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opposition</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Political_opposition-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Political opposition subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Political_opposition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Lily-white_movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lily-white_movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Lily-white movement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lily-white_movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disenfranchisement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disenfranchisement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Disenfranchisement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disenfranchisement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criminal_law_and_lynching" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criminal_law_and_lynching"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Criminal law and lynching</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criminal_law_and_lynching-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Farmers_and_blue-collar_workers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Farmers_and_blue-collar_workers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Farmers and blue-collar workers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Farmers_and_blue-collar_workers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_golden_age_of_black_entrepreneurship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_golden_age_of_black_entrepreneurship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>The golden age of black entrepreneurship</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_golden_age_of_black_entrepreneurship-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle The golden age of black entrepreneurship subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-The_golden_age_of_black_entrepreneurship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Division_of_Negro_Affairs_in_the_Department_of_Commerce" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Division_of_Negro_Affairs_in_the_Department_of_Commerce"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Division of Negro Affairs in the Department of Commerce</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Division_of_Negro_Affairs_in_the_Department_of_Commerce-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Executive_orders_for_non-discriminatory_hiring_by_defense_contractors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Executive_orders_for_non-discriminatory_hiring_by_defense_contractors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Executive orders for non-discriminatory hiring by defense contractors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Executive_orders_for_non-discriminatory_hiring_by_defense_contractors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_black_church" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_black_church"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>The black church</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_black_church-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Educational_growth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Educational_growth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Educational growth</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Educational_growth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Libraries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Libraries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Libraries</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Libraries-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Libraries subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Libraries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Tougaloo_Nine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Tougaloo_Nine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>The Tougaloo Nine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Tougaloo_Nine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_NAACP" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_NAACP"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>The NAACP</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_NAACP-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle The NAACP subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-The_NAACP-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Niagara_Movement_and_the_founding_of_the_NAACP" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Niagara_Movement_and_the_founding_of_the_NAACP"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>The Niagara Movement and the founding of the NAACP</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Niagara_Movement_and_the_founding_of_the_NAACP-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anti-lynching_activities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anti-lynching_activities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.2</span> <span>Anti-lynching activities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anti-lynching_activities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Desegregation_activities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Desegregation_activities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.3</span> <span>Desegregation activities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Desegregation_activities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-American-Jewish_support" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#American-Jewish_support"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>American-Jewish support</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-American-Jewish_support-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-"The_New_Negro"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"The_New_Negro""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>"The New Negro"</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-"The_New_Negro"-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle "The New Negro" subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-"The_New_Negro"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Marcus_Garvey_and_the_UNIA" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marcus_Garvey_and_the_UNIA"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.1</span> <span>Marcus Garvey and the UNIA</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marcus_Garvey_and_the_UNIA-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Left_and_civil_rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Left_and_civil_rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>The Left and civil rights</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_Left_and_civil_rights-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle The Left and civil rights subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-The_Left_and_civil_rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Labor_movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Labor_movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.1</span> <span>The Labor movement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Labor_movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Scottsboro_Boys" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Scottsboro_Boys"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.2</span> <span>The Scottsboro Boys</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Scottsboro_Boys-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foreign_pressure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign_pressure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.3</span> <span>Foreign pressure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foreign_pressure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regional_Council_of_Negro_Leadership" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regional_Council_of_Negro_Leadership"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Regional Council of Negro Leadership</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regional_Council_of_Negro_Leadership-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Legal_and_constitutional_studies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal_and_constitutional_studies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18.1</span> <span>Legal and constitutional studies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legal_and_constitutional_studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-State_and_local_studies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#State_and_local_studies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18.2</span> <span>State and local studies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-State_and_local_studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gender" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gender"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18.3</span> <span>Gender</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gender-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Film" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Film"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18.4</span> <span>Film</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Film-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18.5</span> <span>Music</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sports" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sports"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18.6</span> <span>Sports</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sports-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Primary_sources_and_year_books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources_and_year_books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18.7</span> <span>Primary sources and year books</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources_and_year_books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">19</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Civil rights movement (1896–1954)</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 9 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-9" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">9 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%83%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%82%D9%88%D9%82_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9_(1896-1954)" title="حركة الحقوق المدنية (1896-1954) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حركة الحقوق المدنية (1896-1954)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerakan_Hak-Hak_Sipil_Afrika-Amerika_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Gerakan Hak-Hak Sipil Afrika-Amerika (1896–1954) – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Gerakan Hak-Hak Sipil Afrika-Amerika (1896–1954)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_del_movimento_per_i_diritti_civili_degli_afroamericani_(1896-1954)" title="Storia del movimento per i diritti civili degli afroamericani (1896-1954) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Storia del movimento per i diritti civili degli afroamericani (1896-1954)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%91%D7%A7_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%95-%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%90%D7%99%D7%9D_%D7%9C%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%95%D7%99%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%96%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA" title="מאבק האפרו-אמריקאים לשוויון זכויות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מאבק האפרו-אמריקאים לשוויון זכויות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91%E6%A8%A9%E9%81%8B%E5%8B%95" title="公民権運動 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="公民権運動" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%86%D9%8A_%D8%AD%D9%82%D9%88%D9%82%D9%88_%D8%AE%D9%88%DA%81%DA%9A%D8%AA_(%DB%B1%DB%B8%DB%B9%DB%B6-%DB%B1%DB%B9%DB%B5%DB%B4%D8%B2)" title="د مدني حقوقو خوځښت (۱۸۹۶-۱۹۵۴ز) – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د مدني حقوقو خوځښت (۱۸۹۶-۱۹۵۴ز)" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movimento_dos_direitos_civis_(1896-1954)" title="Movimento dos direitos civis (1896-1954) – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Movimento dos direitos civis (1896-1954)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%87.%E0%B6%91.%E0%B6%A2._%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%84%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%9C%E0%B7%9A_%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B6%85%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9A%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B6%BD%E0%B6%B6%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%9C%E0%B7%90%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%93%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%9A_%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%A7%E0%B6%B1_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="ඇ.එ.ජ. වහල්ලුන්ගේ සිවිල් අයිතිවාසිකම් ලබාගැනීමේ සටන (1896–1954) – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ඇ.එ.ජ. වහල්ලුන්ගේ සිවිල් අයිතිවාසිකම් ලබාගැනීමේ සටන (1896–1954)" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medborgarr%C3%A4ttsr%C3%B6relsen_i_USA_1896%E2%80%931954" title="Medborgarrättsrörelsen i USA 1896–1954 – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" 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searchaux" style="display:none">Social movement in the United States</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Civil rights movement (disambiguation)">Civil rights movement (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_African_Americans" title="Index of articles related to African Americans">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Periods</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_African-American_history" title="Timeline of African-American history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">Slavery in the colonial history of the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_the_Revolutionary_War" title="African Americans in the Revolutionary War">Revolutionary War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Antebellum period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_during_the_American_Civil_War" title="Slavery during the American Civil War">Slavery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Military history of African Americans in the American Civil War">military history</a> during the Civil War</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_officeholders_during_Reconstruction" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American officeholders during Reconstruction">Politicians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement (1865–1896)</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Jim Crow era (1896–1954)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement (1954–1968)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power_movement" title="Black power movement">Black power movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93civil_rights_era_in_African-American_history" title="Post–civil rights era in African-American history">Post–civil rights era</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Aspects</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_history_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American history of agriculture in the United States">Agriculture history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Belt_in_the_American_South" title="Black Belt in the American South">Black Belt in the American South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_businesses" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American businesses">Business history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans" title="Military history of African Americans">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_the_enslaved_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Treatment of the enslaved in the United States">Treatment of the enslaved</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Migrations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Second Great Migration (African American)">Second Great Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Great_Migration" title="New Great Migration">New Great Migration</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/African-American_culture" title="African-American culture">Culture</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Lifeways</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_dance" title="African-American dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_family_structure" title="African-American family structure">Family structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_cinema" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American cinema">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_folktales" title="African-American folktales">Folktales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_music" title="African-American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_musical_theater" title="African-American musical theater">Musical theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_names" title="African-American names">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_newspapers" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul_food" title="Soul food">Soul food</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Schools</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_during_the_slave_period_in_the_United_States" title="Education during the slave period in the United States">Education during the slave period in the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_of_freed_people_during_the_Civil_War" title="Education of freed people during the Civil War">Education of freed people during the Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African-American_education" title="History of African-American education">History of African-American education</a>, after the Civil War</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="Historically black colleges and universities">Historically black colleges and universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_fraternities" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American fraternities">Fraternities</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Academic study</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American studies">Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_art" title="African-American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_literature" title="African-American literature">Literature</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Celebrations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Day" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Day">Martin Luther King Jr. Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_History_Month" title="Black History Month">Black History Month</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwanzaa" title="Kwanzaa">Kwanzaa</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Economic class</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_businesses" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American businesses">African-American businesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_middle_class" title="African-American middle class">Middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_upper_class" title="African-American upper class">Upper class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_billionaires" title="Black billionaires">Billionaires</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Symbols and ideas</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_beauty" title="African-American beauty">African-American beauty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_is_beautiful" title="Black is beautiful">Black is beautiful</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_pride" title="Black pride">Black pride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_hair" title="African-American hair">African-American hair</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Good_hair" class="mw-redirect" title="Good hair">Good hair</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stepping_(African-American)" title="Stepping (African-American)">Stepping</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Lift_Every_Voice_and_Sing" title="Lift Every Voice and Sing">Lift Every Voice and Sing</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_self-determination" title="African-American self-determination">Self-determination</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_Black_Americans" title="Religion of Black Americans">Religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Institutions</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">Black church</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Theologies</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_theology" title="Black theology">Black theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">Womanist theology</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Non-Christian groups</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hoodoo_(spirituality)" title="Hoodoo (spirituality)">Hoodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hebrew_Israelites" title="Black Hebrew Israelites">Black Hebrew Israelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">African-American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Muslims" title="African-American Muslims">African-American Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Voodoo" title="Louisiana Voodoo">Louisiana Voodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_diaspora_religions" title="African diaspora religions">African Diaspora Religions</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Politics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Organizations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Black_Caucus" title="Congressional Black Caucus">Congressional Black Caucus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Center_for_Political_and_Economic_Studies" title="Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies">Joint Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Caucus_of_State_Legislators" title="National Black Caucus of State Legislators">National Black Caucus of State Legislators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Conference_of_Black_Mayors" title="National Conference of Black Mayors">National Conference of Black Mayors</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Ideologies</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrocentrism" title="Afrocentrism">Afrocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_anarchism" title="Black anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back-to-Africa_movement" title="Back-to-Africa movement">Back-to-Africa movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power" title="Black power">Black power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_capitalism" title="Black capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conservatism" title="Black conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garveyism" title="Garveyism">Garveyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_leftism" title="African-American leftism">Leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_liberalism" title="Black liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_patriotism" title="African-American patriotism">Patriotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_populism" title="Black populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_socialism" title="African-American socialism">Socialism</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Civic/economic groups</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Organizations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_the_Study_of_African_American_Life_and_History" title="Association for the Study of African American Life and History">Association for the Study of African<br />American Life and History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conductors" title="Black conductors">Black conductors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="National Black Chamber of Commerce">National Black Chamber of Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Pan-Hellenic_Council" title="National Pan-Hellenic Council">National Pan-Hellenic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TransAfrica" title="TransAfrica">TransAfrica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNCF" title="UNCF">UNCF</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Sports</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negro_league_baseball" title="Negro league baseball">Negro league baseball</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal;font-style:italic;"> Athletic associations and conferences</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Association" title="Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association">Central (CIAA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HBCU_Athletic_Conference" title="HBCU Athletic Conference">HBCU (HBCUAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Eastern_Athletic_Conference" title="Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference">Mid-Eastern (MEAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Conference" title="Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference">Southern (SIAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Athletic_Conference" title="Southwestern Athletic Conference">Southwestern (SWAC)</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Sub-communities</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Multiethnic</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">African-American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Puerto_Ricans" class="mw-redirect" title="Afro-Puerto Ricans">Afro-Puerto Ricans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Creole_people" title="Alabama Creole people">Alabama Creole people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Seminoles" title="Black Seminoles">Black Seminoles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mascogos" title="Mascogos">Mascogos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaxican" title="Blaxican">Blaxicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brass_Ankles" title="Brass Ankles">Brass Ankles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">Creoles of color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominickers" title="Dominickers">Dominickers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen_(ethnic_group)" title="Freedmen (ethnic group)">Freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melungeon" title="Melungeon">Melungeon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carmel_Indians" title="Carmel Indians">Carmel Indians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redbone_(ethnicity)" title="Redbone (ethnicity)">Redbone</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Specific ancestries</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Americo-Liberian_people" title="Americo-Liberian people">Americo-Liberians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_Freedmen" title="Creek Freedmen">Creek Freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah" title="Gullah">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merikins" title="Merikins">Merikins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Nova_Scotians" title="Black Nova Scotians">Nova Scotians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saman%C3%A1_Americans" title="Samaná Americans">Samaná Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Creole_people" title="Sierra Leone Creole people">Sierra Leone Creole</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Sexual orientation</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_LGBT_community" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American LGBT community">LGBT community</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Dialects and languages</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> English dialects</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_English" title="African-American English">African-American English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English" title="African-American Vernacular English">African-American Vernacular English</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberian_English" title="Liberian English">Liberian English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saman%C3%A1_English" title="Samaná English">Samaná English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tutnese" title="Tutnese">Tutnese</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Languages and other dialects</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gullah_language" title="Gullah language">Gullah</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Seminole_Creole" title="Afro-Seminole Creole">Afro-Seminole Creole</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jersey_Dutch" class="mw-redirect" title="Jersey Dutch">Negro Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_American_Sign_Language" title="Black American Sign Language">Black American Sign Language</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Population</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> US states</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Alabama" title="African Americans in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Arkansas" title="African Americans in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_California" title="African Americans in California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Florida" title="African Americans in Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Georgia_(U.S._state)" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Illinois" title="African Americans in Illinois">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Indiana" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kansas" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Louisiana" title="African Americans in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Maryland" title="African Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Mississippi" title="African Americans in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_history_of_Nebraska" class="mw-redirect" title="African American history of Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in New York">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_North_Carolina" title="African Americans in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ohio" title="African Americans in Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oklahoma" title="African Americans in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oregon" title="African Americans in Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Carolina" title="African Americans in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Dakota" title="African Americans in South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Tennessee" title="African Americans in Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Texas" title="History of African Americans in Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Utah" title="History of African Americans in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Virginia" title="African Americans in Virginia">Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> US cities</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_mecca" title="Black mecca">Black mecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">List of neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Atlanta" title="African Americans in Atlanta">Atlanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Baltimore" title="History of African Americans in Baltimore">Baltimore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Boston" title="History of African Americans in Boston">Boston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago" title="History of African Americans in Chicago">Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Dallas-Fort_Worth" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Dallas-Fort Worth">Dallas-Fort Worth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Davenport,_Iowa" title="African Americans in Davenport, Iowa">Davenport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Detroit" title="History of African Americans in Detroit">Detroit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Houston" title="History of African Americans in Houston">Houston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Jacksonville,_Florida" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Jacksonville, Florida">Jacksonville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kentucky" title="History of African Americans in Kentucky">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhoods_in_Lexington,_Kentucky" title="African-American neighborhoods in Lexington, Kentucky">Lexington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Los_Angeles" title="History of African Americans in Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York_City" title="African Americans in New York City">New York City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="African Americans in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Philadelphia" title="History of African Americans in Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_San_Antonio" title="History of African Americans in San Antonio">San Antonio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_San_Francisco" title="African Americans in San Francisco">San Francisco</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places" title="List of African-American historic places">Historic places</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_the_District_of_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American historic places in the District of Columbia">District of Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Florida" title="List of African-American historic places in Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Georgia" title="List of African-American historic places in Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Mississippi" title="List of African-American historic places in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Missouri" title="List of African-American historic places in Missouri">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="List of African-American historic places in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha, Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_North_Carolina" title="List of African-American historic places in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_South_Carolina" title="List of African-American historic places in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Texas" title="List of African-American historic places in Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_West_Virginia" title="List of African-American historic places in West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Population count</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_African-American_population" title="List of U.S. states and territories by African-American population">US states and territories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._metropolitan_areas_with_large_African-American_populations" title="List of U.S. metropolitan areas with large African-American populations">US metropolitan areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._cities_with_large_African-American_populations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of U.S. cities with large African-American populations">US cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations">US communities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_populated_places_in_the_United_States_with_African-American_plurality_populations" title="List of populated places in the United States with African-American plurality populations">Places by plurality of population</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/African-American_diaspora" title="African-American diaspora">Diaspora</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Africa" title="African Americans in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Canada" title="African Americans in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_France" title="African Americans in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ghana" title="African Americans in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Israel" title="African Americans in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americo-Liberian_people" title="Americo-Liberian people">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Nova_Scotians" title="Black Nova Scotians">Nova Scotia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Creole_people" title="Sierra Leone Creole people">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Prejudice</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Racism</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Black genocide">Black genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_census" title="Race and ethnicity in the United States census">Race and ethnicity in the US census</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Black_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="Racism against Black Americans">Racism against Black Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reparations_for_slavery" title="Reparations for slavery">Reparations for slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="School segregation in the United States">School segregation in the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_unarmed_African_Americans_killed_by_law_enforcement_officers_in_the_United_States" title="List of unarmed African Americans killed by law enforcement officers in the United States">Unarmed African Americans killed by police officers</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_African_Americans" title="Stereotypes of African Americans">Stereotypes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Representation_of_African_Americans_in_media" title="Representation of African Americans in media">media depictions</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blackface" title="Blackface">Blackface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_stereotype_of_African_Americans" title="Criminal stereotype of African Americans">Criminal stereotypes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_representation_in_Hollywood" title="African-American representation in Hollywood">Hollywood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magical_Negro" title="Magical Negro">Magical Negro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minstrel_show" title="Minstrel show">Minstrel show</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="border-top:none;font-size:97%;font-weight:normal;"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:African-American_people" title="Category:African-American people">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_African_Americans" title="Index of articles related to African Americans">Index</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:African_American_topics_sidebar" title="Template:African American topics sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:African_American_topics_sidebar" title="Template talk:African American topics sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:African_American_topics_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:African American topics sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>civil rights movement (1896–1954)</b> was a long, primarily <a href="/wiki/Nonviolent_resistance" title="Nonviolent resistance">nonviolent</a> action to bring full <a href="/wiki/Civil_and_political_rights" title="Civil and political rights">civil rights</a> and equality under the law to all Americans. The era has had a lasting impact on <a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_United_States" title="Society of the United States">American society</a> – in its tactics, the increased <a href="/wiki/Acceptance" title="Acceptance">social</a> and legal acceptance of civil rights, and in its exposure of the prevalence and cost of <a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_States" title="Racism in the United States">racism</a>. </p><p>Two <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">US Supreme Court</a> decisions in particular serve as bookends of the movement: the 1896 ruling of <i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v Ferguson</a></i>, which upheld "<a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">separate but equal</a>" <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">racial segregation</a> as <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">constitutional</a> doctrine;<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 1954's <i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v Board of Education</a></i>, which overturned <i>Plessy</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was an era of new beginnings, in which some movements, such as <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Garvey" title="Marcus Garvey">Marcus Garvey</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Universal_Negro_Improvement_Association_and_African_Communities_League" title="Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League">Universal Negro Improvement Association</a>, were very successful but left little lasting legacy; while others, such as the <a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a>'s legal assault on <a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">state-sponsored</a> segregation, achieved modest results in its early years, as in, <i><a href="/wiki/Buchanan_v._Warley" title="Buchanan v. Warley">Buchanan v. Warley</a></i> (1917) (zoning), making some progress but also suffering setbacks, as in <i><a href="/wiki/Corrigan_v._Buckley" title="Corrigan v. Buckley">Corrigan v. Buckley</a></i> (1926) (housing), gradually building to key victories, including in <i><a href="/wiki/Smith_v._Allwright" title="Smith v. Allwright">Smith v. Allwright</a></i> (1944) (voting), <i><a href="/wiki/Shelley_v._Kraemer" title="Shelley v. Kraemer">Shelley v. Kraemer</a></i> (1948) (housing), <i><a href="/wiki/Sweatt_v._Painter" title="Sweatt v. Painter">Sweatt v. Painter</a></i> (1950) (schooling) and <i>Brown</i>. In addition, the <a href="/wiki/Scottsboro_Boys" title="Scottsboro Boys">Scottsboro Boys</a> cases led to a pair of 1935 rulings in <i><a href="/wiki/Powell_v._Alabama" title="Powell v. Alabama">Powell v. Alabama</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Norris_v._Alabama" title="Norris v. Alabama">Norris v. Alabama</a></i>, that served to make anti-racism jurisprudence more prominent in the context of criminal justice.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">civil war</a>, the United States expanded the legal rights of <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a>. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> passed, and enough states <a href="/wiki/Ratification" title="Ratification">ratified</a>, an amendment ending slavery in 1865 — the <a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">13th amendment to the US constitution</a>. This amendment only outlawed slavery; it provided neither <a href="/wiki/Citizenship_of_the_United_States" title="Citizenship of the United States">citizenship</a> nor equal rights. In 1868, the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">14th amendment</a> was ratified by the states, granting African Americans citizenship, whereby all persons born in the US were extended <a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">equal protection</a> under the laws of the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">constitution</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">15th amendment</a> (ratified in 1870) stated that race could not be used as a condition to deprive men of the ability to vote. During <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction</a> (1865–1877), northern troops occupied the South. Together with the <a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a>, they tried to administer and enforce the new constitutional amendments. Many Black leaders were elected to local and state offices, and many others organized community groups, especially to support education. </p><p>Reconstruction ended following the <a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1877" title="Compromise of 1877">Compromise of 1877</a> between northern and southern White elites.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In exchange for deciding the <a href="/wiki/Contentious_politics" title="Contentious politics">contentious</a> presidential election in favor of <a href="/wiki/Rutherford_B._Hayes" title="Rutherford B. Hayes">Rutherford B. Hayes</a>, supported by northern states, over his opponent, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_J._Tilden" title="Samuel J. Tilden">Samuel J. Tilden</a>, the compromise called for the withdrawal of northern troops from the South. This followed violence and fraud in southern elections from 1868 to 1876, which had reduced Black <a href="/wiki/Voter_turnout_in_United_States_presidential_elections" title="Voter turnout in United States presidential elections">voter turnout</a> and enabled southern White <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democrats</a> to regain power in <a href="/wiki/State_legislature_(United_States)" title="State legislature (United States)">state legislatures</a> across the South. The compromise and withdrawal of federal troops meant that such Democrats had more freedom to impose and enforce <a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">discriminatory practices</a>. Many African Americans responded to the withdrawal of federal troops by leaving the South in the <a href="/wiki/Exodusters" title="Exodusters">Kansas Exodus of 1879</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Radical_Republicans" title="Radical Republicans">Radical Republicans</a>, who spearheaded Reconstruction, had attempted to eliminate both governmental and private discrimination by legislation. Such effort was largely ended by the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a>'s decision in the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Cases" title="Civil Rights Cases">civil rights cases</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in which the court held that the 14th Amendment did not give <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> power to outlaw racial discrimination by private individuals or businesses. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Key_events">Key events</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Key events"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_civil_rights_movement" title="Timeline of the civil rights movement">Timeline of the civil rights movement</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Segregation">Segregation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Segregation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_court_cases_involving_the_Fourteenth_Amendment" title="List of United States court cases involving the Fourteenth Amendment">List of United States court cases involving the Fourteenth Amendment</a></div> <p>The Supreme Court's decision in <i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v Ferguson</a></i> (1896) upheld state-mandated discrimination in public transportation under the "<a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">separate but equal</a>" doctrine. As Justice <a href="/wiki/John_Marshall_Harlan" title="John Marshall Harlan">Harlan</a>, the only member of the Court to dissent from the decision, predicted: </p> <blockquote><p>If a state can prescribe, as a rule of civil conduct, that whites and blacks shall not travel as passengers in the same railroad coach, why may it not so regulate the use of the streets of its cities and towns as to compel white citizens to keep on one side of a street, and black citizens to keep on the other? Why may it not, upon like grounds, punish whites and blacks who ride together in street cars or in open vehicles on a public road or street?</p></blockquote> <p>The <i>Plessy</i> decision did not address an earlier Supreme Court case, <i><a href="/wiki/Yick_Wo_v._Hopkins" title="Yick Wo v. Hopkins">Yick Wo v. Hopkins</a></i> (1886),<sup id="cite_ref-citation_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-citation-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> involving discrimination against Chinese immigrants, that held that a law that is <a href="/w/index.php?title=Race-neutral&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Race-neutral (page does not exist)">race-neutral</a> on its face, but is administered in a prejudicial manner, is an infringement of the <a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">US Constitution</a>. While in the 20th century, the Supreme Court began to overturn state statutes that disenfranchised African Americans, as in <i><a href="/wiki/Guinn_v._United_States" title="Guinn v. United States">Guinn v. United States</a></i> (1915), with <i>Plessy</i>, it upheld segregation that Southern states enforced in nearly every other sphere of public and private life. The Court soon extended <i>Plessy</i> to uphold segregated schools. In <i><a href="/wiki/Berea_College_v._Kentucky" title="Berea College v. Kentucky">Berea College v. Kentucky</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Court upheld a Kentucky statute that barred <a href="/wiki/Berea_College" title="Berea College">Berea College</a>, a private institution, from teaching both black and white students in an integrated setting. Many states, particularly in the South, took <i>Plessy</i> and <i>Berea</i> as blanket approval for restrictive laws, generally known as <i><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></i>, that created second-class status for African Americans. </p><p>In many cities and towns, African Americans were not allowed to share a <a href="/wiki/Taxicab" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxicab">taxi</a> with whites or enter a building through the same entrance. They had to drink from separate water fountains, use separate restrooms, attend separate schools, be buried in separate cemeteries and swear on separate <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bibles</a>. They were excluded from restaurants and public libraries. Many parks barred them with signs that read "Negroes and dogs not allowed." One municipal zoo listed separate visiting hours. </p><p>The etiquette of racial segregation was harsher, particularly in the South. African Americans were expected to step aside to let a white person pass, and black men dared not look any white woman in the eye. Black men and women were addressed as "Tom" or "Jane," but rarely as "<a href="/wiki/Mr." title="Mr.">Mr.</a>" or "<a href="/wiki/Miss" title="Miss">Miss</a>" or "<a href="/wiki/Mrs." title="Mrs.">Mrs.</a>," titles then widely in use for adults. Whites referred to black men of any age as "boy" and a black woman as "girl;" both often were called by labels such as "<a href="/wiki/Nigger" title="Nigger">nigger</a>" or "<a href="/wiki/Colored" title="Colored">colored</a>." </p><p>Less formal social segregation in the North began to yield to change. In 1941, however, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Naval_Academy" title="United States Naval Academy">United States Naval Academy</a>, based in segregated Maryland, <a href="/wiki/1941_Harvard%E2%80%93Navy_lacrosse_game" title="1941 Harvard–Navy lacrosse game">refused to play</a> a <a href="/wiki/Lacrosse" title="Lacrosse">lacrosse</a> game against <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a> because Harvard's team included a black player. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jackie_Robinson's_Major_League_Baseball_debut,_1947"><span id="Jackie_Robinson.27s_Major_League_Baseball_debut.2C_1947"></span>Jackie Robinson's Major League Baseball debut, 1947</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Jackie Robinson's Major League Baseball debut, 1947"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Jackie_Robinson" title="Jackie Robinson">Jackie Robinson</a> was a sports pioneer of the civil rights movement, best known for becoming the first African American to play professional sports in the major leagues. Robinson debuted with the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Brooklyn_Dodgers" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Brooklyn Dodgers">Brooklyn Dodgers</a> of <a href="/wiki/Major_League_Baseball" title="Major League Baseball">Major League Baseball</a> on April 15, 1947. His first major league game came one year before the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">US Army</a> was integrated, seven years before <i>Brown v. Board of Education</i>, eight years before <a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a>, and before <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a> was leading the movement.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Political_opposition">Political opposition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Political opposition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lily-white_movement">Lily-white movement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Lily-white movement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lily-white_movement" title="Lily-white movement">Lily-white movement</a></div> <p>Following the Civil War, black leaders made substantial progress in establishing representation in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="History of the Republican Party (United States)">Republican Party</a>. </p><p>Among the most prominent was <a href="/wiki/Norris_Wright_Cuney" title="Norris Wright Cuney">Norris Wright Cuney</a>, the Republican Party chairman in the late 19th century <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_Texas" title="Republican Party of Texas">Texas</a>. These gains led to substantial discomfort among many white voters, who generally supported the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democrats</a>. During the 1888 Texas Republican Convention, Cuney coined the term <i>lily-white movement</i> to describe efforts by white conservatives to oust black people from positions of party leadership and incite riots to divide the party.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Increasingly organized efforts by this movement gradually eliminated black leaders from the party. The writer Michael Fauntroy contends that the effort was coordinated with Democrats as part of a larger movement toward <a href="/wiki/Disenfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction era">disenfranchisement</a> of black people in the South at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century by increasing restrictions in voter registration rules.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following biracial victories by a <a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">Populist</a>-Republican slates in several states, by the late 19th century the Democratic Party had regained control of most state legislatures in the South. From 1890 to 1908, they accomplished disenfranchisement of blacks and, in some states, many poor whites. Despite repeated legal challenges and some successes by the <a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a>, the Democrats continued to devise new ways to limit black electoral participation, such as <a href="/wiki/White_primary" title="White primary">white primaries</a>, through the 1960s. </p><p>Nationally, the Republican Party tried to respond to black interests. <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a>, president 1901–1909, had a mixed record on race relations. He relied extensively on the backstage advice of <a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a> regarding patronage appointments across the South. He publicly invited Washington to dinner at the White House, thereby challenging racist attitudes. On the other hand, he began the system of segregating federal employees; and he cracked down on black soldiers who refused to testify against each other in the <a href="/wiki/Brownsville_affair" title="Brownsville affair">Brownsville Affair</a> of 1906.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In order to defeat his successor <a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">William Howard Taft</a> for the Republican nomination in 1912, Roosevelt pursued a Lily-white policy in the South. This new progressive party of 1912 was supportive of black rights in the North, but excluded all black members in the South.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Republicans in Congress repeatedly proposed federal legislation to prohibit <a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">lynching</a>, which was always defeated by the Southern block. In 1920 Republicans made opposition to <a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">lynching</a> part of their platform at the Republican National Convention. Lynchings, primarily of black men in the South, had increased in the decades around the turn of the 20th century. <a href="/wiki/Leonidas_C._Dyer" title="Leonidas C. Dyer">Leonidas C. Dyer</a>, a white Republican Representative from <a href="/wiki/St._Louis" title="St. Louis">St. Louis, Missouri</a>, worked with the NAACP to introduce an anti-lynching bill into the House, where he gained strong passage in 1922. His effort was defeated by the Southern Democratic block in the Senate, which <a href="/wiki/Filibuster_in_the_United_States_Senate" title="Filibuster in the United States Senate">filibustered</a> the bill that year, and in 1923 and 1924. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disenfranchisement">Disenfranchisement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Disenfranchisement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Disenfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction era">Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction era</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="width:20.0em;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Racism_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Racism in the United States">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;;font-size:150%;; padding:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American<br />race relations</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Le_Petit_Journal_7_Oct_1906_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Le_Petit_Journal_7_Oct_1906_%28cropped%29.jpg/232px-Le_Petit_Journal_7_Oct_1906_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="232" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Le_Petit_Journal_7_Oct_1906_%28cropped%29.jpg/348px-Le_Petit_Journal_7_Oct_1906_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Le_Petit_Journal_7_Oct_1906_%28cropped%29.jpg/464px-Le_Petit_Journal_7_Oct_1906_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3129" data-file-height="3605" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption">Violence in the <a href="/wiki/1906_Atlanta_race_massacre" title="1906 Atlanta race massacre">1906 Atlanta race massacre</a> <hr /></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Historical background</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;;padding-top:3px;padding-bottom:1px;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_suppression_in_the_United_States" title="Voter suppression in the United States">Voter suppression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_era" title="Disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era">Disfranchisement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redeemers" title="Redeemers">Redeemers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1877" title="Compromise of 1877">Compromise of 1877</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">Segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-miscegenation laws in the United States">Anti-miscegenation laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convict_leasing" title="Convict leasing">Convict leasing</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Practices</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <dl><dt>Common actions</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_expulsions_of_African_Americans" title="List of expulsions of African Americans">Expulsions of African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynchings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_postcard" title="Lynching postcard">Lynching postcards</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sundown_town" title="Sundown town">Sundown town</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitecapping" title="Whitecapping">Whitecapping</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Vigilante groups</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Legion_(political_movement)" title="Black Legion (political movement)">Black Legion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indiana_White_Caps" title="Indiana White Caps">Indiana White Caps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Shirts_(United_States)" title="Red Shirts (United States)">Red Shirts</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Lynchings</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Andrew_Richards" title="Lynching of Andrew Richards">Andrew Richards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Michael_Green" title="Lynching of Michael Green">Michael Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Nevlin_Porter_and_Johnson_Spencer" title="Lynching of Nevlin Porter and Johnson Spencer">Nevlin Porter and Johnson Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Eliza_Woods" title="Lynching of Eliza Woods">Eliza Woods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Amos_Miller" title="Lynching of Amos Miller">Amos Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_George_Meadows" title="Lynching of George Meadows">George Meadows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Joseph_Vermillion" title="Lynching of Joseph Vermillion">Joe Vermillion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Jim_Taylor" title="Lynching of Jim Taylor">Jim Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Joe_Coe" title="Lynching of Joe Coe">Joe Coe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Grocery_lynchings" title="People's Grocery lynchings">People's Grocery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Ephraim_Grizzard" title="Lynching of Ephraim Grizzard">Ephraim Grizzard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Alfred_Blount" title="Lynching of Alfred Blount">Alfred Blount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Samuel_J._Bush" title="Lynching of Samuel J. Bush">Samuel J. Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Stephen_Williams" title="Lynching of Stephen Williams">Stephen Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Frazier_B._Baker_and_Julia_Baker" title="Lynching of Frazier B. Baker and Julia Baker">Frazier B. Baker and Julia Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_John_Henry_James" title="Lynching of John Henry James">John Henry James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Sam_Hose" title="Lynching of Sam Hose">Sam Hose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_George_Ward" title="Lynching of George Ward">George Ward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_David_Wyatt" title="Lynching of David Wyatt">David Wyatt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Marie_Thompson" title="Lynching of Marie Thompson">Marie Thompson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watkinsville_lynching" title="Watkinsville lynching">Watkinsville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Ed_Johnson" title="Lynching of Ed Johnson">Ed Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_William_Burns" title="Lynching of William Burns">William Burns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_the_Walker_family" title="Lynching of the Walker family">Walker family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Laura_and_L._D._Nelson" title="Lynching of Laura and L. D. Nelson">Laura and L. D. Nelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_King_Johnson" title="Lynching of King Johnson">King Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_John_Evans" title="Lynching of John Evans">John Evans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Jesse_Washington" title="Lynching of Jesse Washington">Jesse Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newberry_Six_lynchings" title="Newberry Six lynchings">Newberry Six</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Anthony_Crawford" title="Lynching of Anthony Crawford">Anthony Crawford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Ell_Persons" title="Lynching of Ell Persons">Ell Persons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Jim_McIlherron" title="Lynching of Jim McIlherron">Jim McIlherron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_George_Taylor" title="Lynching of George Taylor">George Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hartfield" title="John Hartfield">John Hartfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duluth_lynchings" title="Duluth lynchings">1920 Duluth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_James_Harvey_and_Joe_Jordan" title="Lynching of James Harvey and Joe Jordan">James Harvey and Joe Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Pullen" title="Joe Pullen">Joe Pullen</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Massacres and riots</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Opelousas_massacre" title="Opelousas massacre">Opelousas massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_Springs_massacre" title="Rock Springs massacre">Rock Springs massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thibodaux_massacre" title="Thibodaux massacre">Thibodaux massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spring_Valley_Race_Riot_of_1895" title="Spring Valley Race Riot of 1895">Spring Valley Race Riot of 1895</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenix_election_riot" title="Phoenix election riot">Phoenix election riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilmington_insurrection_of_1898" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilmington insurrection of 1898">Wilmington insurrection of 1898</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pana_riot" title="Pana riot">Pana riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Charles_riots" title="Robert Charles riots">Robert Charles riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evansville_race_riot" title="Evansville race riot">Evansville race riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1906_Atlanta_race_massacre" title="1906 Atlanta race massacre">Atlanta Massacre of 1906</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Springfield_race_riot_of_1908" title="Springfield race riot of 1908">Springfield race riot of 1908</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnson%E2%80%93Jeffries_riots" title="Johnson–Jeffries riots">Johnson–Jeffries riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1912_racial_conflict_in_Forsyth_County,_Georgia" title="1912 racial conflict in Forsyth County, Georgia">1912 racial conflict in Forsyth County</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1917_Chester_race_riot" title="1917 Chester race riot">1917 Chester race riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_St._Louis_riots" class="mw-redirect" title="East St. Louis riots">East St. Louis riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elaine_massacre" title="Elaine massacre">Elaine massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Summer" title="Red Summer">Red Summer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_race_riot_of_1919" title="Chicago race riot of 1919">Chicago race riot of 1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_race_riot_of_1919" title="Washington race riot of 1919">Washington race riot of 1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocoee_massacre" title="Ocoee massacre">Ocoee massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perry_race_riot" class="mw-redirect" title="Perry race riot">Perry race riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosewood_massacre" title="Rosewood massacre">Rosewood massacre</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Reactions</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-lynching_movement" title="Anti-lynching movement">Anti-lynching movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodusters" title="Exodusters">Exodusters movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Compromise" title="Atlanta Compromise">Atlanta Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niagara_Movement" title="Niagara Movement">Niagara Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back_to_Africa_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Back to Africa movement">Back to Africa movement</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Black genocide">Black genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement (1865–1896)</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Civil rights movement (1896–1954)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_racial_violence_in_the_United_States" title="Mass racial violence in the United States">Mass racial violence in the United States</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Template:Nadir of American race relations"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Template talk:Nadir of American race relations"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nadir of American race relations"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Opponents of black civil rights used economic reprisals and frequently violence at the polls in the 1870s and 1880s to discourage blacks from registering to vote or voting. Paramilitary groups such as the Red Shirts in Mississippi and the Carolinas, and the White League in Louisiana, practiced open intimidation on behalf of the Democratic Party. By the turn of the 20th century, white Democratic-dominated Southern legislatures <a href="/wiki/Disenfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction era">disfranchised</a> nearly all age-eligible African-American voters through a combination of statute and constitutional provisions. While requirements applied to all citizens, in practice, they were targeted at blacks and poor whites (and <a href="/wiki/Mexican_Americans" title="Mexican Americans">Mexican Americans</a> in Texas), and subjectively administered. The feature "Turnout in Presidential and Midterm Elections" at the following University of Texas website devoted to politics, shows the drastic drop in voting as these provisions took effect in Southern states compared to the rest of the US, and the longevity of the measures.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Mississippi" title="Mississippi">Mississippi</a> passed a new constitution in 1890 that included provisions for <a href="/wiki/Poll_taxes_in_the_United_States" title="Poll taxes in the United States">poll taxes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Literacy_test" title="Literacy test">literacy tests</a> (which depended on the arbitrary decisions of white registrars), and complicated record keeping to establish residency, which severely reduced the number of blacks who could register. It was litigated before the Supreme Court. In 1898, in <i><a href="/wiki/Williams_v._Mississippi" title="Williams v. Mississippi">Williams v. Mississippi</a></i>, the Court upheld the state. Other Southern states quickly adopted the "Mississippi plan", and from 1890 to 1908, ten states adopted new constitutions with provisions to disfranchise most blacks and many poor whites. States continued to disfranchise these groups for decades, until mid-1960s federal legislation provided for oversight and enforcement of constitutional voting rights. </p><p>Blacks were most adversely affected, and in many southern states black voter turnout dropped to zero. Poor whites were also disfranchised. In Alabama, for instance, by 1941, 600,000 poor whites had been disfranchised, as well as 520,000 blacks.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It was not until the 20th century that litigation by African Americans on such provisions began to meet some success before the Supreme Court. In 1915 in <i><a href="/wiki/Guinn_v._United_States" title="Guinn v. United States">Guinn v. United States</a></i>, the Court declared Oklahoma's '<a href="/wiki/Grandfather_clause" title="Grandfather clause">grandfather clause</a>' to be unconstitutional. Although the decision affected all states that used the grandfather clause, state legislatures quickly employed new devices to continue disfranchisement. Each provision or statute had to be litigated separately. The <a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a>, founded in 1909, litigated against many such provisions.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>One device which the Democratic Party began to use more widely in Southern states in the early 20th century was the <a href="/wiki/White_primary" title="White primary">white primary</a>, which served for decades to disfranchise the few blacks who managed to get past barriers of voter registration. Barring blacks from voting in the Democratic Party primaries meant they had no chance to vote in the only competitive contests, as the Republican Party was then weak in the South. White primaries were not struck down by the Supreme Court until <i><a href="/wiki/Smith_v._Allwright" title="Smith v. Allwright">Smith v. Allwright</a></i> in 1944.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criminal_law_and_lynching">Criminal law and lynching</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Criminal law and lynching"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Convicts_(1903).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Convicts_%281903%29.jpg/220px-Convicts_%281903%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Convicts_%281903%29.jpg/330px-Convicts_%281903%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Convicts_%281903%29.jpg/440px-Convicts_%281903%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6821" data-file-height="5409" /></a><figcaption>Juvenile African-American convicts working in the fields in a chain gang, photo taken c. 1903</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1880, the United States Supreme Court ruled in <i><a href="/wiki/Strauder_v._West_Virginia" title="Strauder v. West Virginia">Strauder v. West Virginia</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that African Americans could not be excluded from juries. However, beginning in 1890 with new state constitutions and electoral laws, the South effectively disfranchised blacks in the South, which routinely disqualified them for jury duty which was limited to voters. This left them at the mercy of a white justice system arrayed against them. In some states, particularly <a href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</a>, the state used the criminal justice system to reestablish a form of <a href="/wiki/Peon" title="Peon">peonage</a>, through the convict-lease system. The state sentenced black males to years of imprisonment, which they spent working without pay. The state leased prisoners to private employers, such as <a href="/wiki/Tennessee_Coal,_Iron_and_Railroad_Company" title="Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad Company">Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad Company</a>, a subsidiary of <a href="/wiki/U.S._Steel" title="U.S. Steel">United States Steel Corporation</a>, which paid the state for their labor. Because the state made money, the system created incentives for the jailing of more men, who were disproportionately black. It also created a system in which treatment of prisoners received little oversight. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Extrajudicial_punishment" title="Extrajudicial punishment">Extrajudicial punishment</a> was more brutal. During the last decade of the 19th century and the first decades of the 20th century, white vigilante mobs <a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">lynched</a> thousands of black males, sometimes with the overt assistance of state officials, mostly within the South. No whites were charged with crimes in any of those murders. Whites were so confident of their immunity from prosecution for lynching that they not only photographed the victims, but made postcards out of the pictures. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a>, which had largely disappeared after a brief violent career in the early years of Reconstruction, reappeared in 1915. It grew mostly in industrializing cities of the South and Midwest that underwent the most rapid growth from 1910 to 1930. Social instability contributed to racial tensions that resulted from severe competition for jobs and housing. People joined KKK groups because they were anxious about their place in American society, as cities were rapidly changed by a combination of industrialization, migration of blacks and whites from the rural South, and waves of increased immigration from mostly rural <a href="/wiki/Southern_Europe" title="Southern Europe">southern</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">eastern Europe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Initially the KKK presented itself as another fraternal organization devoted to betterment of its members. The KKK's revival was inspired in part by the movie <i><a href="/wiki/The_Birth_of_a_Nation" title="The Birth of a Nation">Birth of a Nation</a></i>, which glorified the earlier Klan and <a href="/wiki/Drama" title="Drama">dramatized</a> the racist stereotypes concerning blacks of that era. The Klan focused on political mobilization, which allowed it to gain power in states such as <a href="/wiki/Indiana" title="Indiana">Indiana</a>, on a platform that combined <a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">racism</a> with anti-immigrant, <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">anti-Semitic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anti-Catholicism" title="Anti-Catholicism">anti-Catholic</a> and anti-union rhetoric, but also supported lynching. It reached its peak of membership and influence about 1925, declining rapidly afterward as opponents mobilized.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Republicans repeatedly introduced bills in the House to make <a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">lynching</a> a federal crime, but they were defeated by the Southern block. In 1920 the Republicans made an <a href="/wiki/Anti-lynching_movement" title="Anti-lynching movement">anti-lynching</a> bill part of their platform and achieved passage in the House by a wide margin. <a href="/wiki/Southern_Democrats" title="Southern Democrats">Southern Democrats</a> in the Senate repeatedly filibustered the bill to prevent a vote, and defeated it in the 1922, 1923 and 1924 sessions as they held the rest of the legislative program hostage. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Farmers_and_blue-collar_workers">Farmers and blue-collar workers</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Farmers and blue-collar workers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>White society also kept blacks in a position of economic subservience or marginality. Most black farmers in the South by the early 20th century worked as <a href="/wiki/Sharecropping" title="Sharecropping">sharecroppers</a> or <a href="/wiki/Tenant_farmer" title="Tenant farmer">tenant farmers</a>, and relatively few were <a href="/wiki/Land_tenure" title="Land tenure">landowners</a>. </p><p>Employers and labor unions generally restricted African Americans to the worst paid and least desirable jobs. Because of the lack of steady, well-paid jobs, relatively undistinguished positions, such as those with the <a href="/wiki/Brotherhood_of_Sleeping_Car_Porters" title="Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters">Pullman Porter</a> or as hotel doorman, became prestigious positions in black communities in the North. The expansion of railroads meant that they recruited in the South for laborers, and tens of thousands of blacks moved North to work with the <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Railroad" title="Pennsylvania Railroad">Pennsylvania Railroad</a>, for example, during the period of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a>. In 1900 Reverend Matthew Anderson, speaking at the annual <a href="/wiki/Hampton_Negro_Conference" title="Hampton Negro Conference">Hampton Negro Conference</a> in Virginia, said that "...the lines along most of the avenues of wage earning are more rigidly drawn in the North than in the South. There seems to be an apparent effort throughout the North, especially in the cities to debar the colored worker from all the avenues of higher remunerative labor, which makes it more difficult to improve his economic condition even than in the South."<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_golden_age_of_black_entrepreneurship">The golden age of black entrepreneurship</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: The golden age of black entrepreneurship"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/National_Negro_Business_League" title="National Negro Business League">National Negro Business League</a></div><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NationalNegroBusinessLeague-ExecutiveCommittee.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/59/NationalNegroBusinessLeague-ExecutiveCommittee.jpg/340px-NationalNegroBusinessLeague-ExecutiveCommittee.jpg" decoding="async" width="340" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/59/NationalNegroBusinessLeague-ExecutiveCommittee.jpg/510px-NationalNegroBusinessLeague-ExecutiveCommittee.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/59/NationalNegroBusinessLeague-ExecutiveCommittee.jpg/680px-NationalNegroBusinessLeague-ExecutiveCommittee.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4786" data-file-height="3258" /></a><figcaption>Executive Committee of the <a href="/wiki/National_Negro_Business_League" title="National Negro Business League">National Negro Business League</a>, c. 1910. NNBL founder <a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a> (1856–1915) is seated, second from the left.</figcaption></figure> <p>The nadir of race relations was reached in the early 20th century, in terms of political and legal rights. Blacks were increasingly segregated. Cut off from the larger white community, however, black entrepreneurs succeeded in establishing flourishing businesses that catered to a black clientele, including professionals. In urban areas, north and south, the size and income of the black population was growing, providing openings for a wide range of businesses, from barbershops<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to <a href="/wiki/Insurance" title="Insurance">insurance companies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Undertakers had a special niche in their communities, and often played a political role, as they were widely known and knew many of their constituents.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historian Juliet Walker calls the 1900s-1930s the "Golden age of black business."<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the <a href="/wiki/National_Negro_Business_League" title="National Negro Business League">National Negro Business League</a>, the number of black-owned businesses doubled rapidly, from 20,000 in 1900 to 40,000 in 1914. There were 450 undertakers in 1900, rising to 1000 in this time period. The number of black-owned drugstores rose from 250 to 695. Local retail merchants—most of them quite small—jumped from 10,000 to 25,000.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the most famous entrepreneurs was <a href="/wiki/Madam_C._J._Walker" title="Madam C. J. Walker">Madame C.J. Walker</a> (1867–1919), who built a national <a href="/wiki/Franchising" title="Franchising">franchise business</a> called <a href="/wiki/Madam_C._J._Walker_Manufacturing_Company" title="Madam C. J. Walker Manufacturing Company">Madame C. J. Walker Manufacturing Company</a>, based on her development of the first successful hair straightening process.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a>, who ran the National Negro Business League and was president of the <a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_University" title="Tuskegee University">Tuskegee Institute</a>, was the most prominent promoter of black business. He traveled from city to city to sign up local entrepreneurs into the national league.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:C.C_SPAULDING_-_FINANCIER,_PHILOSOPHER,_INVESTOR_IN_GOVERNMENT_SECURITIES_-_NARA_-_535690.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/C.C_SPAULDING_-_FINANCIER%2C_PHILOSOPHER%2C_INVESTOR_IN_GOVERNMENT_SECURITIES_-_NARA_-_535690.jpg/350px-C.C_SPAULDING_-_FINANCIER%2C_PHILOSOPHER%2C_INVESTOR_IN_GOVERNMENT_SECURITIES_-_NARA_-_535690.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="332" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/C.C_SPAULDING_-_FINANCIER%2C_PHILOSOPHER%2C_INVESTOR_IN_GOVERNMENT_SECURITIES_-_NARA_-_535690.jpg/525px-C.C_SPAULDING_-_FINANCIER%2C_PHILOSOPHER%2C_INVESTOR_IN_GOVERNMENT_SECURITIES_-_NARA_-_535690.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/C.C_SPAULDING_-_FINANCIER%2C_PHILOSOPHER%2C_INVESTOR_IN_GOVERNMENT_SECURITIES_-_NARA_-_535690.jpg/700px-C.C_SPAULDING_-_FINANCIER%2C_PHILOSOPHER%2C_INVESTOR_IN_GOVERNMENT_SECURITIES_-_NARA_-_535690.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3200" data-file-height="3031" /></a><figcaption>Poster from Office of War Information. Domestic Operations Branch. News Bureau, 1943</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Charles_Clinton_Spaulding" title="Charles Clinton Spaulding">Charles Clinton Spaulding</a> (1874–1952), an ally of Washington, was the most prominent black American business leader of his day. Behind the scenes he was an advisor to President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> in the 1930s, with the goal of promoting a black political leadership class. He founded <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina_Mutual_Life_Insurance_Company" title="North Carolina Mutual Life Insurance Company">North Carolina Mutual Life Insurance Company</a>, which became America's largest black-owned business, with assets of over $40 million at his death.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although black business flourished in urban areas, it was severely handicapped in the rural South where the great majority of blacks lived. Blacks were farmers who depended on one cash crop, typically cotton or tobacco. They chiefly traded with local white merchants. The primary reason was that the local country stores provided credit, that is the provided supplies the farm and family needed, including tools, seeds, food and clothing, on a credit basis until the bill was paid off at harvest time. Black businessmen had too little access to credit to enter this business.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indeed, there were only a small number of wealthy blacks; overwhelmingly they were real estate speculators in the fast-growing cities, typified by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Reed_Church" title="Robert Reed Church">Robert Church</a> in Memphis.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Division_of_Negro_Affairs_in_the_Department_of_Commerce">Division of Negro Affairs in the Department of Commerce</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Division of Negro Affairs in the Department of Commerce"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Minority entrepreneurship entered the national agenda in 1927 when <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Commerce" title="United States Secretary of Commerce">Secretary of Commerce</a> <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hoover" title="Herbert Hoover">Herbert Hoover</a> set up a Division of Negro Affairs to provide advice, and disseminate information to both white and black businessmen on how to reach the black consumer. Entrepreneurship was not on the <a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a> agenda of <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a>. However, when he turned to war preparation in 1940, he used this agency to help black business secure defense contracts. Black businesses had not been oriented toward manufacturing, and generally were too small to secure any major contracts. <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">President Eisenhower</a> disbanded the agency in 1953.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Executive_orders_for_non-discriminatory_hiring_by_defense_contractors">Executive orders for non-discriminatory hiring by defense contractors</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Executive orders for non-discriminatory hiring by defense contractors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>President Roosevelt issued two <a href="/wiki/Executive_order" title="Executive order">executive orders</a> directing defense contractors to hire, promote and fire without regard for racial discrimination. In areas such as West Coast shipyards and other industries, blacks began to gain more of the skilled and higher-paying jobs and supervisory positions.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_black_church">The black church</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: The black church"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">Black church</a></div> <p>As the center of community life, Black churches were integral leaders and organizers in the <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">civil rights movement</a>. Their history as a focal point for the Black community and as a link between the Black and White worlds made them natural for this purpose. </p><p>This period saw the maturing of independent black churches, whose leaders were usually also strong community leaders. Blacks had left white churches and the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Baptist_Convention" title="Southern Baptist Convention">Southern Baptist Convention</a> to set up their own churches free of white supervision immediately during and after the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>. With the help of northern associations, they quickly began to set up state conventions and, by 1895, joined several associations into the black <a href="/wiki/National_Baptist_Convention,_USA,_Inc." class="mw-redirect" title="National Baptist Convention, USA, Inc.">National Baptist Convention</a>, the first of that denomination among blacks. In addition, independent black denominations, such as the <a href="/wiki/African_Methodist_Episcopal_Church" title="African Methodist Episcopal Church">African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Church</a> and <a href="/wiki/African_Methodist_Episcopal_Zion_Church" title="African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church">AME Zion Church</a>, had made hundreds of thousands of converts in the South, founding AME churches across the region. The churches were centers of community activity, especially organizing for education. </p><p>Rev. <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a> was but one of many notable Black <a href="/wiki/Minister_(Christianity)" title="Minister (Christianity)">ministers</a> involved in the later civil rights movement. <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy" title="Ralph Abernathy">Ralph David Abernathy</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lee_(activist)" title="Bernard Lee (activist)">Bernard Lee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lowery" title="Joseph Lowery">Joseph Lowery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fred_Shuttlesworth" title="Fred Shuttlesworth">Fred Shuttlesworth</a>, and <a href="/wiki/C._T._Vivian" title="C. T. Vivian">C. T. Vivian</a> are among the many notable minister-activists.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were especially important during the later years of the movement in the 1950s and 1960s. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Educational_growth">Educational growth</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Educational growth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_African-American_education" title="History of African-American education">History of African-American education</a></div> <p>Continuing to see education as the primary route of advancement and critical for the race, many talented blacks went into teaching, which had high respect as a profession. Segregated schools for blacks were underfunded in the South and ran on shortened schedules in rural areas. Despite segregation, in Washington, DC by contrast, as Federal employees, black and white teachers were paid on the same scale. Outstanding black teachers in the North received advanced degrees and taught in highly regarded schools, which trained the next generation of leaders in cities such as Chicago, Washington, and New York, whose black populations had increased in the 20th century due to the <a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a>. </p><p>Education was one of the major achievements of the black community in the 19th century. Blacks in <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction</a> governments had supported the establishment of public education in every Southern state. Despite the difficulties, with the enormous eagerness of <a href="/wiki/Freedman" title="Freedman">freedmen</a> for education, by 1900 the African-American community had trained and put to work 30,000 African-American teachers in the South. In addition, a majority of the black population had achieved <a href="/wiki/Literacy_in_the_United_States" title="Literacy in the United States">literacy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Not all the teachers had a full 4-year <a href="/wiki/Academic_degree" title="Academic degree">college degree</a> in those years, but the shorter terms of normal schools were part of the system of teacher training in both the North and the South to serve the many new communities across the frontier. African-American teachers got many children and adults started on education. </p><p>Northern alliances had helped fund normal schools and colleges to teach African-American teachers, as well as create other professional classes. The <a href="/wiki/American_Missionary_Association" title="American Missionary Association">American Missionary Association</a>, supported largely by the <a href="/wiki/Congregational_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregational church">Congregational</a> and <a href="/wiki/Presbyterianism" title="Presbyterianism">Presbyterian</a> churches, had helped fund and staff numerous private schools and colleges in the South, who collaborated with black communities to train generations of teachers and other leaders. Major 20th-century <a href="/wiki/Business_magnate" title="Business magnate">industrialists</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/George_Eastman" title="George Eastman">George Eastman</a> of <a href="/wiki/Rochester,_New_York" title="Rochester, New York">Rochester, New York</a>, acted as <a href="/wiki/Philanthropy" title="Philanthropy">philanthropists</a> and made substantial donations to black educational institutions such as <a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_University" title="Tuskegee University">Tuskegee Institute</a>. </p><p>In 1862, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">U.S. Congress</a> passed the <i><a href="/wiki/Morrill_Land-Grant_Acts" title="Morrill Land-Grant Acts">Morrill Act</a></i>, which established federal funding of a <a href="/wiki/Land-grant_university" title="Land-grant university">land grant college</a> in each state, but 17 states refused to admit black students to their land grant colleges. In response, Congress enacted the second <i>Morrill Act</i> of 1890, which required states that excluded blacks from their existing land grant colleges to open separate institutions and to equitably divide the funds between the schools. The colleges founded in response to the second <i>Morill Act</i> became today's public <a href="/wiki/Historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="Historically black colleges and universities">historically black colleges and universities</a> (HBCUs) and, together with the private HBCUs and the unsegregated colleges in the North and West, provided higher educational opportunities to African Americans. Federally funded <a href="/wiki/Cooperative_State_Research,_Education,_and_Extension_Service" title="Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service">extension</a> agents from the land grant colleges spread knowledge about scientific agriculture and home economics to rural communities with agents from the HBCUs focusing on black farmers and families. </p><p>In the 19th century, blacks formed fraternal organizations across the South and the North, including an increasing number of women's clubs. They created and supported institutions that increased education, health and welfare for black communities. After the turn of the 20th century, black men and women also began to found their own college fraternities and sororities to create additional networks for lifelong service and collaboration. For example, <a href="/wiki/Alpha_Phi_Alpha" title="Alpha Phi Alpha">Alpha Phi Alpha</a> the first black intercollegiate fraternity was founded at <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a> in 1906.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These were part of the new organizations that strengthened independent community life under segregation. </p><p>Tuskegee took the lead in spreading industrial education to Africa, typically in cooperation with church missionary efforts.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Libraries">Libraries</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Libraries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Development of library services for blacks, particularly in the South, was slow moving and lackluster. At the turn of the 20th century there were only a few available and they were largely housed on private grounds. <a href="/wiki/Louisville_Free_Public_Library,_Western_Branch" title="Louisville Free Public Library, Western Branch">Western Colored Branch</a> established in 1908, the first <a href="/wiki/Public_library" title="Public library">public library</a> in the South for African Americans, was the first of its kind to be funded by a <a href="/wiki/Carnegie_library" title="Carnegie library">Carnegie</a> grant.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the formation of the Western Colored Branch, other such facilities were constructed, particularly in association with <a href="/wiki/History_of_African-American_education" title="History of African-American education">black schools</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Tougaloo_Nine">The Tougaloo Nine</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: The Tougaloo Nine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tougaloo_Nine" title="Tougaloo Nine">Tougaloo Nine</a></div> <p>Following the <i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i> decision effort was made to <a href="/wiki/Desegregation_in_the_United_States" title="Desegregation in the United States">desegregate</a> public libraries along with other facilities. A primary example of those who worked to achieve such is The Tougaloo Nine. The Tougaloo Nine were a group of African-American college students (including Joseph Jackson Jr., Albert Lassiter, Alfred Cook, Ethel Sawyer, Geraldine Edwards, Evelyn Pierce, Janice Jackson, James Bradford, and Meredith Anding Jr.) who courageously sought to end segregation of the <a href="/wiki/Jackson,_Mississippi" title="Jackson, Mississippi">Jackson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mississippi" title="Mississippi">Mississippi</a> Public Library in 1961.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One day they simply asked for a philosophy book from the circulation desk at the "whites only" branch, but they were denied and asked to leave. They chose to stay despite harassment and were arrested. There were several similar incidents during the Civil Rights Movement, including the St. Helena Four who, on March 7, 1964, sought to enter the St. Helena branch of the Audubon Regional Library in <a href="/wiki/Greensburg,_Louisiana" title="Greensburg, Louisiana">Greensburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">Louisiana</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Peaceful protests by students in libraries expanded access during the Civil Rights Movement and beyond. <a href="/wiki/Wayne_A._Wiegand" title="Wayne A. Wiegand">Wayne</a> and Shirley A. Wiegand have written the history of the desegregation of public libraries in the <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow South</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_NAACP">The NAACP</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: The NAACP"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a> and <a href="/wiki/Niagara_Movement" title="Niagara Movement">Niagara Movement</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Niagara_Movement_and_the_founding_of_the_NAACP">The Niagara Movement and the founding of the NAACP</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: The Niagara Movement and the founding of the NAACP"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At the turn of the 20th century, <a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a> was regarded, particularly by the white community, as the foremost spokesman for African Americans in the US. Washington, who led the <a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_University" title="Tuskegee University">Tuskegee Institute</a>, preached a message of self-reliance. He urged blacks to concentrate on improving their economic position rather than demanding social equality until they had proved that they "deserved" it. Publicly, he accepted the continuation of <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow</a> and segregation in the short term, but privately helped to fund national court cases that challenged the laws. </p><p><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a> and others in the black community rejected Washington's apology for segregation. One of his close associates, <a href="/wiki/William_Monroe_Trotter" title="William Monroe Trotter">William Monroe Trotter</a>, was arrested after challenging Washington when he came to deliver a speech in <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a> in 1905. Later that year Du Bois and Trotter convened a meeting of black activists on the Canadian side of <a href="/wiki/Niagara_Falls,_Ontario" title="Niagara Falls, Ontario">Niagara Falls</a>. They issued a manifesto calling for universal manhood suffrage, elimination of all forms of racial segregation and extension of education—not limited to the <a href="/wiki/Vocational_education" title="Vocational education">vocational education</a> that Washington emphasized—on a nondiscriminatory basis. The <a href="/wiki/Niagara_Movement" title="Niagara Movement">Niagara Movement</a> was actively opposed by Washington, and had effectively collapsed due to internal divisions by 1908.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Du Bois joined with other black leaders and white activists, such as <a href="/wiki/Mary_White_Ovington" title="Mary White Ovington">Mary White Ovington</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oswald_Garrison_Villard" title="Oswald Garrison Villard">Oswald Garrison Villard</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_English_Walling" title="William English Walling">William English Walling</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Moskowitz_(activist)" title="Henry Moskowitz (activist)">Henry Moskowitz</a>, Julius Rosenthal, <a href="/wiki/Lillian_Wald" title="Lillian Wald">Lillian Wald</a>, Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Emil_G._Hirsch" title="Emil G. Hirsch">Emil G. Hirsch</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Samuel_Wise" title="Stephen Samuel Wise">Stephen Wise</a> to create the <a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People</a> (NAACP) in 1909. Du Bois also became editor of its magazine <i><a href="/wiki/The_Crisis" title="The Crisis">The Crisis</a></i>. In its early years, the NAACP concentrated on using the courts to attack Jim Crow laws and disfranchising constitutional provisions. It successfully challenged the <a href="/wiki/Louisville,_Kentucky" title="Louisville, Kentucky">Louisville, Kentucky</a> ordinance that required <a href="/wiki/Residential_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Residential segregation in the United States">residential segregation</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Buchanan_v._Warley" title="Buchanan v. Warley">Buchanan v. Warley</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_245" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 245">245</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/245/60/">60</a> (1917). It also gained a Supreme Court ruling striking down Oklahoma's <i><a href="/wiki/Grandfather_clause" title="Grandfather clause">grandfather clause</a></i> that exempted most illiterate white voters from a law that disfranchised African-American citizens in <i><a href="/wiki/Guinn_v._United_States" title="Guinn v. United States">Guinn v. United States</a></i> (1915).<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Segregation in the federal civil service began under President Theodore Roosevelt, and continued under President Taft. President Wilson allowed his cabinet to escalate the process, ignoring complaints by the NAACP.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The NAACP lobbied for commissioning of African Americans as officers in World War I. It was arranged for Du Bois to receive an Army commission, but he failed his physical. In 1915 the NAACP organized public education and protests in cities across the nation against <a href="/wiki/D._W._Griffith" title="D. W. Griffith">D.W. Griffith</a>'s film <i><a href="/wiki/The_Birth_of_a_Nation" title="The Birth of a Nation">Birth of a Nation</a></i>, a film that glamorized the Ku Klux Klan. Boston and a few other cities refused to allow the film to open. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anti-lynching_activities">Anti-lynching activities</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Anti-lynching activities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a> operated primarily at the local level, providing as forum that brought black religious, professional and business elites in most large cities. <a href="/wiki/Baltimore" title="Baltimore">Baltimore</a> was a pioneer in battling for issues that dominated the agendas of the post-World War II civil rights and <a href="/wiki/Black_Power_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Power movement">Black Power movements</a>. Baltimore activists were protest pioneers during the 1930s and 1940s. They organized in the city to fight against housing discrimination, school segregation, prison conditions, and police brutality.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The NAACP devoted much of its energy between the first and second world wars to mobilizing a crusade against the <a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">lynching of blacks</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It investigated the serious race riots in numerous major <a href="/wiki/Industrial_city" title="Industrial city">industrial cities</a> throughout the United States in what was called the "<a href="/wiki/Red_Summer" title="Red Summer">Red Summer of 1919</a>," catalyzed by <a href="/wiki/Economic_reconstruction" title="Economic reconstruction">postwar economic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Civil_disorder" title="Civil disorder">social tensions</a>. Though primarily consisting of white-on-black attacks, Red Summer saw blacks begin to fight back, in <a href="/wiki/Chicago_race_riot_of_1919" title="Chicago race riot of 1919">Chicago</a> and other cities. </p><p>The organization sent <a href="/wiki/Walter_F._White" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter F. White">Walter F. White</a>, who later became its general secretary, to <a href="/wiki/Phillips_County,_Arkansas" title="Phillips County, Arkansas">Phillips County, Arkansas</a> in October 1919 to investigate the <a href="/wiki/Elaine_massacre" title="Elaine massacre">Elaine massacres</a>. In that year, it was unusual for being a rural riot: more than 200 black tenant farmers were killed for trying to organize a union. They were murdered by roving white <a href="/wiki/Vigilantism" title="Vigilantism">vigilantes</a> and federal troops after a deputy sheriff's attack on a union meeting of <a href="/wiki/Sharecropping" title="Sharecropping">sharecroppers</a> left one white man dead. The NAACP organized the appeals for twelve men sentenced to death a month later, based on their testimony having been obtained by beating and electric shocks. The groundbreaking United States Supreme Court decision in <i><a href="/wiki/Moore_v._Dempsey" title="Moore v. Dempsey">Moore v. Dempsey</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> significantly expanded the Federal courts' oversight of the states' criminal justice systems in the years to come.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_Man_Was_Lynched_Yesterday.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/A_Man_Was_Lynched_Yesterday.jpg/220px-A_Man_Was_Lynched_Yesterday.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/A_Man_Was_Lynched_Yesterday.jpg/330px-A_Man_Was_Lynched_Yesterday.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/A_Man_Was_Lynched_Yesterday.jpg/440px-A_Man_Was_Lynched_Yesterday.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="5472" /></a><figcaption>"A Man Was Lynched Yesterday" flag, hanging at the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The NAACP worked for more than a decade seeking federal <a href="/wiki/Anti-lynching_movement" title="Anti-lynching movement">anti-lynching legislation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its offices in <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a> regularly displayed a black flag out the window—stating "A Man Was Lynched Yesterday"—to mark each outrage. Efforts to pass an anti-lynching law foundered on the power of the <a href="/wiki/Solid_South" title="Solid South">Solid South</a>; Southern Democrats in the Senate controlled power in Congress. For instance, while Republicans achieved passage in the House of an anti-lynching law in 1922, Southern Democratic senators filibustered the bill in the Senate and defeated it in the 1922, 1923 and 1924 legislative sessions. Because positions were awarded by seniority and the South was a one-party region, its Democratic congressmen controlled important chairmanships in both houses of Congress. The South defeated all anti-lynching legislative bills. </p><p>The NAACP led the successful fight, in alliance with the <a href="/wiki/American_Federation_of_Labor" title="American Federation of Labor">American Federation of Labor</a>, to prevent the nomination of <a href="/wiki/John_J._Parker" title="John J. Parker">John Johnston Parker</a> to the Supreme Court. They opposed him because of his opposition to <a href="/wiki/Black_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Black suffrage in the United States">black suffrage</a> and his <a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_trade_unions" class="mw-redirect" title="Opposition to trade unions">anti-labor</a> rulings. This alliance and lobbying campaign were important for the NAACP, both in demonstrating their ability to mobilize widespread opposition to racism and as a first step toward building <a href="/wiki/Political_alliance" class="mw-redirect" title="Political alliance">political alliances</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Labour_movement" title="Labour movement">labor movement</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Elbert_Williams" title="Elbert Williams">Elbert Williams</a> of <a href="/wiki/Brownsville,_Tennessee" title="Brownsville, Tennessee">Brownsville, Tennessee</a>, is believed to be the first NAACP member lynched for his civil rights activities, killed on June 20, 1940.<sup id="cite_ref-neu_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-neu-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-blackpast_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-blackpast-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He had been part of an NAACP effort in 1940 to register black voters in his city for that year's presidential election. Whites targeted other NAACP members, threatening them, and ran several families out of town who feared for their safety.<sup id="cite_ref-neu_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-neu-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2015 the <a href="/wiki/Tennessee_Historical_Commission" title="Tennessee Historical Commission">Tennessee Historical Commission</a> approved a marker commemorating Elbert Williams in Brownsville.<sup id="cite_ref-blackpast_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-blackpast-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Desegregation_activities">Desegregation activities</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Desegregation activities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, African-American veterans returning to the South were spurred by their sacrifices and experiences to renew demands for the protection and exercise of their <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_right" title="Constitutional right">constitutional rights</a> as citizens in <a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_United_States" title="Society of the United States">American society</a>. One serviceman reportedly said:<sup id="cite_ref-USNews_p2_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USNews_p2-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 2">: 2 </span></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>I spent four years in the Army to free a bunch of <a href="/wiki/Dutch_people" title="Dutch people">Dutchmen</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_people" title="French people">Frenchmen</a>, and I'm hanged if I'm going to let the Alabama version of the Germans kick me around when I get home. No sirree-bob! I went into the Army a <a href="/wiki/Nigger" title="Nigger">nigger</a>; I'm comin' out a man.</p></blockquote><p>From 1940 to 1946, the NAACP's membership grew from 50,000 to 450,000.<sup id="cite_ref-USNews_p2_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USNews_p2-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 2">: 2 </span></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/NAACP_Legal_Defense_and_Educational_Fund" title="NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund">NAACP</a>'s legal department, headed by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Hamilton_Houston" title="Charles Hamilton Houston">Charles Hamilton Houston</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a>, undertook a litigation campaign spanning several decades to bring about the reversal of the "<a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">separate but equal</a>" doctrine established in the Supreme Court's decision in <i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i> (1896). Instead of appealing to the legislative or executive branches of government, they focused on challenges through the courts. They knew that Congress was dominated by Southern segregationists, while the Presidency could not afford to lose the Southern vote.<sup id="cite_ref-USNews_p2_52-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USNews_p2-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 2">: 2 </span></sup> The NAACP's first cases did not challenge the principle directly, but sought instead to establish factually that the state's segregated facilities in transportation, public education and parks, for instance, were not equal. These were typically underfunded, with outdated textbooks and facilities. Such cases helped lay the foundation for the ultimate reversal of the doctrine in <i>Plessy v. Ferguson</i>. </p><p>Marshall believed that the time had come to do away with "separate but equal". The NAACP issued a directive stating that their goal was now "obtaining education on a nonsegregated basis and that no relief other than that will be acceptable." The first case that Marshall argued on this basis was <i><a href="/wiki/Briggs_v._Elliott" title="Briggs v. Elliott">Briggs v. Elliott</a></i>, but the NAACP also filed challenges to segregated education in other states. In <a href="/wiki/Topeka,_Kansas" title="Topeka, Kansas">Topeka, Kansas</a>, the local NAACP branch determined that <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Brown_(American_activist)" title="Oliver Brown (American activist)">Oliver Brown</a> would be a good candidate for filing a lawsuit; he was an assistant pastor and the father of three girls. The NAACP instructed him to apply to enroll his daughters at a local white school; after the expected rejection, <i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i> was filed. Later, this and several other cases made their way to the Supreme Court, where they were consolidated under the title of <i>Brown</i>. The decision to name the case after one originating in Kansas was apparently made "so that the whole question would not smack of being a purely southern one."<sup id="cite_ref-USNews_p2_52-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USNews_p2-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 2">: 2 </span></sup> </p><p>Some in the NAACP thought Marshall was moving too quickly. They feared that the Southern judge, Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/Fred_M._Vinson" title="Fred M. Vinson">Fred M. Vinson</a>, who would almost certainly oppose overruling <i>Plessy</i>, could destroy their case. One historian stated: "There was a sense that if you do this and you lose, you're going to enshrine Plessy for a generation." A government lawyer involved in the case agreed that it was "a mistake to push for the overruling of segregation per se so long as Vinson was chief justice—it was too early." </p><p>In December 1952, the Supreme Court heard the case, but could not come to a decision. Unusually, they pushed the case back by a year, to allow the lawyers involved to research the intention of the framers who drafted the "<a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</a>" of the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">14th Amendment</a>. In September 1953, Vinson died of a <a href="/wiki/Myocardial_infarction" title="Myocardial infarction">heart attack</a>, for which Justice <a href="/wiki/Felix_Frankfurter" title="Felix Frankfurter">Felix Frankfurter</a> remarked: "This is the first indication I have ever had that there is a God." Vinson was succeeded as chief justice by <a href="/wiki/Earl_Warren" title="Earl Warren">Earl Warren</a>, who was known for his moderate views on civil rights.<sup id="cite_ref-USNews_p2_52-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USNews_p2-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 3">: 3 </span></sup> </p><p>After the case was reheard in December, Warren set about persuading his colleagues to reach a unanimous decision overruling <i>Plessy</i>. Five of the other eight judges were firmly on his side. He persuaded another two by saying that the decision would not touch greatly on the original question of <i>Plessy'</i>s legality, focusing instead on the principle of equality. Justice <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Forman_Reed" title="Stanley Forman Reed">Stanley Reed</a> was swayed after Warren suggested that a Southerner's lone dissent on this issue could be more dangerous and incendiary than the court's unanimous decision.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In May 1954, Warren announced the Court's decision, which he wrote. It said that "segregation of children in public schools solely on the basis of race" was unconstitutional because it deprived "the children of the minority group of equal educational opportunities" and thus equal protection under the law.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Numerous Southern leaders and their constituents strongly resisted the ruling; the <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_Virginia" title="Governor of Virginia">Governor of Virginia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_B._Stanley" title="Thomas B. Stanley">Thomas B. Stanley</a>, insisted he would "use every legal means at my command to continue segregated schools in Virginia," and some school districts closed down rather than integrate. One survey suggested that 13% of Florida policemen were willing to enforce the decision in <i>Brown</i>. </p><p>Some 19 Senators and 77 members of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a>, including the entire congressional <a href="/wiki/Delegation" title="Delegation">delegations</a> of the states of <a href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arkansas" title="Arkansas">Arkansas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">Louisiana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mississippi" title="Mississippi">Mississippi</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Carolina" title="South Carolina">South Carolina</a> and <a href="/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Virginia</a>, signed "<a href="/wiki/Southern_Manifesto" title="Southern Manifesto">The Southern Manifesto</a>", all but two of the signatories were <a href="/wiki/Southern_Democrats" title="Southern Democrats">Southern Democrats</a>: Republicans <a href="/wiki/Joel_Broyhill" title="Joel Broyhill">Joel Broyhill</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Harding_Poff" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Harding Poff">Richard Poff</a> of Virginia also promised to resist the decision by "lawful means." By the fall of 1955, <a href="/wiki/Cheryl_Brown" title="Cheryl Brown">Cheryl Brown</a> started first grade at an integrated school in <a href="/wiki/Topeka,_Kansas" title="Topeka, Kansas">Topeka</a>—the first step on the long road to eventual equality for African Americans.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="American-Jewish_support">American-Jewish support</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: American-Jewish support"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jews_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="Jews in the civil rights movement">Jews in the civil rights movement</a></div> <p>Many from the <a href="/wiki/American_Jews" title="American Jews">American-Jewish community</a> tacitly or actively supported the civil rights movement. Several co-founders of the NAACP, themselves, were Jewish and, in the latter part of the 20th century, many of its white members and leading activists came from within the Jewish community. </p><p>Jewish <a href="/wiki/Philanthropy" title="Philanthropy">philanthropists</a> actively supported the NAACP and various other civil rights groups, as well as schools for African Americans. The Jewish <a href="/wiki/Philanthropy" title="Philanthropy">philanthropist</a> <a href="/wiki/Julius_Rosenwald" title="Julius Rosenwald">Julius Rosenwald</a> supported the construction of thousands of primary and secondary schools for black youth in the rural South; the public school system was segregated and black facilities were historically underfunded. In partnership with <a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_University" title="Tuskegee University">Tuskegee University</a>, Rosenwald created a matching fund which provided seed money for building. <a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_University" title="Tuskegee University">Tuskegee Institute</a> architects created model school plans. Black communities essentially taxed themselves twice to raise funds for such schools, which required community matching funds. Often most of the residents in rural areas were blacks. Public funds were committed for the schools, and blacks raised additional funds by community events, donating land and labor, and sometimes by members' getting second mortgages on their homes. Hoping to encourage collaboration, Rosenwald required the white school systems to support the schools by approving them. At one time some forty percent of rural southern blacks were learning at Rosenwald elementary schools; nearly 5,000 were built in total.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rosenwald also contributed to HBCUs such as <a href="/wiki/Howard_University" title="Howard University">Howard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dillard_University" title="Dillard University">Dillard</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fisk_University" title="Fisk University">Fisk</a> universities. </p><p>The 2000 <a href="/wiki/PBS" title="PBS">PBS</a> television production <i><a href="/wiki/From_Swastika_to_Jim_Crow" title="From Swastika to Jim Crow">From Swastika to Jim Crow</a></i> discussed Jewish involvement in the civil rights movement. It recounted that Jewish scholars fleeing from or surviving the <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">Holocaust</a> of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> came to teach at many Southern schools, where they reached out to black students:<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>Thus, in the 1930s and 1940s when Jewish refugee professors arrived at <a href="/wiki/Historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="Historically black colleges and universities">Southern Black Colleges</a>, there was a history of overt empathy between Blacks and Jews, and the possibility of truly effective collaboration. Professor <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Borinski" title="Ernst Borinski">Ernst Borinski</a> organized dinners at which Blacks and Whites would have to sit next to each other—a simple yet revolutionary act. Black students empathized with the cruelty these scholars had endured in Europe and trusted them more than other Whites. In fact, often Black students—as well as members of the Southern White community—saw these refugees as "some kind of colored folk."</p></blockquote> <p>After World War II particularly, the <a href="/wiki/American_Jewish_Committee" title="American Jewish Committee">American Jewish Committee</a>, <a href="/wiki/American_Jewish_Congress" title="American Jewish Congress">American Jewish Congress</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Anti-Defamation_League" title="Anti-Defamation League">Anti-Defamation League</a> (ADL), among other institutions, became active in promoting civil rights through various outlets. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id=""The_New_Negro""><span id=".22The_New_Negro.22"></span>"The New Negro"</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: "The New Negro""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/New_Negro" title="New Negro">New Negro</a> and <a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">the New Negro movement</a></div> <p>The experience of fighting in <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> along with exposure to different racial attitudes in Europe influenced the black veterans by creating a widespread demand for the freedoms and equality for which they had fought. Those veterans found conditions at home as bad as ever. Some were assaulted even while wearing their uniforms in public.<sup id="cite_ref-doublevee_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-doublevee-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This generation responded with a far more militant spirit than the generation before, urging blacks to fight back when whites attacked them. <a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a> introduced the term the <i>New Negro</i> in 1917, becoming a catchphrase to describe the new spirit of <a href="/wiki/Militant" title="Militant">militancy</a> and impatience of the <a href="/wiki/Post-war" title="Post-war">post-war era</a>. </p><p>A group known as the <a href="/wiki/African_Blood_Brotherhood" title="African Blood Brotherhood">African Blood Brotherhood</a>, a socialist group with a large number of <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a> <a href="/wiki/%C3%89migr%C3%A9" title="Émigré"><i>émigrés</i></a> in its leadership, organized around 1920 to demand the same sort of self-determination for black Americans that the Wilson administration was promising to <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern European</a> peoples at the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference_(1919%E2%80%931920)" title="Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)">Versailles conference</a> in the aftermath of World War I. The leaders of the Brotherhood, many of whom joined the Communist Party in the years to come, were also inspired by the anti-imperialist program of the new <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>. </p><p>In addition, during the <a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a>, hundreds of thousands of African Americans moved to northern <a href="/wiki/Industrial_city" title="Industrial city">industrial cities</a> starting prior to World War I and through 1940. Another wave of migration during and after World War II led many to <a href="/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="West Coast of the United States">West Coast</a> cities, as well as more in the North. They were both fleeing violence and segregation and seeking jobs, as manpower shortages in war industries promised steady work. Continued depressed conditions in the farm economy of the South in the 1920s made the north look more appealing. Those expanding northern communities confronted familiar problems—racism, poverty, police abuse and official hostility—but these were in a new setting, where the men could vote (and women, too, after 1920), and possibilities for political action were far broader than in the South. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marcus_Garvey_and_the_UNIA">Marcus Garvey and the UNIA</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Marcus Garvey and the UNIA"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Garvey" title="Marcus Garvey">Marcus Garvey</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Universal_Negro_Improvement_Association_and_African_Communities_League" title="Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League">Universal Negro Improvement Association</a> (UNIA) made great strides in organizing in these new communities in the North, and among the internationalist-minded "<a href="/wiki/New_Negro" title="New Negro">New Negro</a>" movement in the early 1920s. Garvey's program pointed in the opposite direction from mainstream civil rights organizations such as the NAACP; instead of striving for integration into white-dominated society, Garvey's program of <a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan Africanism</a> has become known as <a href="/wiki/Garveyism" title="Garveyism">Garveyism</a>. It encourages economic independence within the system of <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">racial segregation</a> in the United States, an African Orthodox Church with a black Jesus and black Virgin Mother that offered an alternative to the white <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> of the black church, and a campaign that urged <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a> to "<a href="/wiki/Back-to-Africa_movement" title="Back-to-Africa movement">return to Africa</a>," if not physically, at least in spirit. Garvey attracted thousands of supporters, both in the United States and in the <a href="/wiki/African_diaspora_in_the_Americas" title="African diaspora in the Americas">African diaspora</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a>, and claimed eleven million members for the UNIA, which was broadly popular in Northern black communities. </p><p>Garvey's movement was a contradictory mix of <a href="/wiki/Defeatism" title="Defeatism">defeatism</a>, accommodation and <a href="/wiki/Separatism" title="Separatism">separatism</a>: he married themes of self-reliance that <a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a> could have endorsed and the "<a href="/wiki/Prosperity_theology" title="Prosperity theology">gospel of success</a>" so popular in white America in the 1920s with a rejection of <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonialism</a> worldwide and rejection of racial inferiority.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The movement at first attracted many of the foreign-born radicals also associated with the <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialist</a> and <a href="/wiki/African_Blood_Brotherhood" title="African Blood Brotherhood">Communist parties</a>, but drove many of them away when Garvey began to suspect them of challenging his control. </p><p>The movement collapsed nearly as quickly as it blossomed, as the federal government convicted Garvey for mail fraud in 1922 in connection with the movement's financially troubled "<a href="/wiki/Black_Star_Line" title="Black Star Line">Black Star Line</a>". The government commuted Garvey's sentence and deported Garvey to his native <a href="/wiki/Jamaica" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a> in 1927. While the movement floundered without him, it inspired other self-help and separatist movements that followed, including <a href="/wiki/Father_Divine" title="Father Divine">Father Divine</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Left_and_civil_rights">The Left and civil rights</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: The Left and civil rights"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>See</i> <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_USA_and_African_Americans" title="Communist Party USA and African Americans">The Communist Party and African-Americans</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Labor_movement">The Labor movement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: The Labor movement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The labor movement, with some exceptions, had historically excluded African Americans. While the radical labor organizers who led organizing drives among packinghouse workers in Chicago and <a href="/wiki/Kansas_City,_Missouri" title="Kansas City, Missouri">Kansas City</a> during <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Steel_strike_of_1919" class="mw-redirect" title="Steel strike of 1919">steel industry in 1919</a> made determined efforts to appeal to black workers, they were not able to overcome the widespread distrust of the labor movement among black workers in the North. With the ultimate defeat of both of those organizing drives, the black community and the labor movement largely returned to their traditional mutual mistrust. </p><p>Left-wing political activists in the labor movement made some progress in the 1920s and 1930s, however, in bridging that gap. <a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a>, a long-time member of the <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Party_of_America" title="Socialist Party of America">Socialist Party of America</a>, took the leadership of the fledgling <a href="/wiki/Brotherhood_of_Sleeping_Car_Porters" title="Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters">Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters</a> (BSCP) at its founding in 1925. Randolph and the union faced opposition not only from the <a href="/wiki/Pullman_Company" title="Pullman Company">Pullman Company</a>, but from the press and churches within the black community, many of whom were the beneficiaries of financial support from the company. The union eventually won over many of its critics in the black community by wedding its organizing program with the larger goal of black empowerment. The union won recognition from the Pullman Company in 1935 after a ten-year campaign, and a union contract in 1937. </p><p>The BSCP became the only black-led union within the <a href="/wiki/American_Federation_of_Labor" title="American Federation of Labor">American Federation of Labor</a> (AFL) in 1935. Randolph chose to remain within the AFL when the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Industrial_Organizations" title="Congress of Industrial Organizations">Congress of Industrial Organizations</a> (CIO) split from it. The CIO was much more committed to organizing African-American workers and made strenuous efforts to persuade the BSCP to join it, but Randolph believed more could be done to advance black workers' rights, particularly in the railway industry, by remaining in the AFL, to which the other railway brotherhoods belonged. Randolph remained the voice for black workers within the labor movement, raising demands for elimination of Jim Crow unions within the AFL at every opportunity. BSCP members such as <a href="/wiki/E._D._Nixon" title="E. D. Nixon">Edgar Nixon</a> played a significant role in the civil rights struggles of the following decades. </p><p>Many of the CIO unions, in particular the Packinghouse Workers, the <a href="/wiki/United_Auto_Workers" title="United Auto Workers">United Auto Workers</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Western_Federation_of_Miners" title="Western Federation of Miners">Mine, Mill and Smelter Workers</a> made advocacy of civil rights part of their organizing strategy and bargaining priorities: they gained improvements for workers in meatpacking in Chicago and Omaha, and in the steel and related industries throughout the Midwest. The <a href="/wiki/Transport_Workers_Union_of_America" title="Transport Workers Union of America">Transport Workers Union of America</a>, which had strong ties with the <a href="/wiki/Communist_party" title="Communist party">Communist Party</a> at the time, entered into coalitions with <a href="/wiki/Adam_Clayton_Powell_Jr." title="Adam Clayton Powell Jr.">Adam Clayton Powell Jr.</a>, the NAACP and the <a href="/wiki/National_Negro_Congress" title="National Negro Congress">National Negro Congress</a> to attack employment discrimination in public transit in New York City in the early 1940s. </p><p>The CIO was particularly vocal in calling for elimination of racial discrimination by defense industries during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>; they were also forced to combat racism within their own membership, putting down strikes by white workers who refused to work with black co-workers. While many of these "hate strikes" were short-lived: a wildcat strike launched in <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a> in 1944 when the federal government ordered the private transit company to desegregate its workforce lasted two weeks and was ended only when the <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Roosevelt</a> administration sent troops to guard the system and arrested the strike's ringleaders. </p><p>Randolph and the BSCP took the battle against employment discrimination even further, threatening a <a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_Movement" title="March on Washington Movement">March on Washington</a> in 1942 if the government did not take steps to outlaw racial discrimination by <a href="/wiki/Arms_industry" title="Arms industry">defense contractors</a>. Randolph limited the March on Washington Movement to black organizations to maintain black leadership; he endured harsh criticism from others on the left for his insistence on black workers' rights in the middle of a war. Randolph only dropped the plan to march after winning substantial <a href="/wiki/Concession_(politics)" title="Concession (politics)">concessions</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt_and_civil_rights" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt and civil rights">Roosevelt administration</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Scottsboro_Boys">The Scottsboro Boys</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: The Scottsboro Boys"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1931, the NAACP and the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_USA" title="Communist Party USA">Communist Party USA</a> also organized support for the "<a href="/wiki/Scottsboro_Boys" title="Scottsboro Boys">Scottsboro Boys</a>", nine black men arrested after a fight with some white men also riding the rails, then convicted and sentenced to death for allegedly raping two white women dressed in men's clothes later found on the same train. The NAACP and the CP fought over the control of those cases and the strategy to be pursued; the CP and its arm the <a href="/wiki/International_Labor_Defense" title="International Labor Defense">International Labor Defense</a> (ILD) largely prevailed. The ILD's legal campaign produced two significant Supreme Court decisions (<i><a href="/wiki/Powell_v._Alabama" title="Powell v. Alabama">Powell v. Alabama</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Norris_v._Alabama" title="Norris v. Alabama">Norris v. Alabama</a></i>) extending the rights of defendants; its political campaign saved all the defendants from the death sentence and ultimately led to freedom for most of them. </p><p>The Scottsboro defense was only one of the ILD's many cases in the South; for a period in the early and mid-1930s, the ILD was the most active defender of blacks' civil rights, and the Communist Party attracted many members among activist African Americans. Its campaigns for black defendants' rights did much to focus national attention on the extreme conditions which black defendants faced in the criminal justice system throughout the South. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foreign_pressure">Foreign pressure</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Foreign pressure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Its treatment of African Americans compromised the United States' role as a would-be world leader and champion of <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democracy</a>. The world challenge from <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a>—not to be confused with the actions of the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_USA" title="Communist Party USA">U.S. Communist Party</a> in support of ending discrimination—forced: </p> <blockquote><p>...democracies of the West...to divest themselves of antiquated racial attitudes and practices in order to prevent further mergers of anti-imperialist revolutions and Communist revolutions. Incidents in the United States involving Negro discrimination...are given a much bigger play in the neutralist Asian press than they are in America itself.</p></blockquote><p> In addition, the victory over <a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascists</a> in World War II did much to lay the groundwork for the civil rights movement.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Regional_Council_of_Negro_Leadership">Regional Council of Negro Leadership</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Regional Council of Negro Leadership"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On December 28, 1951, <a href="/wiki/T._R._M._Howard" title="T. R. M. Howard">T. R. M. Howard</a>, an entrepreneur, surgeon, fraternal leader and planter in Mississippi, founded the <a href="/wiki/Regional_Council_of_Negro_Leadership" title="Regional Council of Negro Leadership">Regional Council of Negro Leadership</a> (RCNL) together with other key blacks in the state. At first the RCNL, which was based in the all-black town of <a href="/wiki/Mound_Bayou,_Mississippi" title="Mound Bayou, Mississippi">Mound Bayou</a>, did not directly challenge "separate but equal" policy, but worked to guarantee the "equal." It often identified inadequate schools as the primary factor responsible for the black exodus to the North. It called for equal school terms for both races, as black schools were historically underfunded. From the beginning, the RCNL also pledged an "all-out fight for unrestricted voting rights."<sup id="cite_ref-Beito_and_Beito_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beito_and_Beito-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The RCNL's most famous member was <a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a>. Fresh from graduation at <a href="/wiki/Alcorn_State_University" title="Alcorn State University">Alcorn State University</a> in 1952, he moved to Mound Bayou to sell insurance for Howard. Evers soon became the RCNL's program director and helped to organize a boycott of service stations that failed to provide restrooms for blacks. As part of this campaign, the RCNL distributed an estimated 20,000 bumper stickers with the slogan "Don't Buy Gas Where You Can't Use the Rest Room." Beginning in 1953, it directly challenged "<a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">separate but equal</a>" and demanded <a href="/wiki/School_integration_in_the_United_States" title="School integration in the United States">integration of schools</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The RCNL's annual meetings in Mound Bayou between 1952 and 1955 attracted crowds of 10,000 or more. They featured speeches by Rep. <a href="/wiki/William_L._Dawson_(politician)" title="William L. Dawson (politician)">William L. Dawson</a> of Chicago, Rep. <a href="/wiki/Charles_Diggs" title="Charles Diggs">Charles Diggs</a> of Michigan, Alderman <a href="/wiki/Archibald_Carey_Jr." title="Archibald Carey Jr.">Archibald Carey Jr.</a> of Chicago, and NAACP attorney <a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a>. Each of these events, in the words of Myrlie Evers, later <a href="/wiki/Myrlie_Evers-Williams" title="Myrlie Evers-Williams">Myrlie Evers-Williams</a>, wife of Medgar, constituted "a huge all-day camp meeting: a combination of pep rally, old-time revival, and Sunday church picnic." The conferences also included panels and workshops on voting rights, business ownership, and other issues. Attendance was a life-transforming experience for many future civil black leaders who became prominent in the 1960s, such as <a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Fannie Lou Hamer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amzie_Moore" title="Amzie Moore">Amzie Moore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aaron_Henry_(politician)" title="Aaron Henry (politician)">Aaron Henry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/George_W._Lee" title="George W. Lee">George W. Lee</a>. </p><p>On November 27, 1955, <a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a> attended one of these speeches at <a href="/wiki/Dexter_Avenue_Baptist_Church" title="Dexter Avenue Baptist Church">Dexter Avenue Church</a> in <a href="/wiki/Montgomery,_Alabama" title="Montgomery, Alabama">Montgomery</a>. The host for this event was a then relatively unknown Rev. <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a> Parks later said that she was thinking of <a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Till</a> when she refused to give up her seat four days later.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 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Tenant Farmers Union">Southern Tenant Farmers Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_racial_tension_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="Timeline of racial tension in Omaha, Nebraska">Timeline of racial tension in Omaha, Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_I#African-Americans" title="United States home front during World War I">United States home front during World War I#African-Americans</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_163" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 163">163</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/163/537/">537</a> (1896)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_347" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 347">347</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/347/483/">483</a> (1954)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style 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Smock</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt2tvj64">j.ctt2tvj64</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPowell2000" class="citation book cs1">Powell, William S. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VeSDB5tKDagC&pg=PA408"><i>Dictionary of North Carolina Biography: Vol. 5, P–S</i></a>. Univ of North Carolina Press. pp. 408–409. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780807867006" title="Special:BookSources/9780807867006"><bdi>9780807867006</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+North+Carolina+Biography%3A+Vol.+5%2C+P%E2%80%93S&rft.pages=408-409&rft.pub=Univ+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9780807867006&rft.aulast=Powell&rft.aufirst=William+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVeSDB5tKDagC%26pg%3DPA408&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281896%E2%80%931954%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bull, Jacqueline P. 1952. "The General Merchant in the Economic History of the New South." <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Southern_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Southern history">Journal of Southern History</a></i> 18(1):37–59. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2954791">2954791</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sisk, Glenn N. 1955. "Rural Merchandising in the Alabama Black Belt, 1875–1917." <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Farm_Economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Farm Economics">Journal of Farm Economics</a></i> 37(4):705–715. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1234631">1234631</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJessie_Carney_Smith2006" class="citation book cs1">Jessie Carney Smith, ed. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-VYN_LWZwf4C&pg=PA164"><i>Encyclopedia of African American Business</i></a>. Greenwood. pp. 164–167. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780313331107" title="Special:BookSources/9780313331107"><bdi>9780313331107</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+African+American+Business&rft.pages=164-167&rft.pub=Greenwood&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780313331107&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-VYN_LWZwf4C%26pg%3DPA164&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281896%E2%80%931954%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Weems Jr., Robert E. 2009. <i>Business in Black and White: American Presidents and Black Entrepreneurs</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cr.nps.gov/nr/travel/civilrights/players.htm">"We Shall Overcome: The Players"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070607180155/http://www.cr.nps.gov/nr/travel/civilrights/players.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 7 June 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Chicago: <a href="/wiki/American_Library_Association" title="American Library Association">American Library Association</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://americanlibrariesmagazine.org/2017/06/01/desegregating-libraries-american-south/">"Desegregating Libraries in the American South"</a>. 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"The Niagara Movement." <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Negro_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Negro History">Journal of Negro History</a></i> 42(3):177–200. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2715936">2715936</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schmidt, Benno C. 1982. "Principle and prejudice: The Supreme Court and race in the progressive era. 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"The Rise of Segregation in the Federal Bureaucracy, 1900–1930." <i><a href="/wiki/Phylon" title="Phylon">Phylon</a></i> 28(2):178–184. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/273560">273560</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lee Sartain, <i>Borders of Equality: The NAACP and the Baltimore Civil Rights Struggle, 1914–1970</i> (2013)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zangrando, Robert L. 1980. <i>The NAACP Crusade against Lynching, 1909–1950</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Moore_v._Dempsey" title="Moore v. Dempsey">Moore v. 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Boston: <a href="/wiki/Northeastern_University_School_of_Law" title="Northeastern University School of Law">Northeastern University School of Law</a>. 2017. Archived from the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nuweb9.neu.edu/civilrights/elbert-williams/">original</a> on 2017-02-04.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-blackpast-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-blackpast_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-blackpast_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Emison, Jim. 23 June 2018. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.blackpast.org/aah/williams-elbert-1908-1940">Elbert Williams (1908–1940)</a>." <i><a href="/wiki/BlackPast.org" title="BlackPast.org">BlackPast</a></i>. Retrieved 9 June 2020.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-USNews_p2-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-USNews_p2_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-USNews_p2_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-USNews_p2_52-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-USNews_p2_52-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-USNews_p2_52-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ewers, Justin (March 22, 2004). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usnews.com/usnews/news/articles/040322/22history_2.htm">'Separate but equal' was the law of the land, until one decision brought it crashing down</a>." <i><a href="/wiki/U.S._News_%26_World_Report" title="U.S. News & World Report">U.S. News & World Report</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110524225542/http://www.usnews.com/usnews/news/articles/040322/22history_2.htm">Archived</a> 2011-05-24 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ewers, Justin (March 22, 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usnews.com/usnews/news/articles/040322/22history_4.htm">"'Separate but equal' was the law of the land, until one decision brought it crashing down"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110524225550/http://www.usnews.com/usnews/news/articles/040322/22history_4.htm">Archived</a> 2011-05-24 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (page 4). <i>U.S. News & World Report</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James D. Anderson, <i>Black Education in the South, 1860–1935</i>, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 198</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">PBS website <i><a href="/wiki/From_Swastika_to_Jim_Crow" title="From Swastika to Jim Crow">From Swastika to Jim Crow</a></i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-doublevee-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-doublevee_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRawn_James_Jr.2013" class="citation book cs1">Rawn James Jr. (2013). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/doublevhowwarspr0000jame"><i>The Double V: How Wars, Protest, and Harry Truman Desegregated America's Military</i></a></span>. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/doublevhowwarspr0000jame/page/77">77</a>–80. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781608196173" title="Special:BookSources/9781608196173"><bdi>9781608196173</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 May</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Double+V%3A+How+Wars%2C+Protest%2C+and+Harry+Truman+Desegregated+America%27s+Military&rft.pages=77-80&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781608196173&rft.au=Rawn+James+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdoublevhowwarspr0000jame&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281896%E2%80%931954%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">from <a href="/wiki/PBS" title="PBS">PBS</a> "American Experience", "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/garvey/peopleevents/p_garvey.html">People & Events: Marcus Garvey, 1887–1940</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170227010709/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/garvey/peopleevents/p_garvey.html">Archived</a> 2017-02-27 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>" The Marcus Garvey and U.N.I.A. Papers Project, <a href="/wiki/UCLA" class="mw-redirect" title="UCLA">UCLA</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carleton, William G. [1957] 1973. "Introduction." Pp. xvi-xvii in <i>The Negro and Southern Politics: A Chapter of Florida History</i>, edited by H. D. Price. <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Publishing_Group" title="Greenwood Publishing Group">Greenwood Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0837168244" title="Special:BookSources/0837168244">0837168244</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Beito_and_Beito-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Beito_and_Beito_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David T. Beito and Linda Royster Beito, <i>Black Maverick: T.R.M. Howard's Fight for Civil Rights and Economic Power</i> (University of Illinois Press, 2009), pp. 72–89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beito and Beito, <i>Black Maverick</i> pp. 79–82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beito and Beito, <i>Black Maverick</i> pp. 78–79, 88–89, 107, 139.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Avery, Sheldon. 1989. <i>Up from Washington: William Pickens and the Negro Struggle for Equality, 1900–1954</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Delaware_Press" title="University of Delaware Press">University of Delaware Press</a>. — on NAACP.</li> <li>Bates, Beth Tompkins. 2001. <i>Pullman Porters and the Rise of Protest Politics in Black America, 1929–1945.</i> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0807826146" title="Special:BookSources/0807826146">0807826146</a>.</li> <li>Berger, Martin A. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucpress.edu/book.php?isbn=9780520268647">Seeing through Race: A Reinterpretation of Civil Rights Photography</a></i>. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011.</li> <li>Berger, Maurice. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300121315/all-world-see">For All the World to See: Visual Culture and the Struggle for Civil Rights</a></i>. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2010.</li> <li>Brooks, F. Erik, and Glenn L. Starks. 2011. <i>Historically Black Colleges and Universities: An Encyclopedia.</i> <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Publishing_Group" title="Greenwood Publishing Group">Greenwood</a>.</li> <li>Brown, Nikki L.M., and Barry M. Stentiford, eds. 208 <i>The Jim Crow Encyclopedia</i> (Greenwood, 2008)</li> <li>Carle, Susan D. 2013. <i>Defining the Struggle: National Racial Justice Organizing, 1880–1915</i>. Oxford University Press. — covers NAACP and also Urban League.</li> <li>Carson, Clayborne, David J. Garrow, Bill Kovach, and Carol Polsgrove, eds. 2003. <i>Reporting Civil Rights: American Journalism.</i> New York: <a href="/wiki/Library_of_America" title="Library of America">Library of America</a>. <ul><li><i>1941–1963</i>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1931082286" title="Special:BookSources/1931082286">1931082286</a>.</li> <li><i>1963–1973</i>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1931082294" title="Special:BookSources/1931082294">1931082294</a>.</li></ul></li> <li>Richardson, Christopher M., and Ralph E. Luker, eds. 2014. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CafcAwAAQBAJ&pg=PR13">Historical Dictionary of the Civil Rights Movement</a></i> (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Rowman_%26_Littlefield" title="Rowman & Littlefield">Rowman & Littlefield</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780810880375" title="Special:BookSources/9780810880375">9780810880375</a>.</li> <li>Dagbovie, Pero Gaglo. 2007. "Exploring a Century of Historical Scholarship on Booker T. Washington." <i><a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_African_American_History" title="The Journal of African American History">Journal of African American History</a></i> 92(Spring):239–264.</li> <li>Du Bois, W.E.B., ed. 1899. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scua.library.umass.edu/digital/dubois/dubois4.pdf"><i>The Negro in Business: Report of a Social Study Made Under the Direction of Atlanta University</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180413050242/http://scua.library.umass.edu/digital/dubois/dubois4.pdf">Archived</a> 2018-04-13 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Atlanta, GA: <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Conference_of_Negro_Problems" title="Atlanta Conference of Negro Problems">Atlanta Conference</a>.</li> <li>Egerton, John. 1994. <i>Speak Now Against the Day: The Generation Before the Civil Rights Movement in the South.</i> <a href="/wiki/Alfred_A._Knopf" title="Alfred A. Knopf">Knopf</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0679408088" title="Special:BookSources/0679408088">0679408088</a>.</li> <li>Finkelman, Paul. ed. 2009. <i>Encyclopedia of African American History, 1896 to the Present</i> (5 vol.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Amazon_Standard_Identification_Number" title="Amazon Standard Identification Number">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0195167791">0195167791</a>.</li> <li>Gatewood, Willard B. 2000. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CyQEzCEV9XkC">Aristocrats of Color: the Black elite, 1880–1920</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Arkansas_Press" title="University of Arkansas Press">University of Arkansas Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781610750257" title="Special:BookSources/9781610750257">9781610750257</a>.</li> <li>Gershenhorn, Jerry. 2006. "Double V in North Carolina: The Carolina Times and the Struggle for Racial Equality during World War II." <i><a href="/wiki/Journalism_History_(journal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Journalism History (journal)">Journalism History</a></i> 32(3):156–167.</li> <li>— 2010. "A Courageous Voice for Black Freedom: Louis Austin and the Carolina Times in Depression-Era North Carolina." <i><a href="/wiki/North_Carolina_Historical_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="North Carolina Historical Review">North Carolina Historical Review</a></i> 87:57–92.</li> <li>— 2018. <i>Louis Austin and The Carolina Times: A Life in the Long Black Freedom Struggle</i>. Chapel Hill, NC: <a href="/wiki/University_of_North_Carolina_Press" title="University of North Carolina Press">University of North Carolina Press</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_Hahn" title="Steven Hahn">Hahn, Steven</a>. 2003. <i><a href="/wiki/A_Nation_Under_Our_Feet" title="A Nation Under Our Feet">A Nation Under Our Feet: Black Political Struggles in the Rural South, From Slavery to the Great Migration</a>.</i> — Pulitzer prize. Highly detailed narrative of black politics.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_R._Harlan" title="Louis R. Harlan">Harlan, Louis R.</a> 1986. <i>The Wizard Of Tuskegee, 1901–1915</i>, (<i>Booker T. Washington</i> 2).</li> <li>Honey, Maureen. 1999. <i>Bitter Fruit: African American Women in World War II</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Missouri_Press" title="University of Missouri Press">University of Missouri Press</a>.</li> <li>McGuire, Phillip. "Desegregation of the armed forces: Black leadership, protest and World War II." <i>Journal of Negro History</i> 68.2 (1983): 147–158. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2717718">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Meier, August, and Elliott Rudwick. 1967. "The Rise of Segregation in the Federal Bureaucracy, 1900–1930." <i><a href="/wiki/Phylon" title="Phylon">Phylon</a></i> 28(2):178–184. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/273560">273560</a>.</li> <li>— 1969. "The Boycott Movement Against Jim Crow Streetcars in the South, 1900–1906." <i><a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_American_History" title="The Journal of American History">Journal of American History</a></i> 55(4):756–775. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1900151">1900151</a>.</li> <li>— 1973. <i>CORE: A Study in the Civil Rights Movement, 1942–1968</i>.</li> <li>Mullenbach, Cheryl. 2013. <i>Double Victory: How African American Women Broke Race and Gender Barriers to Help Win World War II</i>.</li> <li>Norrell, Robert J. 2009. <i>Up from history: The Life of Booker T. Washington</i>.</li> <li>— 2003/4. "Booker T. Washington: Understanding the Wizard of Tuskegee," <i><a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_Blacks_in_Higher_Education" title="The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education">Journal of Blacks in Higher Education</a></i> 42:96–109. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3592453">3592453</a></li> <li>Parker, Christopher S. 2009. "When Politics Becomes Protest: Black Veterans and Political Activism in the Postwar South." <i><a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_Politics" title="The Journal of Politics">Journal of Politics</a></i> 71:113–131. — post 1945</li> <li>Putney, Martha S. 1992. <i>When the Nation was in Need: Blacks in the Women's Army Corps During World War II</i>. <a href="/wiki/Scarecrow_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Scarecrow Press">Scarecrow Press</a>.</li> <li>Raffel, Jeffrey. <i>Historical dictionary of school segregation and desegregation: The American experience</i> (Bloomsbury, 1998) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2a7OEAAAQBAJ&dq=HISTORICAL+DICTIONARY+OF+SCHOOL+SEGREGATION+AND+DESEGREGATION&pg=PR7">online</a></li> <li>Roark, James L. 1971. "American Black Leaders: The Response to Colonialism and the Cold War, 1943–1953." <i><a href="/wiki/African_Historical_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="African Historical Studies">African Historical Studies</a></i> 4(2): 253–270.</li> <li>Sitkoff, Harvard. 1971. "Harry Truman and the Election of 1948: The Coming of Age of Civil Rights in American Politics." <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Southern_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Southern history">Journal of Southern History</a></i> 37(4):597–616. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2206548">2206548</a>.</li> <li>Smith, Jessie Carney, ed. 2006. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-VYN_LWZwf4C&pg=PA164">Encyclopedia of African American Business</a></i> (2 vol.). Greenwood.</li> <li>Strickland, Arvarh E., and Robert E. Weems, eds. 2001. <i>The African American Experience: An Historiographical and Bibliographical Guide</i>. Greenwood. — 17 topical chapters by experts.</li> <li>Sugrue, Thomas J. <i>Sweet Land of Liberty: The Forgotten Struggle for Civil Rights in the North </i> (2008) – 720 pp comprehensive history of civil rights issue in the North, 1930s–2000s <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sweetlandofliber0000thom">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwindall2014" class="citation book cs1">Swindall, Lindsey R. (2014). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/pathtogreaterfre0000swin/mode/1up?view=theater"><i>The Path to the Greater, Freer, Truer World: Southern Civil Rights and Anticolonialism, 1937-1955</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Gainesville,_Florida" title="Gainesville, Florida">[Gainesville</a>: <a href="/wiki/University_Press_of_Florida" title="University Press of Florida">University Press of Florida</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780813049922" title="Special:BookSources/9780813049922"><bdi>9780813049922</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 February</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Path+to+the+Greater%2C+Freer%2C+Truer+World%3A+Southern+Civil+Rights+and+Anticolonialism%2C+1937-1955&rft.place=%5B%5BGainesville%2C+Florida%7C%5BGainesville%5D%5D&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Florida&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9780813049922&rft.aulast=Swindall&rft.aufirst=Lindsey+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpathtogreaterfre0000swin%2Fmode%2F1up%3Fview%3Dtheater&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281896%E2%80%931954%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Tuck, Stephen. 2011. <i>We Ain't What We Ought To Be: The Black Freedom Struggle from Emancipation to Obama</i>.</li> <li>Walters, Ronald W., and Robert Charles Smith. 1999. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ejjSNIDNeXEC">African American Leadership</a></i>. Albany: <a href="/wiki/State_University_of_New_York" title="State University of New York">SUNY Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780791441459" title="Special:BookSources/9780791441459">9780791441459</a>.</li> <li>Williams, Chad L. 2010. <i>Torchbearers of Democracy: African American Soldiers in the World War I Era</i>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legal_and_constitutional_studies">Legal and constitutional studies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Legal and constitutional studies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurnham2022" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Burnham" title="Margaret Burnham">Burnham, Margaret A.</a> (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9N9hEAAAQBAJ"><i>By Hands Now Known: Jim Crow's Legal Executioners</i></a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/W.W._Norton_%26_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="W.W. Norton & Company">W.W. Norton & Company</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780393867855" title="Special:BookSources/9780393867855"><bdi>9780393867855</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1344393958">1344393958</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 February</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=By+Hands+Now+Known%3A+Jim+Crow%27s+Legal+Executioners&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1344393958&rft.isbn=9780393867855&rft.aulast=Burnham&rft.aufirst=Margaret+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9N9hEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281896%E2%80%931954%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Keppel, Ben. 2016. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/brownvboardtrans0000kepp">Brown v. Board and the Transformation of American Culture</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_State_University_Press" title="Louisiana State University Press">Louisiana State University Press</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Kluger" title="Richard Kluger">Kluger, Richard</a>. 1975. <i><a href="/wiki/Simple_Justice" title="Simple Justice">Simple Justice: The History of Brown v. Board of Education and Black America's Struggle for Equality</a></i>. New York: Knopf. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780394472898" title="Special:BookSources/9780394472898">9780394472898</a>.</li> <li>Lowery, Charles D. 1992. <i>Encyclopedia of African-American Civil Rights: from Emancipation to the Present</i>. Greenwood.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_T._Patterson_(historian)" title="James T. Patterson (historian)">Patterson, James T.</a> 2001. <i>Brown v. Board of Education: A civil rights milestone and its troubled legacy</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Amazon_Standard_Identification_Number" title="Amazon Standard Identification Number">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0195156323">0195156323</a>.</li> <li>Zangrando, Robert L. 1965. "The NAACP and a Federal Antilynching Bill, 1934–1940." <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Negro_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Negro History">Journal of Negro History</a></i> 50(2):106–117. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2715996">2715996</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="State_and_local_studies">State and local studies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: State and local studies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Bayor, Ronald H. 2000. <i>Race and the shaping of twentieth-century Atlanta</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_North_Carolina_Press" title="University of North Carolina Press">University of North Carolina Press</a>.</li> <li>Broussard, Albert S. 1993. <i>Black San Francisco: The struggle for racial equality in the West, 1900–1954</i>.</li> <li>Brown-Nagin, Tomiko. 2011. <i>Courage to Dissent: Atlanta and the Long History of the Civil Rights Movement</i>. — since 1940s</li> <li>Daniels, Douglas H. 1980. <i>Pioneer urbanites: A social and cultural history of black San Francisco</i>.</li> <li>De Graaf, Lawrence B. 1970. "The city of black angels: Emergence of the Los Angeles ghetto, 1890–1930." <i>Pacific Historical Review</i> 39(3):323–352. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3637655">3637655</a>.</li> <li>Dittmer, John. 1977. <i>Black Georgia in the Progressive Era, 1900–1920.</i></li> <li>Ferguson, Karen. 2002. <i>Black Politics in New Deal Atlanta</i>.</li> <li>Gershenhorn, Jerry. 2018. <i>Louis Austin and The Carolina Times: A Life in the Long Black Freedom Struggle</i>. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.</li> <li>Godshalk, David Fort. 2006. <i>Veiled Visions: The 1906 Atlanta Race Riot and the Reshaping of American Race Relations</i>.</li> <li>Goings, Kenneth, and Raymond Mohl, eds. 1996. <i>The New African American Urban History</i>. Sage Publications. — 10 articles by scholars</li> <li>Green, Adam. 2007. <i>Selling the race: Culture, community, and black Chicago, 1940–1955</i>.</li> <li>Grossman, James R. 1991. <i>Land of hope: Chicago, black southerners, and the great migration</i>.</li> <li>Hornsby Jr., Alton. 2015. <i>A Short History of Black Atlanta, 1847–1993</i>.</li> <li>— ed. 2011. <i>Black America: A State-by-State Historical Encyclopedia</i> (2 vol.). <a href="/wiki/Amazon_Standard_Identification_Number" title="Amazon Standard Identification Number">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0313341125">0313341125</a></li> <li>Kirk, John A. "The Little Rock Crisis and Postwar Black Activism in Arkansas" <i>Arkansas Historical Quarterly</i>. (2007) 66#2 pp 224–242. Covers 1920 to 1959.</li> <li>Kusmer, Kenneth L. 1978. <i>A ghetto takes shape: Black Cleveland, 1870–1930</i>.</li> <li>Meier, August, and David Lewis. 1959. "History of the Negro upper class in Atlanta, Georgia, 1890–1958." <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Negro_Education" title="Journal of Negro Education">Journal of Negro Education</a></i> 28(2):128–139. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2293711">2293711</a>.</li> <li>Nelson, Bruce. 1993. "Organized Labor and the Struggle for Black Equality in Mobile during World War II." <i><a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_American_History" title="The Journal of American History">Journal of American History</a></i> 80(3):952–988. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2080410">2080410</a>.</li> <li>Osofsky, Gilbert. 1965. "A Decade of Urban Tragedy: How Harlem Became A Slum." <i>New York History</i> 46(4):330–355. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23162615">23162615</a> — on 1910–1920.</li> <li>— 1968. "The Enduring Ghetto." <i>Journal of American History</i> 55(2):243–255. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1899555">1899555</a>.</li> <li>— 1971. <i>Harlem: The Making of a Ghetto: Negro New York, 1890–1930</i>.</li> <li>Sartain, Lee. 2013. <i>Borders of Equality: The NAACP and the Baltimore Civil Rights Struggle, 1914–1970</i>.</li> <li>Spear, Allan H. 1967. <i>Black Chicago: The making of a Negro ghetto, 1890–1920</i>.</li> <li>Sugrue, Thomas J. <i>The origins of the urban crisis : race and inequality in postwar Detroit</i> (2014) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/originsofurbancr0000sugr">online</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taylor,_Quintard" class="mw-redirect" title="Taylor, Quintard">Taylor, Quintard</a>. 2011. <i>The forging of a black community: Seattle's central district from 1870 through the civil rights era</i>.</li> <li>Trotter, Joe William. 1985. <i>Black Milwaukee: The making of an industrial proletariat, 1915–45</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois_Press" title="University of Illinois Press">University of Illinois Press</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gender">Gender</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Gender"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Hine, Darlene Clark, ed. 2005. <i>Black Women in America</i> (3 Vol. 2nd ed.). — Short biographies by scholars.</li> <li>Jones, Jacqueline. 2009. <i>Labor of love, labor of sorrow: Black women, work, and the family, from slavery to the present</i>.</li> <li>Nahal, Anita, and Lopez D. Matthews Jr. 2008. "African American Women and the Niagara Movement, 1905–1909." <i><a href="/wiki/Afro-Americans_in_New_York_Life_and_History" title="Afro-Americans in New York Life and History">Afro-Americans in New York Life and History</a></i> 32:65–85. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1900151">1900151</a>.</li> <li>Reid, Debra A. 2007. <i>Reaping a greater harvest: African Americans, the extension service, and rural reform in Jim Crow Texas.</i> <a href="/wiki/Texas_A%26M_University_Press" title="Texas A&M University Press">Texas A&M University Press</a>.</li> <li>Summers, Martin. 2005. <i>Manliness and its discontents: The Black middle class and the transformation of masculinity, 1900–1930</i>. University of North Carolina Press.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Film">Film</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Film"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Bass, Travesheia Rashel. 2016. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ir.library.louisville.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3609&context=etd">When the silver screen fades to black: an analysis of black faces in film</a>" (MA thesis). <a href="/wiki/University_of_Louisville" title="University of Louisville">University of Louisville</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/S._Torriano_Berry" title="S. Torriano Berry">Berry, S. Torriano</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Venise_T._Berry" title="Venise T. Berry">Venise T. Berry</a>. 2015. <i>Historical dictionary of African American cinema</i>. <a href="/wiki/Rowman_%26_Littlefield" title="Rowman & Littlefield">Rowman & Littlefield</a>.</li> <li>Cripps, Thomas. 1993. <i>Making Movies Black: The Hollywood Message Movie from World War II to the Civil Rights Era</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>.</li> <li>— 1993. <i>Slow Fade to Black: The Negro in American Film 1900–1942</i>. Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Guerrero, Ed. 1993. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kRqhY8xwtwkC">Framing blackness: The African American image in film</a>.</i> <a href="/wiki/Temple_University_Press" title="Temple University Press">Temple University Press</a>.</li> <li>Lupack, Barbara, ed. 2016. <i>Early Race Filmmaking in America</i>. Routledge.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Musser" title="Charles Musser">Musser, Charles</a>, Jane Marie Gaines, and <a href="/wiki/Pearl_Bowser" title="Pearl Bowser">Pearl Bowser</a>, eds. 2016. <i>Oscar Micheaux and His Circle: African-American Filmmaking and Race Cinema of the Silent Era</i>. Indiana University Press.</li> <li>Scott, Ellen C. 2015. <i>Cinema Civil Rights: Regulation, Repression, and Race in the Classical Hollywood Era.</i> <a href="/wiki/Rutgers_University_Press" title="Rutgers University Press">Rutgers University Press</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Music">Music</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Music"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Burns" title="Ken Burns">Burns, Ken</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_C._Ward" title="Geoffrey C. Ward">Geoffrey C. Ward</a>. 2000. <i>Jazz—A History of America's Music</i>.</li> <li>Driggs, Frank, and Harris Lewine. 1982. <i>Black beauty, white heat: A pictorial history of classic jazz, 1920–1950.</i> <a href="/wiki/Da_Capo_Press" title="Da Capo Press">Da Capo Press</a>.</li> <li>Neal, Mark Anthony. 2013. <i>What the music said: Black popular music and black public culture</i>. Routledge.</li> <li>Riis, Thomas Laurence. 1989. <i>Just before jazz: Black musical theater in New York, 1890–1915.</i> <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Smithsonian Institution Press">Smithsonian Institution Press</a>.</li> <li>Schuller, Gunther. 1968. <i>Early Jazz: Its Roots and Musical Development</i>.</li> <li>— 1991. <i>The Swing Era: The Development of Jazz, 1930–1945.</i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sports">Sports</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Sports"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Blackman, Dexter Lee. 2016. "'The Negro Athlete and Victory': Athletics and Athletes as Advancement Strategies in Black America, 1890s–1930s." <i>Sport History Review</i> 47:46–68.</li> <li>Carroll, Brian. 2006. <i>When to Stop the Cheering?: The Black Press, the Black Community, and the Integration of Professional Baseball.</i> Routledge.</li> <li>Chalk, Ocania. 1975. <i>Pioneers of Black Sport: The Early Days of the Black Professional Athlete in Baseball, Basketball, Boxing, and Football</i>.</li> <li>Drake, Robert. 2012. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hist314.ferrellhistory.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/DRAKE-Joe-Louis-2012-13-p.-text.pdf">Joe Louis, the Southern Press, and the 'Fight of the Century'</a>." <i>Sport History Review</i> 43:1–17. — Joe Louis defeated German boxer Max Schmeling.</li> <li>Madden, Bill. 2014. <i>1954: The Year Willie Mays and the First Generation of Black Superstars Changed Major League Baseball Forever</i>. Da Capo Press.</li> <li>Martin, Charles. 2010. <i>Benching Jim Crow: The Rise and Fall of the Color Line in Southern College Sports, 1890–1980.</i> <a href="/wiki/Amazon_Standard_Identification_Number" title="Amazon Standard Identification Number">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0252077504">0252077504</a>.</li> <li>Ross, Charles K. 1999. <i>Outside the lines: African Americans and the integration of the National Football League</i>. New York: NYU Press.</li> <li>Simon, Scott. 2002. <i>Jackie Robinson and the integration of baseball</i>.</li> <li>Wiggins, David K. 2014. "'Black Athletes in White Men's Games': Race, Sport and American National Pastimes." <i><a href="/wiki/International_Journal_of_the_History_of_Sport" class="mw-redirect" title="International Journal of the History of Sport">International Journal of the History of Sport</a> </i>31(1–2):181–202.</li> <li>Wiggins, David K. and Ryan A. Swanson, eds. 2016. <i>Separate Games: African American Sport behind the Walls of Segregation</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Arkansas_Press" title="University of Arkansas Press">University of Arkansas Press</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources_and_year_books">Primary sources and year books</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Primary sources and year books"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Dailey, Jane, ed. 2008. <i>The Age of Jim Crow</i>. Norton Documents Reader.</li> <li>Meier, August, Elliott M. Rudwick, and Francis L. Broderick, eds. 1971. <i>Black protest thought in the twentieth century</i>. Bobbs-Merrill.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monroe_Work" title="Monroe Work">Work, Monroe</a>. 1913. <a href="//archive.org/details/negroyearbook00resegoog" class="extiw" title="iarchive:negroyearbook00resegoog"><i>Negro Year Book</i></a>. Alabama: Negro Year Book Publishing Company.</li> <li>— 1916. <a href="//archive.org/details/negroyearbookan00unkngoog" class="extiw" title="iarchive:negroyearbookan00unkngoog"><i>Negro Year Book</i></a>.</li> <li>— 1922. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T-U9AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA1">Negro Year Book</a></i>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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Board of Education</a></i> (1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_of_the_plantation" title="Children of the plantation">Children of the plantation</a></li> <li>Civil Rights Acts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">1968</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement 1865–1896</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Civil right movement 1896–1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement 1954–1968</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Browder_v._Gayle" title="Browder v. 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Gayle</a></i> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sit-in_movement" title="Sit-in movement">Sit-in movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders" title="Freedom Riders">Freedom Riders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_campaign" title="Birmingham campaign">Birmingham movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">Selma to Montgomery marches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Chicago Freedom Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93civil_rights_era_in_African-American_history" title="Post–civil rights era in African-American history">Post–civil rights era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornerstone_Speech" title="Cornerstone Speech">Cornerstone Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_African_communities" class="mw-redirect" title="Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on African communities">COVID-19 impact</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a></i> (1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Negro" title="Free Negro">Free Negro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_people_of_color" title="Free people of color">Free people of color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests" title="George Floyd protests">George Floyd protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Second Great Migration (African American)">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Great_Migration" title="New Great Migration">New</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodusters" title="Exodusters">Exodusters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="First inauguration of Barack Obama">Inauguration of Barack Obama 2009</a> / <a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="Second inauguration of Barack Obama">Inauguration of Barack Obama 2013</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans" title="Military history of African Americans">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Million_Man_March" title="Million Man March">Million Man March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Negro_Motorist_Green_Book" title="The Negro Motorist Green Book">The Negro Motorist Green Book</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">Partus sequitur ventrem</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="Plantation complexes in the Southern United States">Plantations</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i> (1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction Amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">Separate but equal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_Parade" title="Silent Parade">Silent Parade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment of slaves</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women%27s_suffrage_movement" title="African-American women's suffrage movement">Women's suffrage movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_culture" title="African-American culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrofuturism" title="Afrofuturism">Afrofuturism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_art" title="African-American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_mecca" title="Black mecca">Black mecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black-owned_business" title="Black-owned business">Businesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_dance" title="African-American dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_family_structure" title="African-American family structure">Family structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_film" title="Black film">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_folktales" title="African-American folktales">Folktales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_hair" title="African-American hair">Hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Negro" title="New Negro">New Negro</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoodoo_(spirituality)" title="Hoodoo (spirituality)">Hoodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwanzaa" title="Kwanzaa">Kwanzaa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_LGBT_community" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American LGBT community">LGBT community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_literature" title="African-American literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_music" title="African-American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_musical_theater" title="African-American musical theater">Musical theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_names" title="African-American names">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lift_Every_Voice_and_Sing" title="Lift Every Voice and Sing">Negro National Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_newspapers" title="African American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul_food" title="Soul food">Soul food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_African_Americans" title="Stereotypes of African Americans">Stereotypes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_middle_class" title="African-American middle class">Middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_upper_class" title="African-American upper class">Upper class</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Notable people</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy" title="Ralph Abernathy">Ralph Abernathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_Angelou" title="Maya Angelou">Maya Angelou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crispus_Attucks" title="Crispus Attucks">Crispus Attucks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin" title="James Baldwin">James Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelia_Boynton_Robinson" title="Amelia Boynton Robinson">Amelia Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bradley_(former_slave)" title="James Bradley (former slave)">James Bradley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carol_Moseley_Braun" title="Carol Moseley Braun">Carol Moseley Braun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Brooke" title="Edward Brooke">Edward Brooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blanche_Bruce" title="Blanche Bruce">Blanche Bruce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Bunche" title="Ralph Bunche">Ralph Bunche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Carver" title="George Washington Carver">George Washington Carver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Chisholm" title="Shirley Chisholm">Shirley Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudette_Colvin" title="Claudette Colvin">Claudette Colvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Farmer" title="James Farmer">James Farmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Highland_Garnet" title="Henry Highland Garnet">Henry Highland Garnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Garvey" title="Marcus Garvey">Marcus Garvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Gray_(attorney)" title="Fred Gray (attorney)">Fred Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Fannie Lou Hamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris" title="Kamala Harris">Kamala Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jimi_Hendrix" title="Jimi Hendrix">Jimi Hendrix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson">Ketanji Brown Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Jackson" title="Michael Jackson">Michael Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Jacobs" title="Harriet Jacobs">Harriet Jacobs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Jordan" title="Barbara Jordan">Barbara Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coretta_Scott_King" title="Coretta Scott King">Coretta Scott King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lafayette" title="Bernard Lafayette">Bernard Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lawson_(activist)" title="James Lawson (activist)">James Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_Belly" title="Lead Belly">Huddie Ledbetter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lowery" title="Joseph Lowery">Joseph Lowery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toni_Morrison" title="Toni Morrison">Toni Morrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Moses_(activist)" title="Bob Moses (activist)">Bob Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_Nash" title="Diane Nash">Diane Nash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michelle_Obama" title="Michelle Obama">Michelle Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Clayton_Powell_Jr." title="Adam Clayton Powell Jr.">Adam Clayton Powell Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colin_Powell" title="Colin Powell">Colin Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Prosser" class="mw-redirect" title="Gabriel Prosser">Gabriel Prosser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Rainey" title="Joseph Rainey">Joseph Rainey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiram_R._Revels" title="Hiram R. Revels">Hiram Revels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Robeson" title="Paul Robeson">Paul Robeson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Sharpton" title="Al Sharpton">Al Sharpton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Shuttlesworth" title="Fred Shuttlesworth">Fred Shuttlesworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Emmett Till</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sojourner_Truth" title="Sojourner Truth">Sojourner Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nat Turner's slave rebellion">Nat Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark_Vesey" title="Denmark Vesey">Denmark Vesey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._T._Vivian" title="C. T. Vivian">C. T. Vivian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Walker_(abolitionist)" title="David Walker (abolitionist)">David Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ida_B._Wells" title="Ida B. Wells">Ida B. Wells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey" title="Oprah Winfrey">Oprah Winfrey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Young" title="Andrew Young">Andrew Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitney_Young" title="Whitney Young">Whitney Young</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Education, science<br />and technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_studies" title="Black studies">Black studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Black school">Black schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="Historically black colleges and universities">Historically black colleges and universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_inventors_and_scientists" title="List of African-American inventors and scientists">Inventors and scientists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_focused_on_African_Americans" title="List of museums focused on African Americans">Museums</a></li> <li>Women <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women_in_computer_science" title="African-American women in computer science">in computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_women_in_medicine" title="List of African-American women in medicine">in medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_women_in_STEM_fields" title="List of African-American women in STEM fields">in STEM fields</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_Black_Americans" title="Religion of Black Americans">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">African-American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Muslims" title="African-American Muslims">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Muslims" title="American Society of Muslims">American Society of Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">Black church</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azusa_Street_Revival" title="Azusa Street Revival">Azusa Street Revival</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hebrew_Israelites" title="Black Hebrew Israelites">Black Hebrew Israelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_theology" title="Black theology">Black theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_Father_Divine" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctrine of Father Divine">Doctrine of Father Divine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Political movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_anarchism" title="Black anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back-to-Africa_movement" title="Back-to-Africa movement">Back-to-Africa movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power" title="Black power">Black power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_power_movement" title="Black power movement">Movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_capitalism" title="Black capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conservatism" title="Black conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_leftism" title="African-American leftism">Leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_populism" title="Black populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raised_fist" title="Raised fist">Raised fist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_self-determination" title="African-American self-determination">Self-determination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">Nationalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_socialism" title="African-American socialism">Socialism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Civic and economic<br />groups</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_the_Study_of_African_American_Life_and_History" title="Association for the Study of African American Life and History">Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_Student_Movement" title="Nashville Student Movement">Nashville Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="National Black Chamber of Commerce">National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women (NCNW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Pan-Hellenic_Council" title="National Pan-Hellenic Council">National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League (NUL)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall_College_Fund" title="Thurgood Marshall College Fund">Thurgood Marshall College Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNCF" title="UNCF">United Negro College Fund (UNCF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Negro_Improvement_Association_and_African_Communities_League" title="Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League">Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Sports</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negro_league_baseball" title="Negro league baseball">Negro league baseball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baseball_color_line" title="Baseball color line">Baseball color line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_players_in_professional_American_football" title="Black players in professional American football">Black players in professional American football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_black_starting_NFL_quarterbacks" title="List of black starting NFL quarterbacks">Black NFL quarterbacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_players_in_ice_hockey" title="Black players in ice hockey">Black players in ice hockey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Ashe" title="Arthur Ashe">Arthur Ashe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Johnson_(boxer)" title="Jack Johnson (boxer)">Jack Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Louis" title="Joe Louis">Joe Louis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Owens" title="Jesse Owens">Jesse Owens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackie_Robinson" title="Jackie Robinson">Jackie Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serena_Williams" title="Serena Williams">Serena Williams</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Athletic associations<br />and conferences</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Association" title="Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association">Central (CIAA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Eastern_Athletic_Conference" title="Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference">Mid-Eastern (MEAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Conference" title="Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference">Southern (SIAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Athletic_Conference" title="Southwestern Athletic Conference">Southwestern (SWAC)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Ethnic subdivisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>By African descent <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fula_Americans" title="Fula Americans">Fula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah" title="Gullah">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_Americans" title="Igbo Americans">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoruba_Americans" title="Yoruba Americans">Yoruba</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Creole_people" title="Alabama Creole people">Alabama Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Seminoles" title="Black Seminoles">Black Seminoles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_freedmen_controversy" title="Cherokee freedmen controversy">Cherokee freedmen controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_freedmen" title="Choctaw freedmen">Choctaw freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_Freedmen" title="Creek Freedmen">Creek Freedmen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Southerners" title="Black Southerners">Black Southerners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaxican" title="Blaxican">Blaxicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_people" title="Louisiana Creole people">Louisiana Creole</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">of color</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melungeon" title="Melungeon">Melungeon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Demographics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._cities_with_large_Black_populations" title="List of U.S. cities with large Black populations">U.S. cities with large populations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations_in_2000" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations in 2000">2000 majorities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations_in_2010" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations in 2010">2010 majorities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._metropolitan_areas_with_large_African-American_populations" title="List of U.S. metropolitan areas with large African-American populations">Metropolitan areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_African-American_population" title="List of U.S. states and territories by African-American population">States and territories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Seminole_Creole" title="Afro-Seminole Creole">Afro-Seminole Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">American Sign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_American_Sign_Language" title="Black American Sign Language">Black American Sign</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_English" title="African-American English">African-American English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English" title="African-American Vernacular English">African-American Vernacular English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English_and_social_context" title="African-American Vernacular English and social context">social context</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah_language" title="Gullah language">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole" title="Louisiana Creole">Louisiana Creole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">By state/city</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Alabama" title="African Americans in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Arkansas" title="African Americans in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_California" title="African Americans in California">California</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Los_Angeles" title="History of African Americans in Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_San_Francisco" title="African Americans in San Francisco">San Francisco</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Cleveland" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Cleveland">Cleveland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Florida" title="African Americans in Florida">Florida</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Jacksonville" title="History of African Americans in Jacksonville">Jacksonville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tallahassee,_Florida#Black_history" title="History of Tallahassee, Florida">Tallahassee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Georgia" title="African Americans in Georgia">Georgia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Atlanta" title="African Americans in Atlanta">Atlanta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africans_in_Hawaii" title="Africans in Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Illinois" title="African Americans in Illinois">Illinois</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago" title="History of African Americans in Chicago">Chicago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Indiana" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Iowa">Iowa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Davenport,_Iowa" title="African Americans in Davenport, Iowa">Davenport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kansas" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kentucky" title="History of African Americans in Kentucky">Kentucky</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhoods_in_Lexington,_Kentucky" title="African-American neighborhoods in Lexington, Kentucky">Lexington</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Louisiana" title="African Americans in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Maryland" title="African Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Baltimore" title="History of African Americans in Baltimore">Baltimore</a></li></ul></li> <li>Massachusetts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Boston" title="History of African Americans in Boston">Boston</a></li></ul></li> <li>Michigan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Detroit" title="History of African Americans in Detroit">Detroit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Mississippi" title="African Americans in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_history_of_Nebraska" class="mw-redirect" title="African American history of Nebraska">Nebraska</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="African Americans in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_Jersey" title="African Americans in New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in New York">New York</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York_City" title="African Americans in New York City">New York City</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_North_Carolina" title="African Americans in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ohio" title="African Americans in Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oklahoma" title="African Americans in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oregon" title="African Americans in Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li>Pennsylvania <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Philadelphia" title="History of African Americans in Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro%E2%80%93Puerto_Ricans" title="Afro–Puerto Ricans">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Carolina" title="African Americans in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Dakota" title="African Americans in South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Tennessee" title="African Americans in Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Texas" title="History of African Americans in Texas">Texas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Austin" title="History of African Americans in Austin">Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Dallas%E2%80%93Fort_Worth" title="History of African Americans in Dallas–Fort Worth">Dallas–Fort Worth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Houston" title="History of African Americans in Houston">Houston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_San_Antonio" title="History of African Americans in San Antonio">San Antonio</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Utah" title="History of African Americans in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Virginia" title="African Americans in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_West_Virginia" title="African Americans in West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_diaspora" title="African-American diaspora">Diaspora</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Africa" title="African Americans in Africa">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gambian_Creole_people" title="Gambian Creole people">Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ghana" title="African Americans in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americo-Liberian_people" title="Americo-Liberian people">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Creole_people" title="Sierra Leone Creole people">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul></li> <li>America <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Nova_Scotians" title="Black Nova Scotians">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saman%C3%A1_Americans" title="Samaná Americans">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_emigration" title="Haitian emigration">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mascogos" title="Mascogos">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merikins" title="Merikins">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Israel" title="African Americans in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li>Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_France" title="African Americans in France">France</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_African_Americans" title="Lists of African Americans">African Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_activists" title="List of African-American activists">Activists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_actors" title="List of African-American actors">Actors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_astronauts" title="List of African-American astronauts">Astronauts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_billionaires" title="Black billionaires">Billionaires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_American_journalists" title="List of African American journalists">Journalists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_jurists" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American jurists">Jurists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_mathematicians" title="List of African-American mathematicians">Mathematicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_Republicans" title="List of African-American Republicans">Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_singers" title="List of African-American singers">Singers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_American_sportspeople" title="List of African American sportspeople">Sportspeople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spingarn_Medal" title="Spingarn Medal">Spingarn Medal winners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_Cabinet_members" title="List of African-American United States Cabinet members">US cabinet members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_representatives" title="List of African-American United States representatives">US representatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_senators" title="List of African-American United States senators">US senators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_visual_artists" title="List of African-American visual artists">Visual artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_writers" title="List of African-American writers">Writers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_firsts" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American firsts">African-American firsts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_first_African-American_mayors" title="List of first African-American mayors">Mayors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_sports_firsts" title="List of African-American sports firsts">Sports firsts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_U.S._state_firsts" title="List of African-American U.S. state firsts">US state firsts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places" title="List of African-American historic places">Historic places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_African_Americans" title="Index of articles related to African Americans">Index of related articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_landmark_African-American_legislation" title="List of landmark African-American legislation">Landmark African-American legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lynching_victims_in_the_United_States" title="List of lynching victims in the United States">Lynching victims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monuments_to_African_Americans" title="List of monuments to African Americans">Monuments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_related_to_the_African_diaspora" title="List of topics related to the African diaspora">Topics related to the African diaspora</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #d1eaeb;;font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:African-American_society" title="Category:African-American society">Category</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_the_United_States_navbox" title="Template:History of the United States navbox"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_the_United_States_navbox" title="Template talk:History of the United States navbox"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_the_United_States_navbox" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of the United States navbox"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States" title="History of the United States">History of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of United States history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_United_States_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Outline of United States history">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Events" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Events</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-Colonial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_North_America" title="Geological history of North America">Prehistoric</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-Columbian Era</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Colonial history of the United States">Colonial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_North_America" title="Exploration of North America">Exploration of North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_disease_and_epidemics" title="Native American disease and epidemics">Native American epidemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jamestown,_Virginia_(1607%E2%80%931699)" title="History of Jamestown, Virginia (1607–1699)">Settlement of Jamestown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_William%27s_War" title="King William's War">King William's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_War" title="Queen Anne's War">Queen Anne's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dummer%27s_War" title="Dummer's War">Dummer's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Great_Awakening" title="First Great Awakening">First Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Jenkins%27_Ear" title="War of Jenkins' Ear">War of Jenkins' Ear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_George%27s_War" title="King George's War">King George's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution#Origin" title="American Revolution">Prelude to Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Enlightenment" title="American Enlightenment">American Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_War" title="French and Indian War">French and Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Proclamation_of_1763" title="Royal Proclamation of 1763">Proclamation of 1763</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar_Act" title="Sugar Act">Sugar Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamp_Act_Congress" title="Stamp Act Congress">Stamp Act Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sons_of_Liberty" title="Sons of Liberty">Sons of Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Massacre" title="Boston Massacre">Boston Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Tea_Party" title="Boston Tea Party">Boston Tea Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intolerable_Acts" title="Intolerable Acts">Intolerable Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Continental_Congress" title="First Continental Congress">First Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Association" title="Continental Association">Continental Association</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1776%E2%80%931789)" title="History of the United States (1776–1789)">1776–1789</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Resolution" title="Lee Resolution">Lee Resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1783)" title="Treaty of Paris (1783)">Treaty of Paris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_period" title="Confederation period">Confederation period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a> <a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Union" title="Perpetual Union">and Perpetual Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Mutiny_of_1783" title="Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783">Pennsylvania Mutiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shays%27_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Shays' Rebellion">Shays' Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Ordinance" title="Northwest Ordinance">Northwest Ordinance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">Drafting and ratification of the Constitution</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1789%E2%80%931815)" title="History of the United States (1789–1815)">1789–1815</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Era" title="Federalist Era">Federalist Era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Whiskey_Rebellion" title="Whiskey Rebellion">Whiskey Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-War" title="Quasi-War">Quasi-War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffersonian_democracy" title="Jeffersonian democracy">Jeffersonian era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">Louisiana Purchase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1815%E2%80%931849)" title="History of the United States (1815–1849)">1815–1849</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Good_Feelings" title="Era of Good Feelings">Era of Good Feelings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_Compromise" title="Missouri Compromise">Missouri Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monroe_Doctrine" title="Monroe Doctrine">Monroe Doctrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacksonian_democracy" title="Jacksonian democracy">Jacksonian era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nat Turner's slave rebellion">Nat Turner's slave rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nullification_crisis" title="Nullification crisis">Nullification crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Westward expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_Falls_Convention" title="Seneca Falls Convention">Seneca Falls Convention</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution#United_States" title="Industrial Revolution">First Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Awakening" title="Second Great Awakening">Second Great Awakening</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1849%E2%80%931865)" title="History of the United States (1849–1865)">1849–1865</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antebellum_South" title="Antebellum South">Antebellum Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_Gold_Rush" class="mw-redirect" title="California Gold Rush">California Gold Rush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Origins of the American Civil War">Prelude to War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1850" title="Compromise of 1850">Compromise of 1850</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1850">Fugitive Slave Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kansas%E2%80%93Nebraska_Act" title="Kansas–Nebraska Act">Kansas–Nebraska Act</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bleeding_Kansas" title="Bleeding Kansas">Bleeding Kansas</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott decision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1860_United_States_presidential_election" title="1860 United States presidential election">Election of Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America#Secession" title="Confederate States of America">Secession</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Assassination of Abraham Lincoln">Assassination of Abraham Lincoln</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1865%E2%80%931917)" title="History of the United States (1865–1917)">1865–1917</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_transcontinental_railroad" title="First transcontinental railroad">First transcontinental railroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Acts" title="Enforcement Acts">Enforcement Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1877" title="Compromise of 1877">Compromise of 1877</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution#United_States" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Gospel_of_Wealth" title="The Gospel of Wealth">The Gospel of Wealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_James_A._Garfield" title="Assassination of James A. Garfield">Assassination of James A. Garfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Exclusion_Act" title="Chinese Exclusion Act">Chinese Exclusion Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pendleton_Civil_Service_Reform_Act" title="Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act">Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymarket_affair" title="Haymarket affair">Haymarket affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherman_Antitrust_Act" title="Sherman Antitrust Act">Sherman Antitrust Act</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era">Progressive Era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_William_McKinley" title="Assassination of William McKinley">Assassination of William McKinley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Square_Deal" title="Square Deal">Square Deal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1917%E2%80%931945)" title="History of the United States (1917–1945)">1917–1945</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I" title="United States in World War I">World War I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference_(1919%E2%80%931920)#American_approach" title="Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)">Paris Peace Conference</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Red_Scare" title="First Red Scare">First Red Scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States" title="Prohibition in the United States">Prohibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">Women's suffrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan#Second_Klan:_1915–1944" title="Ku Klux Klan">Second Klan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bath_School_disaster" title="Bath School disaster">Bath School disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wall_Street_Crash_of_1929" class="mw-redirect" title="Wall Street Crash of 1929">Wall Street Crash of 1929</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust_Bowl" title="Dust Bowl">Dust Bowl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">Pearl Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United States home front during World War II">home front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1945%E2%80%931964)" title="History of the United States (1945–1964)">1945–1964</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_strike_wave_of_1945%E2%80%931946" title="United States strike wave of 1945–1946">Strike wave of 1945–1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1947%E2%80%931948)" title="Cold War (1947–1948)">Start of Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1948%E2%80%931953)" title="Cold War (1948–1953)">Early Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_Treaty" title="North Atlantic Treaty">North Atlantic Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivy_Mike" title="Ivy Mike">Ivy Mike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93World_War_II_economic_expansion" title="Post–World War II economic expansion">Post-war boom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Project Mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil Rights Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)" title="Cold War (1953–1962)">Early–mid Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Assassination of John F. Kennedy">Assassination of John F. Kennedy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1964%E2%80%931980)" title="History of the United States (1964–1980)">1964–1980</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Society" title="Great Society">Great Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Project_Gemini" title="Project Gemini">Project Gemini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">Apollo program</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1962%E2%80%931979)" title="Cold War (1962–1979)">Mid Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9tente" title="Détente">Détente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Saigon" title="Fall of Saigon">Fall of Saigon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.">Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960s" title="Counterculture of the 1960s">Counterculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-wave_feminism" title="Second-wave feminism">Second-wave feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_liberation" title="Gay liberation">Gay liberation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stonewall_riots" title="Stonewall riots">Stonewall riots</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watergate_scandal" title="Watergate scandal">Watergate scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_hostage_crisis" title="Iran hostage crisis">Iran hostage crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_Majority" title="Moral Majority">Moral Majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1980%E2%80%931991)" title="History of the United States (1980–1991)">1980–1991</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_era" title="Reagan era">Reagan era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reaganomics" title="Reaganomics">Reaganomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair" title="Iran–Contra affair">Iran–Contra affair</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crack_epidemic_in_the_United_States" title="Crack epidemic in the United States">Crack epidemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1979%E2%80%931985)" title="Cold War (1979–1985)">Late Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Grenada" title="United States invasion of Grenada">Invasion of Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1985%E2%80%931991)" title="Cold War (1985–1991)">End of the Cold War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program" title="Space Shuttle program">Space Shuttle program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_drugs" title="War on drugs">War on drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Panama" title="United States invasion of Panama">Invasion of Panama</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1991%E2%80%932008)" title="History of the United States (1991–2008)">1991–2008</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="North American Free Trade Agreement">NAFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_Los_Angeles_riots" title="1992 Los Angeles riots"> Los Angeles riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1993_World_Trade_Center_bombing" title="1993 World Trade Center bombing">WTC bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waco_siege" title="Waco siege">Waco siege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Revolution" title="Republican Revolution">Republican Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_City_bombing" title="Oklahoma City bombing">Oklahoma City bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbine_High_School_massacre" title="Columbine High School massacre">Columbine</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bush_v._Gore" title="Bush v. Gore">Bush v. Gore</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11 attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)">War in Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Katrina" title="Hurricane Katrina">Hurricane Katrina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Tech_shooting" title="Virginia Tech shooting">Virginia Tech shooting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_the_United_States" title="Great Recession in the United States">Great Recession</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(2008%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the United States (2008–present)">2008–present</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Osama_bin_Laden" title="Killing of Osama bin Laden">Killing of Osama bin Laden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mass_shootings_in_the_United_States" title="List of mass shootings in the United States">Rise in mass shootings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2011_Tucson_shooting" title="2011 Tucson shooting">Tucson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_Aurora_theater_shooting" title="2012 Aurora theater shooting">Aurora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandy_Hook_Elementary_School_shooting" title="Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting">Sandy Hook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulse_nightclub_shooting" title="Pulse nightclub shooting">Orlando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_Las_Vegas_shooting" title="2017 Las Vegas shooting">Las Vegas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parkland_high_school_shooting" title="Parkland high school shooting">Parkland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_El_Paso_shooting" class="mw-redirect" title="2019 El Paso shooting">El Paso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uvalde_school_shooting" title="Uvalde school shooting">Uvalde</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter" title="Black Lives Matter">Black Lives Matter</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges" title="Obergefell v. Hodges">Obergefell v. Hodges</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unite_the_Right_rally" title="Unite the Right rally">Unite the Right rally</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States" title="COVID-19 pandemic in the United States">COVID-19 pandemic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_recession" title="COVID-19 recession">recession</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests" title="George Floyd protests">George Floyd protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_6_United_States_Capitol_attack" title="January 6 United States Capitol attack">January 6 insurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%932021_US_troop_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="2020–2021 US troop withdrawal from Afghanistan">Afghanistan withdrawal</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dobbs_v._Jackson_Women%27s_Health_Organization" title="Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization">Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_involvement_in_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Foreign involvement in the Russian invasion of Ukraine">Support of Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump#Investigations,_criminal_charges,_civil_lawsuits" title="Donald Trump">Indictments of Donald Trump</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/American_Century" title="American Century">American Century</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="History of antisemitism in the United States">Antisemitism</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history_of_the_United_States" title="Cultural history of the United States">Cultural</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cinema_in_the_United_States" title="History of cinema in the United States">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_history_of_the_United_States" title="Music history of the United States">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_newspapers" title="History of American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sports_in_the_United_States" title="History of sports in the United States">Sports</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Demographic history of the United States">Demography</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="History of immigration to the United States">Immigration</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Economic history of the United States">Economy</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_banking_in_the_United_States" title="History of banking in the United States">Banking</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_the_United_States" title="History of education in the United States">Education</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_higher_education_in_the_United_States" title="History of higher education in the United States">Higher education</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_flags_of_the_United_States" title="List of flags of the United States">Flag</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_government" title="History of the United States government">Government</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_abortion_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of abortion in the United States">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_capital_punishment_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of capital punishment in the United States">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_civil_rights_in_the_United_States" title="History of civil rights in the United States">Civil Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_corruption_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of corruption in the United States">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">The Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_debt_ceiling" title="History of the United States debt ceiling">Debt ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_direct_democracy_in_the_United_States" title="History of direct democracy in the United States">Direct democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_United_States_foreign_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of United States foreign policy">Foreign policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_law_enforcement_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of law enforcement in the United States">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_the_United_States" title="Postage stamps and postal history of the United States">Postal service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_taxation_in_the_United_States" title="History of taxation in the United States">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Voting rights in the United States">Voting rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_journalism" title="History of American journalism">Journalism</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Merchant_Marine" title="History of the United States Merchant Marine">Merchant Marine</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States" title="Military history of the United States">Military</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Army" title="History of the United States Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps" title="History of the United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Navy" title="History of the United States Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Air_Force" title="History of the United States Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force" title="History of the United States Space Force">Space Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guard" title="History of the United States Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Political_eras_of_the_United_States" title="Political eras of the United States">Party Systems</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Party_System" title="First Party System">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Party_System" title="Second Party System">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Party_System" title="Third Party System">Third</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Party_System" title="Fourth Party System">Fourth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Party_System" title="Fifth Party System">Fifth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Party_System" title="Sixth Party System">Sixth</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_the_United_States" title="History of religion in the United States">Religion</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Genocide</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sexual_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="History of sexual slavery in the United States">Sexual slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Technological and industrial history of the United States">Technology and industry</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="History of agriculture in the United States">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_history_of_the_United_States" title="Labor history of the United States">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_lumber_industry_in_the_United_States" title="History of the lumber industry in the United States">Lumber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine_in_the_United_States" title="History of medicine in the United States">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_rail_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="History of rail transportation in the United States">Railway</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Groups" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Groups</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">African American</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Asian_Americans" title="History of Asian Americans">Asian American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chinese_Americans" title="History of Chinese Americans">Chinese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Filipino_Americans" title="History of Filipino Americans">Filipino American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian-American_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian-American history">Indian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japanese_Americans" title="History of Japanese Americans">Japanese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Korean_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Korean Americans">Korean American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Thai_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Thai Americans">Thai American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vietnamese_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Vietnamese Americans">Vietnamese American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/European_American#History" class="mw-redirect" title="European American">European American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Albanian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Albanian Americans">Albanian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_English_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of English Americans">English American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Estonian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Estonian Americans">Estonian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Finnish_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Finnish Americans">Finnish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Americans#History" title="Irish Americans">Irish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_American#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian American">Italian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuanian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Lithuanian Americans">Lithuanian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poles_in_the_United_States" title="History of Poles in the United States">Polish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Serbian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Serbian Americans">Serbian American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Hispanic and Latino Americans">Hispanic and Latino American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexican_Americans" title="History of Mexican Americans">Mexican American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States" title="History of the Jews in the United States">Jewish American</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Middle_Eastern_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Middle Eastern Americans">Middle Eastern American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egyptian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Egyptian Americans">Egyptian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iranian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Iranian Americans">Iranian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraqi_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Iraqi Americans">Iraqi American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lebanese_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Lebanese Americans">Lebanese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Palestinian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Palestinian Americans">Palestinian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Saudi_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Saudi Americans">Saudi American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="History of Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_history" title="Cherokee history">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comanche_history" title="Comanche history">Comanche</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_the_United_States" title="History of women in the United States">Women</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_history_in_the_United_States" title="LGBTQ history in the United States">LGBTQ</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_gay_men_in_the_United_States" title="History of gay men in the United States">Gay men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_lesbianism_in_the_United_States" title="History of lesbianism in the United States">Lesbians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_history_in_the_United_States" title="Transgender history in the United States">Transgender people</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Places" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Places</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">Territorial evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_by_date_of_admission_to_the_Union" title="List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union">Admission to the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_regions_of_the_United_States" title="Historical regions of the United States">Historical regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_frontier" title="American frontier">American frontier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Manifest destiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_England" title="History of New England">New England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Southern_United_States" title="History of the Southern United States">The South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_west_coast_of_North_America" title="History of the west coast of North America">The West Coast</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Alabama" title="History of Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Alaska" title="History of Alaska">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Arizona" title="History of Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Arkansas" title="History of Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_California" title="History of California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Colorado" title="History of Colorado">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Connecticut" title="History of Connecticut">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Delaware" title="History of Delaware">Delaware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Florida" title="History of Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="History of Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hawaii" title="History of Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Idaho" title="History of Idaho">Idaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Illinois" title="History of Illinois">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Indiana" title="History of Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iowa" title="History of Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kansas" title="History of Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kentucky" title="History of Kentucky">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Louisiana" title="History of Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maine" title="History of Maine">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maryland" title="History of Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Massachusetts" title="History of Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Michigan" title="History of Michigan">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Minnesota" title="History of Minnesota">Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mississippi" title="History of Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Missouri" title="History of Missouri">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Montana" title="History of Montana">Montana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nebraska" title="History of Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nevada" title="History of Nevada">Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Hampshire" title="History of New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Jersey" title="History of New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Mexico" title="History of New Mexico">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_York_(state)" title="History of New York (state)">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Carolina" title="History of North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Dakota" title="History of North Dakota">North Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ohio" title="History of Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oklahoma" title="History of Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oregon" title="History of Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Pennsylvania" title="History of Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rhode_Island" title="History of Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Carolina" title="History of South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Dakota" title="History of South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tennessee" title="History of Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Texas" title="History of Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Utah" title="History of Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vermont" title="History of Vermont">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Virginia" title="History of Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Washington_(state)" title="History of Washington (state)">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_West_Virginia" title="History of West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wisconsin" title="History of Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wyoming" title="History of Wyoming">Wyoming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Federal District</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Washington,_D.C." title="History of Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Insular areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_Samoa" title="History of American Samoa">American Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Guam" title="History of Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Northern Mariana Islands">Northern Mariana Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Puerto_Rico" title="History of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands" title="History of the United States Virgin Islands">U.S. Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Outlying islands</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Baker_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Baker Island">Baker Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Howland_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Howland Island">Howland Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jarvis_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Jarvis Island">Jarvis Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Johnston_Atoll" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Johnston Atoll">Johnston Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kingman_Reef" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Kingman Reef">Kingman Reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Midway_Atoll" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Midway Atoll">Midway Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Navassa_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Navassa Island">Navassa Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Palmyra_Atoll" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Palmyra Atoll">Palmyra Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wake_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Wake Island">Wake Island</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_urban_history" title="American urban history">Urban history</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Histories_of_cities_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Histories of cities in the United States">Cities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_the_United_States" title="List of years in the United States">List of years</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_United_States" title="Historiography of the United States">Historiography</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_United_States" title="Category:History of the United States">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="United_States_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:United_States_topics" title="Template:United States topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:United_States_topics" title="Template talk:United States topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:United_States_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:United States topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_States_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> articles</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States" title="History of the United States">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1776%E2%80%931789)" title="History of the United States (1776–1789)">1776–1789</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1789%E2%80%931815)" title="History of the United States (1789–1815)">1789–1815</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1815%E2%80%931849)" title="History of the United States (1815–1849)">1815–1849</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1849%E2%80%931865)" title="History of the United States (1849–1865)">1849–1865</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1865%E2%80%931917)" title="History of the United States (1865–1917)">1865–1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1917%E2%80%931945)" title="History of the United States (1917–1945)">1917–1945</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1945%E2%80%931964)" title="History of the United States (1945–1964)">1945–1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1964%E2%80%931980)" title="History of the United States (1964–1980)">1964–1980</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1980%E2%80%931991)" title="History of the United States (1980–1991)">1980–1991</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1991%E2%80%932008)" title="History of the United States (1991–2008)">1991–2008</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(2008%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the United States (2008–present)">2008–present</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By event</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-colonial era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Colonial history of the United States">Colonial era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stamp_Act_Congress" title="Stamp Act Congress">Stamp Act Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Congress" title="Continental Congress">Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Association" title="Continental Association">Continental Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Colonies" title="United Colonies">United Colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_American_military_history" title="Colonial American military history">military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halifax_Resolves" title="Halifax Resolves">Halifax Resolves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Resolution" title="Lee Resolution">Lee Resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1783)" title="Treaty of Paris (1783)">Treaty of Paris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Union" title="Perpetual Union">Perpetual Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_period" title="Confederation period">Confederation period</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_frontier" title="American frontier">American frontier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_drafting_and_ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution">drafting and ratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Era" title="Federalist Era">Federalist Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">Territorial evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Wars" title="American Indian Wars">Indian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Native genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era">Progressive Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">Women's suffrage</a></li> <li>Civil rights movement <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">1865–1896</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">1896–1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">1954–1968</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I" title="United States in World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United States home front during World War II">home front</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Century" title="American Century">American Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-wave_feminism" title="Second-wave feminism">Feminist Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_liberation" title="Gay liberation">LGBT Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1991%E2%80%932008)" title="History of the United States (1991–2008)">Post-Cold War (1991–2008)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11 attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on Terror</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)">War in Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_the_United_States" title="Great Recession in the United States">Great Recession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States" title="COVID-19 pandemic in the United States">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_history_of_the_United_States" title="Outline of the history of the United States">Outline of U.S. history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Demographic history of the United States">Demographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_discoveries" title="Timeline of United States discoveries">Discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Economic history of the United States">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions" title="Timeline of United States inventions">Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States" title="Military history of the United States">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_the_United_States" title="Postage stamps and postal history of the United States">Postal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Technological and industrial history of the United States">Technological and industrial</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_United_States" title="Geography of the United States">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/U.S._territorial_sovereignty" title="U.S. territorial sovereignty">Territory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contiguous_United_States" title="Contiguous United States">Contiguous United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_(United_States)" title="County (United States)">counties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">federal district</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_enclave" title="Federal enclave">federal enclaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Indian reservations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territories_of_the_United_States" title="Territories of the United States">insular zones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Minor_Outlying_Islands" title="United States Minor Outlying Islands">minor outlying islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_populated_places_in_the_United_States" title="Lists of populated places in the United States">populated places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">states</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_the_United_States" title="List of earthquakes in the United States">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extreme_points_of_the_United_States" title="List of extreme points of the United States">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_the_United_States" title="List of islands of the United States">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_of_the_United_States" title="List of mountains of the United States">Mountains</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountain_peaks_of_the_United_States" title="List of mountain peaks of the United States">peaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountain_ranges#United_States" title="List of mountain ranges">ranges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appalachian_Mountains" title="Appalachian Mountains">Appalachian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocky_Mountains" title="Rocky Mountains">Rocky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Nevada" title="Sierra Nevada">Sierra Nevada</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">National Park Service</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_areas_in_the_United_States_National_Park_System" title="List of areas in the United States National Park System">National Parks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_of_the_United_States" title="List of regions of the United States">Regions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="East Coast of the United States">East Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="West Coast of the United States">West Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Plains" title="Great Plains">Great Plains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="Gulf Coast of the United States">Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_(United_States)" title="Mid-Atlantic (United States)">Mid-Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midwestern_United_States" title="Midwestern United States">Midwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="West Coast of the United States">Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_United_States" title="Central United States">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_United_States" title="Eastern United States">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_United_States" title="Northern United States">Northern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_United_States" title="Northeastern United States">Northeastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwestern_United_States" title="Northwestern United States">Northwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeastern_United_States" title="Southeastern United States">Southeastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_United_States" title="Southwestern United States">Southwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_United_States" title="Western United States">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li>Longest <a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_the_United_States" title="List of rivers of the United States">rivers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arkansas_River" title="Arkansas River">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorado_River" title="Colorado River">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_River" title="Columbia River">Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_River" title="Missouri River">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_River_of_the_South" title="Red River of the South">Red (South)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rio_Grande" title="Rio Grande">Rio Grande</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yukon_River" title="Yukon River">Yukon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_in_the_United_States" title="Time in the United States">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_United_States" title="Water supply and sanitation in the United States">Water supply and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_the_United_States" title="List of World Heritage Sites in the United States">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_United_States" title="Politics of the United States">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">Federal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Executive</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Powers_of_the_president_of_the_United_States" title="Powers of the president of the United States">powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Office_of_the_President_of_the_United_States" title="Executive Office of the President of the United States">Executive Office</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">Vice President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_States" title="Cabinet of the United States">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_executive_departments" title="United States federal executive departments">Executive departments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_agencies_of_the_United_States_government" title="Independent agencies of the United States government">Independent agencies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Intelligence_Community" title="United States Intelligence Community">Intelligence Community</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Director_of_National_Intelligence" title="Director of National Intelligence">Director of National Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Security_Agency" title="National Security Agency">National Security Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Reconnaissance_Office" title="National Reconnaissance Office">National Reconnaissance Office</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_law_enforcement_in_the_United_States" title="Federal law enforcement in the United States">Law enforcement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Alcohol,_Tobacco,_Firearms_and_Explosives" title="Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives">ATF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._Customs_and_Border_Protection" title="U.S. Customs and Border Protection">CBP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Diplomatic_Security" title="Bureau of Diplomatic Security">Diplomatic Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_Enforcement_Administration" title="Drug Enforcement Administration">DEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Federal Bureau of Investigation">FBI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._Immigration_and_Customs_Enforcement" title="U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement">ICE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marshals_Service" title="United States Marshals Service">Marshals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secret_Service" title="United States Secret Service">Secret Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_Security_Administration" title="Transportation Security Administration">TSA</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_Inspector_General_(United_States)" title="Office of Inspector General (United States)">Inspector generals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_civil_service" title="United States federal civil service">Civil service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Public policy of the United States">Public policy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Legislative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_members_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="List of current members of the United States House of Representatives">current members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speaker_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Speaker of the United States House of Representatives">Speaker</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_senators" title="List of current United States senators">current members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_pro_tempore_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="President pro tempore of the United States Senate">President pro tempore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States#President_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="Vice President of the United States">President</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Capitol_Police" title="United States Capitol Police">Capitol Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Budget_Office" title="Congressional Budget Office">Congressional Budget Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_Accountability_Office" title="Government Accountability Office">Government Accountability Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Government_Publishing_Office" title="United States Government Publishing Office">Government Publishing Office</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Federal_judiciary_of_the_United_States" title="Federal judiciary of the United States">Judicial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States">Associate Justices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_courts_of_appeals" title="United States courts of appeals">Courts of appeals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_circuit_judges" title="List of current United States circuit judges">list of judges</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_district_court" title="United States district court">District courts</a>/<a href="/wiki/United_States_territorial_court" title="United States territorial court">Territorial courts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_district_and_territorial_courts" title="List of United States district and territorial courts">list of courts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_district_judges" title="List of current United States district judges">list of judges</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_tribunals_in_the_United_States" title="Federal tribunals in the United States">Other tribunals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney" title="United States Attorney">U.S. attorney</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_States" title="Law of the United States">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties_in_the_United_States" title="Civil liberties in the United States">civil liberties</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_Federal_Regulations" title="Code of Federal Regulations">Code of Federal Regulations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federalism_in_the_United_States" title="Federalism in the United States">federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_preemption" title="Federal preemption">preemption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Separation of powers under the United States Constitution">separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">civil rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Code" title="United States Code">United States Code</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Uniformed_services_of_the_United_States" title="Uniformed services of the United States">Uniformed</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces" title="United States Armed Forces">Armed Forces</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps" title="United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Force" title="United States Space Force">Space Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard" title="United States Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Guard_(United_States)" title="National Guard (United States)">National Guard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NOAA_Commissioned_Officer_Corps" title="NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps">NOAA Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service_Commissioned_Corps" title="United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps">Public Health Service Corps</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_governments_of_the_United_States" title="State governments of the United States">State</a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_District_of_Columbia" title="Government of the District of Columbia">Federal District</a>,<br />and <a href="/wiki/Territories_of_the_United_States" title="Territories of the United States">Territorial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_constitutional_officer" title="State constitutional officer">Executive</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Governor_(United_States)" title="Governor (United States)">Governor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_governors" title="List of current United States governors">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_governor_(United_States)" title="Lieutenant governor (United States)">Lieutenant governor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_lieutenant_governors" title="List of current United States lieutenant governors">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_state_(U.S._state_government)" title="Secretary of state (U.S. state government)">Secretary of state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_attorney_general" title="State attorney general">Attorney general</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_treasurer" title="State treasurer">Treasurer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_auditor" title="State auditor">Auditor/Comptroller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_commissioner" title="Agriculture commissioner">Agriculture commissioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_commissioner" title="Insurance commissioner">Insurance commissioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_utilities_commission" title="Public utilities commission">Public utilities commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_police_(United_States)" title="State police (United States)">State police</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_state_and_local_law_enforcement_agencies" title="List of United States state and local law enforcement agencies">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_legislature_(United_States)" title="State legislature (United States)">Legislative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_state_legislatures" title="List of United States state legislatures">List of legislatures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_legislators" title="List of U.S. state legislators">List of legislators</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_court_(United_States)" title="State court (United States)">Judicial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_supreme_court" title="State supreme court">Supreme courts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_state_chief_justices" title="List of state chief justices">Chief justices</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_attorney" title="District attorney">District attorney</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_district_attorneys_by_county" class="mw-redirect" title="List of district attorneys by county">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_law_(United_States)" title="State law (United States)">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_constitutions_in_the_United_States" title="State constitutions in the United States">State constitutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_statutory_codes" title="List of U.S. state statutory codes">Statutory codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniform_act" title="Uniform act">Uniform act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_U.S._state_and_territory_governments" title="Comparison of U.S. state and territory governments">Comparison of governments</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tribe_(Native_American)" title="Tribe (Native American)">Tribal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States" title="Tribal sovereignty in the United States">Tribal sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_recognition_in_the_United_States" title="Native American recognition in the United States">Native American recognition in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_in_the_contiguous_United_States" title="List of federally recognized tribes in the contiguous United States">Federally recognized tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Alaska_Native_tribal_entities" title="List of Alaska Native tribal entities">Federally recognized Alaska Native tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-recognized_tribes_in_the_United_States" title="State-recognized tribes in the United States">State-recognized tribes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Indian reservation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_reservations_in_the_United_States" title="List of Indian reservations in the United States">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_home_land" title="Hawaiian home land">Hawaiian home land</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_the_United_States" title="Local government in the United States">Local</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/County_(United_States)" title="County (United States)">County</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_counties_and_county_equivalents" title="List of United States counties and county equivalents">List of counties and county equivalents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_executive" title="County executive">County executive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheriffs_in_the_United_States" title="Sheriffs in the United States">Sheriff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_clerk" title="Municipal clerk">Clerk</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consolidated_city-county" title="Consolidated city-county">Consolidated city-county</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_city_(United_States)" title="Independent city (United States)">Independent city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coterminous_municipality" title="Coterminous municipality">Coterminous municipality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_charter#United_States" title="Municipal charter">Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayor%E2%80%93council_government" title="Mayor–council government">Mayor–council government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council%E2%80%93manager_government" title="Council–manager government">Council–manager government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_commission_government" title="City commission government">City commission government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayoralty_in_the_United_States" title="Mayoralty in the United States">Mayor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_manager" title="City manager">City manager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_council#United_States" title="Municipal council">City council</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Minor_civil_division" title="Minor civil division">Minor divisions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_township" title="Civil township">Township</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Town_meeting" title="Town meeting">Town meeting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Special_district_(United_States)" title="Special district (United States)">Special district</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/School_district" title="School district">School district</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_school_districts_in_the_United_States" title="Lists of school districts in the United States">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_the_United_States" title="Corruption in the United States">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_the_United_States" title="Elections in the United States">Elections</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Electoral_College" title="United States Electoral College">Electoral College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_states_and_blue_states" title="Red states and blue states">Red states and blue states</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign relations of the United States">Foreign relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign policy of the United States">foreign policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_presidency" title="Imperial presidency">Imperial presidency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ideologies_in_the_United_States" title="Political ideologies in the United States">Ideologies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Americanism" title="Anti-Americanism">Anti-Americanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_exceptionalism" title="American exceptionalism">exceptionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_nationalism" title="American nationalism">nationalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_parties_in_the_United_States" title="Political parties in the United States">Parties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_party_(U.S._politics)" title="Third party (U.S. politics)">Third parties</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_political_scandals_in_the_United_States" title="List of federal political scandals in the United States">Scandals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States" title="Economy of the United States">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States_by_sector" title="Economy of the United States by sector">By sector</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Agriculture in the United States">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_the_United_States" title="Banking in the United States">Banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_in_the_United_States" title="Communications in the United States">Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_the_United_States_by_state" title="List of companies of the United States by state">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_the_United_States" title="Energy in the United States">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Insurance in the United States">Insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing_in_the_United_States" title="Manufacturing in the United States">Manufacturing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_in_the_United_States" title="Mining in the United States">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_United_States" title="Science and technology in the United States">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_the_United_States" title="Tourism in the United States">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_trade_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign trade of the United States">Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_the_United_States_by_state" title="List of companies of the United States by state">by state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exports_of_the_United_States" title="List of exports of the United States">Exports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_budget" title="United States federal budget">Federal budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States" title="Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States">Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve" title="Federal Reserve">Federal Reserve System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_position_of_the_United_States" title="Financial position of the United States">Financial position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_unions_in_the_United_States" title="Labor unions in the United States">Labor unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_debt_of_the_United_States" title="National debt of the United States">Public debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_programs_in_the_United_States" title="Social programs in the United States">Social welfare programs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_the_United_States" title="Taxation in the United States">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unemployment_in_the_United_States" title="Unemployment in the United States">Unemployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wall_Street" title="Wall Street">Wall Street</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Transport in the United States">Transport</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_in_the_United_States" title="Aviation in the United States">Aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Driving_in_the_United_States" title="Driving in the United States">Driving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="Public transportation in the United States">Public transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="Rail transportation in the United States">Rail transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Transportation policy of the United States">Transportation policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_safety_in_the_United_States" title="Transportation safety in the United States">Transportation safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trucking_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Trucking industry in the United States">Trucking industry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Society of the United States">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_United_States" title="Culture of the United States">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Americana_(culture)" title="Americana (culture)">Americana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_in_the_United_States" title="Architecture in the United States">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_the_United_States" title="Cinema of the United States">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_the_United_States" title="Crime in the United States">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_cuisine" title="American cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dance_in_the_United_States" title="Dance in the United States">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_United_States" title="Demographics of the United States">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States" title="Economy of the United States">Economic issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affluence_in_the_United_States" title="Affluence in the United States">affluence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eviction_in_the_United_States" title="Eviction in the United States">eviction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeownership_in_the_United_States" title="Homeownership in the United States">homeownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Household_income_in_the_United_States" title="Household income in the United States">household income</a></li> <li><a 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href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Social class in the United States">Social class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_United_States" title="Society of the United States">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_in_the_United_States" title="Sports in the United States">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theater_in_the_United_States" title="Theater in the United States">Theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_in_the_United_States" title="Transportation in the United States">Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_games_in_the_United_States" title="Video games in the United States">Video games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_art_of_the_United_States" title="Visual art of the United States">Visual art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Social class in the United States">Social class</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affluence_in_the_United_States" title="Affluence in the United States">Affluence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Dream" title="American Dream">American Dream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_attainment_in_the_United_States" title="Educational attainment in the United States">Educational attainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_the_United_States" title="Homelessness in the United States">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeownership_in_the_United_States" title="Homeownership in the United States">Homeownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Household_income_in_the_United_States" title="Household income in the United States">Household income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_inequality_in_the_United_States" title="Income inequality in the United States">Income inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_middle_class" title="American middle class">Middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_income_in_the_United_States" title="Personal income in the United States">Personal income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty in the United States">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_the_United_States" title="Standard of living in the United States">Standard of living</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Health_in_the_United_States" title="Health in the United States">Health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aging_of_the_United_States" title="Aging of the United States">Aging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_the_United_States" title="Healthcare in the United States">Healthcare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_the_United_States" title="Abortion in the United States">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control_in_the_United_States" title="Birth control in the United States">Birth control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prenatal_care_in_the_United_States" title="Prenatal care in the United States">Prenatal care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospice_care_in_the_United_States" title="Hospice care in the United States">Hospice care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigrant_health_care_in_the_United_States" title="Immigrant health care in the United States">Immigrant health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_rationing_in_the_United_States" title="Healthcare rationing in the United States">Rationing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_finance_in_the_United_States" title="Health care finance in the United States">Health care finance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_insurance_costs_in_the_United_States" title="Health insurance costs in the United States">Health insurance costs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_prices_in_the_United_States" title="Health care prices in the United States">Health care prices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prescription_drug_prices_in_the_United_States" title="Prescription drug prices in the United States">Prescription drug prices</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_in_the_United_States" title="Disability in the United States">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Health insurance in the United States">Health insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety_in_the_United_States" title="Food safety in the United States">Food safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physician_shortage_in_the_United_States" title="Physician shortage in the United States">Physician shortage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_and_health_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty and health in the United States">Poverty and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_health_in_the_United_States" title="Race and health in the United States">Race and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obesity_in_the_United_States" title="Obesity in the United States">Obesity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_deserts_in_the_United_States" title="Medical deserts in the United States">Medical deserts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_reproductive_health_in_the_United_States" title="Women's reproductive health in the United States">Women's reproductive health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_life_expectancy" title="List of U.S. states and territories by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_the_United_States" title="Capital punishment in the United States">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_the_United_States" title="Crime in the United States">Crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Incarceration_in_the_United_States" title="Incarceration in the United States">incarceration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_United_States_government" title="Criticism of the United States government">Criticism of government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_in_the_United_States" title="Discrimination in the United States">Discrimination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States" title="Affirmative action in the United States">affirmative action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="Antisemitism in the United States">antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Intersex rights in the United States">intersex rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia_in_the_United_States" title="Islamophobia in the United States">Islamophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in the United States">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_States" title="Racism in the United States">racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Racism against Native Americans in the United States">Native American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_African_Americans" title="Racism against African Americans">African American</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Energy policy of the United States">Energy policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental issues in the United States">Environmental issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_movement_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental movement in the United States">Environmental movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change in the United States">Climate change</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_politics_in_the_United_States" title="Gun politics in the United States">Gun politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_shootings_in_the_United_States" title="Mass shootings in the United States">Mass shootings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunger_in_the_United_States" title="Hunger in the United States">Hunger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobacco_in_the_United_States" title="Tobacco in the United States">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Human rights in the United States">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_United_States" title="Immigration to the United States">Immigration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="Illegal immigration to the United States">illegal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_security_of_the_United_States" title="National security of the United States">National security</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_the_United_States" title="Terrorism in the United States">Terrorism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opioid_epidemic_in_the_United_States" title="Opioid epidemic in the United States">Opioid epidemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States" title="Separation of church and state in the United States">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia_in_the_United_States" title="Xenophobia in the United States">Xenophobia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;;font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_United_States" 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