magnetic nanoparticles\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p83\"\u003ENanomaterials provide high surface areas and a biocompatible environment for enzyme loading. In the last decade, research of magnetic particles has resulted in their use in a large number of nano-sensing devices, providing ease of separation in solution.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p84\"\u003EVarious iron magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) have proven to be an excellent nanomaterial for electrochemical biosensing applications due to their electroconductivity, biocompatibility and ease of synthesis properties. They make important contributions to the development of electrochemical nanobiosensors. Functionalized magnetic nanoparticles can be directed by the external magnetic field to site-specific drug delivery targets. Iron and iron oxide nanoparticles have been studied as signal amplification elements in biosensing [\u003Ca href=\"#B131\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E131\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Among these materials, magnetite (Fe\u003Csub\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsub\u003EO\u003Csub\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E), a Fe\u003Csup\u003E2+\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E and Fe\u003Csup\u003E3+\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E complex oxide, is one of the most studied super paramagnetic nanoparticles. It has unique mesoscopic mechanical and physical properties and has many potential applications in various fields such as cell separation [\u003Ca href=\"#B132\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E132\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] and microwave absorption [\u003Ca href=\"#B133\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E133\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Fe\u003Csub\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsub\u003EO\u003Csub\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E nanoparticles have been widely used for in vivo examination [\u003Ca href=\"#B134\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E134\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The direct binding of cholesterol oxidase to Fe\u003Csub\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsub\u003EO\u003Csub\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E magnetic nanoparticles was investigated and the kinetic behavior, stability and activity of bound cholesterol were investigated [\u003Ca href=\"#B135\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E135\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Due to its easy preparation process, low toxicity, strong superparamagnetism and good biocompatibility, Fe\u003Csub\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsub\u003EO\u003Csub\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E has recently been used in biosensors for glucose, ethanol and acetaminophen. Prepared biosensors showed fast response and high sensitivity with a wide linear range [\u003Ca href=\"#B136\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E136\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B137\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E137\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Fe\u003Csub\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsub\u003EO\u003Csub\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E - Au nanoparticles, have been successfully used for the first time in the dual-mode detection of carcinoembryonics antigens (CEA) and have correctly confirmed the presence of antigens [\u003Ca href=\"#B138\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E138\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p85\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#F10\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 10\u003C\u002Fa\u003E illustrates TEM images of Fe\u003Csub\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsub\u003EO\u003Csub\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E, Au and Fe\u003Csub\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsub\u003EO\u003Csub\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E-Au nanoparticles [\u003Ca href=\"#B138\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E138\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F10\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F74323\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002FF10.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 10.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" id=\"p86\"\u003ETEM images of (A) Fe\u003Csub\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsub\u003EO\u003Csub\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E, (B) Au and (C) Fe\u003Csub\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsub\u003EO\u003Csub\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E–Au nanoparticles; the corresponding HRTEM images are inserted.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p87\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#tab1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table\"\u003ETable 1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E illustrates the studies based novel nanomaterials.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-wrap\" id=\"tab1\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-content\"\u003E\u003Ctable frame=\"hsides\" rules=\"groups\"\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Cthead\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Cth\u003ENanomaterial\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth\u003EAnalyzed\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth\u003EDetection limit\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth\u003ELinear range\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth\u003EMethod\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth\u003ERef.\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003C\u002Fthead\u003E\u003Ctbody\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EGraphdiyne\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EBisphenol A\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E1,0 × 10\u003Csup\u003E−7\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E-3,5 × 10\u003Csup\u003E−6\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E mol\u002FL\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E24 nmol\u002FL\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ECV\u003Csup\u003E1\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E[\u003Ca href=\"#B21\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E21\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EHybrid Nanocomposite\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EMetronidazole\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E0,001–2444 μM\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E0,8 nM\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ECV and EIS\u003Csup\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E[\u003Ca href=\"#B34\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E34\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EInorganic nanomaterial\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EFurazolidone (FZD)\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E0,009–339 μM\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E1,2 nM\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ECV, EIS and Amperometry\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E[\u003Ca href=\"#B10\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E10\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ENoble metal nanoparticles\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EAlpha fetoprotein (AFP\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E0,1 pg.\u002FmL to 50 ng\u002FmL\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E0,033 pg.\u002FmL\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ECV\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E[\u003Ca href=\"#B50\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E50\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EBimetallic Pt-Au\u002Fmulti-walled carbon nanotubes\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EOrganophosphorous pesticides\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E50 to 500 nmol\u002FL\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E29,7 nmol\u002FL\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ECV, Amperometric i-t curve and EIS\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E[\u003Ca href=\"#B64\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E64\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EQuantum dots\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EDopamine\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E0,375–450 μM\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E100 nM\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EElectro-\u003Cbr\u003Echemiluminescence\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E[\u003Ca href=\"#B66\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E66\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EDNAzyme-functionalized single-walled carbon nanotubes\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ECu(II) and Hg(II)\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ECu(II) 0,01–10,000 nM Hg(II) 5–10,000 nM\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ECu(II) 6,7 pM Hg(II) 3,43 nM\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EEIS\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E[\u003Ca href=\"#B89\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E89\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EDNAzyme Functionalized Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ESilver Ion\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E10 pM to 10\u003Csup\u003E6\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E pM\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E5 pM\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EUV–Vis Spectrometry\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E[\u003Ca href=\"#B98\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E98\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ECarbon nanodots\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EGene mutation\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E0,001–20 μM.\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E0,16 nM\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ECV and DPV\u003Csup\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E[\u003Ca href=\"#B112\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E112\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ECarbon-coated nickel magnetic nanoparticles\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EAcetaminophen\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E2,0 × 10\u003Csup\u003E−6\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E to 2,3 × 10\u003Csup\u003E−4\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E mol\u002FL.\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E6,0 × 10\u003Csup\u003E−7\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E mol\u002FL\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EDPV\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E[\u003Ca href=\"#B137\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E137\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ECarbon black\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EBisphenol A\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E0,03 μ M\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E0,1–0,9 μM\u003Cbr\u003E1–50 μM\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ESVW\u003Csup\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E[\u003Ca href=\"#B139\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E139\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E3D DNA nanonet structure\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EMicroRNA\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E36,083 fM\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E10 fM-1 nM\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ECV, DPV and EIS\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E[\u003Ca href=\"#B140\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E140\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ECarbon nanodot\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E17ß-Estradiol\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E0,5 × 10\u003Csup\u003E−12\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E M\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E1,0 × 10\u003Csup\u003E−7\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E - 1,0 × 10\u003Csup\u003E−12\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E M\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ECV and EIS\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E[\u003Ca href=\"#B141\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E141\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ECarbon black\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EPhotosynthetic herbicide\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E0,1–5 mu M\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E1 nM\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EAmperometric measurement\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E[\u003Ca href=\"#B142\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E142\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EMetal-polymer hybrid nanomaterial\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EHuman papillomavirus\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E1–100 pg. mu\u002FL\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E2,74 pg. mu\u002FL\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ECV and EIS\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E[\u003Ca href=\"#B143\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E143\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ENanozymes (magnetic metal organik framework)\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EHydrogen peroxide (H\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003EO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E)\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E5 mu M-120 mM\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E0,9 mu M\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ECV, EIS and Amperometry\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E[\u003Ca href=\"#B144\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E144\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EGold nanorod\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EAflatoxin\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E0,25–10 ng\u002FmL\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E0,11 ng\u002FmL\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ESPR\u003Csup\u003E5\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E[\u003Ca href=\"#B145\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E145\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ENanodiamond\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EUrea\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E0,1–0,9 mg\u002FmL\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E0,005 mg\u002FmL\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EDirect current voltage\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E[\u003Ca href=\"#B146\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E146\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ECarbon dots, chitosan, gold nanoparticles\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EPatulin\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E1 × 10\u003Csup\u003E−12\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E - 1 × 10\u003Csup\u003E−9\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E mol\u002FL\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E7,57 × 10\u003Csup\u003E−13\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E mol\u002FL\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ECV and DPV\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E[\u003Ca href=\"#B147\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E147\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003C\u002Ftbody\u003E\u003C\u002Ftable\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-caption\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading\"\u003ETable 1.\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p89\"\u003EBiosensor applications based navel nanomaterials.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p88\"\u003E1: Cyclic voltammetry, 2: Electrochemical impedance spectrometry, 3: Differential pulse voltammetry 4: Square wave voltammetry, 5: Surface plasmon resonance.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_27\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E4. Conclusion\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p90\"\u003ENanomaterials offer significant advantages, especially in sensor technology, due to their large surface area. When biocompatible nanomaterials are used as biorecognition layers, it enables the design of highly sensitive biosensors. Many nanomaterials, which are widely used today, are now being replaced by novel nanomaterials due to their physical stability, easy synthesis, easy fabrication, and cheapness.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p91\"\u003ENanomaterials became important components in bioanalytical devices since they clearly increase the performances in the sense of detection limits and sensitivity down to single molecules detection.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p92\"\u003EOver content of this chapter aims to evaluate developments in the fields of new nanomaterial-based biosensors. Their production and potential applications for the direct and reliable detection of bioanalytes are described. In addition, research interests for the production of nanomaterial-based biosensors were encouraged with examples.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n","keywords":"novel nanomaterials, biosensor, biorecognition, nanosensors","chapterPDFUrl":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fpdfs\u002F74323.pdf","chapterXML":"https:\u002F\u002Fmts.intechopen.com\u002Fsource\u002Fxml\u002F74323.xml","webChapterXML":"s3:\u002F\u002Fintech-chapter-xmls\u002Fxmls-chapter\u002F74323\u002F1672088090\u002F","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F74323","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F74323","cdnMediaBaseUrl":"s3:\u002F\u002Fintech-cdn\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F74323\u002F1512345123\u002F","totalDownloads":830,"totalViews":581,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":4,"dateSubmitted":"June 7th 2020","dateReviewed":"November 6th 2020","datePrePublished":"December 7th 2020","datePublished":"June 9th 2021","dateFinished":"December 7th 2020","readingETA":"0","abstract":"Since the development of the first biosensor reported, biosensor has received considerable attention due to its high selectivity and sensitivity. Biosensors are highly pursued in order to meet the growing demands and challenges in a large number of analytic applications such as medical diagnosis, food safety control, environmental monitoring, or even military defense. Due to the unique physical, chemical, mechanical and electrical properties, nanomaterials have been widely investigated for their ability and used to fabricate sensors. High surface to volume ratio, good stability, excellent electrocatalytic properties of the nanomaterials plays an important role in the sensitive and selective detection of biomolecules. The synthesis of new nanomaterials with different properties is increasingly common in order to improve these counted properties of nanomaterials. This chapter gives an overview of the importance of the development of novel nanomaterials based biosensors technologies. The use of different funtionalized carbon nanomaterilas, metal oxide nanoparticles, metal nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles, quantum dots, graphene sheets and other novel nanomaterials in biosensor technology, and their innovations and advantages are discussed.","reviewType":"peer-reviewed","bibtexUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fbibtex\u002F74323","risUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fris\u002F74323","signatures":"Kübra Gençdağ Şensoy and Mihrican Muti","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"isDeactivated2":0,"noAds":0,"deactCorrection":null,"subseries":null,"book":{"id":"10414","type":"book","title":"Novel Nanomaterials","subtitle":null,"fullTitle":"Novel Nanomaterials","slug":"novel-nanomaterials","isPublished":true,"publishedDate":"June 9th 2021","bookSignature":"Karthikeyan Krishnamoorthy","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fbooks\u002Fimages_new\u002F10414.jpg","cdnCoverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F10414\u002F1713444683-1159953370\u002Fcover.jpg","cdnCoverURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F10414\u002F1713444683-1159953370\u002Fcover-300.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F10414\u002F1718280028-2000111581\u002Fweb-cover.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F10414\u002F1718280028-2000111581\u002Fweb-cover-300.jpg","cdnCoverWithTextURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F10414\u002F1718117621-239500753\u002Fcover-text.jpg","cdnCoverWithTextURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F10414\u002F1718117621-239500753\u002Fcover-text-300.jpg","licenceType":"CC BY 3.0","editedByType":"Edited by","isbn":"978-1-83881-026-9","printIsbn":"978-1-83881-025-2","pdfIsbn":"978-1-83881-027-6","isAvailableForWebshopOrdering":true,"isDeactivated":false,"kuFlag":false,"noAdsSub":0,"editors":[{"id":"278690","title":"Dr.","name":"Karthikeyan","middleName":null,"surname":"Krishnamoorthy","slug":"karthikeyan-krishnamoorthy","fullName":"Karthikeyan Krishnamoorthy"}],"productType":{"id":"1","title":"Edited Volume","chapterContentType":"chapter","authoredCaption":"Edited by"}},"authors":[{"id":"323086","title":"Assistant Prof.","name":"Kübra","middleName":null,"surname":"Gençdağ Şensoy","fullName":"Kübra Gençdağ Şensoy","slug":"kubra-gencdag-sensoy","email":"kubra.gencdag@gmail.com","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F46.042\u002Fauthor.svg","institution":{"name":"Adnan Menderes University","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Turkey"}}},{"id":"323469","title":"Associate Prof.","name":"Mihrican","middleName":null,"surname":"Muti","fullName":"Mihrican Muti","slug":"mihrican-muti","email":"mihricanmuti@gmail.com","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F46.042\u002Fauthor.svg","institution":null}],"sections":[{"id":"sec_1","title":"1. Introduction","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_2","title":"2. Experimental","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_2_2","title":"2.1 Synthesize of the novel nanomaterials","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_2_3","title":"2.1.1 Graphdiyne","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_3_3","title":"2.1.2 Gold nanostructures","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_4_3","title":"2.1.3 Inorganic nanomaterials","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_5_3","title":"2.1.4 Nanozymes","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_6_3","title":"2.1.5 Hybrid nanocomposites","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_7_3","title":"2.1.6 DNA nanomaterials","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_8_3","title":"2.1.7 DNAzyme","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_9_3","title":"2.1.8 Carbon Nanodots","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_10_3","title":"2.1.9 Carbon black nanomaterials","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_11_3","title":"2.1.10 Nanodiamonds","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_12_3","title":"2.1.11 Magnetic nanoparticles","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_15","title":"3. Result and discussion","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_15_2","title":"3.1 Graphdiyne","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_16_2","title":"3.2 Gold nanostructures","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_17_2","title":"3.3 Inorganic novel nanomaterials","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_18_2","title":"3.4 Nanozymes","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_19_2","title":"3.5 Hybrid nanocomposites","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_20_2","title":"3.6 DNA nanomaterials","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_21_2","title":"3.7 DNAzyme","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_22_2","title":"3.8 Carbon nanodots","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_23_2","title":"3.9 Carbon black nanomaterials","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_24_2","title":"3.10 Nanodiamonds","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_25_2","title":"3.11 Magnetic nanoparticles","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_27","title":"4. Conclusion","level":"1"}],"chapterReferences":[{"id":"B1","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B1\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation publication-type=\"other\"\u003EWu, L., Xiong, E. H., Zhang, X., Zhang, X. H., & Chen, J. H. (2014). 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Establishing a presence and generating growth in the emergent Chinese market has proven challenging for Western firms; operating effectively and efficiently in this ‘new’ market environment (characterised by significant psychographic, cultural, legal and political differences) has highlighted a number of significant research opportunities. One such opportunity has manifest in a call to develop a finer-grained understanding of the knowledge management processes required by Western hotel chains attempting to enter and establish their operations in China. This chapter presents an exploratory analysis of the knowledge management issues and processes experienced by the Marriott Group during its entry and growth in the Chinese hospitality industry. This analysis is based on a series of semi-structured interviews with senior managers present during Marriott’s entry into China. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the managerial and theoretical implications emanating therefrom.","signatures":"Tommy Wong, Linda French and Mark Wickham","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"190629","title":"Dr.","name":"Tommy","surname":"Wong","fullName":"Tommy Wong","slug":"tommy-wong","email":"tommy.wong@utas.edu.au"},{"id":"195020","title":"Dr.","name":"Linda","surname":"French","fullName":"Linda French","slug":"linda-french","email":"Linda.French@utas.edu.au"},{"id":"195021","title":"Dr.","name":"Mark","surname":"Wickham","fullName":"Mark Wickham","slug":"mark-wickham","email":"mark.wickham@utas.edu.au"}],"book":{"id":"5491","title":"Knowledge Management Strategies and Applications","slug":"knowledge-management-strategies-and-applications","productType":{"id":"1","title":"Edited 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Kabwama","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F46.042\u002Fauthor.svg","biography":null,"institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"University of Southern Denmark","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Denmark"}}},{"id":"194913","title":"Dr.","name":"Jesper","surname":"Bo Nielsen","slug":"jesper-bo-nielsen","fullName":"Jesper Bo Nielsen","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F46.042\u002Fauthor.svg","biography":null,"institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"University of Southern Denmark","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Denmark"}}},{"id":"195020","title":"Dr.","name":"Linda","surname":"French","slug":"linda-french","fullName":"Linda French","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F46.042\u002Fauthor.svg","biography":null,"institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"University of Tasmania","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Australia"}}},{"id":"195021","title":"Dr.","name":"Mark","surname":"Wickham","slug":"mark-wickham","fullName":"Mark Wickham","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F195021\u002F1734011536\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.png","biography":"Dr. Mark Wickham is a Senior Lecturer in Management at the College of Business and Economics at the University of Tasmania in Australia. Dr. Wickham teaches an introductory management and an advanced business ethics unit at the undergraduate level. His research interests include business ethics, reputation management, and sustainability management, and he is particularly interested in their relationship to the strategic management process in a range of differing organizational types.","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"University of Tasmania","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Australia"}}}]},"generic":{"page":{"slug":"terms-and-conditions","title":"Terms and Conditions","intro":"\u003Cp\u003EThese Terms and Conditions outline the rules and regulations pertaining to the use of IntechOpen’s website \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fintechopen.com\"\u003Ewww.intechopen.com\u003C\u002Fa\u003E and all the subdomains owned by IntechOpen located at 167-169 Great Portland Street, London, W1W 5PF, United Kingdom.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E","metaTitle":"Terms and Conditions","metaDescription":"These terms and conditions outline the rules and regulations for the use of IntechOpen Website at https:\u002F\u002Fintechopen.com and all its subdomains owned by Intech Limited located at 7th floor, 10 Lower Thames Street, London, EC3R 6AF, UK.","metaKeywords":null,"canonicalURL":"\u002Fpage\u002Fterms-and-conditions","contentRaw":"[{\"type\":\"htmlEditorComponent\",\"content\":\"\u003Ch2\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003E1. 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Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He was an Associate Professor at the University of Limoges, France (1987) before becoming a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Université d’Artois, France (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates, and his main project was the investigation of the biological roles of de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). He has contributed to the understanding of the blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches since 2002. He has published more than 70 papers. 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He was an Associate Professor at the University of Limoges, France (1987) before becoming a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Université d’Artois, France (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates, and his main project was the investigation of the biological roles of de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). He has contributed to the understanding of the blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches since 2002. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization, and metabolic adaptation.","orcid":"0000-0002-2411-6636","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Artois University","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"France"}}}],"_associateEditors":[]},{"id":"18","title":"Proteomics","coverUrl":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fseries_topics\u002Fcovers\u002F18.jpg","isOpenForSubmission":true,"editor":{"id":"200689","title":"Dr.","name":"Paolo","middleName":null,"surname":"Iadarola","slug":"paolo-iadarola","fullName":"Paolo Iadarola","cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F200689\u002F1734441616\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine\u002Fserum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography\u002Fmass spectrometry (2DE-LC\u002FMS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.","orcid":"0000-0001-5651-149X","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"University of Pavia","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Italy"}}},"editorTwo":{"id":"201414","title":"Prof.","name":"Simona","middleName":null,"surname":"Viglio","slug":"simona-viglio","fullName":"Simona Viglio","cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F201414\u002F1734441652\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the 'Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,' and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.","orcid":"0000-0001-5020-478X","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"University of Pavia","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Italy"}}},"editorThree":null,"associateEditorOne":null,"associateEditorTwo":null,"associateEditorThree":null,"_topicEditors":[{"id":"200689","title":"Dr.","name":"Paolo","middleName":null,"surname":"Iadarola","slug":"paolo-iadarola","fullName":"Paolo Iadarola","cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F200689\u002F1734441616\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine\u002Fserum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography\u002Fmass spectrometry (2DE-LC\u002FMS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.","orcid":"0000-0001-5651-149X","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"University of Pavia","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Italy"}}},{"id":"201414","title":"Prof.","name":"Simona","middleName":null,"surname":"Viglio","slug":"simona-viglio","fullName":"Simona Viglio","cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F201414\u002F1734441652\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the 'Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,' and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.","orcid":"0000-0001-5020-478X","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"University of Pavia","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Italy"}}}],"_associateEditors":[]}]},"overviewPageOFChapters":{"paginationCount":38,"paginationItems":[{"id":"1197425","title":"Antioxidant Properties of Natural Bioactive Compounds","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.1007127","signatures":"Okram Abemsana Devi and Mridula Saikia Barooah","slug":null,"isPublished":false,"isOnlineFirst":true,"totalDownloads":7,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"authors":[{"name":"Okram Abemsana","surname":"Devi"}],"book":{"title":"Recent Advances in Phytochemical Research","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fintech-files.s3.amazonaws.com\u002Fa043Y000011YN1TQAW\u002F0015768_TrikoderCover%20%282023-10-30%2008%3A04%3A07%29.jpg","subseries":{"id":"15","title":"Chemical Biology"}}},{"id":"1208019","title":"Revisiting Skeletal Muscle Atrophy: Links between Copper Overload, Cuproptosis, and Muscle Atropy","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.1009603","signatures":"Zhen Shen, Sunfeng Pan, Fengjie Wu, Kaitao Luo and Yanbo Shi","slug":null,"isPublished":false,"isOnlineFirst":true,"totalDownloads":5,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"authors":[{"name":"Yanbo","surname":"Shi"},{"name":"Kaitao","surname":"Lu"},{"name":"Sunfeng","surname":"Pan"},{"name":"Zhen","surname":"Shen"},{"name":"Fengjie","surname":"Wu"}],"book":{"title":"Cell Death Regulation in Pathology","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fintech-files.s3.amazonaws.com\u002Fa04Tc0000084zLjIAI\u002F0016256_TrikoderCover%20%282024-07-01%2007%3A02%3A32%29.jpg","subseries":{"id":"14","title":"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{"id":"1214124","title":"The Role of HSP70 in Regulation of Breast Cancer Stem Cells and Apoptotic Pathway","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.1009789","signatures":"Gul Ozcan and Hasan Korkaya","slug":null,"isPublished":false,"isOnlineFirst":true,"totalDownloads":4,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"authors":[{"name":"Gül","surname":"Özcan"},{"name":"Hasan","surname":"Korkaya"}],"book":{"title":"Cell Death Regulation in Pathology","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fintech-files.s3.amazonaws.com\u002Fa04Tc0000084zLjIAI\u002F0016256_TrikoderCover%20%282024-07-01%2007%3A02%3A32%29.jpg","subseries":{"id":"14","title":"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{"id":"1210129","title":"MYC: Master Regulator of Cell Death and Tumor Progression","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.1008763","signatures":"Lucia Capasso, Donato Mele, Fatima Fayyaz, Lucia Altucci and Angela Nebbioso","slug":null,"isPublished":false,"isOnlineFirst":true,"totalDownloads":9,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"authors":[{"name":"Lucia","surname":"Altucci"},{"name":"Lucia","surname":"Capasso"},{"name":"Donato","surname":"Mele"},{"name":"Fatima","surname":"Fayyaz"},{"name":"Angela","surname":"Nebbioso"}],"book":{"title":"Cell Death Regulation in Pathology","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fintech-files.s3.amazonaws.com\u002Fa04Tc0000084zLjIAI\u002F0016256_TrikoderCover%20%282024-07-01%2007%3A02%3A32%29.jpg","subseries":{"id":"14","title":"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}}]},"overviewPagePublishedBooks":{"paginationCount":61,"paginationItems":[{"type":"book","id":"7006","title":"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids","subtitle":null,"coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fbooks\u002Fimages_new\u002F7006.jpg","slug":"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids","isPublished":true,"publishedDate":"December 19th 2018","editedByType":"Edited by","bookSignature":"Viduranga Waisundara","hash":"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b","volumeInSeries":1,"fullTitle":"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids","editors":[{"id":"194281","title":"Dr.","name":"Viduranga Y.","middleName":null,"surname":"Waisundara","slug":"viduranga-y.-waisundara","fullName":"Viduranga Y. 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He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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Shamshiri","cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F203413\u002F1725430262\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","orcid":null,"institutionString":"Leibniz Institute for Agricultural Engineering Potsdam-Bornim","institution":{"name":"Leibniz Institute for Agricultural Engineering Potsdam-Bornim","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Germany"}}}],"equalEditorOne":null,"equalEditorTwo":null,"equalEditorThree":null},{"type":"book","id":"13049","title":"Strategic Tillage and Soil Management","subtitle":"New Perspectives","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fbooks\u002Fimages_new\u002F13049.jpg","slug":"strategic-tillage-and-soil-management-new-perspectives","isPublished":true,"publishedDate":"June 19th 2024","editedByType":"Edited by","bookSignature":"Rodrigo Nogueira de Sousa","hash":"42223ce2abe077c33d7c6ebf6a58d14e","volumeInSeries":10,"fullTitle":"Strategic Tillage and Soil Management - New Perspectives","editors":[{"id":"468305","title":"Dr.","name":"Rodrigo","middleName":null,"surname":"Nogueira de Sousa","slug":"rodrigo-nogueira-de-sousa","fullName":"Rodrigo Nogueira de Sousa","cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F468305\u002F1718772764\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","orcid":null,"institutionString":"University of Sao Paulo","institution":{"name":"University of Sao Paulo","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Brazil"}}}],"equalEditorOne":null,"equalEditorTwo":null,"equalEditorThree":null},{"type":"book","id":"12680","title":"Best Crop Management and Processing Practices for Sustainable Cotton Production","subtitle":null,"coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fbooks\u002Fimages_new\u002F12680.jpg","slug":"best-crop-management-and-processing-practices-for-sustainable-cotton-production","isPublished":true,"publishedDate":"June 19th 2024","editedByType":"Edited by","bookSignature":"Songül Gürsoy and Songül Akın","hash":"d65f468d986779b53415c92db73109cc","volumeInSeries":9,"fullTitle":"Best Crop Management and Processing Practices for Sustainable Cotton Production","editors":[{"id":"344527","title":"Dr.","name":"Songül","middleName":null,"surname":"Gürsoy","slug":"songul-gursoy","fullName":"Songül Gürsoy","cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F344527\u002F1718772578\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","orcid":null,"institutionString":"Dicle University","institution":{"name":"Dicle University","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Turkey"}}}],"equalEditorOne":null,"equalEditorTwo":null,"equalEditorThree":null},{"type":"book","id":"12682","title":"Grasslands","subtitle":"Conservation and Development","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fbooks\u002Fimages_new\u002F12682.jpg","slug":"grasslands-conservation-and-development","isPublished":true,"publishedDate":"June 5th 2024","editedByType":"Edited by","bookSignature":"Muhammad Aamir Iqbal","hash":"2ea1c12a97458f902f64ec6558506449","volumeInSeries":8,"fullTitle":"Grasslands - Conservation and Development","editors":[{"id":"249866","title":"Dr.","name":"Muhammad Aamir","middleName":null,"surname":"Iqbal","slug":"muhammad-aamir-iqbal","fullName":"Muhammad Aamir Iqbal","cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F249866\u002F1734593176\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","orcid":"0000-0003-2701-0551","institutionString":"University of Poonch Rawalakot","institution":null}],"equalEditorOne":null,"equalEditorTwo":null,"equalEditorThree":null}]},"subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks":[{"group":"subseries","caption":"Animal Farming","value":105,"count":3},{"group":"subseries","caption":"Agronomy and Horticulture","value":104,"count":16}],"publicationYearFilters":[{"group":"publicationYear","caption":"2025","value":2025,"count":3},{"group":"publicationYear","caption":"2024","value":2024,"count":15},{"group":"publicationYear","caption":"2023","value":2023,"count":1}],"authors":{"paginationCount":957,"paginationItems":[{"id":"323870","title":"Emeritus Prof.","name":"Gary","middleName":null,"surname":"Yohe","slug":"gary-yohe","fullName":"Gary Yohe","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F323870\u002F1737539714\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Gary Yohe holds a BS degree in mathematics from the University of Pennsylvania and a PhD in economics from Yale University. Since turning his attention to climate change in 1981, he has contributed 10 books, 175+ research articles, and 75+ opinions to our understanding of climate risk and humanity’s response options. He served as a senior member of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change from 1995 through 2018 and shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize. He was the Vice Chair of the 2014 Third National Climate Assessment for President Barack Obama and a charter member of the New York City Panel on Climate Change for Mayor Michael Bloomberg. He continues to serve as Co-editor-in-Chief of Climatic Change.","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Wesleyan University","country":{"name":"United States of America"}}},{"id":"452331","title":"Prof.","name":"Brian","middleName":"William","surname":"Sloboda","slug":"brian-sloboda","fullName":"Brian Sloboda","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F452331\u002F1731487399\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Brian W. Sloboda is an economist at the US Department of Labor and a faculty member at the University of Maryland, Global Campus where he teaches economics and finance. His research focuses on regional economics, economic growth, and labor economics with avocational research interests in finance and presidential election forecasting models. He is a committee member of the Federal Forecasters Consortium (FFC), a board member of the Pennsylvania Economics Association, and a member of the editorial board of Pennsylvania Economic Review. Dr. Sloboda is the former president of the Society of Government Economists (SGE) and is now its executive director. He is currently an assistant editor for the Journal of Economics and a senior social science editor for the European Scientific Journal. He is also a book review editor for the Review of Regional Studies.","institutionString":"University of Maryland, Global Campus","institution":null},{"id":"422754","title":"Dr.","name":"Hany","middleName":"M.","surname":"Almotairy","slug":"hany-almotairy","fullName":"Hany Almotairy","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F422754\u002F1734030929\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"I have experience as an environmental researcher specializing in sustainable agriculture since 2014 and the integration of environmental bacteriology and technology for over four years; I possess expertise in assessing environmental pollutant risks and addressing antibiotic-resistant bacteria. My dedication to environmental sustainability is reflected in my strong knowledge of sustainable agricultural systems and animal feed risk assessment, backed by two years as an environmental and animal feed consultant. I am proficient in International Sustainability Reporting (GRI standards) and am committed to promoting environmental sustainability in Saudi Arabia by advocating for eco-friendly agricultural systems and a circular economy. My professional roles include serving as a Senior Risk Assessment Expert at the Saudi Food and Drug Authority, Assistant Research Professor at King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST), and Assistant Researcher at the Ministry of Environment, Water, and Agriculture (MEWA), focusing on food safety, biosecurity, and animal health. Academically, I hold a Ph.D. in Environmental Science from the University of Arizona and a Master’s in Animal Production from King Saud University. I bring skills in designing sustainable agricultural systems, evaluating environmental pollutants, and developing biosecurity programs in intensive animal farming systems. My achievements include leading a research project on sustainable aquaculture, publishing in reputable journals, and receiving academic scholarships and awards for my research contributions. I am pursuing GRI Audit for Sustainable Reporting and ISO 14001 certifications to drive positive environmental change.","institutionString":"Senior Risk Assessment Expert at the Saudi Food and Drug Authority","institution":null},{"id":"191607","title":"Dr.","name":"Anca Corina","middleName":null,"surname":"Fărcaş","slug":"anca-corina-farcas","fullName":"Anca Corina Fărcaş","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F191607\u002F1729839712\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Anca Corina Farcas holds a Ph.D. in Biotechnology and currently serves as a lecturer and researcher in the Department of Food Science at the University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca, Romania. She has a solid background in agro-industrial waste exploitation, the biochemistry of secondary metabolites, the recovery of bioactive fractions using advanced technologies and integrated systems, and the development of new functional products. She adopts a strong interdisciplinary approach, focusing on exploring new strategies and technologies to optimize innovative solutions for reintegrating by-products into various industries.","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca","country":{"name":"Romania"}}},{"id":"158026","title":"Prof.","name":"Shailendra K.","middleName":null,"surname":"Saxena","slug":"shailendra-k.-saxena","fullName":"Shailendra K. Saxena","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F158026\u002F1741880644\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.png","biography":"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a Vice Dean and Distinguished Professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as models via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact-factor journals.\n\nHe has received many awards and honours in India and abroad, including various Young Scientist Awards, the BBSRC India Partnering Award, and the Dr. JC Bose National Award of the Department of Biotechnology from the Ministry of Science and Technology of the Government of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various prestigious international societies\u002Facademies, including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria.\n\nHe was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader\u002Fexpert on the vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK). He has been recognized among the 'World's Top 2% Scientists' by Stanford University, California, USA, and 'Clarivate's Highly Cited Researchers.' His inclusion in these prestigious databases is a testament to his exceptional contributions to global research.","institutionString":"King George's Medical University","institution":null},{"id":"441033","title":null,"name":"Gabriel","middleName":null,"surname":"Mustatea","slug":"gabriel-mustatea","fullName":"Gabriel Mustatea","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F441033\u002F1734032538\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Gabriel Mustățea is a Scientific researcher and head of the Food packaging Laboratory within the National R&D Institute for Food Bioresources – IBA Bucharest, Romania. He received a B.Sc. degree and an M.Sc. degree in Food Chemistry from the University POLITEHNICA of Bucharest, Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science (currently named Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnologies). In 2014, he received a Ph.D. degree in Chemical Engineering at the same university. His interests are related to food packaging and food contact materials, food safety and food security, food technology, analysis of contaminants, circular economy, and food waste. \r\nHe published more than 50 papers (more than 20 WoS), 1 book chapter, and several books and brochures in Romanian. He was involved as a project responsible or team member in more than 50 research projects (more than 10 at the international level).","institutionString":"National R&D Institute for Food Bioresources, Romania","institution":null},{"id":"519318","title":"Associate Prof.","name":"Ioana Mihaela","middleName":null,"surname":"Balan","slug":"ioana-mihaela-balan","fullName":"Ioana Mihaela Balan","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F519318\u002F1734030997\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Assoc. Professor, PhD, DHC at University of Life Sciences \"King Mihai I\" from Timisoara – Romania. Holds double specialization in Economics (Quality Management) and Animal Sciences. Is author of several scientific papers and books in the field of food security and food quality management. Is active in several national and international projects as expert in quality management, and food security, and Erasmus invited professor at universities from Asia, Africa and Europe. Is reviewer for several international journals from Europe, Africa and Asia and evaluator-rapporteur for the Executive Agency for the Financing of Higher Education, Research, Development and Innovation (UEFISCDI), Invited professor at Tbilisi Teaching University - Tbilisi, Georgia and at Uele University - Isiro, DR Congo.\nDoctor Honoris Causa of Tbilisi Teaching University - Tbilisi, Georgia.","institutionString":"UNIVERSITY OF LIFE SCIENCES \"KING MIHAI I\" FROM TIMISOARA.","institution":null},{"id":"572587","title":"Ph.D. Student","name":"Akungah","middleName":null,"surname":"O'Nyangeri","slug":"akungah-o'nyangeri","fullName":"Akungah O'Nyangeri","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F572587\u002F1734032545\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"PHD student at the University of Nairobi. Research interests include translation, interpretation, intercultural communication and pragmatics","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"University of Nairobi","country":{"name":"Kenya"}}},{"id":"10864","title":"Prof.","name":"Levente","middleName":null,"surname":"Hufnagel","slug":"levente-hufnagel","fullName":"Levente Hufnagel","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F10864\u002F1739613577\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Dr. Levente Hufnagel is a full professor and the head of the Research Institute of Multidisciplinary Ecotheology of the John Wesley Theological College (Budapest, Hungary), working on ecology, biogeography, ecological research methodology, ecotheology and sustainability with over 20 years of experience at leading Hungarian academic institutions teaching PhD, MSc and BSc students from various social and cultural backgrounds, having more than 260 scientific publications (in both aquatic and terrestrial ecological aspects of plants, animals and microbes, at the community as well as population level) and more than 1500 independent citations. As a participant in several big ecological research and development projects, he has significant experience in multidisciplinary cooperation (with more than 200 coauthors in different publications). As the supervisor of several PhD, BSc and MSc theses and as editor-in-chief of an international scientific journal indexed by Web of Science and Scopus, he has wide supervising and editing experience. Dr. Hufnagel graduated from Eötvös Lorand University in Hungary with a Master's degree in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology and PhD degree in Hydrobiology; he also graduated from Szent István University in Hungary with PhD degree in Agricultural Science and with other degrees from the Corvinus University of Budapest and Adventist Theological College.","institutionString":"John Wesley Theological College, Research Institute of Multidisciplinary Ecotheology","institution":null},{"id":"594190","title":"Associate Prof.","name":"Ilda","middleName":null,"surname":"Vagge","slug":"ilda-vagge","fullName":"Ilda Vagge","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F594190\u002F1742557169\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.png","biography":"Ilda Vagge, Professor of Environmental and Applied Botany at the University of Milan from 2001. Graduated with honours in Natural Sciences (University of Genoa) in the 1991. Doctorate in “Plant Biology and Ecology in Mediterranean Environments” in the 1995 (University of Catania). Postdoctoral Fellowship in Plant Biology at the University of Ancona (1996-98). The main fields of research concern: Geobotany - vegetation and landscape patterns in coastal areas, in river areas, in mountain areas with the integration of geomorphological and pedological data; Botany and geobotany applied - cartography of vegetation, assessment of environmental quality in natural, semi-natural and anthropogenic habitats, estimation and analysis of biodiversity at the level of species and ecosystems, nature conservation, control and monitoring of invasive species; Landscape ecology, environmental design, urban ecology.","institutionString":"University of Milan, Department of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Italy","institution":null},{"id":"278258","title":"Dr.","name":"Emmanuel","middleName":"Temiotan","surname":"Ogbomida","slug":"emmanuel-ogbomida","fullName":"Emmanuel Ogbomida","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F278258\u002F1734011574\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.png","biography":"Dr. Emmanuel Temiotan Ogbomida is a distinguished academician and researcher whose expertise spans the fields of ecotoxicology, environmental forensics, and innovation. With a relentless commitment to advancing knowledge and fostering sustainable solutions, Dr. Ogbomida holds prominent roles at prestigious institutions in Zambia, Japan, and Nigeria. As the Director of Research, Innovation, and Consultancy at the esteemed Copperbelt University in Zambia, Dr. Ogbomida plays a pivotal role in shaping research agendas, fostering innovation, and facilitating consultancy services. His leadership has been instrumental in enhancing the university's research capabilities and fostering collaborations with national and international partners.\n\nIn addition to his role at Copperbelt University, Dr. Ogbomida serves as an Associate Professor of Ecotoxicology and Environmental Forensics and holds the position of Deputy Director of Research and Development at the National Centre for Energy and Environment, University of Benin, Nigeria. In this capacity, he spearheads initiatives aimed at addressing environmental challenges, promoting sustainable development, and advancing scientific knowledge in Nigeria and beyond. Dr. Ogbomida's visionary leadership extends beyond traditional academic boundaries. He is renowned for his pioneering efforts in establishing Mukuba Unipod, an Innovation Hub at Copperbelt University, in collaboration with the UNDP Accelerator Lab. This initiative reflects his dedication to fostering a culture of innovation, entrepreneurship, and knowledge exchange to address contemporary societal challenges.\n\nAt the forefront of research and innovation, Dr. Ogbomida's work encompasses a diverse array of topics, ranging from environmental pollution and toxicology to renewable energy and sustainable development. His interdisciplinary approach and collaborative ethos have earned him recognition as a thought leader in his field, inspiring the next generation of scholars and innovators to make meaningful contributions to society. Driven by a passion for excellence and a commitment to making a positive impact, Dr. Ogbomida continues to push the boundaries of knowledge, innovation, and sustainable development, leaving an indelible mark on academia and society as a whole.","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Copperbelt University","country":{"name":"Zambia"}}},{"id":"224586","title":"Prof.","name":"Emad","middleName":"F","surname":"Saleh","slug":"emad-saleh","fullName":"Emad Saleh","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F224586\u002F1726047048\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":null,"institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Fayoum University","country":{"name":"Egypt"}}},{"id":"173962","title":"Dr.","name":"Marjan","middleName":null,"surname":"Jenko","slug":"marjan-jenko","fullName":"Marjan Jenko","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F173962\u002F1720666527\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"MARJAN JENKO received the M.Sc. E.E. degree from the University of Ljubljana, and the Ph.D. E.E. degree from Boston University, Boston. He started his career at the Iskra Microelectronics Divi-sion, Ljubljana, then joined RF Power Products Inc., Voorhees, NJ, then joined System Chip, Los Gatos, CA. Now he is with the University of Ljubljana. He has been teaching circuit theory and pro-gramming engineering for the last ten years. He has been developing multi discipline projects for the education of engineering, IT, and product design students. His current work encompasses the design and optimization of product and manufacturing parameters for robust production. His research fields include control theory, distributed applications for management and control, methods of design for robust production and product maintenance, algorithms for process simulation, and technical educa-tion.","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"University of Ljubljana","country":{"name":"Slovenia"}}},{"id":"180613","title":"Dr.","name":"Kasturi","middleName":null,"surname":"Singh","slug":"kasturi-singh","fullName":"Kasturi Singh","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F180613\u002F1734030773\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":null,"institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"University of Exeter","country":{"name":"United Kingdom"}}},{"id":"215338","title":"Prof.","name":"Rui Alexandre","middleName":null,"surname":"Castanho","slug":"rui-alexandre-castanho","fullName":"Rui Alexandre Castanho","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F215338\u002F1734438048\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.png","biography":"Rui Alexandre Castanho holds an international Ph.D. in Sustainable Planning in Borderlands. He is Vice-Dean for Sustainable Development, WSB University, Poland, and a visiting professor at the University of Johannesburg, South Africa. He is also a European Climate Pact Ambassador. Dr. Castanho completed a postdoctoral research appointment on the GREAT Project, University of Azores, Portugal. He is the vice-coordinator of the VALORIZA - Research Centre for Endogenous Resource, Polytechnic Institute of Portalegre (IPP), Portugal, and collaborates with the Centre for Tourism Research, Development and Innovation (CITUR), Portugal, and the AQUAGEO Research Group, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Brazil. Dr. Castanho was awarded the title of Doctor Honoris Causa by the Peruvian University of Science and Informatics (UPCI).","institutionString":"WSB University, Dabrowa Górnicza-Poland and VALORIZA Research Center, IPP, Portalegre-Portugal","institution":null},{"id":"248645","title":"Dr.","name":"Sérgio António","middleName":null,"surname":"Neves Lousada","slug":"sergio-antonio-neves-lousada","fullName":"Sérgio António Neves Lousada","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F248645\u002F1742908794\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Sérgio António Neves Lousada holds an International PhD. in Civil Engineering – Hydraulics from the University of Minho (UMinho) in Portugal and an International PhD. in Sustainable Territorial Development from the University of Extremadura (UEx) in Spain. He has published some articles and books and participated in events mainly in the areas of Hydraulics, Urban Planning and Land Management. Furthermore, he collaborates with the Research Group on Environment and Spatial Planning (MAOT) - University of Extremadura (UEx), Badajoz, Spain; VALORIZA - Research Center for the Enhancement of Endogenous Resources, Polytechnic Institute of Portalegre (IPP), Portugal; CITUR-Madeira - Centre for Tourism Research, Development and Innovation, Madeira, Portugal; RISCO - Civil Engineering Department of University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal; OSEAN – Outermost Regions Sustainable Ecosystem for Entrepreneurship and Innovation, Madeira, Portugal. Moreover, he holds an International Interuniversity Master’s Degree in Ports and Coasts Engineering from the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC) and the University of La Laguna (ULL), both in Spain.","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"University of Madeira","country":{"name":"Portugal"}}},{"id":"592904","title":"Ph.D. Student","name":"Eleni","middleName":"P","surname":"Kalliontzi","slug":"eleni-kalliontzi","fullName":"Eleni Kalliontzi","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F592904\u002F1734032577\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"The undersigned obtained a Bachelor’s degree in \\'Computer Engineering and Telecommunications\\' from the Department of Computer Engineering and Telecommunications at the University of Western Macedonia. Continuing her academic journey, she successfully earned a Master\\'s degree in \\'Biomedical Engineering\\' from the Department of Mechanical Engineering at the same university. Currently, she is a PhD candidate at the Department of Chemical Engineering, working on her doctoral dissertation titled \\'Analysis and Modeling of the Impact of Science and Technology Parks on Regional Development.\\' Her main focus is on actively participating in research programs and providing significant support to such projects. With continuous interest and dedication to the advancement of science and technology, she actively contributes to the development of knowledge and the successful implementation of research programs.","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"University of Western Macedonia","country":{"name":"Greece"}}},{"id":"570572","title":"Associate Prof.","name":"Noha","middleName":"Essam","surname":"Khamis","slug":"noha-khamis","fullName":"Noha Khamis","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F570572\u002F1729667757\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Dr. Noha Essam, PhD\nAssoc. Professor of Interior Architecture & Interdisciplinary Design, Strategic Foresight Consultant, Environmental Psychologist. Founder of Studio ne+\n\nDr. Noha Essam is an award winning design academic, Interdisciplinary designer, Foresight consultant, and environmental psychologist. She serves as a design professor and an educational consultant at a number of reputable universities in Egypt and abroad. She received the leadership accolade of WDO for her excellence in the design driven foresight research in the design education context that works in alignment with the UNDP. She is a member of African Circular Economic Network (ACEN). She is also a Global Ambassador and Advocate of Sustainability. She is the founder of Studio ne+ where she bring in how to move the masses and change behaviour through her foresight based design approach and trend forecasting techniques that tackle design from different context and perspective. Her researches develop better understandings of the relations between sustainable design education, and the creative industry with a focus on the multidisciplinary studies of future literacy and speculation. Dr. Noha’s consultancy practices side to side with her academic background enhances the language of creativity in the design community. Her fusion of experiencing multidisciplinary study areas and diverse perspectives was a process of unravelling of potentials and giving free play to her creative mind while considering the practical human experience that are at the core of her approach. She has many international publications in interdisciplinary studies. Her researches develop better understandings of the relations between design education, and the creative industry with a focus on the multidisciplinary studies of future literacy and speculation.","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Effat University","country":{"name":"Saudi Arabia"}}},{"id":"313341","title":"Ph.D.","name":"Yaroslava","middleName":null,"surname":"Robles-Bykbaev","slug":"yaroslava-robles-bykbaev","fullName":"Yaroslava Robles-Bykbaev","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F313341\u002F1719376675\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Yaroslava Robles Bykbaev, born in Cuenca in 1982, holds a Ph.D. in Health Sciences from the University of La Coruña-Spain, a master’s in health research from the University of Cuenca-Ecuador, a master’s in medical anthropology and international health from the University Rovira I Virgili-Spain, a master’s in cell biology and cytogenetics from the ESNECA Group-Spain, and a medical doctor degree from the University of Cuenca-Ecuador. She was also a professor in psychophysiology, bio-histology, anatomy and physiology, anatomy, research methodology, biology, and biostatistics. She has taught research methodology in cultural management, psychology, intercultural health, and public health in various universities.\nYaroslava Robles Bykbaev is a member of the UNESCO Chair of the Politecnica Salesiana University; she has directed the project on sexual and reproductive health for deaf people in Cuenca, has been a director and is currently co-director of the project on sexual health and self-care for the prevention of sexual violence in children and adolescents with intellectual disabilities in the framework of the Solidarity Fund for Innovative Projects (PISSCA) through the cooperation and cultural action of the French Embassy in Ecuador. She has contributed as co-author and author to approximately 30 scientific publications in the fields of statistics, inclusive education, stem cell culture, and social and cultural anthropology. These publications focus on the visibility of problems in the field of public health and focus on the creation of proposals to improve community health.\nDr. Yaroslava Robles Bykbaev is an active member of the NODO Ecuadorian Network of Women Scientists (REMCI) (https:\u002F\u002Fwww.remci.org\u002Faliadas). She was part of the traveling exhibition of Women Scientists of Ecuador in the framework of the International Day of Women and Girls in Science, corresponding to the exhibition called Women Protagonists of Science: The Scientific Footprint of Women in Ecuador from February 10 to 25, 2022, in Cuenca, Ecuador.","institutionString":"Institute for Biomedical Research of A Coruña","institution":{"name":"Politecnica Salesiana University","country":{"name":"Ecuador"}}},{"id":"197609","title":"Dr.","name":"Taha Selim","middleName":null,"surname":"Ustun","slug":"taha-selim-ustun","fullName":"Taha Selim Ustun","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F197609\u002F1726218818\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Taha Selim Ustun received his Ph.D. in electrical engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia. He is currently a senior researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute (FREA), National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Before that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, Europe, and North America. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids.","institutionString":"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute","institution":null},{"id":"514617","title":"Dr.","name":"Allincia","middleName":null,"surname":"Michaud","slug":"allincia-michaud","fullName":"Allincia Michaud","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F514617\u002F1718772349\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Allincia Michaud, MD, MPH, is a senior clinical postdoctoral research fellow at St. Luke’s University Health Network, where she is engaged in various multidisciplinary research projects. Her research collaborations involve research protocol development, data evaluation, advanced analytics, and manuscript writing and editing. She’s a proficient reviewer, editor, and author of several publications in reputed journals and has presented at various conferences. Additionally, she is also the managing editor of the International Journal of Academic Medicine (IJAM). She has a keen interest in international health, preventive medicine, the management of chronic diseases, health literacy, and the mitigation of health disparities.","institutionString":"St. Luke's University Health Network","institution":{"name":"St. Luke's University Health Network","country":{"name":"United States of America"}}},{"id":"534287","title":"Mr.","name":"Jibrailu L.","middleName":"Lot","surname":"Maliyogbinda","slug":"jibrailu-l.-maliyogbinda","fullName":"Jibrailu L. Maliyogbinda","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F534287\u002F1718772331\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Jibrailu has over 19 years of combined experience in Pharma industry, international development, and technical services with focus on procurement, logistics & supply chain management, project management and health systems and workforce development. Since 2014, Jibrailu has been working on projects funded by TGF, DFID, The Gates Foundation and The World Bank Group. Jibrailu L. Maliyogbinda, Sr has demonstrated expertise and experience in developing health systems, health workforce and supply chain solutions for low and middle-income countries through leading and managing, stakeholders engagement, teamwork, innovation, relationship and change management, performance management and continuous improvement by adapting global standards and best practices to local and specific in-country situations to achieve stakeholder satisfaction, improved performance and life changing impact at value for money cost.","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Texila American University","country":{"name":"Guyana"}}},{"id":"187625","title":"Dr.","name":"Stanislaw P.","middleName":null,"surname":"Stawicki","slug":"stanislaw-p.-stawicki","fullName":"Stanislaw P. Stawicki","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F187625\u002F1718772293\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, MD, MBA, FACS, FAIM is Chair of the Department of Research of Innovation, St. Luke's University Health Network, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. He is Professor of Surgery at Temple University School of Medicine. Dr. Stawicki is Edited or Co-Edited more than 30 books, including multiple volumes of patient safety, medical leadership, medical education, and advanced technologies (including artificial intelligence and blockchain in healthcare). He is a member of multiple editorial boards and has co-authored nearly 800 publications. He has given a multitude of scientific presentations, participated on various State, National, and International committees and task forces, and is Board Certified in General Surgery and Surgical Critical Care.","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"St. Luke's University Health Network","country":{"name":"United States of America"}}},{"id":"348038","title":"Associate Prof.","name":"Feyza","middleName":null,"surname":"Bhatti","slug":"feyza-bhatti","fullName":"Feyza Bhatti","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F348038\u002F1717570081\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Associate Professor Dr. Feyza Bhatti is a mixed-methods social science researcher with substantive experience and interest in gender studies, particularly focusing on understanding gendered workplaces, gender inequalities, and the social and work experiences of women, men, and marginalized groups in developing countries. After completing her BA and MS in Economics, she received her Ph.D. in Sociology from the University of Edinburgh, Scotland. She is currently the vice dean of the Faculty of Business, director of the Center for Gender Studies, and director of the Institute of Graduate Studies and Research at Girne American University, Cyprus.","institutionString":"Girne American University","institution":{"name":"Girne American University","country":{"name":"Cyprus"}}},{"id":"534229","title":"Prof.","name":"Teresa","middleName":"J.","surname":"Kennedy","slug":"teresa-kennedy","fullName":"Teresa Kennedy","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F534229\u002F1738689235\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.uttyler.edu\u002Fdirectory\u002Feducation\u002Ftkennedy.php","institutionString":"The University of Texas at Tyler","institution":null},{"id":"517474","title":"Dr.","name":"Audra","middleName":null,"surname":"Williams","slug":"audra-williams","fullName":"Audra Williams","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F517474\u002F1716935115\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Audra T. Williams is an author and researcher with a passion for youth and their success. She completed her Bachelor of Science degree in Psychology at the University of the West Indies, Mona campus. Her interest in children and the family led her to successfully applying for a Commonwealth Scholarship to pursue a Master of Science degree in Family and Child Psychology at the University of Chester. Her current position as research assistant at the University of the West Indies, Mona, has facilitated the expansion of her research interests to include adolescent females and their families. For the past 5 years she has reviewed abstracts submitted for the annual Nursing and Midwifery Research Conference hosted by the UWI School of Nursing, Mona. She has published several papers and abstracts, in both quantitative and qualitative research. She also assists in teaching undergraduate research courses for second, third and fourth year students.","institutionString":"Research Assistant, The UWI School of Nursing, Mona","institution":{"name":"University of the West Indies","country":{"name":"Jamaica"}}},{"id":"248594","title":"Dr.","name":"Jasneth","middleName":null,"surname":"Mullings","slug":"jasneth-mullings","fullName":"Jasneth Mullings","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F248594\u002F1724846007\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Jasneth Mullings, Ph.D., is a social epidemiologist in the Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of the West Indies (UWI) Mona, Jamaica. She holds a master’s degree in public health\u002Fhealth education and was the first graduate from UWI to obtain a PhD in Epidemiology. Her research interests span the arenas of mental health, urban health, community health and related interventions, with research focused on the mental health effects of neighborhood structural and social processes. Dr. Mullings currently serves as a strategic advisor to UrbanHealth360, global thought leaders in urban health, and is a member of the International Society for Urban Health.","institutionString":"The University of the West Indies","institution":null},{"id":"258761","title":"Dr.","name":"Leith","middleName":null,"surname":"Dunn","slug":"leith-dunn","fullName":"Leith Dunn","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F258761\u002F1716965281\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.png","biography":"Leith Dunn, Ph.D., is a sociologist and gender analyst, honorary\nresearch fellow, and former senior lecturer\u002Fhead of the University\nof the Institute for Gender and Development Studies, University\nof the West Indies (UWI) Mona, Jamaica. She is also a research\naffiliate in the Department of Sociology in Botswana under the\nIsaac Shapera Project. She holds a Ph.D. from the London School of\nEconomics and Political Science as well as an MSc (Sociology) and\nBA (Hons) from UWI. Dr. Dunn’s research interests include gender mainstreaming in\nsocioeconomic development policies and programs; sexual and reproductive health\nand rights; climate change and disasters; labor standards (human trafficking, domestic workers); migration and human trafficking; and rights of women, children and\npersons with disabilities. In 2019, Apolitical.com named Dr. Dunn among the 100\nmost influential persons globally for promoting gender equality policies.","institutionString":"The University of the West Indies, Mona","institution":null},{"id":"245319","title":"Ph.D.","name":"Sage","middleName":null,"surname":"Arbor","slug":"sage-arbor","fullName":"Sage Arbor","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F245319\u002F1716935108\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.png","biography":"Sage Arbor has worked across a broad biomedical spectrum, from\ndrug design to clinical trial analysis, including AI development,\nproject management of developers\u002Fanalysts of globally distributed labs (PMP certified), electronic medical record data mining\n(SQL and NoSQL), Python\u002FPandas coding, data segmentation, 6σ\nimprovement, pathway mapping, and computational drug design\nand synthesis. Having worked in multiple academic and corporate\npositions ( Pfizer and Dupont), he is currently a senior informaticist at Duke Clinical\nResearch Institute (DCRI) leading the transition to greater AI language learning model (LLM) use via talks, AI project management and development, tutorials, as well as\none-on-one training.","institutionString":"Duke University School of Medicine","institution":{"name":"Duke University School of Medicine","country":{"name":"United States of America"}}},{"id":"567577","title":"Dr.","name":"Badr-Eddine","middleName":null,"surname":"Boudriki Semlali","slug":"badr-eddine-boudriki-semlali","fullName":"Badr-Eddine Boudriki Semlali","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F567577\u002F1734032546\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":null,"institutionString":"Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya","institution":null}]}},"subseries":{"item":{"id":"87","type":"subseries","title":"Economics","keywords":"Globalization, Economic Integration, Growth and Development, International Trade, Environmental Development, Developed Countries, Developing Countries, Technical Innovation, Knowledge Management, Political Economy Analysis, Banking and Financial Markets","scope":"\u003Cp\u003E\n\tThe topic on Economics is designed to disseminate knowledge around broad global economic issues. Original submissions will be accepted in English for applied and theoretical articles, case studies and reviews about the specific challenges and opportunities faced by the economies and markets around the world. The authors are encouraged to apply rigorous economic analysis with significant policy implications for developed and developing countries. Examples of subjects of interest will include, but are not limited to globalization, economic integration, growth and development, international trade, environmental development, country specific comparative analysis, technical innovation and knowledge management, political economy analysis, and banking and financial markets.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E","coverUrl":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fseries_topics\u002Fcovers\u002F87.jpg","hasOnlineFirst":true,"hasPublishedBooks":true,"annualVolume":87,"isSalesforceSubseries":true,"editor":{"id":"327730","title":"Dr.","name":"Jaime","middleName":null,"surname":"Ortiz","slug":"jaime-ortiz","fullName":"Jaime Ortiz","cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F327730\u002F1734444837\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Dr. Jaime Ortiz holds degrees from Chile, the Netherlands, and the United States. He has held tenured faculty, distinguished professorship, and executive leadership appointments with a remit to campus-wide globalization engagement in more than thirty-six countries. He has previously worked for international organizations and non-government entities in economic and business matters. He has advised, among others, the United Nations Development Program, Inter-American Development Bank, Organization of American States, Pre-investment Organization of Latin America and the Caribbean, Technical Cooperation of the Suisse Government, and the World Bank. Dr. Ortiz is the author, co-author, or editor of books, book chapters, textbooks, research monographs and technical reports, and refereed journal articles. He is listed in Who’s Who in the World, Who’s Who in America, Who’s Who in Finance and Business, Who’s Who in Business Higher Education, Who’s Who in American Education, and Who’s Who Directory of Economists. Dr. Ortiz was a Fulbright Scholar and an MSI Leadership Fellow with the W.K. Kellogg Foundation. His teaching, research, and consulting focus on global economies and markets, development and growth, international business decisions, and the economics of technical innovation.","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"The University of Texas Rio Grande Valley","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"United States of America"}}},"editorTwo":null,"editorThree":null,"associateEditorOne":null,"associateEditorTwo":null,"associateEditorThree":null,"series":{"id":"22","title":"Business, Management and Economics","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.100359","issn":"2753-894X"},"editorialBoard":null,"_topicEditors":[{"id":"327730","title":"Dr.","name":"Jaime","middleName":null,"surname":"Ortiz","slug":"jaime-ortiz","fullName":"Jaime Ortiz","cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F327730\u002F1734444837\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Dr. Jaime Ortiz holds degrees from Chile, the Netherlands, and the United States. He has held tenured faculty, distinguished professorship, and executive leadership appointments with a remit to campus-wide globalization engagement in more than thirty-six countries. He has previously worked for international organizations and non-government entities in economic and business matters. He has advised, among others, the United Nations Development Program, Inter-American Development Bank, Organization of American States, Pre-investment Organization of Latin America and the Caribbean, Technical Cooperation of the Suisse Government, and the World Bank. Dr. Ortiz is the author, co-author, or editor of books, book chapters, textbooks, research monographs and technical reports, and refereed journal articles. He is listed in Who’s Who in the World, Who’s Who in America, Who’s Who in Finance and Business, Who’s Who in Business Higher Education, Who’s Who in American Education, and Who’s Who Directory of Economists. Dr. Ortiz was a Fulbright Scholar and an MSI Leadership Fellow with the W.K. Kellogg Foundation. 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