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<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Western_society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Western society </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Western_society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rise_of_Islam" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rise_of_Islam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Rise of Islam </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rise_of_Islam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trade_and_economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trade_and_economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Trade and economy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trade_and_economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Church_and_monasticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Church_and_monasticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Church and monasticism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Church_and_monasticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Carolingian_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carolingian_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 Carolingian Europe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carolingian_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Carolingian_Renaissance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carolingian_Renaissance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8 Carolingian Renaissance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carolingian_Renaissance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Breakup_of_the_Carolingian_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Breakup_of_the_Carolingian_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.9 Breakup of the Carolingian Empire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Breakup_of_the_Carolingian_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_kingdoms_and_Byzantine_revival" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_kingdoms_and_Byzantine_revival"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.10 New kingdoms and Byzantine revival </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_kingdoms_and_Byzantine_revival-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Art_and_architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Art_and_architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.11 Art and architecture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Art_and_architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_and_technological_developments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_and_technological_developments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.12 Military and technological developments </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_and_technological_developments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-High_Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#High_Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 High Middle Ages </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-High_Middle_Ages-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle High Middle Ages subsection </button> <ul id="toc-High_Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Society_and_economic_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society_and_economic_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Society and economic life </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Society_and_economic_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rise_of_state_power" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rise_of_state_power"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Rise of state power </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rise_of_state_power-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crusades" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crusades"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Crusades </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crusades-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intellectual_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intellectual_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Intellectual life </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intellectual_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Technology_and_military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Technology_and_military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Technology and military </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Technology_and_military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Architecture,_art,_and_music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Architecture,_art,_and_music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Architecture, art, and music </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Architecture,_art,_and_music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Church_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Church_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7 Church life </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Church_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Late Middle Ages </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Late_Middle_Ages-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Late Middle Ages subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Late_Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-War,_famine,_and_plague" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War,_famine,_and_plague"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 War, famine, and plague </div> </a> <ul id="toc-War,_famine,_and_plague-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society_and_economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society_and_economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Society and economy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Society_and_economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-State_resurgence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#State_resurgence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 State resurgence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-State_resurgence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Collapse_of_Byzantium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Collapse_of_Byzantium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Collapse of Byzantium </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Collapse_of_Byzantium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Controversy_within_the_Church" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Controversy_within_the_Church"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Controversy within the Church </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Controversy_within_the_Church-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scholars,_intellectuals,_and_exploration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scholars,_intellectuals,_and_exploration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6 Scholars, intellectuals, and exploration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scholars,_intellectuals,_and_exploration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Technological_and_military_developments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Technological_and_military_developments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.7 Technological and military developments </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Technological_and_military_developments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_medieval_art_and_architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_medieval_art_and_architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.8 Late medieval art and architecture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_medieval_art_and_architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_perceptions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_perceptions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Modern perceptions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_perceptions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Middle Ages</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 164 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-164" aria-hidden="true" > 164 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middeleeue" title="Middeleeue – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Middeleeue" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mittelalter" title="Mittelalter – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Mittelalter" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%98%E1%8A%AB%E1%8A%A8%E1%88%88%E1%8A%9B_%E1%8B%98%E1%88%98%E1%8A%95" title="መካከለኛ ዘመን – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="መካከለኛ ዘመን" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7%D9%89" title="العصور الوسطى – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="العصور الوسطى" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edat_Meya" title="Edat Meya – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Edat Meya" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%AB%D5%BB%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%A4%D5%A1%D6%80" title="Միջնադար – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Միջնադար" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moyen_%C3%82jo" title="Moyen Âjo – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Moyen Âjo" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Arpetan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed%C3%A1_Media" title="Edá Media – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Edá Media" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81ra_Mbytegua" title="Ára Mbytegua – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Ára Mbytegua" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orta_%C9%99srl%C9%99r" title="Orta əsrlər – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Orta əsrlər" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AA%D8%A7_%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%84%D8%B1" title="اورتا عصرلر – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="اورتا عصرلر" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%97" title="মধ্যযুগ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মধ্যযুগ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiong-s%C3%A8-k%C3%AD" title="Tiong-sè-kí – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Tiong-sè-kí" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%B1%D1%8B%D1%83%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Урта быуаттар – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Урта быуаттар" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%8F%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%8F%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%9E%D0%B5" title="Сярэдневякоўе – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Сярэдневякоўе" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%8F%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%8F%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%87%D1%87%D0%B0" title="Сярэднявечча – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Сярэднявечча" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Средновековие – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Средновековие" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middloita" title="Middloita – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Middloita" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srednji_vijek" title="Srednji vijek – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Srednji vijek" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krennamzer" title="Krennamzer – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Krennamzer" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0_%D0%B7%D1%83%D1%83%D0%BD" title="Дунда зуун – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Дунда зуун" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edat_mitjana" title="Edat mitjana – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Edat mitjana" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%C4%83%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC_%C4%95%D0%BC%C4%95%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Вăтам ĕмĕрсем – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Вăтам ĕмĕрсем" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tungang_Panahon" title="Tungang Panahon – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Tungang Panahon" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C5%99edov%C4%9Bk" title="Středověk – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Středověk" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medievu" title="Medievu – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Medievu" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target">Corsu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yr_Oesoedd_Canol" title="Yr Oesoedd Canol – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Yr Oesoedd Canol" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middelalderen" title="Middelalderen – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Middelalderen" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%82%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86_%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="لقرون لوسطانية – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="لقرون لوسطانية" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mittelalter" title="Mittelalter – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Mittelalter" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srjej%C5%BAow%C4%9Bk" title="Srjejźowěk – Lower Sorbian" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Srjejźowěk" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="Lower Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dolnoserbski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keskaeg" title="Keskaeg – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Keskaeg" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B5%CF%83%CE%B1%CE%AF%CF%89%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Μεσαίωνας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μεσαίωνας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%BD%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B5" title="Куншкапинге – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Куншкапинге" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Эрзянь</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edad_Media" title="Edad Media – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Edad Media" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezepoko" title="Mezepoko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Mezepoko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed%C3%A1_Meia" title="Edá Meia – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Edá Meia" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erdi_Aroa" title="Erdi Aroa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Erdi Aroa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86_%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7%DB%8C" title="قرون وسطی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="قرون وسطی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Middle Ages" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi%C3%B0%C3%B8ldin" title="Miðøldin – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Miðøldin" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moyen_%C3%82ge" title="Moyen Âge – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Moyen Âge" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midsiuwen" title="Midsiuwen – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Midsiuwen" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Et%C3%A2t_di_mie%C3%A7" title="Etât di mieç – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Etât di mieç" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Mhe%C3%A1naois" title="An Mheánaois – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Mheánaois" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meadhan-aoisean" title="Meadhan-aoisean – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Meadhan-aoisean" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idade_Media" title="Idade Media – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Idade Media" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AE%D0%BA%D1%8A%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%B1%D3%80%D0%B0%D1%8C%D1%88%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%88" title="Юкъера бӀаьшераш – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Юкъера бӀаьшераш" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target">ГӀалгӀай</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80" title="中世紀 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="中世紀" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A4%91%EC%84%B8" title="중세 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="중세" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%AB%D5%BB%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%A4%D5%A1%D6%80" title="Միջնադար – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Միջնադար" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%97" title="मध्ययुग – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मध्ययुग" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srjed%C5%BAow%C4%9Bk" title="Srjedźowěk – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Srjedźowěk" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hornjoserbsce</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srednji_vijek" title="Srednji vijek – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Srednji vijek" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezepoko" title="Mezepoko – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Mezepoko" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tengnga_a_Panpanawen" title="Tengnga a Panpanawen – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Tengnga a Panpanawen" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abad_Pertengahan" title="Abad Pertengahan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Abad Pertengahan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medievo" title="Medievo – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Medievo" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medievie" title="Medievie – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Medievie" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%C3%A6%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Астæузаман – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Астæузаман" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi%C3%B0aldir" title="Miðaldir – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Miðaldir" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medioevo" title="Medioevo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Medioevo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%99_%D7%94%D7%91%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9D" title="ימי הביניים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ימי הביניים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abad_Tengahan" title="Abad Tengahan – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Abad Tengahan" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C9%9Bk%CA%8A_n%C9%9B_H%C9%9Bk%CA%8A_Al%C9%A9waat%CA%8A" title="Hɛkʊ nɛ Hɛkʊ Alɩwaatʊ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Hɛkʊ nɛ Hɛkʊ Alɩwaatʊ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A8%E1%83%A3%E1%83%90_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%A3%E1%83%99%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="შუა საუკუნეები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="შუა საუკუნეები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb mw-list-item"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strz%C3%A9dnowiek" title="Strzédnowiek – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb" data-title="Strzédnowiek" data-language-autonym="Kaszëbsczi" data-language-local-name="Kashubian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kaszëbsczi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0%D2%93%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B%D1%80" title="Ортағасыр – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ортағасыр" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osow_Kres" title="Osow Kres – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Osow Kres" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzi_ya_kati" title="Enzi ya kati – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Enzi ya kati" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mway%C3%A8naj" title="Mwayènaj – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Mwayènaj" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mwayen-Aj" title="Mwayen-Aj – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Mwayen-Aj" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serdema_Nav%C3%AEn" title="Serdema Navîn – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Serdema Navîn" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BE_%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BC%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Орто кылымдар – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Орто кылымдар" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Et%C3%A9_medievala" title="Eté medievala – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Eté medievala" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B0%E0%BB%84%E0%BB%9D%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%87" title="ສະໄໝກາງ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ສະໄໝກາງ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medium_aevum" title="Medium aevum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Medium aevum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viduslaiki" title="Viduslaiki – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Viduslaiki" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%ABttelalter" title="Mëttelalter – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Mëttelalter" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viduram%C5%BEiai" title="Viduramžiai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Viduramžiai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Et%C3%A6_de_M%C3%ABzo" title="Etæ de Mëzo – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Etæ de Mëzo" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middeliewe" title="Middeliewe – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Middeliewe" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eda_medieval" title="Eda medieval – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Eda medieval" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medio%C3%A9v" title="Medioév – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Medioév" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6z%C3%A9pkor" title="Középkor – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Középkor" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA" title="Среден век – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Среден век" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andro_Antenatenany" title="Andro Antenatenany – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Andro Antenatenany" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A7%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%82" title="മദ്ധ്യകാലം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="മദ്ധ്യകാലം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medjuevu" title="Medjuevu – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Medjuevu" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%97" title="मध्य युग – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="मध्य युग" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A8%E1%83%A5%E1%83%90_%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A8%E1%83%AC%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98" title="შქა ოშწანურეფი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="შქა ოშწანურეფი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%B1_%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%87" title="عصور وسطانيه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="عصور وسطانيه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86_%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7%D8%A7" title="قرون وسطا – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="قرون وسطا" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaman_Pertengahan" title="Zaman Pertengahan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Zaman Pertengahan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abaik_Patangahan" title="Abaik Patangahan – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Abaik Patangahan" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eidade_M%C3%A9dia" title="Eidade Média – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Eidade Média" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B4_%D0%B7%D1%83%D1%83%D0%BD" title="Дундад зуун – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Дундад зуун" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%9C%E1%80%9A%E1%80%BA%E1%80%81%E1%80%B1%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA" title="အလယ်ခေတ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အလယ်ခေတ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middeleeuwen" title="Middeleeuwen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Middeleeuwen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middeleywen" title="Middeleywen – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Middeleywen" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96" title="中世 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="中世" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medioevo" title="Medioevo – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Medioevo" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Napulitano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madel%C3%A4%C3%A4ler" title="Madelääler – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Madelääler" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middelalderen" title="Middelalderen – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Middelalderen" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mellomalderen" title="Mellomalderen – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Mellomalderen" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meyen_%C3%82ge" title="Meyen Âge – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Meyen Âge" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nouormand</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edat_Mejana" title="Edat Mejana – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Edat Mejana" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/O%CA%BBrta_asr" title="Oʻrta asr – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Oʻrta asr" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%A7%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B2" title="ਮੱਧਕਾਲ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਮੱਧਕਾਲ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DA%86%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%84%D8%A7_%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%A7" title="وچکارلا ویلا – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="وچکارلا ویلا" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%81%E1%80%B1%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA%E1%80%91%E1%80%AC%E1%82%8F%E1%80%9D" title="ခေတ်ထာႏဝ – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="ခေတ်ထာႏဝ" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target">ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edad_Media" title="Edad Media – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Edad Media" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%86%DA%81%D9%86%DB%8D_%D9%BE%DB%90%DA%93%DB%8D" title="منځنۍ پېړۍ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="منځنۍ پېړۍ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migl_Iejiz" title="Migl Iejiz – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Migl Iejiz" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mo%C3%A9yin_Ache" title="Moéyin Ache – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Moéyin Ache" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Picard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Et%C3%A0_%C3%ABd_mes" title="Età ëd mes – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Età ëd mes" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middel%C3%B6ller" title="Middelöller – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Middelöller" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Aredniowiecze" title="Średniowiecze – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Średniowiecze" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idade_M%C3%A9dia" title="Idade Média – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Idade Média" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evul_Mediu" title="Evul Mediu – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Evul Mediu" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temp_medieval" title="Temp medieval – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Temp medieval" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Rumantsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%BA" title="Середновік – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Середновік" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Средние века – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Средние века" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BE_%D2%AF%D0%B9%D1%8D%D0%BB%D1%8D%D1%80" title="Орто үйэлэр – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Орто үйэлэр" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/cung-se-ci" title="cung-se-ci – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="cung-se-ci" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sakizaya</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86_%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7%D9%B0%DB%8C" title="قرون وسطٰی – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="قرون وسطٰی" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target">سرائیکی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edade_m%C3%A8dia" title="Edade mèdia – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Edade mèdia" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Middle Ages" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middeloaler" title="Middeloaler – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Middeloaler" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesjeta" title="Mesjeta – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Mesjeta" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediuevu" title="Mediuevu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Mediuevu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Middle Ages" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DA%86%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1" title="وچون دور – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="وچون دور" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stredovek" title="Stredovek – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Stredovek" 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lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="سەدەکانی ناوین" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%9A%D0%B8_%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA" title="Средњи век – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Средњи век" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srednji_vijek" title="Srednji vijek – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Srednji vijek" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" 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alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mediaeval&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediaeval">Mediaeval</a>)</div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Period of European history from the 5th to the late 15th-century</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about medieval Europe. For a global history of the period between the 5th and 15th centuries, see <a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical history</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Middle Ages (disambiguation)">Middle Ages (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Medieval times" redirects here. For the dinner theatre, see <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Times" title="Medieval Times">Medieval Times</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="text-align:center;background-color:#ededed;">Middle Ages</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa; font-weight: bold;"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> AD 500 – 1500</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Canterbury_Cathedral,_window_nXV_detail_(46220634195).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="See caption" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Canterbury_Cathedral%2C_window_nXV_detail_%2846220634195%29.jpg/290px-Canterbury_Cathedral%2C_window_nXV_detail_%2846220634195%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="290" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Canterbury_Cathedral%2C_window_nXV_detail_%2846220634195%29.jpg/435px-Canterbury_Cathedral%2C_window_nXV_detail_%2846220634195%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Canterbury_Cathedral%2C_window_nXV_detail_%2846220634195%29.jpg/580px-Canterbury_Cathedral%2C_window_nXV_detail_%2846220634195%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3114" data-file-height="3114" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">A <a href="/wiki/Medieval_stained_glass" title="Medieval stained glass">medieval stained glass</a> panel from <a href="/wiki/Canterbury_Cathedral" title="Canterbury Cathedral">Canterbury Cathedral</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1175 – c. 1180, depicting the <a href="/wiki/Parable_of_the_Sower" title="Parable of the Sower">Parable of the Sower</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Biblical" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical">biblical</a> narrative</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Including</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Key events</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of the Western Roman Empire</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam" title="Spread of Islam">Spread of Islam</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Verdun" title="Treaty of Verdun">Treaty of Verdun</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_North_America" title="Exploration of North America">Exploration of North America</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below">Chronology <table style="background:var(--background-color-neutral, #eaecf0); color: inherit; border-top: 1px solid #aaa;" width="100%"> <tbody><tr> <td width="50%" style="text-align:left;"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Arrleft.svg/10px-Arrleft.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Arrleft.svg/15px-Arrleft.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Arrleft.svg/20px-Arrleft.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="110" data-file-height="133" /> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Antiquity</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul></div></td> <td width="50%" style="text-align:right;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern period</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li></ul></div> <img alt="class-skin-invert-image" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Arrright.svg/10px-Arrright.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Arrright.svg/15px-Arrright.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Arrright.svg/20px-Arrright.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="110" data-file-height="133" /></td> </tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> In the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">history of Europe</a>, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the 5th to the late 15th centuries, similarly to the <a href="/wiki/Post-classical" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-classical">Post-classical period</a> of <a href="/wiki/World_history_(field)" title="World history (field)">global history</a>. It began with the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall of the Western Roman Empire</a> and transitioned into the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a>. The Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history: <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical antiquity</a>, the medieval period, and the <a href="/wiki/Modern_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern history">modern period</a>. The medieval period is itself subdivided into the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early</a>, <a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a>. <a href="/wiki/Population_decline" title="Population decline">Population decline</a>, <a href="/wiki/Counterurbanisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Counterurbanisation">counterurbanisation</a>, the collapse of centralized authority, invasions, and mass migrations of <a href="/wiki/Tribe" title="Tribe">tribes</a>, which had begun in <a href="/wiki/Late_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Antiquity">Late Antiquity</a>, continued into the Early Middle Ages. The large-scale movements of the <a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a>, including various <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic peoples</a>, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the 7th century, <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> and the Middle East—once part of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>—came under the rule of the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a>, an Islamic empire, after conquest by <a href="/wiki/Succession_to_Muhammad" title="Succession to Muhammad">Muhammad's successors</a>. Although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical antiquity</a> was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire, Rome's direct continuation, survived in the Eastern Mediterranean and remained a major power. The empire's law code, the <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Juris_Civilis" title="Corpus Juris Civilis">Corpus Juris Civilis</a> or "Code of Justinian", was rediscovered in <a href="/wiki/Northern_Italy" title="Northern Italy">Northern Italy</a> in the 11th century. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions. Monasteries were founded as campaigns to <a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianise</a> <a href="/wiki/Paganism#Ethnic_religions_of_pre-Christian_Europe" title="Paganism">pagan Europe</a> continued. The <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a>, under the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_dynasty" title="Carolingian dynasty">Carolingian dynasty</a>, briefly established the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a> during the later 8th and early 9th centuries. It covered much of Western Europe but later succumbed to the pressures of internal civil wars combined with external invasions: <a href="/wiki/Vikings" title="Vikings">Vikings</a> from the north, <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_invasions_of_Europe" title="Hungarian invasions of Europe">Magyars</a> from the east, and <a href="/wiki/Saracen" title="Saracen">Saracens</a> from the south. During the High Middle Ages, which began after 1000, the population of Europe increased greatly as technological and <a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Middle_Ages#Technological_innovation" title="Agriculture in the Middle Ages">agricultural innovations</a> allowed trade to flourish and the <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Warm_Period" title="Medieval Warm Period">Medieval Warm Period</a> climate change allowed crop yields to increase. <a href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">Manorialism</a>, the organisation of <a href="/wiki/Peasant" title="Peasant">peasants</a> into villages that owed rent and labour services to the <a href="/wiki/Nobility" title="Nobility">nobles</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudalism</a>, the political structure whereby <a href="/wiki/Knight" title="Knight">knights</a> and lower-status nobles owed military service to their <a href="/wiki/Overlord" title="Overlord">overlords</a> in return for the right to rent from lands and <a href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">manors</a>, were two of the ways society was organized in the High Middle Ages. This period also saw the collapse of the unified Christian church, with the <a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East-West Schism of 1054</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a>, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Land" title="Holy Land">Holy Land</a> from <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslims</a>. Kings became the heads of centralised <a href="/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state">nation-states</a>, reducing crime and violence but making the ideal of a unified <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a> more distant. Intellectual life was marked by <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholasticism</a>, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of <a href="/wiki/University" title="University">universities</a>. The theology of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>, the paintings of <a href="/wiki/Giotto" title="Giotto">Giotto</a>, the poetry of <a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Chaucer" title="Geoffrey Chaucer">Chaucer</a>, the travels of <a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo" title="Marco Polo">Marco Polo</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Gothic_architecture" title="Gothic architecture">Gothic architecture</a> of cathedrals such as <a href="/wiki/Chartres_Cathedral" title="Chartres Cathedral">Chartres</a> are among the outstanding achievements toward the end of this period and into the Late Middle Ages. The Late Middle Ages was marked by difficulties and calamities including famine, plague, and war, which significantly diminished the population of Europe; between 1347 and 1350, the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> killed about a third of Europeans. Controversy, <a href="/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy">heresy</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Western Schism</a> within the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> paralleled the interstate conflict, civil strife, and <a href="/wiki/Popular_revolts_in_late-medieval_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Popular revolts in late-medieval Europe">peasant revolts</a> that occurred in the kingdoms. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages and beginning the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern period</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology_and_periodisation">Terminology and periodisation</h2></div> The Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing <a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">European history</a>: <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical civilisation</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Antiquity</a>, the Middle Ages and the <a href="/wiki/Modern_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern history">Modern Period</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Power304-1">[1]</a> The "Middle Ages" first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or "middle season".<a href="#cite_note-Miglio112-2">[2]</a> In early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or "middle age", first recorded in 1604,<a href="#cite_note-Albrow205-3">[3]</a> and media saecula, or "middle centuries", first recorded in 1625.<a href="#cite_note-Murray4-4">[4]</a> The adjective "medieval" (or sometimes "mediaeval"<a href="#cite_note-Random1194-5">[5]</a> or "mediæval"),<a href="#cite_note-OED290-6">[6]</a> meaning pertaining to the Middle Ages, derives from medium aevum.<a href="#cite_note-Random1194-5">[5]</a> Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the "<a href="/wiki/Six_Ages_of_the_World" title="Six Ages of the World">Six Ages</a>" or the "<a href="/wiki/Four_kingdoms_of_Daniel" title="Four kingdoms of Daniel">Four Empires</a>", and considered their time to be the last before the end of the world.<a href="#cite_note-mommsen236-7">[7]</a> When referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being "modern".<a href="#cite_note-Dailyx-8">[8]</a> In the 1330s, the Italian humanist and poet <a href="/wiki/Petrarch" title="Petrarch">Petrarch</a> referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua (or "ancient") and to the Christian period as nova (or "new").<a href="#cite_note-idea-9">[9]</a> Petrarch regarded the post-Roman centuries as "<a href="/wiki/Dark_Ages_(historiography)" title="Dark Ages (historiography)">dark</a>" compared to the "light" of <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical antiquity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Mommsen227-10">[10]</a> <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Leonardo Bruni</a> was the first historian to use <a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages#Historiography_and_periodization" title="Late Middle Ages">tripartite periodisation</a> in his History of the Florentine People (1442), with a middle period "between the fall of the Roman Empire and the revival of city life sometime in late eleventh and twelfth centuries".<a href="#cite_note-Brunixvii-11">[11]</a> Tripartite <a href="/wiki/Periodisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Periodisation">periodisation</a> became standard after the 17th-century German historian <a href="/wiki/Christoph_Cellarius" title="Christoph Cellarius">Christoph Cellarius</a> divided history into three periods: ancient, medieval, and modern.<a href="#cite_note-Murray4-4">[4]</a> The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is around 500,<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> with the date of 476 first used by Bruni.<a href="#cite_note-Brunixvii-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[A]</a> Later starting dates are sometimes used in the outer parts of Europe.<a href="#cite_note-15">[14]</a> For Europe as a whole, 1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages,<a href="#cite_note-16">[15]</a> but there is no universally agreed upon end date. Depending on the context, events such as the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">conquest of Constantinople</a> by the Turks in 1453, <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a>'s first voyage to the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a> in 1492, or the <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a> in 1517 are sometimes used.<a href="#cite_note-Davies291-17">[16]</a> English historians often use the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bosworth_Field" title="Battle of Bosworth Field">Battle of Bosworth Field</a> in 1485 to mark the end of the period.<a href="#cite_note-18">[17]</a> For Spain, dates commonly used are the death of King <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_II_of_Aragon" title="Ferdinand II of Aragon">Ferdinand II</a> in 1516, the death of Queen <a href="/wiki/Isabella_I_of_Castile" title="Isabella I of Castile">Isabella I of Castile</a> in 1504, or the <a href="/wiki/Granada_War" title="Granada War">conquest of Granada</a> in 1492.<a href="#cite_note-19">[18]</a> Historians from <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance-speaking</a> countries tend to divide the Middle Ages into two parts: an earlier "High" and later "Low" period. English-speaking historians, following their German counterparts, generally subdivide the Middle Ages into three intervals: "Early", "High", and "Late".<a href="#cite_note-Power304-1">[1]</a> In the 19th century, the entire Middle Ages were often referred to as the "<a href="/wiki/Dark_Ages_(Europe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dark Ages (Europe)">Dark Ages</a>",<a href="#cite_note-mommsen226-20">[19]</a> but with the adoption of these subdivisions, use of this term was restricted to the Early Middle Ages, at least among historians.<a href="#cite_note-mommsen236-7">[7]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Later_Roman_Empire">Later Roman Empire</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Later_Roman_Empire" title="Later Roman Empire">Later Roman Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Venice_city_scenes_-_in_St._Mark%27s_square_-_St_Mark%27s_Basilica_(11002237996).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Venice_city_scenes_-_in_St._Mark%27s_square_-_St_Mark%27s_Basilica_%2811002237996%29.jpg/220px-Venice_city_scenes_-_in_St._Mark%27s_square_-_St_Mark%27s_Basilica_%2811002237996%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Venice_city_scenes_-_in_St._Mark%27s_square_-_St_Mark%27s_Basilica_%2811002237996%29.jpg/330px-Venice_city_scenes_-_in_St._Mark%27s_square_-_St_Mark%27s_Basilica_%2811002237996%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Venice_city_scenes_-_in_St._Mark%27s_square_-_St_Mark%27s_Basilica_%2811002237996%29.jpg/440px-Venice_city_scenes_-_in_St._Mark%27s_square_-_St_Mark%27s_Basilica_%2811002237996%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1414" data-file-height="2121" /></a><figcaption>A late Roman sculpture <a href="/wiki/Portrait_of_the_Four_Tetrarchs" title="Portrait of the Four Tetrarchs">depicting the four Tetrarchs</a>, now in <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a>, Italy<a href="#cite_note-Tansey242-21">[20]</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> reached its greatest territorial extent during the 2nd century AD; the following two centuries witnessed the slow decline of Roman control over its outlying territories.<a href="#cite_note-Cunliffe391-22">[21]</a> Economic issues, including inflation, and external pressure on the frontiers combined to create the <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a>, with emperors coming to the throne only to be rapidly replaced by new usurpers.<a href="#cite_note-Collins3-23">[22]</a> Military expenses increased steadily during the 3rd century, mainly in response to the <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars#Roman–Sassanid_War" title="Roman–Persian Wars">war</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a>, which revived in the middle of the 3rd century.<a href="#cite_note-Heather111-24">[23]</a> The army doubled in size, and cavalry and smaller units replaced the <a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Roman legion</a> as the main tactical unit.<a href="#cite_note-Brown24-25-25">[24]</a> The need for revenue led to increased taxes and a decline in numbers of the <a href="/wiki/Curiales" title="Curiales">curial</a>, or landowning, class, and decreasing numbers of them willing to shoulder the burdens of holding office in their native towns.<a href="#cite_note-Heather111-24">[23]</a> More bureaucrats were needed in the central administration to deal with the needs of the army, which led to complaints from civilians that there were more tax-collectors in the empire than tax-payers.<a href="#cite_note-Brown24-25-25">[24]</a> The Emperor <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a> (r. 284–305) split the empire into separately administered <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">eastern</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">western</a> halves in 286; the empire was not considered divided by its inhabitants or rulers, as legal and administrative <a href="/wiki/Promulgation" title="Promulgation">promulgations</a> in one division were considered valid in the other.<a href="#cite_note-Collins9-26">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[B]</a> In 330, after a period of civil war, <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine the Great</a> (r. 306–337) refounded the city of <a href="/wiki/Byzantium" title="Byzantium">Byzantium</a> as the newly renamed eastern capital, <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Collins24-28">[26]</a> Diocletian's reforms strengthened the governmental bureaucracy, reformed taxation, and strengthened the army, which bought the empire time but did not resolve the problems it was facing: excessive taxation, a declining birthrate, and pressures on its frontiers, among others.<a href="#cite_note-Cunliffe405-29">[27]</a> Civil war between rival emperors became common in the middle of the 4th century, diverting soldiers from the empire's frontier forces and allowing <a href="/wiki/Barbarian#Modern_academia" title="Barbarian">invaders</a> to encroach.<a href="#cite_note-Collins31-30">[28]</a> For much of the 4th century, Roman society stabilised in a new form that differed from the earlier <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rome" title="Culture of ancient Rome">classical period</a>, with a widening gulf between the rich and poor, and a decline in the vitality of the smaller towns.<a href="#cite_note-Brown34-31">[29]</a> Another change was the <a href="/wiki/Christianisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianisation">Christianisation</a>, or conversion of the empire to <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, a gradual process that lasted from the 2nd to the 5th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-Brown65-32">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brown82-33">[31]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Europe_map_450.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Europe_map_450.PNG/350px-Europe_map_450.PNG" decoding="async" width="350" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Europe_map_450.PNG/525px-Europe_map_450.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Europe_map_450.PNG/700px-Europe_map_450.PNG 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="580" /></a><figcaption>Map of the approximate political boundaries in Europe around 450 AD</figcaption></figure> In 376, the <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a>, fleeing from the <a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Huns</a>, received permission from Emperor <a href="/wiki/Valens" title="Valens">Valens</a> (r. 364–378) to settle in the Roman province of <a href="/wiki/Thracia" title="Thracia">Thracia</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a>. The settlement did not go smoothly, and when Roman officials mishandled the situation, the Goths began to raid and plunder.<a href="#cite_note-35">[C]</a> Valens, attempting to put down the disorder, was killed fighting the Goths at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Adrianople" title="Battle of Adrianople">Battle of Adrianople</a> on 9 August 378.<a href="#cite_note-Bauer47-36">[33]</a> In addition to the threat from such tribal confederacies in the north, internal divisions within the empire, especially within the Christian Church, caused problems.<a href="#cite_note-Bauer56-37">[34]</a> In 400, the <a href="/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a> invaded the Western Roman Empire and, although briefly forced back from Italy, in 410 <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_(410)" title="Sack of Rome (410)">sacked the city of Rome</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Bauer80-38">[35]</a> In 406 the <a href="/wiki/Alans" title="Alans">Alans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vandals" title="Vandals">Vandals</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Suebi" title="Suebi">Suevi</a> crossed into <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a>; over the next three years they spread across Gaul and in 409 crossed the <a href="/wiki/Pyrenees" title="Pyrenees">Pyrenees Mountains</a> into modern-day Spain.<a href="#cite_note-Collins59-39">[36]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a> began, when various peoples, initially largely <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic peoples</a>, moved across Europe. The <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alemanni" title="Alemanni">Alemanni</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Burgundians" title="Burgundians">Burgundians</a> all ended up in northern Gaul while the <a href="/wiki/Angles_(tribe)" title="Angles (tribe)">Angles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saxons" title="Saxons">Saxons</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jutes" title="Jutes">Jutes</a> <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain" title="Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain">settled in Britain</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Cunliffe417-40">[37]</a> and the Vandals went on to cross the strait of Gibraltar after which they conquered the province of <a href="/wiki/Africa_(Roman_province)" title="Africa (Roman province)">Africa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Collins80-41">[38]</a> In the 430s the Huns began invading the empire; their king <a href="/wiki/Attila" title="Attila">Attila</a> (r. 434–453) led invasions into the Balkans in 442 and 447, Gaul in 451, and Italy in 452.<a href="#cite_note-James67-42">[39]</a> The Hunnic threat remained until Attila's death in 453, when the <a href="/wiki/Huns#Unified_Empire_under_Attila" title="Huns">Hunnic confederation</a> he led fell apart.<a href="#cite_note-Bauer117-43">[40]</a> These invasions by the tribes completely changed the political and demographic nature of what had been the Western Roman Empire.<a href="#cite_note-Cunliffe417-40">[37]</a> By the end of the 5th century the western section of the empire was divided into smaller political units, ruled by the tribes that had invaded in the early part of the century.<a href="#cite_note-Wickham79-44">[41]</a> The deposition of the last emperor of the west, <a href="/wiki/Romulus_Augustulus" title="Romulus Augustulus">Romulus Augustulus</a>, in 476 has traditionally marked the end of the Western Roman Empire.<a href="#cite_note-Wickham86-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[D]</a> By 493 the Italian peninsula was conquered by the <a href="/wiki/Ostrogoths" title="Ostrogoths">Ostrogoths</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Collins107-46">[42]</a> The Eastern Roman Empire, often referred to as the Byzantine Empire after the fall of its western counterpart, had little ability to assert control over the lost western territories. The <a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_emperors" title="List of Byzantine emperors">Byzantine emperors</a> maintained a claim over the territory, but while none of the new kings in the west dared to elevate himself to the position of emperor of the west, Byzantine control of most of the Western Empire could not be sustained; the reconquest of the Mediterranean periphery and the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Peninsula">Italian Peninsula</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gothic_War_(535%E2%80%93554)" title="Gothic War (535–554)">Gothic War</a>) in the reign of <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian</a> (r. 527–565) was the sole, and temporary, exception.<a href="#cite_note-Collins116-47">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_Middle_Ages">Early Middle Ages</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_societies">New societies</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall of the Western Roman Empire</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Europe_and_the_Near_East_at_476_AD.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Europe_and_the_Near_East_at_476_AD.png/260px-Europe_and_the_Near_East_at_476_AD.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Europe_and_the_Near_East_at_476_AD.png/390px-Europe_and_the_Near_East_at_476_AD.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Europe_and_the_Near_East_at_476_AD.png/520px-Europe_and_the_Near_East_at_476_AD.png 2x" data-file-width="2830" data-file-height="1967" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Barbarian_kingdoms" title="Barbarian kingdoms">Barbarian kingdoms</a> and tribes after the end of the Western Roman Empire</figcaption></figure> The political structure of Western Europe changed with the end of the united Roman Empire. Although the movements of peoples during this period are usually described as "invasions", they were not just military expeditions but migrations of entire peoples into the empire. Such movements were aided by the refusal of the Western Roman elites to support the army or pay the taxes that would have allowed the military to suppress the migration.<a href="#cite_note-Brown122-48">[44]</a> The emperors of the 5th century were often controlled by military strongmen such as <a href="/wiki/Stilicho" title="Stilicho">Stilicho</a> (d. 408), <a href="/wiki/Flavius_Aetius" title="Flavius Aetius">Aetius</a> (d. 454), <a href="/wiki/Aspar" title="Aspar">Aspar</a> (d. 471), <a href="/wiki/Ricimer" title="Ricimer">Ricimer</a> (d. 472), or <a href="/wiki/Gundobad" title="Gundobad">Gundobad</a> (d. 516), who were partly or fully of non-Roman background. When the line of Western emperors ceased, many of the kings who replaced them were from the same background. Intermarriage between the new kings and the Roman elites was common.<a href="#cite_note-Wickham95-49">[45]</a> This led to a fusion of Roman culture with the customs of the invading tribes, including the popular assemblies that allowed free male tribal members more say in political matters than was common in the Roman state.<a href="#cite_note-Wickham100-50">[46]</a> Material artefacts left by the Romans and the invaders are often similar, and tribal items were often modelled on Roman objects.<a href="#cite_note-Collins100-51">[47]</a> Much of the scholarly and written culture of the new kingdoms was also based on Roman intellectual traditions.<a href="#cite_note-Collins96-52">[48]</a> An important difference was the gradual loss of tax revenue by the new polities. Many of the new political entities no longer supported their armies through taxes, instead relying on granting them land or rents. This meant there was less need for large tax revenues and so the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire#Taxation" title="Roman Empire">taxation systems</a> decayed.<a href="#cite_note-Wickham102-53">[49]</a> Warfare was common between and within the kingdoms. Slavery declined as the supply weakened, and society became more rural.<a href="#cite_note-Backman86-54">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[E]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Theoderic_Quarter_Siliqua_80000847.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Theoderic_Quarter_Siliqua_80000847.jpg/220px-Theoderic_Quarter_Siliqua_80000847.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Theoderic_Quarter_Siliqua_80000847.jpg/330px-Theoderic_Quarter_Siliqua_80000847.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Theoderic_Quarter_Siliqua_80000847.jpg 2x" data-file-width="404" data-file-height="202" /></a><figcaption>A coin of the <a href="/wiki/Ostrogoths" title="Ostrogoths">Ostrogothic</a> leader <a href="/wiki/Theoderic_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Theoderic the Great">Theoderic the Great</a>, struck in Milan, Italy, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> AD 491–501</figcaption></figure> Between the 5th and 8th centuries, new peoples and individuals filled the political void left by Roman centralised government.<a href="#cite_note-Collins96-52">[48]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Ostrogoths" title="Ostrogoths">Ostrogoths</a>, a Gothic tribe, settled in <a href="/wiki/Roman_Italy" title="Roman Italy">Roman Italy</a> in the late fifth century under <a href="/wiki/Theoderic_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Theoderic the Great">Theoderic the Great</a> (d. 526) and set up a <a href="/wiki/Ostrogothic_Kingdom" title="Ostrogothic Kingdom">kingdom</a> marked by its co-operation between the Italians and the Ostrogoths, at least until the last years of Theodoric's reign.<a href="#cite_note-James82-57">[52]</a> The Burgundians settled in Gaul, and after an earlier realm was destroyed by the Huns in 436, formed a new kingdom in the 440s. Between today's <a href="/wiki/Geneva" title="Geneva">Geneva</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lyon" title="Lyon">Lyon</a>, it grew to become the realm of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Burgundy#First_Kingdom_of_Burgundy_(4th_century_-_534_AD)" title="Kingdom of Burgundy">Burgundy</a> in the late 5th and early 6th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-James77-58">[53]</a> Elsewhere in Gaul, the Franks and <a href="/wiki/Celtic_Britons" title="Celtic Britons">Celtic Britons</a> set up small polities. <a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a> was centred in northern Gaul, and the first king of whom much is known is <a href="/wiki/Childeric_I" title="Childeric I">Childeric I</a> (d. 481). His grave was discovered in 1653 and is remarkable for its <a href="/wiki/Grave_goods" title="Grave goods">grave goods</a>, which included weapons and a large quantity of gold.<a href="#cite_note-James79-59">[54]</a> Under Childeric's son <a href="/wiki/Clovis_I" title="Clovis I">Clovis I</a> (r. 509–511), the founder of the <a href="/wiki/Merovingian_dynasty" title="Merovingian dynasty">Merovingian dynasty</a>, the Frankish kingdom expanded and converted to Christianity. The Britons, related to the natives of <a href="/wiki/Britannia" title="Britannia">Britannia</a> – modern-day Great Britain – settled in what is now <a href="/wiki/Brittany" title="Brittany">Brittany</a>.<a href="#cite_note-James78-60">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[F]</a> Other monarchies were established by the <a href="/wiki/Visigothic_Kingdom" title="Visigothic Kingdom">Visigothic Kingdom</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Suebi" title="Suebi">Suebi</a> in northwestern Iberia, and the <a href="/wiki/Vandal_Kingdom" title="Vandal Kingdom">Vandal Kingdom</a> in <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-James77-58">[53]</a> In the sixth century, the <a href="/wiki/Lombards" title="Lombards">Lombards</a> settled in <a href="/wiki/Northern_Italy" title="Northern Italy">Northern Italy</a>, replacing the Ostrogothic kingdom with a grouping of <a href="/wiki/Duchies" class="mw-redirect" title="Duchies">duchies</a> that occasionally selected a king to rule over them all. By the late sixth century, this arrangement had been replaced by a permanent monarchy, the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Lombards" title="Kingdom of the Lombards">Kingdom of the Lombards</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Collins196-62">[56]</a> The invasions brought new ethnic groups to Europe, although some regions received a larger influx of new peoples than others. In Gaul for instance, the invaders settled much more extensively in the north-east than in the south-west. <a href="/wiki/Slavs" title="Slavs">Slavs</a> settled in <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a> and the Balkan Peninsula. The settlement of peoples was accompanied by changes in languages. <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, the literary language of the Western Roman Empire, was gradually replaced by <a href="/wiki/Vernacular_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Vernacular languages">vernacular languages</a> which evolved from Latin, but were distinct from it, collectively known as <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a>. These changes from Latin to the new languages took many centuries. Greek remained the language of the Byzantine Empire, but the migrations of the Slavs added <a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic languages</a> to Eastern Europe.<a href="#cite_note-Davies235-63">[57]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Byzantine_survival">Byzantine survival</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Justinian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty">Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Heraclian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty">Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sanvitale03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Sanvitale03.jpg/220px-Sanvitale03.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Sanvitale03.jpg/330px-Sanvitale03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Sanvitale03.jpg/440px-Sanvitale03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="9228" data-file-height="5752" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Mosaic" title="Mosaic">mosaic</a> showing <a href="/wiki/Justinian" class="mw-redirect" title="Justinian">Justinian</a> with <a href="/wiki/Maximianus_of_Ravenna" title="Maximianus of Ravenna">the bishop</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a> (Italy), bodyguards, and courtiers.<a href="#cite_note-Adams158-64">[58]</a></figcaption></figure> As Western Europe witnessed the formation of new kingdoms, the Eastern Roman Empire remained intact and experienced an economic revival that lasted into the early 7th century. There were fewer invasions of the eastern section of the empire; most occurred in the Balkans. Peace with the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a>, the traditional enemy of Rome, lasted throughout most of the 5th century. The Eastern Empire was marked by closer relations between the political state and Christian Church, with doctrinal matters assuming an importance in Eastern politics that they did not have in Western Europe. Legal developments included the codification of <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a>; the first effort—the <a href="/wiki/Codex_Theodosianus" title="Codex Theodosianus">Codex Theodosianus</a>—was completed in 438.<a href="#cite_note-Wickham81-65">[59]</a> Under Emperor Justinian (r. 527–565), another compilation took place—the <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Juris_Civilis" title="Corpus Juris Civilis">Corpus Juris Civilis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Bauer200-66">[60]</a> Justinian also oversaw the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Hagia_Sophia" title="Hagia Sophia">Hagia Sophia</a> in Constantinople and the reconquest of North Africa from the Vandals and Italy from the Ostrogoths,<a href="#cite_note-Bauer206-67">[61]</a> under <a href="/wiki/Belisarius" title="Belisarius">Belisarius</a> (d. 565).<a href="#cite_note-Collins126-68">[62]</a> The conquest of Italy was not complete, as a deadly outbreak of <a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Justinian" title="Plague of Justinian">plague in 542</a> led to the rest of Justinian's reign concentrating on defensive measures rather than further conquests.<a href="#cite_note-Bauer206-67">[61]</a> At the Emperor's death, the Byzantines had control of <a href="/wiki/Exarchate_of_Ravenna" title="Exarchate of Ravenna">most of Italy</a>, North Africa, and a small foothold in southern Spain. Justinian's reconquests have been criticised by historians for overextending his realm and setting the stage for the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">early Muslim conquests</a>, but many of the difficulties faced by Justinian's successors were due not just to over-taxation to pay for his wars but to the essentially civilian nature of the empire, which made raising troops difficult.<a href="#cite_note-Brown8-69">[63]</a> In the Eastern Empire the slow infiltration of the Balkans by the Slavs added a further difficulty for Justinian's successors. It began gradually, but by the late 540s Slavic tribes were in <a href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thrace</a> and <a href="/wiki/Illyricum_(Roman_province)" title="Illyricum (Roman province)">Illyrium</a>, and had defeated an imperial army near <a href="/wiki/Edirne" title="Edirne">Adrianople</a> in 551. In the 560s the <a href="/wiki/Pannonian_Avars" title="Pannonian Avars">Avars</a> began to expand from their base on the north bank of the <a href="/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube</a>; by the end of the 6th-century, they were the dominant power in Central Europe and routinely able to force the Eastern emperors to pay tribute. They remained a strong power until 796.<a href="#cite_note-James95-70">[64]</a> An additional problem to face the empire came as a result of the involvement of Emperor <a href="/wiki/Maurice_(emperor)" title="Maurice (emperor)">Maurice</a> (r. 582–602) in Persian politics when he intervened in a <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_II#Accession_to_the_throne" title="Khosrow II">succession dispute</a>. This led to a period of peace, but when Maurice was overthrown, <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_602%E2%80%93628" title="Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628">the Persians invaded</a> and during the reign of Emperor <a href="/wiki/Heraclius" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</a> (r. 610–641) controlled large chunks of the empire, including Egypt, Syria, and <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> until Heraclius' successful counterattack. In 628 the empire secured a peace treaty and recovered all of its lost territories.<a href="#cite_note-Collins140-71">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Western_society">Western society</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Early_medieval_European_dress" title="Early medieval European dress">Early medieval European dress</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medieval_cuisine" title="Medieval cuisine">medieval cuisine</a></div> In Western Europe, some of the older Roman elite families died out while others became more involved with ecclesiastical than secular affairs. Values attached to <a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin scholarship</a> and <a href="/wiki/Education_in_Ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Ancient Rome">education</a> mostly disappeared, and while literacy remained important, it became a practical skill rather than a sign of elite status. In the 4th century, <a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a> (d. 420) dreamed that God rebuked him for spending more time reading <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> than the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a>. By the 6th century, <a href="/wiki/Gregory_of_Tours" title="Gregory of Tours">Gregory of Tours</a> (d. 594) had a similar dream, but instead of being chastised for reading Cicero, he was chastised for learning <a href="/wiki/Shorthand" title="Shorthand">shorthand</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Brown174-72">[66]</a> By the late 6th century, the principal means of religious instruction in the Church had become music and art rather than the book.<a href="#cite_note-Brown181-73">[67]</a> Most intellectual efforts went towards imitating classical scholarship, but some <a href="/wiki/Early_medieval_literature" title="Early medieval literature">original works</a> were created, along with now-lost oral compositions. The writings of <a href="/wiki/Sidonius_Apollinaris" title="Sidonius Apollinaris">Sidonius Apollinaris</a> (d. 489), <a href="/wiki/Cassiodorus" title="Cassiodorus">Cassiodorus</a> (d. <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 585), and <a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a> (d. c. 525) were typical of the age.<a href="#cite_note-Brown45-74">[68]</a> Changes also took place among laymen, as aristocratic culture focused on great feasts held in halls rather than on literary pursuits. Clothing for the elites was richly embellished with jewels and gold. Lords and kings supported entourages of fighters who formed the backbone of the military forces.<a href="#cite_note-77">[G]</a> Family ties within the elites were important, as were the virtues of loyalty, courage, and honour. These ties led to the prevalence of the feud in aristocratic society, examples of which included those related by Gregory of Tours that took place in <a href="/wiki/Merovingian_dynasty" title="Merovingian dynasty">Merovingian</a> Gaul. Most feuds seem to have ended quickly with the payment of some sort of <a href="/wiki/Weregild" title="Weregild">compensation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wickham189-78">[71]</a> Women took part in aristocratic society mainly in their roles as wives and mothers of men, with the role of mother of a ruler being especially prominent in Merovingian Gaul. In <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxons" title="Anglo-Saxons">Anglo-Saxon</a> society the lack of many child rulers meant a lesser role for women as queen mothers, but this was compensated for by the increased role played by <a href="/wiki/Abbess" title="Abbess">abbesses</a> of monasteries. Only in Italy does it appear that women were always considered under the protection and control of a male relative.<a href="#cite_note-Wickham195-79">[72]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fr%C3%BChmittelalterliches_Dorf.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Fr%C3%BChmittelalterliches_Dorf.jpg/220px-Fr%C3%BChmittelalterliches_Dorf.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Fr%C3%BChmittelalterliches_Dorf.jpg/330px-Fr%C3%BChmittelalterliches_Dorf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Fr%C3%BChmittelalterliches_Dorf.jpg/440px-Fr%C3%BChmittelalterliches_Dorf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2751" data-file-height="1668" /></a><figcaption>Reconstruction of an early medieval peasant village in Bavaria</figcaption></figure> Peasant society is much less documented than the nobility. Most of the surviving information available to historians comes from <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a>; few detailed written records documenting peasant life remain from before the 9th century. Most of the descriptions of the lower classes come from either <a href="/wiki/Code_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Code (law)">law codes</a> or writers from the upper classes.<a href="#cite_note-Wickham204-80">[73]</a> <a href="/wiki/Landholding" class="mw-redirect" title="Landholding">Landholding</a> patterns in the West were not uniform; some areas had greatly fragmented landholding patterns, but in other areas large contiguous blocks of land were the norm. These differences allowed for a wide variety of peasant societies, some dominated by aristocratic landholders and others having a great deal of autonomy.<a href="#cite_note-Wickham205-81">[74]</a> Land settlement also varied greatly. Some peasants lived in large settlements that numbered as many as 700 inhabitants. Others lived in small groups of a few families and still others lived on isolated farms spread over the countryside. There were also areas where the pattern was a mix of two or more of those systems.<a href="#cite_note-Wickham211-82">[75]</a> Unlike in the late Roman period, there was no sharp break between the legal status of the free peasant and the aristocrat, and it was possible for a free peasant's family to rise into the aristocracy over several generations through military service to a powerful lord.<a href="#cite_note-Wickham215-83">[76]</a> Roman city life and culture changed greatly in the early Middle Ages. Although Italian cities remained inhabited, they contracted significantly in size. Rome, for instance, shrank from a population of hundreds of thousands to around 30,000 by the end of the 6th century. <a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Roman temples</a> were converted into <a href="/wiki/Christianised_sites" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianised sites">Christian churches</a> and city walls remained in use.<a href="#cite_note-Brown24-26-84">[77]</a> In Northern Europe, cities also shrank, while civic monuments and other public buildings were raided for building materials. The establishment of new kingdoms often meant some growth for the towns chosen as capitals.<a href="#cite_note-City3-85">[78]</a> Although there had been <a href="/wiki/Jews_in_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in the Roman Empire">Jewish communities in many Roman cities</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a> suffered periods of persecution after the conversion of the empire to Christianity. Officially they were tolerated, if subject to conversion efforts, and at times were even encouraged to settle in new areas.<a href="#cite_note-Jews191-86">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rise_of_Islam">Rise of Islam</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam" title="Spread of Islam">Spread of Islam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Early Muslim conquests</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg/290px-Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg/435px-Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg/580px-Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="413" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">early Muslim conquests</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  Expansion under Muhammad, 622–632</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Expansion during the Rashidun Caliphate, 632–661</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661–750</div></figcaption></figure> Religious beliefs in the Eastern Roman Empire and Iran were in flux during the late sixth and early seventh centuries. <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> was an active proselytising faith, and at least one <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arab</a> political leader converted to it.<a href="#cite_note-88">[H]</a> In addition Jewish theologians wrote polemics defending their religion against Christian and Islamic influences. <a href="#cite_note-89">[81]</a> Christianity had active missions competing with the Persians' <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a> in seeking converts, especially among residents of the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a>. All these strands came together with the emergence of <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> in Arabia during the lifetime of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> (d. 632).<a href="#cite_note-Collins143-90">[82]</a> After his death, Islamic forces conquered much of the Eastern Roman Empire and Persia, starting with <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant" title="Muslim conquest of the Levant">Syria</a> in 634–635, continuing with <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Persia</a> between 637 and 642, reaching <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest of Egypt">Egypt</a> in 640–641, <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Maghreb" title="Muslim conquest of the Maghreb">North Africa</a> in the later seventh century, and the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_conquest_of_Hispania" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad conquest of Hispania">Iberian Peninsula</a> in 711.<a href="#cite_note-Collins149-91">[83]</a> By 714, Islamic forces controlled much of the peninsula in a region they called <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Reilly52-92">[84]</a> The Islamic conquests reached their peak in the mid-eighth century. The defeat of Muslim forces at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tours" title="Battle of Tours">Battle of Tours</a> in 732 led to the reconquest of southern France by the Franks, but the main reason for the halt of Islamic growth in Europe was the overthrow of the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a> and its replacement by the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a>. The Abbasids moved their capital to <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> and were more concerned with the Middle East than Europe, losing control of sections of the Muslim lands. Umayyad descendants took over the Iberian Peninsula, the <a href="/wiki/Aghlabids" class="mw-redirect" title="Aghlabids">Aghlabids</a> controlled North Africa, and the <a href="/wiki/Tulunids" title="Tulunids">Tulunids</a> became rulers of Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-Brown15-93">[85]</a> By the middle of the 8th century, new trading patterns were emerging in the Mediterranean; trade between the Franks and the Arabs replaced the old <a href="/wiki/Roman_economy" title="Roman economy">Roman economy</a>. Franks traded timber, furs, swords and slaves in return for silks and other fabrics, spices, and precious metals from the Arabs.<a href="#cite_note-Cunliffe427-94">[86]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trade_and_economy">Trade and economy</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Medieval_economic_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval economic history">Medieval economic history</a></div> The migrations and invasions of the 4th and 5th centuries disrupted trade networks around the Mediterranean. African goods stopped being imported into Europe, first disappearing from the interior and by the 7th century found only in a few cities such as Rome or <a href="/wiki/Naples" title="Naples">Naples</a>. By the end of the 7th century, under the impact of the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquests" class="mw-disambig" title="Muslim conquests">Muslim conquests</a>, African products were no longer found in Western Europe. The replacement of goods from long-range trade with local products was a trend throughout the old Roman lands that happened in the Early Middle Ages. This was especially marked in the lands that did not lie on the Mediterranean, such as northern Gaul or Britain. Non-local goods appearing in the archaeological record are usually luxury goods. In the northern parts of Europe, not only were the trade networks local, but the goods carried were simple, with little pottery or other complex products. Around the Mediterranean, pottery remained prevalent and appears to have been traded over medium-range networks, not just produced locally.<a href="#cite_note-Wickham218-95">[87]</a> The various Germanic states in the west all had <a href="/wiki/Coin" title="Coin">coinages</a> that imitated existing Roman and Byzantine forms. Gold continued to be minted until the end of the 7th century in 693-94 when it was replaced by silver in the Merovingian kingdom. The basic Frankish silver coin was the <a href="/wiki/Denarius" title="Denarius">denarius</a> or <a href="/wiki/French_denier" title="French denier">denier</a>, while the Anglo-Saxon version was called a <a href="/wiki/Penny" title="Penny">penny</a>. From these areas, the denier or penny spread throughout Europe from 700 to 1000 AD. Copper or bronze coins were not struck, nor were gold except in Southern Europe. No silver coins denominated in multiple units were minted.<a href="#cite_note-Coin-96">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Church_and_monasticism">Church and monasticism</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Christianity in the Middle Ages</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gregory_I_-_Antiphonary_of_Hartker_of_Sankt_Gallen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Gregory_I_-_Antiphonary_of_Hartker_of_Sankt_Gallen.jpg/170px-Gregory_I_-_Antiphonary_of_Hartker_of_Sankt_Gallen.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Gregory_I_-_Antiphonary_of_Hartker_of_Sankt_Gallen.jpg/255px-Gregory_I_-_Antiphonary_of_Hartker_of_Sankt_Gallen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Gregory_I_-_Antiphonary_of_Hartker_of_Sankt_Gallen.jpg/340px-Gregory_I_-_Antiphonary_of_Hartker_of_Sankt_Gallen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5272" data-file-height="6376" /></a><figcaption>An 11th-century illustration of <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I" title="Pope Gregory I">Gregory the Great</a> dictating to a secretary</figcaption></figure> Christianity was a major unifying factor between Eastern and Western Europe before the Arab conquests, but the conquest of North Africa sundered maritime connections between those areas. Increasingly, the Byzantine Church differed in language, practices, and <a href="/wiki/Liturgy" title="Liturgy">liturgy</a> from the Western Church. The Eastern Church used Greek instead of the Western Latin. Theological and political differences emerged, and by the early and middle 8th century issues such as <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Iconoclasm" title="Byzantine Iconoclasm">iconoclasm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clerical_marriage" title="Clerical marriage">clerical marriage</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Caesaropapism" title="Caesaropapism">state control of the Church</a> had widened to the extent that the cultural and religious differences were greater than the similarities.<a href="#cite_note-Collins218-97">[89]</a> The formal break, known as the <a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a>, came in 1054, when the <a href="/wiki/Pope" title="Pope">papacy</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ecumenical_Patriarch_of_Constantinople" title="Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople">patriarchy of Constantinople</a> clashed over <a href="/wiki/Papal_supremacy" title="Papal supremacy">papal supremacy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Excommunication" title="Excommunication">excommunicated</a> each other, which led to the division of Christianity into two Churches—the Western branch became the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a> and the Eastern branch the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox Church</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Davies328-98">[90]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Hierarchy of the Catholic Church">ecclesiastical structure</a> of the Roman Empire survived the movements and invasions in the west mostly intact, but the papacy was little regarded, and few of the Western <a href="/wiki/Bishop" title="Bishop">bishops</a> looked to the bishop of Rome for religious or political leadership. <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Papacy" title="Byzantine Papacy">Many of the popes</a> prior to 750 were more concerned with Byzantine affairs and Eastern theological controversies. The register, or archived copies of the letters, of Pope <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I" title="Pope Gregory I">Gregory the Great</a> (pope 590–604) survived, and of those more than 850 letters, the vast majority were concerned with affairs in Italy or Constantinople. The only part of Western Europe where the papacy had influence was Britain, where Gregory had sent the <a href="/wiki/Gregorian_mission" title="Gregorian mission">Gregorian mission</a> in 597 to convert the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity.<a href="#cite_note-WIckham170-99">[91]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hiberno-Scottish_mission" title="Hiberno-Scottish mission">Irish missionaries</a> were most active in Western Europe between the 5th and the 7th centuries, going first to England and Scotland and then on to the continent. Under such <a href="/wiki/Monk" title="Monk">monks</a> as <a href="/wiki/Columba" title="Columba">Columba</a> (d. 597) and <a href="/wiki/Columbanus" title="Columbanus">Columbanus</a> (d. 615), they founded monasteries, taught in Latin and Greek, and authored secular and religious works.<a href="#cite_note-Colish62-100">[92]</a> The Early Middle Ages witnessed the rise of <a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">monasticism</a> in the West. The shape of European monasticism was determined by traditions and ideas that originated with the <a href="/wiki/Desert_Fathers" title="Desert Fathers">Desert Fathers</a> of <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>. Most European monasteries were of the type that focuses on community experience of the spiritual life, called <a href="/wiki/Cenobitic_monasticism" title="Cenobitic monasticism">cenobitism</a>, which was pioneered by <a href="/wiki/Pachomius_the_Great" title="Pachomius the Great">Pachomius</a> (d. 348) in the 4th century. Monastic ideals spread from Egypt to Western Europe in the 5th and 6th centuries through <a href="/wiki/Hagiography" title="Hagiography">hagiographical literature</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Anthony_the_Great" title="Anthony the Great">Life of Anthony</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lawrence10-101">[93]</a> <a href="/wiki/Benedict_of_Nursia" title="Benedict of Nursia">Benedict of Nursia</a> (d. 547) wrote the <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_Saint_Benedict" title="Rule of Saint Benedict">Benedictine Rule</a> for Western monasticism during the 6th century, detailing the administrative and spiritual responsibilities of a community of monks led by an <a href="/wiki/Abbot" title="Abbot">abbot</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lawrence18-102">[94]</a> Monks and monasteries had a deep effect on the religious and political life of the Early Middle Ages, in various cases acting as <a href="/wiki/Land_trust" title="Land trust">land trusts</a> for powerful families, centres of propaganda and royal support in newly conquered regions, and bases for missions and proselytisation.<a href="#cite_note-Wickham185-103">[95]</a> They were the main and sometimes only outposts of education and literacy in a region. Many of the surviving manuscripts of the Latin <a href="/wiki/Classics#Classical_Rome" title="Classics">classics</a> were copied in monasteries in the Early Middle Ages.<a href="#cite_note-Hamilton43-104">[96]</a> Monks were also the authors of new works, including history, theology, and other subjects, written by authors such as <a href="/wiki/Bede" title="Bede">Bede</a> (d. 735), a native of northern England who wrote in the late 7th and early 8th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-Colish64-105">[97]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Carolingian_Europe">Carolingian Europe</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Frankish_Empire_481_to_814-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Frankish_Empire_481_to_814-en.svg/330px-Frankish_Empire_481_to_814-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Frankish_Empire_481_to_814-en.svg/495px-Frankish_Empire_481_to_814-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Frankish_Empire_481_to_814-en.svg/660px-Frankish_Empire_481_to_814-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1591" data-file-height="1205" /></a><figcaption>Map showing growth of Frankish power from 481 to 814</figcaption></figure> The Frankish kingdom in northern Gaul split into kingdoms called <a href="/wiki/Austrasia" title="Austrasia">Austrasia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neustria" title="Neustria">Neustria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Burgundy" title="Kingdom of Burgundy">Burgundy</a> during the 6th and 7th centuries, all of them ruled by the Merovingian dynasty, who were descended from Clovis. The 7th century was a tumultuous period of wars between Austrasia and Neustria.<a href="#cite_note-Bauer246-106">[98]</a> Such warfare was exploited by <a href="/wiki/Pippin_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Pippin I">Pippin</a> (d. 640), the <a href="/wiki/Mayor_of_the_Palace" class="mw-redirect" title="Mayor of the Palace">Mayor of the Palace</a> for Austrasia who became the power behind the Austrasian throne. Later members of his family inherited the office, acting as advisers and regents. One of his descendants, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Martel" title="Charles Martel">Charles Martel</a> (d. 741), won the Battle of Poitiers in 732, halting the advance of Muslim armies across the Pyrenees.<a href="#cite_note-Bauer347-107">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-109">[I]</a> Great Britain was divided into small states dominated by the kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Northumbria" title="Northumbria">Northumbria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mercia" title="Mercia">Mercia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wessex" title="Wessex">Wessex</a>, and <a href="/wiki/East_Anglia" title="East Anglia">East Anglia</a> which descended from the Anglo-Saxon invaders. Smaller kingdoms in present-day Wales and Scotland were still under the control of the native Britons and <a href="/wiki/Picts" title="Picts">Picts</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wickham158-110">[101]</a> Ireland was divided into even smaller political units, usually known as tribal kingdoms, under the control of kings. There were perhaps as many as <a href="/wiki/List_of_Irish_kingdoms" title="List of Irish kingdoms">150 local kings</a> in Ireland, of varying importance.<a href="#cite_note-Wickham164-111">[102]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_dynasty" title="Carolingian dynasty">Carolingian dynasty</a>, as the successors to Charles Martel are known, officially took control of the kingdoms of Austrasia and Neustria in a coup of 753 led by <a href="/wiki/Pepin_the_Short" title="Pepin the Short">Pippin III</a> (r. 752–768). A contemporary chronicle claims that Pippin sought, and gained, authority for this coup from Pope <a href="/wiki/Pope_Stephen_II" title="Pope Stephen II">Stephen II</a> (pope 752–757). Pippin's takeover was reinforced with propaganda that portrayed the Merovingians as inept or cruel rulers, exalted the accomplishments of Charles Martel, and circulated stories of the family's great piety. At the time of his death in 768, Pippin left his kingdom in the hands of his two sons, Charles (r. 768–814) and <a href="/wiki/Carloman_I" title="Carloman I">Carloman</a> (r. 768–771). When Carloman died of natural causes, Charles blocked the succession of Carloman's young son and installed himself as the king of the united Austrasia and Neustria. Charles, more often known as Charles the Great or <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a>, embarked upon a programme of systematic expansion in 774 that unified a large portion of Europe, eventually controlling modern-day France, northern Italy, and <a href="/wiki/Saxon_Wars" title="Saxon Wars">Saxony</a>. In the wars that lasted beyond 800, he rewarded allies with war booty and command over parcels of land.<a href="#cite_note-Bauer371-112">[103]</a> In 774, Charlemagne conquered the Lombards, which freed the papacy from the fear of Lombard conquest and marked the beginnings of the <a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Brown20-113">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[J]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aachener_Dom_Pfalzkapelle_vom_M%C3%BCnsterplatz_2014.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Aachener_Dom_Pfalzkapelle_vom_M%C3%BCnsterplatz_2014.jpg/170px-Aachener_Dom_Pfalzkapelle_vom_M%C3%BCnsterplatz_2014.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="274" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Aachener_Dom_Pfalzkapelle_vom_M%C3%BCnsterplatz_2014.jpg/255px-Aachener_Dom_Pfalzkapelle_vom_M%C3%BCnsterplatz_2014.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Aachener_Dom_Pfalzkapelle_vom_M%C3%BCnsterplatz_2014.jpg/340px-Aachener_Dom_Pfalzkapelle_vom_M%C3%BCnsterplatz_2014.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3204" data-file-height="5162" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Palatine_Chapel,_Aachen" title="Palatine Chapel, Aachen">Charlemagne's palace chapel</a> at <a href="/wiki/Aachen" title="Aachen">Aachen</a>, completed in 805<a href="#cite_note-Stalley73-116">[106]</a></figcaption></figure> The coronation of Charlemagne as emperor on Christmas Day 800 is regarded as a turning point in medieval history, marking a return of the Western Roman Empire, since the new emperor ruled over much of the area previously controlled by the Western emperors.<a href="#cite_note-Backman109-117">[107]</a> It also marks a change in Charlemagne's relationship with the Byzantine Empire, as the assumption of the imperial title by the Carolingians asserted their equivalence to the Byzantine state.<a href="#cite_note-Backman117-118">[108]</a> There were several differences between the newly established Carolingian Empire and both the older Western Roman Empire and the concurrent Byzantine Empire. The Frankish lands were rural in character, with only a few small cities. Most of the people were peasants settled on small farms. Little trade existed and much of that was with the British Isles and Scandinavia, in contrast to the older Roman Empire with its trading networks centred on the Mediterranean.<a href="#cite_note-Backman109-117">[107]</a> The empire was administered by an itinerant court that travelled with the emperor, as well as approximately 300 imperial officials called <a href="/wiki/Count" title="Count">counts</a>, who administered the <a href="/wiki/County" title="County">counties</a> the empire had been divided into. Clergy and local bishops served as officials, as well as the imperial officials called <a href="/wiki/Missus_dominicus" title="Missus dominicus">missi dominici</a>, who served as roving inspectors and troubleshooters.<a href="#cite_note-Davies302-119">[109]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Carolingian_Renaissance">Carolingian Renaissance</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Renaissance" title="Carolingian Renaissance">Carolingian Renaissance</a></div> Charlemagne's court in <a href="/wiki/Aachen" title="Aachen">Aachen</a> was the centre of the cultural revival sometimes referred to as the "<a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Renaissance" title="Carolingian Renaissance">Carolingian Renaissance</a>". Literacy increased, as did development in the arts, architecture and jurisprudence, as well as liturgical and scriptural studies. The English monk <a href="/wiki/Alcuin" title="Alcuin">Alcuin</a> (d. 804) was invited to Aachen and brought the <a href="/wiki/Northumbria%27s_Golden_Age" title="Northumbria's Golden Age">education</a> available in the monasteries of Northumbria. Charlemagne's <a href="/wiki/Chancery_(medieval_office)" title="Chancery (medieval office)">chancery</a>—or writing office—made use of a new <a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">script</a> today known as <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_minuscule" title="Carolingian minuscule">Carolingian minuscule</a>,<a href="#cite_note-121">[K]</a> allowing a common writing style that advanced communication across much of Europe. Charlemagne sponsored changes in <a href="/wiki/Christian_liturgy" title="Christian liturgy">church liturgy</a>, imposing the Roman form of church service on his domains, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Gregorian_chant" title="Gregorian chant">Gregorian chant</a> in liturgical music for the churches. An important activity for scholars during this period was the copying, correcting, and dissemination of basic works on religious and secular topics, with the aim of encouraging learning. New works on religious topics and schoolbooks were also produced.<a href="#cite_note-Colish66-122">[111]</a> <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Grammarians</a> of the period modified the Latin language, changing it from the <a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical Latin</a> of the Roman Empire into a more flexible form to fit the needs of the Church and government. By the reign of Charlemagne, the language had so diverged from the classical Latin that it was later called <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval Latin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lang-123">[112]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Breakup_of_the_Carolingian_Empire">Breakup of the Carolingian Empire</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:417px;max-width:417px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:137px;max-width:137px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Carolingian_territorial_divisions,_843.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Carolingian_territorial_divisions%2C_843.png/135px-Carolingian_territorial_divisions%2C_843.png" decoding="async" width="135" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Carolingian_territorial_divisions%2C_843.png/203px-Carolingian_territorial_divisions%2C_843.png 1.5x, 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/></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:137px;max-width:137px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Carolingian_territorial_divisions,_870.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Carolingian_territorial_divisions%2C_870.png/135px-Carolingian_territorial_divisions%2C_870.png" decoding="async" width="135" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Carolingian_territorial_divisions%2C_870.png/203px-Carolingian_territorial_divisions%2C_870.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Carolingian_territorial_divisions%2C_870.png/270px-Carolingian_territorial_divisions%2C_870.png 2x" data-file-width="497" data-file-height="594" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Territorial divisions of the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a> in 843, 855, and 870</div></div></div></div> Charlemagne planned to continue the Frankish tradition of dividing his kingdom between all his heirs, but was unable to do so as only one son, <a href="/wiki/Louis_the_Pious" title="Louis the Pious">Louis the Pious</a> (r. 814–840), was still alive by 813. Just before Charlemagne died in 814, he crowned Louis as his successor. Louis's reign of 26 years was marked by numerous divisions of the empire among his sons and, after 829, civil wars between various alliances of father and sons over the control of various parts of the empire. Eventually, Louis recognised his eldest son <a href="/wiki/Lothair_I" title="Lothair I">Lothair I</a> (d. 855) as emperor and gave him Italy.<a href="#cite_note-125">[L]</a> Louis divided the rest of the empire between Lothair and <a href="/wiki/Charles_the_Bald" title="Charles the Bald">Charles the Bald</a> (d. 877), his youngest son. Lothair took <a href="/wiki/East_Francia" title="East Francia">East Francia</a>, comprising both banks of the Rhine and eastwards, leaving Charles <a href="/wiki/West_Francia" title="West Francia">West Francia</a> with the empire to the west of the Rhineland and the Alps. <a href="/wiki/Louis_the_German" title="Louis the German">Louis the German</a> (d. 876), the middle child, who had been rebellious to the last, was allowed to keep Bavaria under the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/suzerainty" class="extiw" title="wikt:suzerainty">suzerainty</a> of his elder brother. The division was disputed. <a href="/wiki/Pepin_II_of_Aquitaine" title="Pepin II of Aquitaine">Pepin II of Aquitaine</a> (d. after 864), the emperor's grandson, rebelled in a contest for <a href="/wiki/Aquitaine" title="Aquitaine">Aquitaine</a>, while Louis the German tried to annex all of East Francia. Louis the Pious died in 840, with the empire still in chaos.<a href="#cite_note-Bauer427-126">[114]</a> A three-year civil war followed his death. By the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Verdun" title="Treaty of Verdun">Treaty of Verdun</a> (843), a kingdom between the <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rhone" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhone">Rhone</a> rivers was created for Lothair to go with his lands in Italy, and his imperial title was recognised. Louis the German was in control of Bavaria and the eastern lands in modern-day Germany. Charles the Bald received the western Frankish lands, comprising most of modern-day France.<a href="#cite_note-Bauer427-126">[114]</a> Charlemagne's grandsons and great-grandsons divided their kingdoms between their descendants, eventually causing all internal cohesion to be lost.<a href="#cite_note-Backman139-127">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-129">[M]</a> In 987 the Carolingian dynasty was replaced in the western lands, with the crowning of <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Capet" title="Hugh Capet">Hugh Capet</a> (r. 987–996) as king.<a href="#cite_note-132">[N]</a><a href="#cite_note-133">[O]</a> In the eastern lands the dynasty had died out earlier, in 911, with the death of <a href="/wiki/Louis_the_Child" title="Louis the Child">Louis the Child</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Collins360-131">[118]</a> and the selection of the unrelated <a href="/wiki/Conrad_I_of_Germany" title="Conrad I of Germany">Conrad I</a> (r. 911–918) as king.<a href="#cite_note-Collins397-134">[119]</a> The breakup of the Carolingian Empire was accompanied by invasions, migrations, and raids by external foes. The Atlantic and northern shores were harassed by the <a href="/wiki/Vikings" title="Vikings">Vikings</a>, who also raided the British Isles and settled there as well as in Iceland. In 911, the Viking chieftain <a href="/wiki/Rollo" title="Rollo">Rollo</a> (d. c. 931) received permission from the Frankish King <a href="/wiki/Charles_the_Simple" title="Charles the Simple">Charles the Simple</a> (r. 898–922) to settle in what became <a href="/wiki/Normandy" title="Normandy">Normandy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Backman141-135">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-137">[P]</a> The eastern parts of the Frankish kingdoms, especially Germany and Italy, were under continual <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Hungarian people">Magyar</a> assault until the invader's defeat at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lechfeld" title="Battle of Lechfeld">Battle of Lechfeld</a> in 955.<a href="#cite_note-Backman144-138">[122]</a> The breakup of the Abbasid dynasty meant that the Islamic world fragmented into smaller political states, some of which began expanding into Italy and Sicily, as well as over the Pyrenees into the southern parts of the Frankish kingdoms.<a href="#cite_note-Bauer147-139">[123]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_kingdoms_and_Byzantine_revival">New kingdoms and Byzantine revival</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Macedonian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty">Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Isaurian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Isaurian dynasty">Byzantine Empire under the Isaurian dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First Bulgarian Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianisation_of_Bulgaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianisation of Bulgaria">Christianisation of Bulgaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Germany" title="Kingdom of Germany">Kingdom of Germany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianisation_of_Scandinavia" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianisation of Scandinavia">Christianisation of Scandinavia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Christianisation_of_Kievan_Rus%27" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianisation of Kievan Rus'">Christianisation of Kievan Rus'</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Arab_wars_(780%E2%80%931180)" title="Byzantine–Arab wars (780–1180)">Byzantine–Arab wars (780–1180)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Bulgarian_wars" title="Byzantine–Bulgarian wars">Byzantine–Bulgarian wars</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Europe_in_900_AD.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Europe_in_900_AD.png/290px-Europe_in_900_AD.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Europe_in_900_AD.png/435px-Europe_in_900_AD.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Europe_in_900_AD.png/580px-Europe_in_900_AD.png 2x" data-file-width="2830" data-file-height="2480" /></a><figcaption>Europe in 900</figcaption></figure> Efforts by local kings to fight the invaders led to the formation of new political entities. In <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a>, King <a href="/wiki/Alfred_the_Great" title="Alfred the Great">Alfred the Great</a> (r. 871–899) came to an agreement with the Viking invaders in the late 9th century, resulting in <a href="/wiki/Danelaw" title="Danelaw">Danish settlements</a> in Northumbria, Mercia, and parts of East Anglia.<a href="#cite_note-Collins378-140">[124]</a> By the middle of the 10th century, Alfred's successors had conquered Northumbria, and restored English control over most of the southern part of Great Britain.<a href="#cite_note-Collins387-141">[125]</a> In northern Britain, <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_MacAlpin" title="Kenneth MacAlpin">Kenneth MacAlpin</a> (d. c. 860) united the Picts and the <a href="/wiki/Scottish_people" title="Scottish people">Scots</a> into the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Alba" title="Kingdom of Alba">Kingdom of Alba</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Davies309-142">[126]</a> In the early 10th century, the <a href="/wiki/Ottonian_dynasty" title="Ottonian dynasty">Ottonian dynasty</a> had established itself in <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Germany" title="Kingdom of Germany">Germany</a>, and was engaged in driving back the Magyars. Its efforts culminated in the coronation in 962 of <a href="/wiki/Otto_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor">Otto I</a> (r. 936–973) as <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Holy Roman Emperor">Holy Roman Emperor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Collins394-143">[127]</a> In 972, he secured recognition of his title by the Byzantine Empire, which he sealed with the marriage of his son <a href="/wiki/Otto_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Otto II, Holy Roman Emperor">Otto II</a> (r. 967–983) to <a href="/wiki/Theophanu" title="Theophanu">Theophanu</a> (d. 991), daughter of an earlier Byzantine Emperor <a href="/wiki/Romanos_II" title="Romanos II">Romanos II</a> (r. 959–963).<a href="#cite_note-Davies317-144">[128]</a> By the late 10th century <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(medieval)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Italy (medieval)">Italy</a> had been drawn into the Ottonian sphere after a period of instability;<a href="#cite_note-Wickham435-145">[129]</a> <a href="/wiki/Otto_III,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor">Otto III</a> (r. 996–1002) spent much of his later reign in the kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-Whitton152-146">[130]</a> The western Frankish kingdom was more fragmented, and although kings remained nominally in charge, much of the political power devolved to the local lords.<a href="#cite_note-Wickham439-147">[131]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Christ_Magdeburg_Cathedral_Met_41.100.157.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Christ_Magdeburg_Cathedral_Met_41.100.157.jpg/150px-Christ_Magdeburg_Cathedral_Met_41.100.157.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Christ_Magdeburg_Cathedral_Met_41.100.157.jpg/225px-Christ_Magdeburg_Cathedral_Met_41.100.157.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Christ_Magdeburg_Cathedral_Met_41.100.157.jpg/300px-Christ_Magdeburg_Cathedral_Met_41.100.157.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2438" data-file-height="2812" /></a><figcaption>10th-century <a href="/wiki/Ottonian_art" title="Ottonian art">Ottonian</a> ivory plaque depicting Christ receiving a church from <a href="/wiki/Otto_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Otto I">Otto I</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Scandinavia" title="Christianization of Scandinavia">Missionary efforts to Scandinavia</a> during the 9th and 10th centuries helped strengthen the growth of kingdoms such as <a href="/wiki/History_of_Sweden_(800%E2%80%931521)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Sweden (800–1521)">Sweden</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Denmark" title="History of Denmark">Denmark</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Norway" title="History of Norway">Norway</a>, which gained power and territory. Some kings converted to Christianity, although not all by 1000. Scandinavians also expanded and colonised throughout Europe. Besides the settlements in Ireland, England, and Normandy, further settlement took place in what became <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Russia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Settlement_of_Iceland" title="Settlement of Iceland">Iceland</a>. Swedish traders and raiders ranged down the rivers of the Russian steppe, and even attempted to seize Constantinople in <a href="/wiki/Rus%27%E2%80%93Byzantine_War_(860)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rus'–Byzantine War (860)">860</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rus%27%E2%80%93Byzantine_War_(907)" title="Rus'–Byzantine War (907)">907</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Collins385-148">[132]</a> Christian Spain, initially driven into a small section of the peninsula in the north, expanded slowly south during the 9th and 10th centuries, establishing the kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Asturias" title="Kingdom of Asturias">Asturias</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Le%C3%B3n" title="Kingdom of León">León</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wickham500-149">[133]</a> In Eastern Europe, Byzantium revived its fortunes under Emperor <a href="/wiki/Basil_I" title="Basil I">Basil I</a> (r. 867–886) and his successors <a href="/wiki/Leo_VI_the_Wise" title="Leo VI the Wise">Leo VI</a> (r. 886–912) and <a href="/wiki/Constantine_VII" title="Constantine VII">Constantine VII</a> (r. 913–959), members of the <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_dynasty" title="Macedonian dynasty">Macedonian dynasty</a>. Commerce revived and the emperors oversaw the extension of a uniform administration to all the provinces. The military was reorganised, which allowed the emperors <a href="/wiki/John_I_Tzimiskes" title="John I Tzimiskes">John I</a> (r. 969–976) and <a href="/wiki/Basil_II" title="Basil II">Basil II</a> (r. 976–1025) to expand the frontiers of the empire on all fronts. The imperial court was the centre of a revival of classical learning, a process known as the <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Renaissance" title="Macedonian Renaissance">Macedonian Renaissance</a>. Writers such as <a href="/wiki/John_Geometres" title="John Geometres">John Geometres</a> (<a href="/wiki/Floruit" title="Floruit">fl.</a> early 10th century) composed new hymns, poems, and other works.<a href="#cite_note-Davies318-150">[134]</a> Missionary efforts by both Eastern and Western clergy resulted in the conversion of the <a href="/wiki/Moravians_(ethnic_group)" class="mw-redirect" title="Moravians (ethnic group)">Moravians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bulgars" title="Bulgars">Bulgars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bohemian_(demonym)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bohemian (demonym)">Bohemians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Poles_(people)" class="mw-redirect" title="Poles (people)">Poles</a>, Magyars, and Slavic inhabitants of the <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a>. These conversions contributed to the founding of political states in the lands of those peoples—the states of <a href="/wiki/Great_Moravia" title="Great Moravia">Moravia</a>, <a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">Bulgaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia">Bohemia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Poland_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages" title="Poland in the Early Middle Ages">Poland</a>, Hungary, and the Kievan Rus'.<a href="#cite_note-Davies321-151">[135]</a> Bulgaria, which was founded around 680, at its height reached from Budapest to the Black Sea and from the Dnieper River in modern Ukraine to the Adriatic Sea.<a href="#cite_note-Crampton12-152">[136]</a> By 1018, the last Bulgarian nobles had surrendered to the Byzantine Empire.<a href="#cite_note-Curta246-153">[137]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Art_and_architecture">Art and architecture</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Medieval_art" title="Medieval art">Medieval art</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medieval_architecture" title="Medieval architecture">Medieval architecture</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Migration_Period_art" title="Migration Period art">Migration Period art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pre-Romanesque_art_and_architecture" title="Pre-Romanesque art and architecture">Pre-Romanesque art and architecture</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_art" title="Carolingian art">Carolingian art</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KellsFol032vChristEnthroned.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/KellsFol032vChristEnthroned.jpg/170px-KellsFol032vChristEnthroned.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/KellsFol032vChristEnthroned.jpg/255px-KellsFol032vChristEnthroned.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/KellsFol032vChristEnthroned.jpg/340px-KellsFol032vChristEnthroned.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1484" data-file-height="1934" /></a><figcaption>A page from the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Kells" title="Book of Kells">Book of Kells</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript" title="Illuminated manuscript">illuminated manuscript</a> created in the British Isles in the late 8th or early 9th century<a href="#cite_note-Nees145-154">[138]</a></figcaption></figure> Few large stone buildings were constructed between the Constantinian <a href="/wiki/Basilica" title="Basilica">basilicas</a> of the 4th century and the 8th century, although many smaller ones were built during the 6th and 7th centuries. By the beginning of the 8th century, the Carolingian Empire revived the basilica form of architecture.<a href="#cite_note-Stalley29-155">[139]</a> One feature of the basilica is the use of a <a href="/wiki/Transept" title="Transept">transept</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Stalley43-156">[140]</a> or the "arms" of a cross-shaped building that are perpendicular to the long <a href="/wiki/Nave" title="Nave">nave</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Cosman247-157">[141]</a> Other new features of religious architecture include the <a href="/wiki/Crossing_(architecture)" title="Crossing (architecture)">crossing tower</a> and a monumental <a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_cathedrals_and_great_churches#Façade" title="Architecture of cathedrals and great churches">entrance to the church</a>, usually at the west end of the building.<a href="#cite_note-Stalley49-158">[142]</a> <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_art" title="Carolingian art">Carolingian art</a> was produced for a small group of figures around the court, and the monasteries and churches they supported. It was dominated by efforts to regain the dignity and classicism of imperial Roman and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_art" title="Byzantine art">Byzantine art</a>, but was also influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Insular_art" title="Insular art">Insular art</a> of the British Isles. Insular art integrated the energy of <a href="/wiki/Celtic_art" title="Celtic art">Irish Celtic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_art" title="Anglo-Saxon art">Anglo-Saxon Germanic</a> styles of ornament with Mediterranean forms such as the book, and established many characteristics of art for the rest of the medieval period. Surviving religious works from the Early Middle Ages are mostly <a href="/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript" title="Illuminated manuscript">illuminated manuscripts</a> and carved <a href="/wiki/Ivory_carving#Antiquity_and_the_Early_Medieval_period" title="Ivory carving">ivories</a>, originally made for metalwork that has since been melted down.<a href="#cite_note-Kitzinger36-159">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-Henderson18-160">[144]</a> Objects in precious metals were the most prestigious form of art, but almost all are lost except for a few crosses such as the <a href="/wiki/Cross_of_Lothair" title="Cross of Lothair">Cross of Lothair</a>, several <a href="/wiki/Reliquary" title="Reliquary">reliquaries</a>, and finds such as the Anglo-Saxon burial at <a href="/wiki/Sutton_Hoo" title="Sutton Hoo">Sutton Hoo</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Hoard" title="Hoard">hoards</a> of <a href="/wiki/Treasure_of_Gourdon" title="Treasure of Gourdon">Gourdon</a> from Merovingian France, <a href="/wiki/Treasure_of_Guarrazar" title="Treasure of Guarrazar">Guarrazar</a> from Visigothic Spain and <a href="/wiki/Treasure_of_Nagyszentmikl%C3%B3s" title="Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós">Nagyszentmiklós</a> near Byzantine territory. There are survivals from the large <a href="/wiki/Brooch" title="Brooch">brooches</a> in <a href="/wiki/Fibula_(brooch)" title="Fibula (brooch)">fibula</a> or <a href="/wiki/Celtic_brooch" title="Celtic brooch">penannular</a> form that were a key piece of personal adornment for elites, including the Irish <a href="/wiki/Tara_Brooch" title="Tara Brooch">Tara Brooch</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Henderson36-161">[145]</a> Highly decorated books were mostly <a href="/wiki/Gospel_Book" title="Gospel Book">Gospel Books</a> and these have survived in <a href="/wiki/List_of_illuminated_manuscripts" title="List of illuminated manuscripts">larger numbers</a>, including the Insular <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Kells" title="Book of Kells">Book of Kells</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Lindisfarne_Gospels" title="Lindisfarne Gospels">Book of Lindisfarne</a>, and the imperial <a href="/wiki/Codex_Aureus_of_St._Emmeram" title="Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram">Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram</a>, which is one of the few to retain its "<a href="/wiki/Treasure_binding" title="Treasure binding">treasure binding</a>" of gold encrusted with jewels.<a href="#cite_note-Benton41-162">[146]</a> Charlemagne's court seems to have been responsible for the acceptance of figurative <a href="/wiki/Monumental_sculpture" title="Monumental sculpture">monumental sculpture</a> in <a href="/wiki/Christian_art" title="Christian art">Christian art</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Lasko16-163">[147]</a> and by the end of the period near life-sized figures such as the <a href="/wiki/Gero_Cross" title="Gero Cross">Gero Cross</a> were common in important churches.<a href="#cite_note-Henderson233-164">[148]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military_and_technological_developments">Military and technological developments</h3></div> During the later Roman Empire, the principal military developments were attempts to create an effective cavalry force as well as the continued development of highly specialised types of troops. The creation of heavily armoured <a href="/wiki/Cataphract" title="Cataphract">cataphract</a>-type soldiers as cavalry was an important feature of the 5th-century Roman military. The various invading tribes had differing emphases on types of soldiers—ranging from the primarily infantry Anglo-Saxon invaders of Britain to the Vandals and Visigoths who had a high proportion of cavalry in their armies.<a href="#cite_note-NicolleWestern28-165">[149]</a> During the early invasion period, the <a href="/wiki/Stirrup" title="Stirrup">stirrup</a> had not been introduced into warfare, which limited the usefulness of cavalry as <a href="/wiki/Shock_troops" title="Shock troops">shock troops</a> because it was not possible to put the full force of the horse and rider behind blows struck by the rider.<a href="#cite_note-NicolleWestern30-166">[150]</a> The greatest change in military affairs during the invasion period was the adoption of the Hunnic <a href="/wiki/Composite_bow" title="Composite bow">composite bow</a> in place of the earlier, and weaker, <a href="/wiki/Scythia" title="Scythia">Scythian</a> composite bow.<a href="#cite_note-NicolleWestern31-167">[151]</a> Another development was the increasing use of <a href="/wiki/Longsword" title="Longsword">longswords</a><a href="#cite_note-NicolleWestern34-168">[152]</a> and the progressive replacement of <a href="/wiki/Scale_armour" title="Scale armour">scale armour</a> by <a href="/wiki/Mail_(armour)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mail (armour)">mail armour</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lamellar_armour" title="Lamellar armour">lamellar armour</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NicolleWestern39-169">[153]</a> The importance of infantry and light cavalry began to decline during the early Carolingian period, with a growing dominance of elite heavy cavalry. The use of <a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">militia-type levies</a> of the free population declined over the Carolingian period.<a href="#cite_note-NicolleWestern58-170">[154]</a> Although much of the Carolingian armies were mounted, a large proportion during the early period appear to have been <a href="/wiki/Mounted_infantry" title="Mounted infantry">mounted infantry</a>, rather than true cavalry.<a href="#cite_note-NicolleWestern76-171">[155]</a> One exception was Anglo-Saxon England, where the armies were still composed of regional levies, known as the <a href="/wiki/Fyrd" title="Fyrd">fyrd</a>, which were led by the local elites.<a href="#cite_note-NicolleWestern67-172">[156]</a> In military technology, one of the main changes was the return of the <a href="/wiki/Crossbow" title="Crossbow">crossbow</a>, which had been known in Roman times and reappeared as a military weapon during the last part of the Early Middle Ages.<a href="#cite_note-NicolleWestern80-173">[157]</a> Another change was the introduction of the stirrup, which increased the effectiveness of cavalry as shock troops. A technological advance that had implications beyond the military was the <a href="/wiki/Horseshoe" title="Horseshoe">horseshoe</a>, which allowed horses to be used in rocky terrain.<a href="#cite_note-NicolleWestern88-174">[158]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="High_Middle_Ages">High Middle Ages</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Society_and_economic_life">Society and economic life</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Agriculture in the Middle Ages">Agriculture in the Middle Ages</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cleric-Knight-Workman.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Cleric-Knight-Workman.jpg/220px-Cleric-Knight-Workman.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Cleric-Knight-Workman.jpg/330px-Cleric-Knight-Workman.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Cleric-Knight-Workman.jpg/440px-Cleric-Knight-Workman.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1278" data-file-height="1262" /></a><figcaption>Medieval French <a href="/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript" title="Illuminated manuscript">manuscript illustration</a> of the three <a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">classes</a> of medieval society: those who prayed (the <a href="/wiki/Clergy" title="Clergy">clergy</a>) those who fought (the <a href="/wiki/Knight" title="Knight">knights</a>), and those who worked (the <a href="/wiki/Peasant" title="Peasant">peasantry</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Whitton134-175">[159]</a> The relationship between these classes was governed by <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">manorialism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gainty352-176">[160]</a> (Li Livres dou Sante, 13th century)</figcaption></figure> The High Middle Ages was a period of tremendous <a href="/wiki/Medieval_demography" title="Medieval demography">expansion of population</a>. The estimated population of Europe grew from 35 to 80 million between 1000 and 1347, although the exact causes remain unclear: improved agricultural techniques, the decline of slaveholding, a <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Warm_Period" title="Medieval Warm Period">more clement climate</a> and the lack of invasion have all been suggested.<a href="#cite_note-Jordan5-177">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-Backman156-178">[162]</a> As much as 90 per cent of the European population remained rural peasants. Many were no longer settled in isolated farms but had gathered into small communities, usually known as <a href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">manors</a> or villages.<a href="#cite_note-Backman156-178">[162]</a> These peasants were often subject to noble overlords and owed them rents and other services, in a system known as <a href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">manorialism</a>. There remained a few free peasants throughout this period and beyond,<a href="#cite_note-Backman164-179">[163]</a> with more of them in the regions of Southern Europe than in the north. The practice of <a href="/wiki/Assarting" title="Assarting">assarting</a>, or bringing new lands into production by offering incentives to the peasants who settled them, also contributed to the expansion of population.<a href="#cite_note-Epstein52-180">[164]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Open-field_system" title="Open-field system">open-field system</a> of agriculture was commonly practiced in most of Europe, especially in "northwestern and central Europe".<a href="#cite_note-Pounds166-181">[165]</a> Such agricultural communities had three basic characteristics: individual peasant holdings in the form of strips of land were scattered among the different fields belonging to the manor; crops were rotated from year to year to preserve soil fertility; and common land was used for grazing livestock and other purposes. Some regions used a three-field system of crop rotation, others retained the older two-field system.<a href="#cite_note-Agri-182">[166]</a> Other sections of society included the nobility, clergy, and townsmen. Nobles, both the titled <a href="/wiki/Nobility" title="Nobility">nobility</a> and simple <a href="/wiki/Knight" title="Knight">knights</a>, exploited the manors and the peasants, although they did not own lands outright but were granted rights to the income from a manor or other lands by an overlord through the system of <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudalism</a>. During the 11th and 12th centuries, these lands, or <a href="/wiki/Fief" title="Fief">fiefs</a>, came to be considered hereditary, and in most areas they were no longer divisible between all the heirs as had been the case in the early medieval period. Instead, most fiefs and lands went to the eldest son.<a href="#cite_note-Barber37-183">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-185">[Q]</a> The dominance of the nobility was built upon its control of the land, its military service as <a href="/wiki/Heavy_cavalry" title="Heavy cavalry">heavy cavalry</a>, control of <a href="/wiki/Castle" title="Castle">castles</a>, and various immunities from taxes or other impositions.<a href="#cite_note-187">[R]</a> Castles, initially in wood but later in stone, began to be constructed in the 9th and 10th centuries in response to the disorder of the time, and provided protection from invaders as well as allowing lords defence from rivals. Control of castles allowed the nobles to defy kings or other overlords.<a href="#cite_note-Davies311-186">[169]</a> Nobles were stratified; kings and the highest-ranking nobility controlled large numbers of commoners and large tracts of land, as well as other nobles. Beneath them, lesser nobles had authority over smaller areas of land and fewer people. Knights were the lowest level of nobility; they controlled but did not own land, and had to serve other nobles.<a href="#cite_note-Daily3-188">[170]</a><a href="#cite_note-190">[S]</a> The clergy was divided into two types: the <a href="/wiki/Secular_clergy" title="Secular clergy">secular clergy</a>, who lived out in the world, and the <a href="/wiki/Regular_clergy" title="Regular clergy">regular clergy</a>, who lived isolated under a religious rule and usually consisted of monks.<a href="#cite_note-Hamilton33-191">[172]</a> Throughout the period monks remained a very small proportion of the population, usually less than one percent.<a href="#cite_note-Daily143-192">[173]</a> Most of the regular clergy were drawn from the nobility, the same social class that served as the recruiting ground for the upper levels of the secular clergy. The local <a href="/wiki/Parish" title="Parish">parish</a> priests were often drawn from the peasant class.<a href="#cite_note-Barber33-193">[174]</a> Townsmen were in a somewhat unusual position, as they did not fit into the traditional three-fold division of society into nobles, clergy, and peasants. During the 12th and 13th centuries, the ranks of the townsmen expanded greatly as existing towns grew and new population centres were founded.<a href="#cite_note-Barber48-194">[175]</a> But throughout the Middle Ages the population of the towns probably never exceeded 10 percent of the total population.<a href="#cite_note-Daily171-195">[176]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Petrus_alphonsi_dialogues.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Petrus_alphonsi_dialogues.jpg/170px-Petrus_alphonsi_dialogues.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Petrus_alphonsi_dialogues.jpg/255px-Petrus_alphonsi_dialogues.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Petrus_alphonsi_dialogues.jpg/340px-Petrus_alphonsi_dialogues.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1510" data-file-height="1910" /></a><figcaption>13th-century illustration of a Jew (in pointed <a href="/wiki/Jewish_hat" title="Jewish hat">Jewish hat</a>) and the Christian <a href="/wiki/Petrus_Alphonsi" title="Petrus Alphonsi">Petrus Alphonsi</a> debating</figcaption></figure> Jews also <a href="/wiki/Jews_in_the_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in the Middle Ages">spread across Europe</a> during the period. Communities were established in <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Germany" title="History of the Jews in Germany">Germany</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_England_(1066%E2%80%931290)" title="History of the Jews in England (1066–1290)">England</a> in the 11th and 12th centuries, but <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Spain#Toleration_and_Jewish_immigration_(1085–1212)" title="History of the Jews in Spain">Spanish Jews</a>, long settled in Spain under the Muslims, came under Christian rule and increasing pressure to convert to Christianity.<a href="#cite_note-Jews191-86">[79]</a> Most Jews were confined to the cities, as they were not allowed to own land or be peasants.<a href="#cite_note-Epstein54-196">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-197">[T]</a> Besides the Jews, there were other non-Christians on the edges of Europe—pagan Slavs in Eastern Europe and Muslims in Southern Europe.<a href="#cite_note-Daily13-198">[178]</a> <a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Women in the Middle Ages">Women in the Middle Ages</a> were officially required to be subordinate to some male, whether their father, husband, or other kinsman. Widows, who were often allowed much control over their own lives, were still restricted legally. Women's work generally consisted of household or other domestically inclined tasks. Peasant women were usually responsible for taking care of the household, child-care, as well as gardening and animal husbandry near the house. They could supplement the household income by spinning or brewing at home. At harvest-time, they were also expected to help with field-work.<a href="#cite_note-Daily14-199">[179]</a> Townswomen, like peasant women, were responsible for the household, and could also engage in trade. What trades were open to women varied by country and period.<a href="#cite_note-Daily177-200">[180]</a> Noblewomen were responsible for running a household, and could occasionally be expected to handle estates in the absence of male relatives, but they were usually restricted from participation in military or government affairs. The only role open to women in the Church was that of <a href="/wiki/Nun" title="Nun">nuns</a>, as they were unable to become priests.<a href="#cite_note-Daily14-199">[179]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Central_Italy" title="Central Italy">central</a> and <a href="/wiki/Northern_Italy" title="Northern Italy">northern Italy</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Flanders" title="Flanders">Flanders</a>, the rise of towns that were to a degree self-governing stimulated economic growth and created an environment for new types of trade associations. Commercial cities on the shores of the Baltic entered into agreements known as the <a href="/wiki/Hanseatic_League" title="Hanseatic League">Hanseatic League</a>, and the Italian <a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime republics</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genoa" title="Genoa">Genoa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pisa" title="Pisa">Pisa</a> expanded their trade throughout the Mediterranean.<a href="#cite_note-202">[U]</a> Great <a href="/wiki/Fair" title="Fair">trading fairs</a> were established and flourished in <a href="/wiki/Champagne_fairs" title="Champagne fairs">northern France</a> during the period, allowing Italian and German merchants to trade with each other as well as local merchants.<a href="#cite_note-Epstein82-203">[182]</a> In the late 13th century new land and sea routes to the Far East were pioneered, famously described in <a href="/wiki/The_Travels_of_Marco_Polo" title="The Travels of Marco Polo">The Travels of Marco Polo</a> written by one of the traders, <a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo" title="Marco Polo">Marco Polo</a> (d. 1324).<a href="#cite_note-Barber60-204">[183]</a> Besides new trading opportunities, agricultural and technological improvements enabled an increase in crop yields, which in turn allowed the trade networks to expand.<a href="#cite_note-Backman160-205">[184]</a> Rising trade brought new methods of dealing with money, and gold coinage was again minted in Europe, first in Italy and later in France and other countries. New forms of commercial contracts emerged, allowing risk to be shared among merchants. Accounting methods improved, partly through the use of <a href="/wiki/Double-entry_bookkeeping_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Double-entry bookkeeping system">double-entry bookkeeping</a>; <a href="/wiki/Letter_of_credit" title="Letter of credit">letters of credit</a> also appeared, allowing easy transmission of money.<a href="#cite_note-Barber74-206">[185]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rise_of_state_power">Rise of state power</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/England_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="England in the Middle Ages">England in the Middle Ages</a>, <a href="/wiki/France_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="France in the Middle Ages">France in the Middle Ages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germany_in_the_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Germany in the Middle Ages">Germany in the Middle Ages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italy_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Italy in the Middle Ages">Italy in the Middle Ages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Scotland in the Middle Ages">Scotland in the Middle Ages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spain_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Spain in the Middle Ages">Spain in the Middle Ages</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Poland_in_the_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Poland in the Middle Ages">Poland in the Middle Ages</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Europe_mediterranean_1190.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Europe_mediterranean_1190.jpg/290px-Europe_mediterranean_1190.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Europe_mediterranean_1190.jpg/435px-Europe_mediterranean_1190.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Europe_mediterranean_1190.jpg/580px-Europe_mediterranean_1190.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2293" data-file-height="1810" /></a><figcaption>Europe and the Mediterranean Sea in 1190</figcaption></figure> The High Middle Ages was the formative period in the history of the modern Western state. Kings in France, England, and Spain consolidated their power, and set up lasting governing institutions.<a href="#cite_note-Backman283-207">[186]</a> New kingdoms such as <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary" title="Kingdom of Hungary">Hungary</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland_(1025%E2%80%931385)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Poland (1025–1385)">Poland</a>, after their conversion to Christianity, became Central European powers.<a href="#cite_note-Barber365-208">[187]</a> The Magyars settled Hungary around 900 under King <a href="/wiki/%C3%81rp%C3%A1d" title="Árpád">Árpád</a> (d. c. 907) after a series of invasions in the 9th century.<a href="#cite_note-Davies296-209">[188]</a> The papacy, long attached to an ideology of independence from secular kings, first asserted its claim to temporal authority over the entire Christian world; the <a href="/wiki/Temporal_power_(papal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Temporal power (papal)">Papal Monarchy</a> reached its apogee in the early 13th century under the pontificate of <a href="/wiki/Pope_Innocent_III" title="Pope Innocent III">Innocent III</a> (pope 1198–1216).<a href="#cite_note-Backman262-210">[189]</a> <a href="/wiki/Northern_Crusades" title="Northern Crusades">Northern Crusades</a> and the advance of Christian kingdoms and military orders into previously <a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">pagan</a> regions in the Baltic and <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finnic</a> north-east brought the forced assimilation of numerous native peoples into European culture.<a href="#cite_note-Barber371-211">[190]</a> During the early High Middle Ages, Germany was ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Ottonian_dynasty" title="Ottonian dynasty">Ottonian dynasty</a>, which struggled to control the powerful dukes ruling over <a href="/wiki/Stem_duchy" title="Stem duchy">territorial duchies</a> tracing back to the Migration period. In 1024, they were replaced by the <a href="/wiki/Salian_dynasty" title="Salian dynasty">Salian dynasty</a>, who famously clashed with the papacy under Emperor <a href="/wiki/Henry_IV,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor">Henry IV</a> (r. 1084–1105) over Church appointments as part of the <a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture Controversy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Backman181-212">[191]</a> His successors continued to struggle against the papacy as well as the German nobility. A period of instability followed the death of Emperor <a href="/wiki/Henry_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor">Henry V</a> (r. 1111–25), who died without heirs, until <a href="/wiki/Frederick_I_Barbarossa" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederick I Barbarossa">Frederick I Barbarossa</a> (r. 1155–90) took the imperial throne.<a href="#cite_note-Jordan143-213">[192]</a> Although he ruled effectively, the basic problems remained, and his successors continued to struggle into the 13th century.<a href="#cite_note-Jordan250-214">[193]</a> Barbarossa's grandson <a href="/wiki/Frederick_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor">Frederick II</a> (r. 1220–1250), who was also heir to the throne of Sicily through his mother, clashed repeatedly with the papacy. His court was famous for its scholars and he was often accused of <a href="/wiki/Heresy_in_Christianity" title="Heresy in Christianity">heresy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Denley235-215">[194]</a> He and his successors faced many difficulties, including the invasion of the <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongols</a> into Europe in the mid-13th century. Mongols first shattered the Kievan Rus' principalities and then <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">invaded Eastern Europe</a> in 1241, 1259, and 1287.<a href="#cite_note-Davies364-216">[195]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bayeux_Tapestry_scene44_William_Odo_Robert.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Bayeux_Tapestry_scene44_William_Odo_Robert.jpg/220px-Bayeux_Tapestry_scene44_William_Odo_Robert.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Bayeux_Tapestry_scene44_William_Odo_Robert.jpg/330px-Bayeux_Tapestry_scene44_William_Odo_Robert.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Bayeux_Tapestry_scene44_William_Odo_Robert.jpg/440px-Bayeux_Tapestry_scene44_William_Odo_Robert.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2346" data-file-height="2596" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Bayeux_Tapestry" title="Bayeux Tapestry">Bayeux Tapestry</a> (detail) showing <a href="/wiki/William_the_Conqueror" title="William the Conqueror">William the Conqueror</a> (centre), his half-brothers <a href="/wiki/Robert,_Count_of_Mortain" title="Robert, Count of Mortain">Robert, Count of Mortain</a> (right) and <a href="/wiki/Odo,_Earl_of_Kent" class="mw-redirect" title="Odo, Earl of Kent">Odo</a>, Bishop of <a href="/wiki/Bayeux" title="Bayeux">Bayeux</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Normandy" title="Duchy of Normandy">Duchy of Normandy</a> (left)</figcaption></figure> Under the <a href="/wiki/Capetian_dynasty" title="Capetian dynasty">Capetian dynasty</a> the French monarchy slowly began to expand its authority over the nobility, growing out of the <a href="/wiki/%C3%8Ele-de-France" title="Île-de-France">Île-de-France</a> to exert control over more of the country in the 11th and 12th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-Backman187-217">[196]</a> They faced a powerful rival in the <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Normandy" title="Duke of Normandy">Dukes of Normandy</a>, who in 1066 under <a href="/wiki/William_the_Conqueror" title="William the Conqueror">William the Conqueror</a> (duke 1035–1087), conquered England (r. 1066–87) and created a cross-channel empire that lasted, in various forms, throughout the rest of the Middle Ages.<a href="#cite_note-Jordan59-218">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-Backman189-219">[198]</a> Normans also settled in Sicily and southern Italy, when <a href="/wiki/Robert_Guiscard" title="Robert Guiscard">Robert Guiscard</a> (d. 1085) landed there in 1059 and established a duchy that later became the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Kingdom of Sicily</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Davies294-220">[199]</a> Under the <a href="/wiki/Angevin_kings_of_England" title="Angevin kings of England">Angevin dynasty</a> of <a href="/wiki/Henry_II_of_England" title="Henry II of England">Henry II</a> (r. 1154–89) and his son <a href="/wiki/Richard_I_of_England" title="Richard I of England">Richard I</a> (r. 1189–99), the kings of England ruled over England and large areas of France,<a href="#cite_note-Backman263-221">[200]</a><a href="#cite_note-223">[V]</a> brought to the family by Henry II's marriage to <a href="/wiki/Eleanor_of_Aquitaine" title="Eleanor of Aquitaine">Eleanor of Aquitaine</a> (d. 1204), heiress to much of southern France.<a href="#cite_note-Eleanor-224">[202]</a><a href="#cite_note-225">[W]</a> Richard's younger brother <a href="/wiki/John,_King_of_England" title="John, King of England">John</a> (r. 1199–1216) lost Normandy and the rest of the northern French possessions in 1204 to the French King <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_France" title="Philip II of France">Philip II Augustus</a> (r. 1180–1223). This led to dissension among the English nobility, while John's financial exactions to pay for his unsuccessful attempts to regain Normandy led in 1215 to <a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a>, a charter that confirmed the rights and privileges of free men in England. Under <a href="/wiki/Henry_III_of_England" title="Henry III of England">Henry III</a> (r. 1216–72), John's son, further concessions were made to the nobility, and royal power was diminished.<a href="#cite_note-Backman286-226">[203]</a> The French monarchy continued to make gains against the nobility during the late 12th and 13th centuries, bringing more territories within the kingdom under the king's personal rule and centralising the royal administration.<a href="#cite_note-Backman289-227">[204]</a> Under <a href="/wiki/Louis_IX_of_France" title="Louis IX of France">Louis IX</a> (r. 1226–70), royal prestige rose to new heights as Louis served as a mediator for most of Europe.<a href="#cite_note-Davies355-228">[205]</a><a href="#cite_note-230">[X]</a> In Iberia, the Christian states, which had been confined to the north-western part of the peninsula, began to push back against the Islamic states in the south, a period known as the <a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Davies345-231">[207]</a> By about 1150, the Christian north had coalesced into the five major kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Le%C3%B3n" title="Kingdom of León">León</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Castile" title="Kingdom of Castile">Castile</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragon" title="Kingdom of Aragon">Aragon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Navarre" title="Kingdom of Navarre">Navarre</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Portugal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Barber341-232">[208]</a> Southern Iberia remained under control of Islamic states, initially under the <a href="/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphate of Córdoba">Caliphate of Córdoba</a>, which broke up in 1031 into a shifting number of petty states known as <a href="/wiki/Taifa" title="Taifa">taifas</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Davies345-231">[207]</a> who fought with the Christians until the <a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad Caliphate</a> re-established centralised rule over Southern Iberia in the 1170s.<a href="#cite_note-Barber350-233">[209]</a> Christian forces advanced again in the early 13th century, culminating in the capture of <a href="/wiki/Seville" title="Seville">Seville</a> in 1248.<a href="#cite_note-Barber353-234">[210]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Crusades">Crusades</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Northern_Crusades" title="Northern Crusades">Northern Crusades</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Macedonian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty">Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Komnenos_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty">Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Crac_des_chevaliers_syria.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Crac_des_chevaliers_syria.jpeg/290px-Crac_des_chevaliers_syria.jpeg" decoding="async" width="290" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Crac_des_chevaliers_syria.jpeg/435px-Crac_des_chevaliers_syria.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Crac_des_chevaliers_syria.jpeg/580px-Crac_des_chevaliers_syria.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="4015" data-file-height="1566" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Krak_des_Chevaliers" title="Krak des Chevaliers">Krak des Chevaliers</a> was built during the Crusades for the <a href="/wiki/Knights_Hospitaller" title="Knights Hospitaller">Knights Hospitallers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Fortress268-235">[211]</a></figcaption></figure> In the 11th century, the <a href="/wiki/Seljuq_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Seljuq dynasty">Seljuk Turks</a> took over much of the Middle East, occupying Persia during the 1040s, Armenia in the 1060s, and Jerusalem in 1070. In 1071, the Turkish army defeated the Byzantine army at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manzikert" title="Battle of Manzikert">Battle of Manzikert</a> and captured the Byzantine Emperor <a href="/wiki/Romanos_IV_Diogenes" title="Romanos IV Diogenes">Romanus IV</a> (r. 1068–71). The Turks were then free to invade Asia Minor, which dealt a dangerous blow to the Byzantine Empire by seizing a large part of its population and its economic heartland. Although the Byzantines regrouped and recovered somewhat, they never fully regained Asia Minor and were often on the defensive. The Turks also had difficulties, losing control of Jerusalem to the <a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimids</a> of Egypt and suffering from a series of internal civil wars.<a href="#cite_note-Davies332-236">[212]</a> The Byzantines also faced a revived <a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Bulgaria</a>, which in the late 12th and 13th centuries spread throughout the Balkans.<a href="#cite_note-Davies386-237">[213]</a> The crusades were intended to seize <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> from Muslim control. The <a href="/wiki/First_Crusade" title="First Crusade">First Crusade</a> was proclaimed by Pope <a href="/wiki/Pope_Urban_II" title="Pope Urban II">Urban II</a> (pope 1088–99) at the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Clermont" title="Council of Clermont">Council of Clermont</a> in 1095 in response to a request from the Byzantine Emperor <a href="/wiki/Alexios_I_Komnenos" title="Alexios I Komnenos">Alexios I Komnenos</a> (r. 1081–1118) for aid against further Muslim advances. Urban promised <a href="/wiki/Indulgence" title="Indulgence">indulgence</a> to anyone who took part. Tens of thousands of people from all levels of society mobilised across Europe and captured Jerusalem in 1099.<a href="#cite_note-MACrusades-238">[214]</a> One feature of the crusades was the <a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">pogroms</a> against local Jews that often took place as the crusaders left their countries for the East. These were especially brutal during the First Crusade,<a href="#cite_note-Jews191-86">[79]</a> when the Jewish communities in <a href="/wiki/Cologne" title="Cologne">Cologne</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mainz" title="Mainz">Mainz</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Worms,_Germany" title="Worms, Germany">Worms</a> were destroyed, as well as other communities in cities between the rivers <a href="/wiki/Seine" title="Seine">Seine</a> and the Rhine.<a href="#cite_note-Comp397-239">[215]</a> Another outgrowth of the crusades was the foundation of a new type of monastic order, the <a href="/wiki/Military_order_(society)" class="mw-redirect" title="Military order (society)">military orders</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Knights_Templar" title="Knights Templar">Templars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Knights_Hospitaller" title="Knights Hospitaller">Hospitallers</a>, which fused monastic life with military service.<a href="#cite_note-Barber145-240">[216]</a> The crusaders consolidated their conquests into <a href="/wiki/Crusader_states" title="Crusader states">crusader states</a>. During the 12th and 13th centuries, there were a series of conflicts between them and the surrounding Islamic states. Appeals from the crusader states to the papacy led to further crusades,<a href="#cite_note-MACrusades-238">[214]</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Third_Crusade" title="Third Crusade">Third Crusade</a>, called to try to regain Jerusalem, which had been captured by <a href="/wiki/Saladin" title="Saladin">Saladin</a> (d. 1193) in 1187.<a href="#cite_note-Payne204-241">[217]</a><a href="#cite_note-243">[Y]</a> In 1203, the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Crusade" title="Fourth Crusade">Fourth Crusade</a> was diverted from the Holy Land to Constantinople, and captured the city in 1204, setting up a <a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin Empire of Constantinople</a><a href="#cite_note-Lock156-244">[219]</a> and greatly weakening the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantines recaptured the city in 1261, but never regained their former strength.<a href="#cite_note-Backman299-245">[220]</a> By 1291 all the crusader states had been captured or forced from the mainland, although a titular <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem" title="Kingdom of Jerusalem">Kingdom of Jerusalem</a> survived on the island of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cyprus" title="Kingdom of Cyprus">Cyprus</a> for several years afterwards.<a href="#cite_note-Lock122-246">[221]</a> Popes called for crusades to take place elsewhere besides the Holy Land: in Spain, southern France, and along the Baltic.<a href="#cite_note-MACrusades-238">[214]</a> The Spanish crusades became fused with the Reconquista of Spain from the Muslims. Although the Templars and Hospitallers took part in the Spanish crusades, similar Spanish military religious orders were founded, most of which had become part of the two main orders of <a href="/wiki/Order_of_Calatrava" title="Order of Calatrava">Calatrava</a> and <a href="/wiki/Order_of_Santiago" title="Order of Santiago">Santiago</a> by the beginning of the 12th century.<a href="#cite_note-Lock205-247">[222]</a> Northern Europe also remained outside Christian influence until the 11th century or later, and became a crusading venue as part of the Northern Crusades of the 12th to 14th centuries. These crusades also spawned a military order, the <a href="/wiki/Livonian_Brothers_of_the_Sword" title="Livonian Brothers of the Sword">Order of the Sword Brothers</a>. Another order, the <a href="/wiki/Teutonic_Knights" class="mw-redirect" title="Teutonic Knights">Teutonic Knights</a>, although founded in the crusader states, focused much of its activity in the Baltic after 1225, and in 1309 moved its headquarters to <a href="/wiki/Malbork_Castle" title="Malbork Castle">Marienburg</a> in <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lock213-248">[223]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intellectual_life">Intellectual life</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_of_the_12th_century" title="Renaissance of the 12th century">Renaissance of the 12th century</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medieval_literature" title="Medieval literature">Medieval literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medieval_poetry" title="Medieval poetry">Medieval poetry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Medieval_medicine_of_Western_Europe" title="Medieval medicine of Western Europe">Medieval medicine of Western Europe</a></div> During the 11th century, developments in philosophy and theology led to increased intellectual activity. There was debate between the <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">realists</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">nominalists</a> over the concept of "<a href="/wiki/Universal_(metaphysics)" title="Universal (metaphysics)">universals</a>". Philosophical discourse was stimulated by the rediscovery of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> and his emphasis on <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalism</a>. Scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Peter_Abelard" title="Peter Abelard">Peter Abelard</a> (d. 1142) and <a href="/wiki/Peter_Lombard" title="Peter Lombard">Peter Lombard</a> (d. 1164) introduced <a href="/wiki/Term_logic" title="Term logic">Aristotelian logic</a> into theology. In the late 11th and early 12th centuries <a href="/wiki/Cathedral_school" title="Cathedral school">cathedral schools</a> spread throughout Western Europe, signalling the shift of learning from monasteries to cathedrals and towns.<a href="#cite_note-Backman232-249">[224]</a> Cathedral schools were in turn replaced by the <a href="/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university">universities</a> established in major European cities.<a href="#cite_note-Backman247-250">[225]</a> Philosophy and theology fused in <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholasticism</a>, an attempt by 12th- and 13th-century scholars to reconcile authoritative texts, most notably Aristotle and the Bible. This movement tried to employ a systemic approach to truth and reason<a href="#cite_note-MASchol-251">[226]</a> and culminated in the thought of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> (d. 1274), who wrote the <a href="/wiki/Summa_Theologica" title="Summa Theologica">Summa Theologica</a>, or Summary of Theology.<a href="#cite_note-Colish295-252">[227]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Richard_of_Wallingford.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Richard_of_Wallingford.jpg/170px-Richard_of_Wallingford.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Richard_of_Wallingford.jpg/255px-Richard_of_Wallingford.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Richard_of_Wallingford.jpg/340px-Richard_of_Wallingford.jpg 2x" data-file-width="708" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption>A medieval scholar making precise measurements in a 14th-century manuscript illustration</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Chivalry" title="Chivalry">Chivalry</a> and the ethos of <a href="/wiki/Courtly_love" title="Courtly love">courtly love</a> developed in royal and noble courts. This culture was expressed in the <a href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">vernacular languages</a> rather than Latin, and comprised poems, stories, legends, and popular songs spread by <a href="/wiki/Troubadour" title="Troubadour">troubadours</a>, or wandering minstrels. Often the stories were written down in the <a href="/wiki/Chanson_de_geste" title="Chanson de geste">chansons de geste</a>, or "songs of great deeds", such as <a href="/wiki/The_Song_of_Roland" class="mw-redirect" title="The Song of Roland">The Song of Roland</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hildebrand" title="Hildebrand">The Song of Hildebrand</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Backman252-253">[228]</a> Secular and religious histories were also produced.<a href="#cite_note-Davies349-254">[229]</a> <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_of_Monmouth" title="Geoffrey of Monmouth">Geoffrey of Monmouth</a> (d. c. 1155) composed his <a href="/wiki/Historia_Regum_Britanniae" title="Historia Regum Britanniae">Historia Regum Britanniae</a>, a collection of stories and legends about <a href="/wiki/King_Arthur" title="King Arthur">Arthur</a>.<a href="#cite_note-SaulGeoffrey-255">[230]</a> Other works were more clearly history, such as <a href="/wiki/Otto_of_Freising" title="Otto of Freising">Otto von Freising</a>'s (d. 1158) Gesta Friderici Imperatoris detailing the deeds of Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, or <a href="/wiki/William_of_Malmesbury" title="William of Malmesbury">William of Malmesbury</a>'s (d. c. 1143) Gesta Regum on the kings of England.<a href="#cite_note-Davies349-254">[229]</a> Legal studies advanced during the 12th century. Both secular law and <a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">canon law</a>, or ecclesiastical law, were studied in the High Middle Ages. Secular law, or Roman law, was advanced greatly by the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Juris_Civilis" title="Corpus Juris Civilis">Corpus Juris Civilis</a> in the 11th century, and by 1100 Roman law was being taught at <a href="/wiki/University_of_Bologna" title="University of Bologna">Bologna</a>. This led to the recording and standardisation of legal codes throughout Western Europe. Canon law was also studied, and around 1140 a monk named <a href="/wiki/Decretum_Gratiani" title="Decretum Gratiani">Gratian</a> (fl. 12th century), a teacher at Bologna, wrote what became the standard text of canon law—the <a href="/wiki/Decretum_Gratiani" title="Decretum Gratiani">Decretum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Backman237-256">[231]</a> Among the results of the Greek and Islamic influence on this period in European history was the replacement of <a href="/wiki/Roman_numerals" title="Roman numerals">Roman numerals</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Decimal" title="Decimal">decimal</a> <a href="/wiki/Positional_notation" title="Positional notation">positional number system</a> and the invention of <a href="/wiki/Algebra" title="Algebra">algebra</a>, which allowed more advanced mathematics. Astronomy advanced following the translation of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest">Almagest</a> from Greek into Latin in the late 12th century. Medicine was also studied, especially in southern Italy, where Islamic medicine influenced the <a href="/wiki/Schola_Medica_Salernitana" title="Schola Medica Salernitana">school at Salerno</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Backman241-257">[232]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Technology_and_military">Technology and military</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Medieval_technology" title="Medieval technology">Medieval technology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medieval_warfare" title="Medieval warfare">Medieval warfare</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_science#Science_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="History of science">History of science § Science in the Middle Ages</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_European_scientists" title="List of medieval European scientists">List of medieval European scientists</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tommaso_da_modena,_ritratti_di_domenicani_(Ugo_di_Provenza)_1352_150cm,_treviso,_ex_convento_di_san_niccol%C3%B2,_sala_del_capitolo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Tommaso_da_modena%2C_ritratti_di_domenicani_%28Ugo_di_Provenza%29_1352_150cm%2C_treviso%2C_ex_convento_di_san_niccol%C3%B2%2C_sala_del_capitolo.jpg/220px-Tommaso_da_modena%2C_ritratti_di_domenicani_%28Ugo_di_Provenza%29_1352_150cm%2C_treviso%2C_ex_convento_di_san_niccol%C3%B2%2C_sala_del_capitolo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Tommaso_da_modena%2C_ritratti_di_domenicani_%28Ugo_di_Provenza%29_1352_150cm%2C_treviso%2C_ex_convento_di_san_niccol%C3%B2%2C_sala_del_capitolo.jpg/330px-Tommaso_da_modena%2C_ritratti_di_domenicani_%28Ugo_di_Provenza%29_1352_150cm%2C_treviso%2C_ex_convento_di_san_niccol%C3%B2%2C_sala_del_capitolo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Tommaso_da_modena%2C_ritratti_di_domenicani_%28Ugo_di_Provenza%29_1352_150cm%2C_treviso%2C_ex_convento_di_san_niccol%C3%B2%2C_sala_del_capitolo.jpg/440px-Tommaso_da_modena%2C_ritratti_di_domenicani_%28Ugo_di_Provenza%29_1352_150cm%2C_treviso%2C_ex_convento_di_san_niccol%C3%B2%2C_sala_del_capitolo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of Cardinal <a href="/wiki/Hugh_of_Saint-Cher" title="Hugh of Saint-Cher">Hugh of Saint-Cher</a> by <a href="/wiki/Tommaso_da_Modena" title="Tommaso da Modena">Tommaso da Modena</a>, 1352, the first known depiction of <a href="/wiki/Spectacles" class="mw-redirect" title="Spectacles">spectacles</a><a href="#cite_note-258">[233]</a></figcaption></figure> In the 12th and 13th centuries, Europe experienced economic growth and innovations in methods of production. Major technological advances included the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Windmill" title="Windmill">windmill</a>, the first mechanical clocks, the manufacture of <a href="/wiki/Distilled_beverage" class="mw-redirect" title="Distilled beverage">distilled spirits</a>, and the use of the <a href="/wiki/Astrolabe" title="Astrolabe">astrolabe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Backman246-259">[234]</a> Concave spectacles were invented around 1286 by an unknown Italian artisan, probably working in or near Pisa.<a href="#cite_note-260">[235]</a> The development of a three-field <a href="/wiki/Crop_rotation" title="Crop rotation">rotation system</a> for planting crops<a href="#cite_note-Backman156-178">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-262">[Z]</a> increased the usage of land from one half in use each year under the old two-field system to two-thirds under the new system, with a consequent increase in production.<a href="#cite_note-Epstein45-261">[236]</a> The development of the <a href="/wiki/Plough" title="Plough">heavy plough</a> allowed heavier soils to be farmed more efficiently, aided by the spread of the <a href="/wiki/Horse_collar" title="Horse collar">horse collar</a>, which led to the use of <a href="/wiki/Working_animal" title="Working animal">draught horses</a> in place of oxen. Horses are faster than oxen and require less pasture, factors that aided the implementation of the three-field system.<a href="#cite_note-Backman156-59-263">[237]</a> Legumes – such as peas, beans, or lentils – were grown more widely as crops, in addition to the usual cereal crops of wheat, oats, barley, and rye.<a href="#cite_note-Barber80-264">[238]</a> The construction of <a href="/wiki/Cathedral" title="Cathedral">cathedrals</a> and castles advanced building technology, leading to the development of large stone buildings. Ancillary structures included new town halls, houses, bridges, and <a href="/wiki/Tithe_barn" class="mw-redirect" title="Tithe barn">tithe barns</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Barber68-265">[239]</a> Shipbuilding improved with the use of the <a href="/wiki/Boat_building" title="Boat building">rib and plank</a> method rather than the old Roman system of <a href="/wiki/Mortise_and_tenon" title="Mortise and tenon">mortise and tenon</a>. Other improvements to ships included the use of <a href="/wiki/Lateen" title="Lateen">lateen</a> sails and the <a href="/wiki/Rudder#Medieval_Europe" title="Rudder">stern-post rudder</a>, both of which increased the speed at which ships could be sailed.<a href="#cite_note-Barber73-266">[240]</a> In military affairs, the use of infantry with specialised roles increased. Along with the still-dominant heavy cavalry, armies often included mounted and infantry <a href="/wiki/Crossbowmen" class="mw-redirect" title="Crossbowmen">crossbowmen</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Sapper" title="Sapper">sappers</a> and engineers.<a href="#cite_note-NicolleWestern125-267">[241]</a> Crossbows, which had been known in Late Antiquity, increased in use partly because of the increase in <a href="/wiki/Siege" title="Siege">siege</a> warfare in the 10th and 11th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-NicolleWestern80-173">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-269">[AA]</a> The increasing use of crossbows during the 12th and 13th centuries led to the use of closed-face <a href="/wiki/Combat_helmet" title="Combat helmet">helmets</a>, heavy body armour, as well as <a href="/wiki/Barding" title="Barding">horse armour</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NicolleWestern130-270">[243]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder" title="Gunpowder">Gunpowder</a> was known in Europe by the mid-13th century with a recorded use in European warfare by the English against the Scots in 1304, although it was merely used as an explosive and not as a weapon. <a href="/wiki/Cannon" title="Cannon">Cannon</a> were being used for sieges in the 1320s, and hand-held guns were in use by the 1360s.<a href="#cite_note-Nicolle296-271">[244]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Architecture,_art,_and_music">Architecture, art, and music</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Medieval_architecture" title="Medieval architecture">Medieval architecture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medieval_art" title="Medieval art">Medieval art</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Medieval_music" title="Medieval music">Medieval music</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maria_Lach_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Maria_Lach_02.jpg/220px-Maria_Lach_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Maria_Lach_02.jpg/330px-Maria_Lach_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Maria_Lach_02.jpg/440px-Maria_Lach_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1235" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Romanesque_architecture" title="Romanesque architecture">Romanesque</a> Church of <a href="/wiki/Maria_Laach_Abbey" title="Maria Laach Abbey">Maria Laach, Germany</a></figcaption></figure> In the 10th century the establishment of churches and monasteries led to the development of stone architecture that elaborated vernacular Roman forms, from which the term "Romanesque" is derived. Where available, Roman <a href="/wiki/Brick" title="Brick">brick</a> and stone buildings were recycled for their materials. From the tentative beginnings known as the <a href="/wiki/First_Romanesque" title="First Romanesque">First Romanesque</a>, the style flourished and spread across Europe in a remarkably homogeneous form. Just before 1000 there was a great wave of building stone churches all over Europe.<a href="#cite_note-Benton55-272">[245]</a> <a href="/wiki/Romanesque_architecture" title="Romanesque architecture">Romanesque</a> buildings have massive stone walls, openings topped by semi-circular arches, small windows, and, particularly in France, arched stone vaults.<a href="#cite_note-Adams181-273">[246]</a> The large <a href="/wiki/Portal_(architecture)" title="Portal (architecture)">portal</a> with coloured sculpture in <a href="/wiki/Relief" title="Relief">high relief</a> became a central feature of façades, especially in France, and the <a href="/wiki/Capital_(architecture)" title="Capital (architecture)">capitals</a> of columns were often carved with narrative scenes of imaginative monsters and animals.<a href="#cite_note-Benton58to75-274">[247]</a> According to art historian <a href="/wiki/Charles_Reginald_Dodwell" title="Charles Reginald Dodwell">C. R. Dodwell</a>, "virtually all the churches in the West were decorated with wall-paintings", of which few survive.<a href="#cite_note-Dodwell37-275">[248]</a> Simultaneous with the development in church architecture, the distinctive European form of the castle was developed and became crucial to politics and warfare.<a href="#cite_note-Benton295-276">[249]</a> Romanesque art, especially metalwork, was at its most sophisticated in <a href="/wiki/Mosan_art" title="Mosan art">Mosan art</a>, in which distinct artistic personalities including <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_of_Verdun" title="Nicholas of Verdun">Nicholas of Verdun</a> (d. 1205) become apparent, and an almost <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_art" title="Ancient Greek art">classical style</a> is seen in works such as a <a href="/wiki/Baptismal_font_at_St_Bartholomew%27s_Church,_Li%C3%A8ge" title="Baptismal font at St Bartholomew's Church, Liège">font at Liège</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Lasko240-277">[250]</a> contrasting with the writhing animals of the exactly contemporary <a href="/wiki/Gloucester_Candlestick" title="Gloucester Candlestick">Gloucester Candlestick</a>. Large illuminated bibles and <a href="/wiki/Psalter" title="Psalter">psalters</a> were the typical forms of luxury manuscripts, and wall-painting flourished in churches, often following a scheme with a <a href="/wiki/Last_Judgment" title="Last Judgment">Last Judgement</a> on the west wall, a <a href="/wiki/Christ_in_Majesty" title="Christ in Majesty">Christ in Majesty</a> at the east end, and narrative biblical scenes down the nave, or in the best surviving example, at <a href="/wiki/Abbey_Church_of_Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe" title="Abbey Church of Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe">Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe</a>, on the <a href="/wiki/Barrel_vault" title="Barrel vault">barrel-vaulted</a> roof.<a href="#cite_note-Benton91-278">[251]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nef_cath%C3%A9drale_Laon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Nef_cath%C3%A9drale_Laon.jpg/220px-Nef_cath%C3%A9drale_Laon.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Nef_cath%C3%A9drale_Laon.jpg/330px-Nef_cath%C3%A9drale_Laon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Nef_cath%C3%A9drale_Laon.jpg/440px-Nef_cath%C3%A9drale_Laon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Gothic_architecture" title="Gothic architecture">Gothic</a> interior of <a href="/wiki/Laon_Cathedral" title="Laon Cathedral">Laon Cathedral</a>, France</figcaption></figure> From the early 12th century, French builders developed the <a href="/wiki/Gothic_architecture" title="Gothic architecture">Gothic</a> style, marked by the use of <a href="/wiki/Rib_vault" title="Rib vault">rib vaults</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ogive" title="Ogive">pointed arches</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flying_buttress" title="Flying buttress">flying buttresses</a>, and large <a href="/wiki/Stained_glass" title="Stained glass">stained glass</a> windows. It was used mainly in churches and cathedrals and continued in use until the 16th century in much of Europe. Classic examples of Gothic architecture include <a href="/wiki/Chartres_Cathedral" title="Chartres Cathedral">Chartres Cathedral</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reims_Cathedral" title="Reims Cathedral">Reims Cathedral</a> in France as well as <a href="/wiki/Salisbury_Cathedral" title="Salisbury Cathedral">Salisbury Cathedral</a> in England.<a href="#cite_note-Adams195-279">[252]</a> Stained glass became a crucial element in the design of churches, which continued to use extensive wall-paintings, now almost all lost.<a href="#cite_note-Benton185to271-280">[253]</a> During this period the practice of manuscript illumination gradually passed from monasteries to lay workshops, so that according to <a href="/wiki/Janetta_Benton" class="mw-redirect" title="Janetta Benton">Janetta Benton</a> "by 1300 most monks bought their books in shops",<a href="#cite_note-Benton250-281">[254]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_hours" title="Book of hours">book of hours</a> developed as a form of devotional book for lay-people. Metalwork continued to be the most prestigious form of art, with <a href="/wiki/Limoges_enamel" title="Limoges enamel">Limoges enamel</a> a popular and relatively affordable option for objects such as reliquaries and crosses.<a href="#cite_note-Benton245-282">[255]</a> In Italy the innovations of <a href="/wiki/Cimabue" title="Cimabue">Cimabue</a> and <a href="/wiki/Duccio" title="Duccio">Duccio</a>, followed by the <a href="/wiki/Trecento" title="Trecento">Trecento</a> master <a href="/wiki/Giotto" title="Giotto">Giotto</a> (d. 1337), greatly increased the sophistication and status of <a href="/wiki/Panel_painting" title="Panel painting">panel painting</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fresco" title="Fresco">fresco</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Benton264-283">[256]</a> Increasing prosperity during the 12th century resulted in greater production of secular art; many <a href="/wiki/Ivory_carving" title="Ivory carving">carved ivory</a> objects such as gaming-pieces, combs, and small religious figures have survived.<a href="#cite_note-Benton248-284">[257]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Church_life">Church life</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Gregorian_Reform" title="Gregorian Reform">Gregorian Reform</a> and <a href="/wiki/Church_and_state_in_medieval_Europe" title="Church and state in medieval Europe">Church and state in medieval Europe</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bonaventura_Berlinghieri_Francesco.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Bonaventura_Berlinghieri_Francesco.jpg/170px-Bonaventura_Berlinghieri_Francesco.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Bonaventura_Berlinghieri_Francesco.jpg/255px-Bonaventura_Berlinghieri_Francesco.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Bonaventura_Berlinghieri_Francesco.jpg/340px-Bonaventura_Berlinghieri_Francesco.jpg 2x" data-file-width="969" data-file-height="1275" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Francis_of_Assisi" title="Francis of Assisi">Francis of Assisi</a>, depicted by <a href="/wiki/Bonaventura_Berlinghieri" title="Bonaventura Berlinghieri">Bonaventura Berlinghieri</a> in 1235, founded the <a href="/wiki/Franciscan" class="mw-redirect" title="Franciscan">Franciscan</a> Order.<a href="#cite_note-Hamilton47-285">[258]</a></figcaption></figure> Monastic reform became an important issue during the 11th century, as elites began to worry that monks were not adhering to the rules binding them to a strictly religious life. <a href="/wiki/Cluny_Abbey" title="Cluny Abbey">Cluny Abbey</a>, founded in the <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A2con" title="Mâcon">Mâcon</a> region of France in 909, was established as part of the <a href="/wiki/Cluniac_Reforms" title="Cluniac Reforms">Cluniac Reforms</a>, a larger movement of monastic reform in response to this fear.<a href="#cite_note-Rhino-286">[259]</a> Cluny quickly established a reputation for austerity and rigour. It sought to maintain a high quality of spiritual life by placing itself under the protection of the papacy and by electing its own abbot without interference from laymen, thus maintaining economic and political independence from local lords.<a href="#cite_note-Barber143-287">[260]</a> Monastic reform inspired change in the secular Church. The ideals upon which it was based were brought to the papacy by Pope <a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_IX" title="Pope Leo IX">Leo IX</a> (pope 1049–1054), and provided the ideology of clerical independence that led to the Investiture Controversy in the late 11th century. This involved Pope <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_VII" title="Pope Gregory VII">Gregory VII</a> (pope 1073–85) and Emperor Henry IV, who initially clashed over episcopal appointments, a dispute that turned into a battle over the ideas of <a href="/wiki/Investiture" title="Investiture">investiture</a>, clerical marriage, and <a href="/wiki/Simony" title="Simony">simony</a>. The emperor saw the protection of the Church as one of his responsibilities as well as wanting to preserve the right to appoint his own choices as bishops within his lands, but the papacy insisted on the Church's independence from secular lords. These issues remained unresolved after the compromise of 1122 known as the <a href="/wiki/Concordat_of_Worms" title="Concordat of Worms">Concordat of Worms</a>. The dispute represents a significant stage in the creation of a papal monarchy separate from and equal to <a href="/wiki/Laity" title="Laity">lay</a> authorities. It also had the permanent consequence of empowering German princes at the expense of the German emperors.<a href="#cite_note-Rhino-286">[259]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Abbey-of-senanque-provence-gordes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Abbey-of-senanque-provence-gordes.jpg/220px-Abbey-of-senanque-provence-gordes.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Abbey-of-senanque-provence-gordes.jpg/330px-Abbey-of-senanque-provence-gordes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Abbey-of-senanque-provence-gordes.jpg/440px-Abbey-of-senanque-provence-gordes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="533" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9nanque_Abbey" title="Sénanque Abbey">Sénanque Abbey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gordes" title="Gordes">Gordes</a>, France</figcaption></figure> The High Middle Ages was a period of great religious movements. Besides the Crusades and monastic reforms, people sought to participate in new forms of religious life. New monastic orders were founded, including the <a href="/wiki/Carthusian" class="mw-redirect" title="Carthusian">Carthusians</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Cistercians" title="Cistercians">Cistercians</a>. The latter, in particular, expanded rapidly in their early years under the guidance of <a href="/wiki/Bernard_of_Clairvaux" title="Bernard of Clairvaux">Bernard of Clairvaux</a> (d. 1153). These new orders were formed in response to the feeling of the laity that Benedictine monasticism no longer met the needs of the laymen, who along with those wishing to enter the religious life wanted a return to the simpler <a href="/wiki/Hermit" title="Hermit">hermetical</a> monasticism of early Christianity, or to live an <a href="/wiki/Apostle_(Christian)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Apostle (Christian)">Apostolic life</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Barber145-240">[216]</a> <a href="/wiki/Christian_pilgrimage" title="Christian pilgrimage">Religious pilgrimages</a> were also encouraged. Old pilgrimage sites such as Rome, Jerusalem, and <a href="/wiki/Cathedral_of_Santiago_de_Compostela" class="mw-redirect" title="Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela">Compostela</a> received increasing numbers of visitors, and new sites such as <a href="/wiki/Sanctuary_of_Monte_Sant%27Angelo" title="Sanctuary of Monte Sant'Angelo">Monte Gargano</a> and <a href="/wiki/Basilica_di_San_Nicola" class="mw-redirect" title="Basilica di San Nicola">Bari</a> rose to prominence.<a href="#cite_note-Morris199-288">[261]</a> In the 13th century <a href="/wiki/Mendicant_orders" title="Mendicant orders">mendicant orders</a>—the <a href="/wiki/Franciscan" class="mw-redirect" title="Franciscan">Franciscans</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Dominican_Order" title="Dominican Order">Dominicans</a>—who swore vows of poverty and earned their living by begging, were approved by the papacy.<a href="#cite_note-Barber155-289">[262]</a> Religious groups such as the <a href="/wiki/Waldensians" title="Waldensians">Waldensians</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Humiliati" title="Humiliati">Humiliati</a> also attempted to return to the life of early Christianity in the middle 12th and early 13th centuries, another heretical movement condemned by the papacy. Others joined the <a href="/wiki/Catharism" title="Catharism">Cathars</a>, another movement condemned as heretical by the papacy. In 1209, a crusade was preached against the Cathars, the <a href="/wiki/Albigensian_Crusade" title="Albigensian Crusade">Albigensian Crusade</a>, which in combination with the <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Inquisition" title="Medieval Inquisition">medieval Inquisition</a>, eliminated them.<a href="#cite_note-Barber185-290">[263]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Late_Middle_Ages">Late Middle Ages</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="War,_famine,_and_plague">War, famine, and plague</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Late_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Crisis of the Late Middle Ages">Crisis of the Late Middle Ages</a></div> The first years of the 14th century were marked by famines, culminating in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_1315%E2%80%931317" title="Great Famine of 1315–1317">Great Famine of 1315–17</a>.<a href="#cite_note-MAFamine-291">[264]</a> The causes of the Great Famine included the slow transition from the <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Warm_Period" title="Medieval Warm Period">Medieval Warm Period</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age">Little Ice Age</a>, which left the population vulnerable when bad weather caused crop failures.<a href="#cite_note-Backman373-292">[265]</a> The years 1313–14 and 1317–21 were excessively rainy throughout Europe, resulting in widespread crop failures.<a href="#cite_note-Epstein41-293">[266]</a> The climate change—which resulted in a declining average annual temperature for Europe during the 14th century—was accompanied by an economic downturn.<a href="#cite_note-Backman370-294">[267]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jacquerie_Navarre.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Jacquerie_Navarre.jpg/170px-Jacquerie_Navarre.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Jacquerie_Navarre.jpg/255px-Jacquerie_Navarre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Jacquerie_Navarre.jpg/340px-Jacquerie_Navarre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1390" /></a><figcaption>Execution of some of the ringleaders of the <a href="/wiki/Jacquerie" title="Jacquerie">jacquerie</a>, from a 14th-century manuscript of the Chroniques de France ou de St Denis</figcaption></figure> These troubles were followed in 1347 by the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">pandemic</a> that spread throughout Europe during the following three years.<a href="#cite_note-MAPlague-295">[268]</a><a href="#cite_note-297">[AB]</a> The death toll was probably about 35 million people in Europe, about one-third of the population. Towns were especially hard-hit because of their crowded conditions.<a href="#cite_note-299">[AC]</a> Large areas of land were left sparsely inhabited, and in some places fields were left unworked. Wages rose as landlords sought to entice the reduced number of available workers to their fields. Further problems were lower rents and lower demand for food, both of which cut into agricultural income. Urban workers also felt that they had a right to greater earnings, and <a href="/wiki/Popular_revolt_in_late-medieval_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Popular revolt in late-medieval Europe">popular uprisings</a> broke out across Europe.<a href="#cite_note-Backman374-300">[271]</a> Among the uprisings were the <a href="/wiki/Jacquerie" title="Jacquerie">jacquerie</a> in France, the <a href="/wiki/Peasants%27_Revolt" title="Peasants' Revolt">Peasants' Revolt</a> in England, and revolts in the cities of <a href="/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florence</a> in Italy and <a href="/wiki/Ghent" title="Ghent">Ghent</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bruges" title="Bruges">Bruges</a> in Flanders. The trauma of the plague led to an increased piety throughout Europe, manifested by the foundation of new charities, the self-mortification of the <a href="/wiki/Flagellant" title="Flagellant">flagellants</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death_Jewish_persecutions" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Death Jewish persecutions">scapegoating of Jews</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Davies412-301">[272]</a> Conditions were further unsettled by the return of the plague throughout the rest of the 14th century; it continued to strike Europe periodically during the rest of the Middle Ages.<a href="#cite_note-MAPlague-295">[268]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Society_and_economy">Society and economy</h3></div> Society throughout Europe was disturbed by the dislocations caused by the Black Death. Lands that had been marginally productive were abandoned, as the survivors were able to acquire more fertile areas.<a href="#cite_note-Epstein184-302">[273]</a> Although <a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">serfdom</a> declined in Western Europe it became more common in Eastern Europe, as landlords imposed it on those of their tenants who had previously been free.<a href="#cite_note-Epstein246-303">[274]</a> Most peasants in Western Europe managed to change the work they had previously owed to their landlords into cash rents.<a href="#cite_note-Keen234-304">[275]</a> The percentage of serfs amongst the peasantry declined from a high of 90 to closer to 50 percent by the end of the period.<a href="#cite_note-Singman8-189">[171]</a> Landlords also became more conscious of common interests with other landholders, and they joined together to extort privileges from their governments. Partly at the urging of landlords, governments attempted to legislate a return to the economic conditions that existed before the Black Death.<a href="#cite_note-Keen234-304">[275]</a> Non-clergy became increasingly literate, and urban populations began to imitate the nobility's interest in chivalry.<a href="#cite_note-Vale346-305">[276]</a> Jewish communities were <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Expulsion" title="Edict of Expulsion">expelled from England</a> in 1290 and from <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_France#The_Great_Exile_of_1306" title="History of the Jews in France">France in 1306</a>. Although some were allowed back into France, most were not, and many Jews emigrated eastwards, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Poland#Early_history:_966–1385" title="History of the Jews in Poland">settling in Poland</a> and Hungary.<a href="#cite_note-Jews192-306">[277]</a> The Jews were expelled from <a href="/wiki/Alhambra_Decree" title="Alhambra Decree">Spain in 1492</a>, and dispersed to Turkey, France, Italy, and Holland.<a href="#cite_note-Jews191-86">[79]</a> The <a href="/wiki/History_of_banking#Medieval_Europe" title="History of banking">rise of banking</a> in Italy during the 13th century continued throughout the 14th century, fuelled partly by the increasing warfare of the period and the needs of the papacy to move money between kingdoms. Many banking firms loaned money to royalty, at great risk, as some were bankrupted when kings defaulted on their loans.<a href="#cite_note-Keen237-307">[278]</a><a href="#cite_note-308">[AD]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="State_resurgence">State resurgence</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Europe_1360.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Europe_1360.jpg/330px-Europe_1360.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Europe_1360.jpg/495px-Europe_1360.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Europe_1360.jpg/660px-Europe_1360.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1817" data-file-height="1120" /></a><figcaption>Map of Europe in 1360</figcaption></figure> Strong, royalty-based <a href="/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state">nation states</a> rose throughout Europe in the Late Middle Ages, particularly in <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">England</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">France</a>, and the Christian kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula: <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Aragon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Castile</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Portugal</a>. The long conflicts of the period strengthened royal control over their kingdoms and were extremely hard on the peasantry. Kings profited from warfare that extended royal legislation and increased the lands they directly controlled.<a href="#cite_note-Watts201-309">[279]</a> Paying for the wars required that methods of taxation become more effective and efficient, and the rate of taxation often increased.<a href="#cite_note-Watts224-310">[280]</a> The requirement to obtain the consent of taxpayers allowed representative bodies such as the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_England" title="Parliament of England">English Parliament</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Estates_General_(France)" title="Estates General (France)">French Estates General</a> to gain power and authority.<a href="#cite_note-Watts233-311">[281]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Joan_of_Arc_miniature_graded.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Joan_of_Arc_miniature_graded.jpg/170px-Joan_of_Arc_miniature_graded.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Joan_of_Arc_miniature_graded.jpg/255px-Joan_of_Arc_miniature_graded.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Joan_of_Arc_miniature_graded.jpg/340px-Joan_of_Arc_miniature_graded.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1812" data-file-height="2700" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Joan_of_Arc" title="Joan of Arc">Joan of Arc</a> in a 15th-century depiction</figcaption></figure> Throughout the 14th century, French kings sought to expand their influence at the expense of the territorial holdings of the nobility.<a href="#cite_note-Watts166-312">[282]</a> They ran into difficulties when attempting to confiscate the holdings of the English kings in southern France, leading to the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Watts169-313">[283]</a> waged from 1337 to 1453.<a href="#cite_note-MA100-314">[284]</a> Early in the war the English under <a href="/wiki/Edward_III_of_England" title="Edward III of England">Edward III</a> (r. 1327–77) and his son <a href="/wiki/Edward,_the_Black_Prince" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward, the Black Prince">Edward, the Black Prince</a> (d. 1376),<a href="#cite_note-316">[AE]</a> won the battles of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cr%C3%A9cy" title="Battle of Crécy">Crécy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Poitiers" title="Battle of Poitiers">Poitiers</a>, captured the city of <a href="/wiki/Calais" title="Calais">Calais</a>, and won control of much of France.<a href="#cite_note-318">[AF]</a> The resulting stresses almost caused the disintegration of the French kingdom during the early years of the war.<a href="#cite_note-Watts180-319">[287]</a> In the early 15th century, France again came close to dissolving, but in the late 1420s the military successes of <a href="/wiki/Joan_of_Arc" title="Joan of Arc">Joan of Arc</a> (d. 1431) led to the victory of the French and the capture of the last English possessions in southern France in 1453.<a href="#cite_note-Watts317-320">[288]</a> The price was high, as the population of France at the end of the Wars was likely half what it had been at the start of the conflict. Conversely, the Wars had a positive effect on <a href="/wiki/English_national_identity" title="English national identity">English national identity</a>, doing much to fuse the various local identities into a national English ideal. The conflict with France also helped create a national culture in England separate from French culture, which had previously been the dominant influence.<a href="#cite_note-Davies423-321">[289]</a> The dominance of the English <a href="/wiki/Longbow" title="Longbow">longbow</a> began during early stages of the Hundred Years' War,<a href="#cite_note-Nicholle186-322">[290]</a> and cannon appeared on the battlefield at Crécy in 1346.<a href="#cite_note-Nicolle296-271">[244]</a> In modern-day Germany, the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> continued to rule, but the elective nature of the imperial crown meant there was no enduring dynasty around which a strong state could form.<a href="#cite_note-Watts170-323">[291]</a> Further east, the kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland_(1385%E2%80%931569)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)">Poland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary" title="Kingdom of Hungary">Hungary</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bohemia" title="Kingdom of Bohemia">Bohemia</a> grew powerful.<a href="#cite_note-Watts173-75-324">[292]</a> In Iberia, the Christian kingdoms continued to gain land from the Muslim kingdoms of the peninsula;<a href="#cite_note-Watts173-325">[293]</a> Portugal concentrated on expanding overseas during the 15th century, while the other kingdoms were riven by difficulties over royal succession and other concerns.<a href="#cite_note-Watts327-326">[294]</a><a href="#cite_note-Watts340-327">[295]</a> After losing the Hundred Years' War, England went on to suffer a long civil war known as the <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses" title="Wars of the Roses">Wars of the Roses</a>, which lasted into the 1490s<a href="#cite_note-Watts340-327">[295]</a> and only ended when <a href="/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England" title="Henry VII of England">Henry Tudor</a> (r. 1485–1509 as Henry VII) became king and consolidated power with his victory over <a href="/wiki/Richard_III_of_England" title="Richard III of England">Richard III</a> (r. 1483–85) at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bosworth_Field" title="Battle of Bosworth Field">Bosworth</a> in 1485.<a href="#cite_note-Davies426-328">[296]</a> In Scandinavia, <a href="/wiki/Margaret_I_of_Denmark" title="Margaret I of Denmark">Margaret I of Denmark</a> (r. in Denmark 1387–1412) consolidated Norway, Denmark, and Sweden in the <a href="/wiki/Kalmar_Union" title="Kalmar Union">Union of Kalmar</a>, which continued until 1523. The major power around the Baltic Sea was the Hanseatic League, a commercial confederation of city-states that traded from Western Europe to Russia.<a href="#cite_note-Davies431-329">[297]</a> Scotland emerged from English domination under <a href="/wiki/Robert_the_Bruce" title="Robert the Bruce">Robert the Bruce</a> (r. 1306–29), who secured papal recognition of his kingship in 1328.<a href="#cite_note-Davies408-330">[298]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Collapse_of_Byzantium">Collapse of Byzantium</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Decline of the Byzantine Empire">Decline of the Byzantine Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Angelos_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Angelos dynasty">Byzantine Empire under the Angelos dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Palaiologos_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty">Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Ottoman_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine–Ottoman Wars">Byzantine–Ottoman Wars</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Rise of the Ottoman Empire">Rise of the Ottoman Empire</a></div> Although the <a href="/wiki/Palaiologos" title="Palaiologos">Palaeologi</a> emperors recaptured Constantinople from the Western Europeans in 1261, they were never able to regain control of much of the former imperial lands. They usually controlled only a small section of the Balkan Peninsula near Constantinople, the city itself, and some coastal lands on the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a> and around the <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean Sea</a>. The former Byzantine lands in the Balkans were divided between the new <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Serbia_(medieval)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Serbia (medieval)">Kingdom of Serbia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second Bulgarian Empire</a> and the city-state of <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a>. The power of the Byzantine emperors was threatened by a new Turkish tribe, the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottomans</a>, who established themselves in Anatolia in the 13th century and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Ottoman_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine–Ottoman Wars">steadily expanded</a> throughout the 14th century. The Ottomans expanded into Europe, reducing Bulgaria to a vassal state by 1366 and taking over Serbia after its defeat at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kosovo" title="Battle of Kosovo">Battle of Kosovo</a> in 1389. Western Europeans rallied to the plight of the Christians in the Balkans and declared a new crusade in 1396; a great army was sent to the Balkans, where it was defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nicopolis" title="Battle of Nicopolis">Battle of Nicopolis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Davies385-331">[299]</a> Constantinople was finally <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">captured</a> by the Ottomans in 1453.<a href="#cite_note-Davies446-332">[300]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Controversy_within_the_Church">Controversy within the Church</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Western Schism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Reformation" title="Bohemian Reformation">Bohemian Reformation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hussites" title="Hussites">Hussites</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:07_Gr%C3%A9goire_XI_(couronn%C3%A9_par_Guy_de_Boulogne).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/07_Gr%C3%A9goire_XI_%28couronn%C3%A9_par_Guy_de_Boulogne%29.jpg/220px-07_Gr%C3%A9goire_XI_%28couronn%C3%A9_par_Guy_de_Boulogne%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/07_Gr%C3%A9goire_XI_%28couronn%C3%A9_par_Guy_de_Boulogne%29.jpg/330px-07_Gr%C3%A9goire_XI_%28couronn%C3%A9_par_Guy_de_Boulogne%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/07_Gr%C3%A9goire_XI_%28couronn%C3%A9_par_Guy_de_Boulogne%29.jpg/440px-07_Gr%C3%A9goire_XI_%28couronn%C3%A9_par_Guy_de_Boulogne%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1181" data-file-height="1518" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Guy_of_Boulogne" title="Guy of Boulogne">Guy of Boulogne</a> crowning Pope Gregory XI in a 15th-century miniature from <a href="/wiki/Froissart%27s_Chronicles" title="Froissart's Chronicles">Froissart's Chroniques</a></figcaption></figure> During the tumultuous 14th century, disputes within the leadership of the Church led to the <a href="/wiki/Avignon_Papacy" title="Avignon Papacy">Avignon Papacy</a> of 1309–76,<a href="#cite_note-Thomson170-333">[301]</a> also called the "Babylonian Captivity of the Papacy" (a reference to the <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_captivity" title="Babylonian captivity">Babylonian captivity</a> of the Jews),<a href="#cite_note-MAAvignon-334">[302]</a> and then to the <a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Great Schism</a>, lasting from 1378 to 1418, when there were two and later three rival popes, each supported by several states.<a href="#cite_note-MAGreat-335">[303]</a> Ecclesiastical officials convened at the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Constance" title="Council of Constance">Council of Constance</a> in 1414, and in the following year the council deposed one of the rival popes, leaving only two claimants. Further depositions followed, and in November 1417, the council elected <a href="/wiki/Pope_Martin_V" title="Pope Martin V">Martin V</a> (pope 1417–31) as pope.<a href="#cite_note-Thomson184-336">[304]</a> Besides the schism, the Western Church was riven by theological controversies, some of which turned into heresies. <a href="/wiki/John_Wycliffe" title="John Wycliffe">John Wycliffe</a> (d. 1384), an English theologian, was condemned as a heretic in 1415 for teaching that the laity should have access to the text of the Bible as well as for holding views on the <a href="/wiki/Eucharist" title="Eucharist">Eucharist</a> that were contrary to Church doctrine.<a href="#cite_note-Thomson197-337">[305]</a> Wycliffe's teachings influenced two of the major heretical movements of the later Middle Ages: <a href="/wiki/Lollardy" title="Lollardy">Lollardy</a> in England and <a href="/wiki/Hussites" title="Hussites">Hussitism</a> in Bohemia.<a href="#cite_note-Thomson218-338">[306]</a> The Bohemian movement initiated with the teaching of <a href="/wiki/Jan_Hus" title="Jan Hus">Jan Hus</a>, who was burned at the stake in 1415, after being condemned as a heretic by the Council of Constance. The Hussite Church, although the target of a crusade, survived beyond the Middle Ages.<a href="#cite_note-Thomson213-339">[307]</a> Other heresies were manufactured, such as the accusations against the Knights Templar that resulted in their suppression in 1312, and the division of their great wealth between the French King <a href="/wiki/Philip_IV_of_France" title="Philip IV of France">Philip IV</a> (r. 1285–1314) and the Hospitallers.<a href="#cite_note-Templars-340">[308]</a> The papacy further refined the practice in the <a href="/wiki/Mass_(liturgy)" title="Mass (liturgy)">Mass</a> in the Late Middle Ages, holding that the clergy alone was allowed to partake of the wine in the Eucharist. This further distanced the secular laity from the clergy. The laity continued the practices of pilgrimages, veneration of relics, and belief in the power of the Devil. Mystics such as <a href="/wiki/Meister_Eckhart" title="Meister Eckhart">Meister Eckhart</a> (d. 1327) and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_%C3%A0_Kempis" title="Thomas à Kempis">Thomas à Kempis</a> (d. 1471) wrote works that taught the laity to focus on their inner spiritual life, which laid the groundwork for the Protestant Reformation. Besides mysticism, belief in witches and witchcraft became widespread, and by the late 15th century the Church had begun to lend credence to populist fears of witchcraft with its condemnation of witches in 1484, and the publication in 1486 of the <a href="/wiki/Malleus_Maleficarum" title="Malleus Maleficarum">Malleus Maleficarum</a>, the most popular handbook for witch-hunters.<a href="#cite_note-Davies436-341">[309]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scholars,_intellectuals,_and_exploration">Scholars, intellectuals, and exploration</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Europeans_in_Medieval_China" title="Europeans in Medieval China">Europeans in Medieval China</a></div> During the Later Middle Ages, theologians such as <a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">John Duns Scotus</a> (d. 1308) and <a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a> (d. c. 1348)<a href="#cite_note-MASchol-251">[226]</a> led a reaction against intellectualist scholasticism, objecting to the application of reason to faith. Their efforts undermined the prevailing <a href="/wiki/Platonic_idealism" class="mw-redirect" title="Platonic idealism">Platonic</a> idea of universals. Ockham's insistence that reason operates independently of faith allowed science to be separated from theology and philosophy.<a href="#cite_note-Davies433-342">[310]</a> Legal studies were marked by the steady advance of Roman law into areas of jurisprudence previously governed by <a href="/wiki/Custom_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Custom (law)">customary law</a>. The lone exception to this trend was in England, where the <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> remained pre-eminent. Other countries codified their laws; legal codes were promulgated in Castile, Poland, and <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Lithuania</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Davies438-343">[311]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Studying_astronomy_and_geometry.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Studying_astronomy_and_geometry.jpg/220px-Studying_astronomy_and_geometry.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Studying_astronomy_and_geometry.jpg/330px-Studying_astronomy_and_geometry.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Studying_astronomy_and_geometry.jpg/440px-Studying_astronomy_and_geometry.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1248" data-file-height="752" /></a><figcaption>Clerics studying <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geometry" title="Geometry">geometry</a>, French, early 15th century</figcaption></figure> Education remained mostly focused on the training of future clergy. The basic learning of the letters and numbers remained the province of the family or a village priest, but the secondary subjects of the <a href="/wiki/Trivium" title="Trivium">trivium</a>—grammar, rhetoric, logic—were studied in cathedral schools or in schools provided by cities. Commercial secondary schools spread, and some Italian towns had more than one such enterprise. Universities also spread throughout Europe in the 14th and 15th centuries. Lay literacy rates rose, but were still low; one estimate gave a literacy rate of 10 per cent of males and 1 per cent of females in 1500.<a href="#cite_note-Singman224-344">[312]</a> The publication of vernacular literature increased, with <a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a> (d. 1321), <a href="/wiki/Petrarch" title="Petrarch">Petrarch</a> (d. 1374) and <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Boccaccio" title="Giovanni Boccaccio">Giovanni Boccaccio</a> (d. 1375) in 14th-century Italy, <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Chaucer" title="Geoffrey Chaucer">Geoffrey Chaucer</a> (d. 1400) and <a href="/wiki/William_Langland" title="William Langland">William Langland</a> (d. c. 1386) in England, and <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Villon" title="François Villon">François Villon</a> (d. 1464) and <a href="/wiki/Christine_de_Pizan" title="Christine de Pizan">Christine de Pizan</a> (d. c. 1430) in France. Much literature remained religious in character, and although a great deal of it continued to be written in Latin, a new demand developed for saints' lives and other devotional tracts in the vernacular languages.<a href="#cite_note-Davies438-343">[311]</a> This was fed by the growth of the <a href="/wiki/Devotio_Moderna" title="Devotio Moderna">Devotio Moderna</a> movement, most prominently in the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Brethren_of_the_Common_Life" title="Brethren of the Common Life">Brethren of the Common Life</a>, but also in the works of <a href="/wiki/German_mystic" class="mw-redirect" title="German mystic">German mystics</a> such as Meister Eckhart and <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Tauler" title="Johannes Tauler">Johannes Tauler</a> (d. 1361).<a href="#cite_note-Keen282-345">[313]</a> Theatre also developed in the guise of <a href="/wiki/Mystery_play" title="Mystery play">miracle plays</a> put on by the Church.<a href="#cite_note-Davies438-343">[311]</a> At the end of the period, the development of the <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a> in about 1450 led to the establishment of publishing houses throughout Europe by 1500.<a href="#cite_note-Davies445-346">[314]</a> In the early 15th century, the countries of the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a> began to sponsor exploration beyond the boundaries of Europe. Prince <a href="/wiki/Henry_the_Navigator" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry the Navigator">Henry the Navigator</a> of Portugal (d. 1460) sent expeditions that discovered the <a href="/wiki/Canary_Islands" title="Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Azores" title="Azores">Azores</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cape_Verde" title="Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a> during his lifetime. After his death, exploration continued; <a href="/wiki/Bartolomeu_Dias" title="Bartolomeu Dias">Bartolomeu Dias</a> (d. 1500) went around the <a href="/wiki/Cape_of_Good_Hope" title="Cape of Good Hope">Cape of Good Hope</a> in 1486, and <a href="/wiki/Vasco_da_Gama" title="Vasco da Gama">Vasco da Gama</a> (d. 1524) sailed around Africa to India in 1498.<a href="#cite_note-Davies451-347">[315]</a> The combined Spanish monarchies of Castile and Aragon sponsored the voyage of exploration by <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a> (d. 1506) in 1492 that <a href="/wiki/Voyages_of_Christopher_Columbus" title="Voyages of Christopher Columbus">discovered the Americas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Davies454-348">[316]</a> The English crown under <a href="/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England" title="Henry VII of England">Henry VII</a> sponsored the voyage of <a href="/wiki/John_Cabot" title="John Cabot">John Cabot</a> (d. 1498) in 1497, which landed on <a href="/wiki/Cape_Breton_Island" title="Cape Breton Island">Cape Breton Island</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Davies511-349">[317]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Technological_and_military_developments">Technological and military developments</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Crescenzi_calendar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Crescenzi_calendar.jpg/220px-Crescenzi_calendar.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Crescenzi_calendar.jpg/330px-Crescenzi_calendar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Crescenzi_calendar.jpg/440px-Crescenzi_calendar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="833" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>Agricultural calendar, c. 1470, from a manuscript of <a href="/wiki/Pietro_de_Crescenzi" class="mw-redirect" title="Pietro de Crescenzi">Pietro de Crescenzi</a></figcaption></figure> One of the major developments in the military sphere during the Late Middle Ages was the increased use of infantry and light cavalry.<a href="#cite_note-NicolleWestern180-350">[318]</a> The English also employed longbowmen, but other countries were unable to create similar forces with the same success.<a href="#cite_note-NicolleWestern183-351">[319]</a> Armour continued to advance, spurred by the increasing power of crossbows, and <a href="/wiki/Plate_armour" title="Plate armour">plate armour</a> was developed to protect soldiers from crossbows as well as the hand-held guns that were developed.<a href="#cite_note-NicolleWestern188-352">[320]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pole_weapon" class="mw-redirect" title="Pole weapon">Pole arms</a> reached new prominence with the development of the Flemish and Swiss infantry armed with pikes and other long spears.<a href="#cite_note-Nicolle185-353">[321]</a> In agriculture, the increased usage of sheep with long-fibred wool allowed a stronger thread to be spun. In addition, the <a href="/wiki/Spinning_wheel" title="Spinning wheel">spinning wheel</a> replaced the traditional <a href="/wiki/Distaff" title="Distaff">distaff</a> for spinning wool, tripling production.<a href="#cite_note-Epstein193-354">[322]</a><a href="#cite_note-356">[AG]</a> A less technological refinement that still greatly affected daily life was the use of buttons as closures for garments, which allowed for better fitting without having to lace clothing on the wearer.<a href="#cite_note-Daily38-357">[324]</a> Windmills were refined with the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Tower_mill" title="Tower mill">tower mill</a>, allowing the upper part of the windmill to be spun around to face the direction from which the wind was blowing.<a href="#cite_note-Epstein200-358">[325]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">blast furnace</a> appeared around 1350 in Sweden, increasing the quantity of iron produced and improving its quality.<a href="#cite_note-Epstein203-359">[326]</a> The first <a href="/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">patent law</a> in 1447 in Venice protected the rights of inventors to their inventions.<a href="#cite_note-Epstein213-360">[327]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_medieval_art_and_architecture">Late medieval art and architecture</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Les_Tr%C3%A8s_Riches_Heures_du_duc_de_Berry_f%C3%A9vrier.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Les_Tr%C3%A8s_Riches_Heures_du_duc_de_Berry_f%C3%A9vrier.jpg/170px-Les_Tr%C3%A8s_Riches_Heures_du_duc_de_Berry_f%C3%A9vrier.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Les_Tr%C3%A8s_Riches_Heures_du_duc_de_Berry_f%C3%A9vrier.jpg/255px-Les_Tr%C3%A8s_Riches_Heures_du_duc_de_Berry_f%C3%A9vrier.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Les_Tr%C3%A8s_Riches_Heures_du_duc_de_Berry_f%C3%A9vrier.jpg/340px-Les_Tr%C3%A8s_Riches_Heures_du_duc_de_Berry_f%C3%A9vrier.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1141" data-file-height="1899" /></a><figcaption>February scene from the 15th-century illuminated manuscript <a href="/wiki/Tr%C3%A8s_Riches_Heures_du_Duc_de_Berry" title="Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry">Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry</a></figcaption></figure> The Late Middle Ages in Europe as a whole correspond to the Trecento and <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Early Renaissance</a> cultural periods in Italy. Northern Europe and Spain continued to use Gothic styles, which became increasingly elaborate in the 15th century, until almost the end of the period. <a href="/wiki/International_Gothic" title="International Gothic">International Gothic</a> was a courtly style that reached much of Europe in the decades around 1400, producing masterpieces such as the <a href="/wiki/Tr%C3%A8s_Riches_Heures_du_Duc_de_Berry" title="Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry">Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Benton253-361">[328]</a> All over Europe secular art continued to increase in quantity and quality, and in the 15th century the mercantile classes of Italy and Flanders became important patrons, commissioning small portraits of themselves in oils as well as a growing range of luxury items such as jewellery, <a href="/wiki/Casket_with_Scenes_of_Romances_(Walters_71264)" title="Casket with Scenes of Romances (Walters 71264)">ivory caskets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cassone" title="Cassone">cassone</a> chests, and <a href="/wiki/Maiolica" title="Maiolica">maiolica</a> pottery. These objects also included the <a href="/wiki/Hispano-Moresque_ware" title="Hispano-Moresque ware">Hispano-Moresque ware</a> produced by mostly <a href="/wiki/Mud%C3%A9jar" title="Mudéjar">Mudéjar</a> potters in Spain. Although royalty owned huge collections of plate, little survives except for the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Gold_Cup" title="Royal Gold Cup">Royal Gold Cup</a>.<a href="#cite_note-362">[329]</a> Italian silk manufacture developed, so that Western churches and elites no longer needed to rely on imports from Byzantium or the Islamic world. In France and Flanders <a href="/wiki/Tapestry" title="Tapestry">tapestry</a> weaving of sets like <a href="/wiki/The_Lady_and_the_Unicorn" title="The Lady and the Unicorn">The Lady and the Unicorn</a> became a major luxury industry.<a href="#cite_note-Benton257-363">[330]</a> The large external sculptural schemes of Early Gothic churches gave way to more sculpture inside the building, as tombs became more elaborate and other features such as pulpits were sometimes lavishly carved, as in the <a href="/wiki/Pulpit_of_Sant%27_Andrea,_Pistoia_(Giovanni_Pisano)" title="Pulpit of Sant' Andrea, Pistoia (Giovanni Pisano)">Pulpit by Giovanni Pisano in Sant'Andrea</a>. Painted or carved wooden relief <a href="/wiki/Altarpiece" title="Altarpiece">altarpieces</a> became common, especially as churches created many <a href="/wiki/Chapel" title="Chapel">side-chapels</a>. <a href="/wiki/Early_Netherlandish_painting" title="Early Netherlandish painting">Early Netherlandish painting</a> by artists such as <a href="/wiki/Jan_van_Eyck" title="Jan van Eyck">Jan van Eyck</a> (d. 1441) and <a href="/wiki/Rogier_van_der_Weyden" title="Rogier van der Weyden">Rogier van der Weyden</a> (d. 1464) rivalled that of Italy, as did northern illuminated manuscripts, which in the 15th century began to be collected on a large scale by secular elites, who also commissioned secular books, especially histories. From about 1450 printed books rapidly became popular, though still expensive. There were around 30,000 different editions of <a href="/wiki/Incunable" title="Incunable">incunabula</a>, or works printed before 1500,<a href="#cite_note-BL-364">[331]</a> by which time illuminated manuscripts were commissioned only by royalty and a few others. Very small <a href="/wiki/Woodcut" title="Woodcut">woodcuts</a>, nearly all religious, were affordable even by peasants in parts of Northern Europe from the middle of the 15th century. More expensive <a href="/wiki/Engraving" title="Engraving">engravings</a> supplied a wealthier market with a variety of images.<a href="#cite_note-Griffiths17-365">[332]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_perceptions">Modern perceptions</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Dark_Ages_(historiography)" title="Dark Ages (historiography)">Dark Ages (historiography)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medieval_studies" title="Medieval studies">Medieval studies</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages_in_popular_culture" title="Middle Ages in popular culture">Middle Ages in popular culture</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gossuin_de_Metz_-_L%27image_du_monde_-_BNF_Fr._574_fo42.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Gossuin_de_Metz_-_L%27image_du_monde_-_BNF_Fr._574_fo42.jpg/170px-Gossuin_de_Metz_-_L%27image_du_monde_-_BNF_Fr._574_fo42.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="248" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Gossuin_de_Metz_-_L%27image_du_monde_-_BNF_Fr._574_fo42.jpg/255px-Gossuin_de_Metz_-_L%27image_du_monde_-_BNF_Fr._574_fo42.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Gossuin_de_Metz_-_L%27image_du_monde_-_BNF_Fr._574_fo42.jpg/340px-Gossuin_de_Metz_-_L%27image_du_monde_-_BNF_Fr._574_fo42.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3626" data-file-height="5296" /></a><figcaption>Medieval illustration of the <a href="/wiki/Spherical_Earth" title="Spherical Earth">spherical Earth</a> in a 14th-century copy of <a href="/wiki/Gautier_de_Metz" title="Gautier de Metz">L'Image du monde</a></figcaption></figure> The medieval period is frequently caricatured as a "time of ignorance and superstition" that placed "the word of religious authorities over personal experience and rational activity."<a href="#cite_note-366">[333]</a> This is a legacy from both the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> when scholars favourably contrasted their intellectual cultures with those of the medieval period. Renaissance scholars saw the Middle Ages as a period of decline from the high culture and civilisation of the Classical world. Enlightenment scholars saw reason as superior to faith, and thus viewed the Middle Ages as a time of ignorance and superstition.<a href="#cite_note-Davies291-17">[16]</a> Others argue that reason was generally held in high regard during the Middle Ages. Science historian <a href="/wiki/Edward_Grant" title="Edward Grant">Edward Grant</a> writes, "If revolutionary rational thoughts were expressed [in the 18th century], they were only made possible because of the long medieval tradition that established the use of reason as one of the most important of human activities".<a href="#cite_note-Grant9-367">[334]</a> Also, contrary to common belief, <a href="/wiki/David_C._Lindberg" title="David C. Lindberg">David Lindberg</a> writes, "the late medieval scholar rarely experienced the coercive power of the Church and would have regarded himself as free (particularly in the natural sciences) to follow reason and observation wherever they led".<a href="#cite_note-QPeters-368">[335]</a> The caricature of the period is also reflected in some more specific notions. One misconception, first propagated in the 19th century<a href="#cite_note-flat-369">[336]</a> and still very common, is that all people in the Middle Ages believed that the <a href="/wiki/Myth_of_the_flat_Earth" title="Myth of the flat Earth">Earth was flat</a>.<a href="#cite_note-flat-369">[336]</a> This is untrue, as lecturers in the medieval universities commonly argued that evidence showed the Earth was a sphere.<a href="#cite_note-370">[337]</a> Lindberg and <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Numbers" title="Ronald Numbers">Ronald Numbers</a>, another scholar of the period, state that there "was scarcely a Christian scholar of the Middle Ages who did not acknowledge [Earth's] sphericity and even know its approximate circumference".<a href="#cite_note-371">[338]</a> Other misconceptions such as "the Church prohibited autopsies and dissections during the Middle Ages", "the rise of Christianity killed off ancient science", or "the medieval Christian Church suppressed the growth of natural philosophy", are all cited by Numbers as examples of widely popular myths that still pass as historical truth, although they are not supported by historical research.<a href="#cite_note-Numberslect-372">[339]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-upper-alpha" style="column-width: 60em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> This is the year the last Western Roman Emperors were driven from Italy.<a href="#cite_note-Wickham86-13">[13]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> This system, which eventually encompassed two senior co-emperors and two junior co-emperors, is known as the <a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarchy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Collins9-26">[25]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> The commanders of the Roman military in the area appear to have taken food and other supplies intended to be given to the Goths and instead sold them to the Goths. The revolt was triggered when one of the Roman military commanders attempted to take the Gothic leaders hostage but failed to secure all of them.<a href="#cite_note-Collins51-34">[32]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> An alternative date of 480 is sometimes given, as that was the year Romulus Augustulus' predecessor <a href="/wiki/Julius_Nepos" title="Julius Nepos">Julius Nepos</a> died; Nepos had continued to assert that he was the Western emperor while holding onto <a href="/wiki/Dalmatia" title="Dalmatia">Dalmatia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wickham86-13">[13]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> The English word "slave" derives from the Latin term for Slavs, slavicus.<a href="#cite_note-Dict261-55">[51]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> Brittany takes its name from this settlement by Britons.<a href="#cite_note-James78-60">[55]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> Such entourages are named <a href="/wiki/Comitatus_(classical_meaning)" class="mw-redirect" title="Comitatus (classical meaning)">comitatus</a> by historians, although it is not a contemporary term. It was adapted in the 19th century from a word used by the 2nd-century historian <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a> to describe the close companions of a lord or king.<a href="#cite_note-Dict80-75">[69]</a> The comitatus comprised young men who were supposed to be utterly devoted to their lord. If their sworn lord died, they were expected to fight to the death also.<a href="#cite_note-Geary56-76">[70]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Dhu_Nuwas" title="Dhu Nuwas">Dhu Nuwas</a>, ruler of what is today <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a>, converted in 525 and his subsequent persecution of Christians led to the invasion and conquest of his kingdom by the <a href="/wiki/Axumite" class="mw-redirect" title="Axumite">Axumites</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Collins138-87">[80]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> Muslim armies had earlier <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_conquest_of_Hispania" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad conquest of Hispania">conquered the Visigothic kingdom</a> of Spain, after defeating the last Visigothic King <a href="/wiki/Ruderic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ruderic">Ruderic</a> (d. 711 or 712) at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guadalete" title="Battle of Guadalete">Battle of Guadalete</a> in 711, finishing the conquest by 719.<a href="#cite_note-Bauer344-108">[100]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> The Papal States endured until 1870, when the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</a> seized most of them.<a href="#cite_note-Davies824-114">[105]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_minuscule" title="Carolingian minuscule">Carolingian minuscule</a> was developed from the <a href="/wiki/Uncial_script" title="Uncial script">uncial script</a> of Late Antiquity, which was a smaller, rounder form of writing the <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a> than the classical forms.<a href="#cite_note-Davies241-120">[110]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> Italy at the time did not include the entire peninsula but only part of the north.<a href="#cite_note-Davies285-124">[113]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> There was a brief re-uniting of the Empire by <a href="/wiki/Charles_the_Fat" title="Charles the Fat">Charles III</a>, known as "the Fat", in 884, although the actual units of the empire were not merged and retained their separate administrations. Charles was deposed in 887 and died in January 888.<a href="#cite_note-Collins356-128">[116]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> The Carolingian dynasty had earlier been displaced by King <a href="/wiki/Odo_of_France" title="Odo of France">Odo</a> (r. 888–898), previously <a href="/wiki/Count_of_Paris" title="Count of Paris">Count of Paris</a>, who took the throne in 888.<a href="#cite_note-Collins358-130">[117]</a> Although members of the Carolingian dynasty became kings in the western lands after Odo's death, Odo's family also supplied kings—his brother <a href="/wiki/Robert_I_of_France" title="Robert I of France">Robert I</a> became king for 922–923, and then Robert's son-in-law <a href="/wiki/Rudolph_of_France" title="Rudolph of France">Raoul</a> was king from 929 to 936—before the Carolingians reclaimed the throne once more.<a href="#cite_note-Collins360-131">[118]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> Hugh Capet was a grandson of Robert I, an earlier king.<a href="#cite_note-Collins360-131">[118]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> This settlement eventually expanded and sent out conquering expeditions to England, Sicily, and southern Italy.<a href="#cite_note-Davies336-136">[121]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> This inheritance pattern is known as <a href="/wiki/Primogeniture" title="Primogeniture">primogeniture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wordbook193-184">[168]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> Heavy cavalry had been introduced into Europe from the Persian <a href="/wiki/Cataphract" title="Cataphract">cataphract</a> of the 5th and 6th centuries, but the addition of the <a href="/wiki/Stirrup" title="Stirrup">stirrup</a> in the 7th allowed the full force of horse and rider to be used in combat.<a href="#cite_note-Davies311-186">[169]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> In France, Germany, and the Low Countries there was a further type of "noble", the <a href="/wiki/Ministerialis" title="Ministerialis">ministerialis</a>, who were in effect unfree knights. They descended from serfs who had served as warriors or government officials, which increased status allowed their descendants to hold fiefs as well as become knights while still being technically serfs.<a href="#cite_note-Singman8-189">[171]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> A few Jewish peasants remained on the land under Byzantine rule in the East as well as some on Crete under Venetian rule, but they were the exception in Europe.<a href="#cite_note-Epstein54-196">[177]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a> These two groups—Germans and Italians—took different approaches to their trading arrangements. Most German cities co-operated in the Hanseatic League, in contrast with the Italian city-states who engaged in internecine strife.<a href="#cite_note-Epstein81-201">[181]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a> This grouping of lands is often called the <a href="/wiki/Angevin_Empire" title="Angevin Empire">Angevin Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Feudal285-222">[201]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a> Eleanor had previously been married to <a href="/wiki/Louis_VII_of_France" title="Louis VII of France">Louis VII of France</a> (r. 1137–80), but their marriage was annulled in 1152.<a href="#cite_note-Eleanor-224">[202]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a> Louis was <a href="/wiki/Canonization" title="Canonization">canonised</a> in 1297 by Pope <a href="/wiki/Pope_Boniface_VIII" title="Pope Boniface VIII">Boniface VIII</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hallam401-229">[206]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a> Military religious orders such as the <a href="/wiki/Knights_Templar" title="Knights Templar">Knights Templar</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Knights_Hospitaller" title="Knights Hospitaller">Knights Hospitaller</a> were formed and went on to play an integral role in the crusader states.<a href="#cite_note-Lock353-242">[218]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-262"><a href="#cite_ref-262">^</a> It had spread to Northern Europe by 1000, and had reached Poland by the 12th century.<a href="#cite_note-Epstein45-261">[236]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-269"><a href="#cite_ref-269">^</a> Crossbows are slow to reload, which limits their use on open battlefields. In sieges the slowness is not as big a disadvantage, as the crossbowman can hide behind fortifications while reloading.<a href="#cite_note-Daily124-268">[242]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-297"><a href="#cite_ref-297">^</a> The historical consensus for the last 100 years has been that the Black Death was a form of <a href="/wiki/Bubonic_plague" title="Bubonic plague">bubonic plague</a>, but some historians have <a href="/wiki/Theories_of_the_Black_Death" title="Theories of the Black Death">begun to challenge this view</a> in recent years.<a href="#cite_note-Epstein171-296">[269]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-299"><a href="#cite_ref-299">^</a> One town, <a href="/wiki/L%C3%BCbeck" title="Lübeck">Lübeck</a> in Germany, lost 90 percent of its population to the Black Death.<a href="#cite_note-Daily189-298">[270]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-308"><a href="#cite_ref-308">^</a> As happened with the <a href="/wiki/Bardi_family" title="Bardi family">Bardi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peruzzi" title="Peruzzi">Peruzzi</a> firms in the 1340s when King <a href="/wiki/Edward_III_of_England" title="Edward III of England">Edward III of England</a> repudiated their loans to him.<a href="#cite_note-Keen237-307">[278]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-316"><a href="#cite_ref-316">^</a> Edward's nickname probably came from his black armour, and was first used by <a href="/wiki/John_Leland_(antiquary)" title="John Leland (antiquary)">John Leland</a> in the 1530s or 1540s.<a href="#cite_note-BP242-315">[285]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-318"><a href="#cite_ref-318">^</a> Calais remained in English hands until 1558.<a href="#cite_note-Davies545-317">[286]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-356"><a href="#cite_ref-356">^</a> This wheel was still simple, as it did not yet incorporate a treadle-wheel to twist and pull the fibres. That refinement was not invented until the 15th century.<a href="#cite_note-Daily36-355">[323]</a> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Citations">Citations</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 33em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Power304-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Power304_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Power304_1-1">b</a> Power Central Middle Ages p. 3 </li> <li id="cite_note-Miglio112-2"><a href="#cite_ref-Miglio112_2-0">^</a> Miglio "Curial Humanism" Interpretations of Renaissance Humanism p. 112 </li> <li id="cite_note-Albrow205-3"><a href="#cite_ref-Albrow205_3-0">^</a> Albrow Global Age p. 205 </li> <li id="cite_note-Murray4-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Murray4_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Murray4_4-1">b</a> Murray "Should the Middle Ages Be Abolished?" Essays in Medieval Studies p. 4 </li> <li id="cite_note-Random1194-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Random1194_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Random1194_5-1">b</a> Flexner (ed.) Random House Dictionary p. 1194 </li> <li id="cite_note-OED290-6"><a href="#cite_ref-OED290_6-0">^</a> "Mediaeval" Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary </li> <li id="cite_note-mommsen236-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mommsen236_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-mommsen236_7-1">b</a> Mommsen "Petrarch's Conception of the 'Dark Ages'" Speculum pp. 236–237 </li> <li id="cite_note-Dailyx-8"><a href="#cite_ref-Dailyx_8-0">^</a> Singman Daily Life p. x </li> <li id="cite_note-idea-9"><a href="#cite_ref-idea_9-0">^</a> Knox "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120203005134/http://www.boisestate.edu/courses/latemiddleages/renaissance/historyren.shtml">History of the Idea of the Renaissance</a>" </li> <li id="cite_note-Mommsen227-10"><a href="#cite_ref-Mommsen227_10-0">^</a> Mommsen "Petrarch's Conception of the 'Dark Ages'" Speculum pp. 227-228 </li> <li id="cite_note-Brunixvii-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brunixvii_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brunixvii_11-1">b</a> Bruni History of the Florentine people pp. xvii–xviii </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Middle%20Ages">Middle Ages</a>" Dictionary.com </li> <li id="cite_note-Wickham86-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wickham86_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wickham86_13-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wickham86_13-2">c</a> Wickham Inheritance of Rome p. 86 </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> For example, Scandinavia in Helle, Kouri, and Olesen (ed.) Cambridge History of Scandinavia Part 1 where the start date is 1000 (on page 6) or Russia in Martin Medieval Russia 980–1584 </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> See the titles of Watts Making of Polities Europe 1300–1500 or Epstein Economic History of Later Medieval Europe 1000–1500 or the end date used in Holmes (ed.) Oxford History of Medieval Europe </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies291-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Davies291_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies291_17-1">b</a> Davies Europe pp. 291–293 </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> See the title of Saul Companion to Medieval England 1066–1485 </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> Kamen Spain 1469–1714 p. 29 </li> <li id="cite_note-mommsen226-20"><a href="#cite_ref-mommsen226_20-0">^</a> Mommsen "Petrarch's Conception of the 'Dark Ages'" Speculum p. 226 </li> <li id="cite_note-Tansey242-21"><a href="#cite_ref-Tansey242_21-0">^</a> Tansey, et al. Gardner's Art Through the Ages p. 242 </li> <li id="cite_note-Cunliffe391-22"><a href="#cite_ref-Cunliffe391_22-0">^</a> Cunliffe Europe Between the Oceans pp. 391–393 </li> <li id="cite_note-Collins3-23"><a href="#cite_ref-Collins3_23-0">^</a> Collins Early Medieval Europe pp. 3–5 </li> <li id="cite_note-Heather111-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Heather111_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Heather111_24-1">b</a> Heather Fall of the Roman Empire p. 111 </li> <li id="cite_note-Brown24-25-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brown24-25_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brown24-25_25-1">b</a> Brown World of Late Antiquity pp. 24–25 </li> <li id="cite_note-Collins9-26">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Collins9_26-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Collins9_26-1">b</a> Collins Early Medieval Europe p. 9 </li> <li id="cite_note-Collins24-28"><a href="#cite_ref-Collins24_28-0">^</a> Collins Early Medieval Europe p. 24 </li> <li id="cite_note-Cunliffe405-29"><a href="#cite_ref-Cunliffe405_29-0">^</a> Cunliffe Europe Between the Oceans pp. 405–406 </li> <li id="cite_note-Collins31-30"><a href="#cite_ref-Collins31_30-0">^</a> Collins Early Medieval Europe pp. 31–33 </li> <li id="cite_note-Brown34-31"><a href="#cite_ref-Brown34_31-0">^</a> Brown World of Late Antiquity p. 34 </li> <li id="cite_note-Brown65-32"><a href="#cite_ref-Brown65_32-0">^</a> Brown World of Late Antiquity pp. 65–68 </li> <li id="cite_note-Brown82-33"><a href="#cite_ref-Brown82_33-0">^</a> Brown World of Late Antiquity pp. 82–94 </li> <li id="cite_note-Collins51-34"><a href="#cite_ref-Collins51_34-0">^</a> Collins Early Medieval Europe p. 51 </li> <li id="cite_note-Bauer47-36"><a href="#cite_ref-Bauer47_36-0">^</a> Bauer History of the Medieval World pp. 47–49 </li> <li id="cite_note-Bauer56-37"><a href="#cite_ref-Bauer56_37-0">^</a> Bauer History of the Medieval World pp. 56–59 </li> <li id="cite_note-Bauer80-38"><a href="#cite_ref-Bauer80_38-0">^</a> Bauer History of the Medieval World pp. 80–83 </li> <li id="cite_note-Collins59-39"><a 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Polities p. 169 </li> <li id="cite_note-MA100-314"><a href="#cite_ref-MA100_314-0">^</a> Loyn "Hundred Years' War" Middle Ages p. 176 </li> <li id="cite_note-BP242-315"><a href="#cite_ref-BP242_315-0">^</a> Barber Edward pp. 242–243 </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies545-317"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies545_317-0">^</a> Davies Europe p. 545 </li> <li id="cite_note-Watts180-319"><a href="#cite_ref-Watts180_319-0">^</a> Watts Making of Polities pp. 180–181 </li> <li id="cite_note-Watts317-320"><a href="#cite_ref-Watts317_320-0">^</a> Watts Making of Polities pp. 317–322 </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies423-321"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies423_321-0">^</a> Davies Europe p. 423 </li> <li id="cite_note-Nicholle186-322"><a href="#cite_ref-Nicholle186_322-0">^</a> Nicolle Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom p. 186 </li> <li id="cite_note-Watts170-323"><a href="#cite_ref-Watts170_323-0">^</a> Watts Making of Polities pp. 170–171 </li> <li id="cite_note-Watts173-75-324"><a href="#cite_ref-Watts173-75_324-0">^</a> Watts Making of Polities pp. 173–175 </li> <li id="cite_note-Watts173-325"><a href="#cite_ref-Watts173_325-0">^</a> Watts Making of Polities p. 173 </li> <li id="cite_note-Watts327-326"><a href="#cite_ref-Watts327_326-0">^</a> Watts Making of Polities pp. 327–332 </li> <li id="cite_note-Watts340-327">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Watts340_327-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Watts340_327-1">b</a> Watts Making of Polities p. 340 </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies426-328"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies426_328-0">^</a> Davies Europe pp. 425–426 </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies431-329"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies431_329-0">^</a> Davies Europe p. 431 </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies408-330"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies408_330-0">^</a> Davies Europe pp. 408–409 </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies385-331"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies385_331-0">^</a> Davies Europe pp. 385–389 </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies446-332"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies446_332-0">^</a> Davies Europe p. 446 </li> <li id="cite_note-Thomson170-333"><a href="#cite_ref-Thomson170_333-0">^</a> Thomson Western Church pp. 170–171 </li> <li id="cite_note-MAAvignon-334"><a href="#cite_ref-MAAvignon_334-0">^</a> Loyn "Avignon" Middle Ages p. 45 </li> <li id="cite_note-MAGreat-335"><a href="#cite_ref-MAGreat_335-0">^</a> Loyn "Great Schism" Middle Ages p. 153 </li> <li id="cite_note-Thomson184-336"><a href="#cite_ref-Thomson184_336-0">^</a> Thomson Western Church pp. 184–187 </li> <li id="cite_note-Thomson197-337"><a href="#cite_ref-Thomson197_337-0">^</a> Thomson Western Church pp. 197–199 </li> <li id="cite_note-Thomson218-338"><a href="#cite_ref-Thomson218_338-0">^</a> Thomson Western Church p. 218 </li> <li id="cite_note-Thomson213-339"><a href="#cite_ref-Thomson213_339-0">^</a> Thomson Western Church pp. 213–217 </li> <li id="cite_note-Templars-340"><a href="#cite_ref-Templars_340-0">^</a> Loyn "Knights of the Temple (Templars)" Middle Ages pp. 201–202 </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies436-341"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies436_341-0">^</a> Davies Europe pp. 436–437 </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies433-342"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies433_342-0">^</a> Davies Europe pp. 433–434 </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies438-343">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Davies438_343-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies438_343-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies438_343-2">c</a> Davies Europe pp. 438–439 </li> <li id="cite_note-Singman224-344"><a href="#cite_ref-Singman224_344-0">^</a> Singman Daily Life p. 224 </li> <li id="cite_note-Keen282-345"><a href="#cite_ref-Keen282_345-0">^</a> Keen Pelican History of Medieval Europe pp. 282–283 </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies445-346"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies445_346-0">^</a> Davies Europe p. 445 </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies451-347"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies451_347-0">^</a> Davies Europe p. 451 </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies454-348"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies454_348-0">^</a> Davies Europe pp. 454–455 </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies511-349"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies511_349-0">^</a> Davies Europe p. 511 </li> <li id="cite_note-NicolleWestern180-350"><a href="#cite_ref-NicolleWestern180_350-0">^</a> Nicolle Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom p. 180 </li> <li id="cite_note-NicolleWestern183-351"><a href="#cite_ref-NicolleWestern183_351-0">^</a> Nicolle Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom p. 183 </li> <li id="cite_note-NicolleWestern188-352"><a href="#cite_ref-NicolleWestern188_352-0">^</a> Nicolle Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom p. 188 </li> <li id="cite_note-Nicolle185-353"><a href="#cite_ref-Nicolle185_353-0">^</a> Nicolle Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom p. 185 </li> <li id="cite_note-Epstein193-354"><a href="#cite_ref-Epstein193_354-0">^</a> Epstein Economic and Social History pp. 193–194 </li> <li id="cite_note-Daily36-355"><a href="#cite_ref-Daily36_355-0">^</a> Singman Daily Life p. 36 </li> <li id="cite_note-Daily38-357"><a href="#cite_ref-Daily38_357-0">^</a> Singman Daily Life p. 38 </li> <li id="cite_note-Epstein200-358"><a href="#cite_ref-Epstein200_358-0">^</a> Epstein Economic and Social History pp. 200–201 </li> <li id="cite_note-Epstein203-359"><a href="#cite_ref-Epstein203_359-0">^</a> Epstein Economic and Social History pp. 203–204 </li> <li id="cite_note-Epstein213-360"><a href="#cite_ref-Epstein213_360-0">^</a> Epstein Economic and Social History p. 213 </li> <li id="cite_note-Benton253-361"><a href="#cite_ref-Benton253_361-0">^</a> Benton Art of the Middle Ages pp. 253–256 </li> <li id="cite_note-362"><a href="#cite_ref-362">^</a> Lightbown Secular Goldsmiths' Work p. 78 </li> <li id="cite_note-Benton257-363"><a href="#cite_ref-Benton257_363-0">^</a> Benton Art of the Middle Ages pp. 257–262 </li> <li id="cite_note-BL-364"><a href="#cite_ref-BL_364-0">^</a> British Library Staff "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bl.uk/catalogues/istc/index.html">Incunabula Short Title Catalogue</a>" British Library </li> <li id="cite_note-Griffiths17-365"><a href="#cite_ref-Griffiths17_365-0">^</a> Griffiths Prints and Printmaking pp. 17–18; 39–46 </li> <li id="cite_note-366"><a href="#cite_ref-366">^</a> Lindberg "Medieval Church Encounters" When Science & Christianity Meet p. 8 </li> <li id="cite_note-Grant9-367"><a href="#cite_ref-Grant9_367-0">^</a> Grant God and Reason p. 9 </li> <li id="cite_note-QPeters-368"><a href="#cite_ref-QPeters_368-0">^</a> Quoted in Peters "Science and Religion" Encyclopedia of Religion p. 8182 </li> <li id="cite_note-flat-369">^ <a href="#cite_ref-flat_369-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-flat_369-1">b</a> Russell Inventing the Flat Earth pp. 49–58 </li> <li id="cite_note-370"><a href="#cite_ref-370">^</a> Grant Planets, Stars, & Orbs pp. 626–630 </li> <li id="cite_note-371"><a href="#cite_ref-371">^</a> Lindberg and Numbers "Beyond War and Peace" Church History p. 342 </li> <li id="cite_note-Numberslect-372"><a href="#cite_ref-Numberslect_372-0">^</a> Numbers "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171011022345/https://www.faraday.st-edmunds.cam.ac.uk/CIS/Numbers/Numbers_Lecture.pdf">Myths and Truths in Science and Religion: A historical perspective</a>" Lecture archive Archived 11 October 2017 </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output 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A History of Western Art (Third ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw Hill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-231717-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-07-231717-5"><bdi>0-07-231717-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Western+Art&rft.place=Boston%2C+MA&rft.edition=Third&rft.pub=McGraw+Hill&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-07-231717-5&rft.au=Adams%2C+Laurie+Schneider&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Ages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlbrow,_Martin1997" class="citation book cs1">Albrow, Martin (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/globalagestateso0000albr">The Global Age: State and Society Beyond Modernity</a>. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8047-2870-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8047-2870-4"><bdi>0-8047-2870-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Global+Age%3A+State+and+Society+Beyond+Modernity&rft.place=Stanford%2C+CA&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-8047-2870-4&rft.au=Albrow%2C+Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fglobalagestateso0000albr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Ages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBackman,_Clifford_R.2003" class="citation book cs1">Backman, Clifford R. (2003). The Worlds of Medieval Europe. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-512169-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-512169-8"><bdi>978-0-19-512169-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Worlds+of+Medieval+Europe&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-512169-8&rft.au=Backman%2C+Clifford+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Ages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarber,_Malcolm1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_Barber" title="Malcolm Barber">Barber, Malcolm</a> (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/twocitiesmedieva0000barb_u4c2">The Two Cities: Medieval Europe 1050–1320</a>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-09682-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-09682-0"><bdi>0-415-09682-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Two+Cities%3A+Medieval+Europe+1050%E2%80%931320&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-415-09682-0&rft.au=Barber%2C+Malcolm&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftwocitiesmedieva0000barb_u4c2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Ages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarber,_Richard1978" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Barber" title="Richard Barber">Barber, Richard</a> (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/edwardprinceofwa00barb">Edward, Prince of Wales and Aquitaine: A Biography of the Black Prince</a>. New York: Scribner. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-15864-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-684-15864-7"><bdi>0-684-15864-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Edward%2C+Prince+of+Wales+and+Aquitaine%3A+A+Biography+of+the+Black+Prince&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Scribner&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=0-684-15864-7&rft.au=Barber%2C+Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fedwardprinceofwa00barb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Ages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarlow,_Frank1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Frank_Barlow_(historian)" title="Frank Barlow (historian)">Barlow, Frank</a> (1988). The Feudal Kingdom of England 1042–1216 (Fourth ed.). 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New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-07852-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-07852-8"><bdi>0-300-07852-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Foundations+of+the+Western+Intellectual+Tradition+400%E2%80%931400&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+CT&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-300-07852-8&rft.au=Colish%2C+Marcia+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Ages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollins,_Roger1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Collins" title="Roger Collins">Collins, Roger</a> (1999). Early Medieval Europe: 300–1000 (Second ed.). New York: St. Martin's Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-21886-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-312-21886-9"><bdi>0-312-21886-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Medieval+Europe%3A+300%E2%80%931000&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-312-21886-9&rft.au=Collins%2C+Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Ages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoredon2007" class="citation book cs1">Coredon, Christopher (2007). A Dictionary of Medieval Terms & Phrases (Reprint ed.). Woodbridge, UK: D. S. Brewer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84384-138-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84384-138-8"><bdi>978-1-84384-138-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Medieval+Terms+%26+Phrases&rft.place=Woodbridge%2C+UK&rft.edition=Reprint&rft.pub=D.+S.+Brewer&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-84384-138-8&rft.aulast=Coredon&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Ages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCosman,_Madeleine_Pelner2007" class="citation book cs1">Cosman, Madeleine Pelner (2007). Medieval Wordbook: More the 4,000 Terms and Expressions from Medieval Culture. New York: Barnes & Noble. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7607-8725-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7607-8725-0"><bdi>978-0-7607-8725-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Wordbook%3A+More+the+4%2C000+Terms+and+Expressions+from+Medieval+Culture&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Barnes+%26+Noble&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7607-8725-0&rft.au=Cosman%2C+Madeleine+Pelner&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Ages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrampton,_R._J.2005" class="citation book cs1">Crampton, R. J. (2005). A Concise History of Bulgaria. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-61637-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-61637-9"><bdi>0-521-61637-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+History+of+Bulgaria&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-521-61637-9&rft.au=Crampton%2C+R.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Ages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCunliffe,_Barry2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Barry_Cunliffe" title="Barry Cunliffe">Cunliffe, Barry</a> (2008). Europe Between the Oceans: Themes and Variations 9000 BC–AD 1000. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-11923-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-11923-7"><bdi>978-0-300-11923-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Europe+Between+the+Oceans%3A+Themes+and+Variations+9000+BC%E2%80%93AD+1000&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+CT&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-300-11923-7&rft.au=Cunliffe%2C+Barry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Ages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCurta,_Florin2006" class="citation book cs1">Curta, Florin (2006). Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages 500–1250. Cambridge Medieval Textbooks. 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Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-520912-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-520912-5"><bdi>0-19-520912-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Europe%3A+A+History&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-19-520912-5&rft.au=Davies%2C+Norman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Feuropehistory00davi_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Ages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDawtry,_Anne1989" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Dawtry, Anne (1989). "Agriculture". In Loyn, H. R. (ed.). The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia. London: Thames and Hudson. pp. 15–16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-500-27645-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-500-27645-5"><bdi>0-500-27645-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Agriculture&rft.btitle=The+Middle+Ages%3A+A+Concise+Encyclopedia&rft.place=London&rft.pages=15-16&rft.pub=Thames+and+Hudson&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=0-500-27645-5&rft.au=Dawtry%2C+Anne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Ages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDenley,_Peter1998" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Denley, Peter (1998). "The Mediterranean in the Age of the Renaissance, 1200–1500". In Holmes, George (ed.). The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 235–296. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-285220-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-285220-5"><bdi>0-19-285220-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Mediterranean+in+the+Age+of+the+Renaissance%2C+1200%E2%80%931500&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Illustrated+History+of+Medieval+Europe&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK&rft.pages=235-296&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-19-285220-5&rft.au=Denley%2C+Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Ages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDodwell,_C._R.1993" class="citation book cs1">Dodwell, C. R. 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Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-70653-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-70653-7"><bdi>978-0-521-70653-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Economic+and+Social+History+of+Later+Medieval+Europe%2C+1000%E2%80%931500&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-521-70653-7&rft.au=Epstein%2C+Steven+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Feconomicsocialhi0000epst&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Ages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlexner,_Stuart_Berg" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stuart_Berg_Flexner" title="Stuart Berg Flexner">Flexner, Stuart Berg</a> (ed.). 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Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin's. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-68858-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-312-68858-X"><bdi>0-312-68858-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sources+of+World+Societies%3A+Volume+2%3A+Since+1500&rft.place=Boston%2C+MA&rft.pub=Bedford%2FSt.+Martin%27s&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=0-312-68858-X&rft.au=Gainty%2C+Denis&rft.au=Ward%2C+Walter+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsourcesofworldso0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Ages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeary,_Patrick_J.1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Patrick_J._Geary" title="Patrick J. 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London: Thames and Hudson. pp. 97–98. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-500-27645-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-500-27645-5"><bdi>0-500-27645-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Coinage+and+currency&rft.btitle=The+Middle+Ages%3A+A+Concise+Encyclopedia&rft.place=London&rft.pages=97-98&rft.pub=Thames+and+Hudson&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=0-500-27645-5&rft.au=Grierson%2C+Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Ages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffiths,_Antony1996" class="citation book cs1">Griffiths, Antony (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/printsprintmakin00grif">Prints and Printmaking</a>. London: British Museum Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7141-2608-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-7141-2608-X"><bdi>0-7141-2608-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prints+and+Printmaking&rft.place=London&rft.pub=British+Museum+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-7141-2608-X&rft.au=Griffiths%2C+Antony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fprintsprintmakin00grif&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Ages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHallam,_Elizabeth_M.Everard,_Judith2001" class="citation book cs1">Hallam, Elizabeth M.; Everard, Judith (2001). Capetian France 987–1328 (Second ed.). New York: Longman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-40428-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-40428-2"><bdi>0-582-40428-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Capetian+France+987%E2%80%931328&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-582-40428-2&rft.au=Hallam%2C+Elizabeth+M.&rft.au=Everard%2C+Judith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Ages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHamilton,_Bernard2003" class="citation book cs1">Hamilton, Bernard (2003). Religion in the Medieval West (Second ed.). London: Arnold. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-340-80839-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-340-80839-X"><bdi>0-340-80839-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion+in+the+Medieval+West&rft.place=London&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=Arnold&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-340-80839-X&rft.au=Hamilton%2C+Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Ages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeather,_Peter2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Heather" title="Peter Heather">Heather, Peter</a> (2006). The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-532541-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-532541-6"><bdi>978-0-19-532541-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fall+of+the+Roman+Empire%3A+A+New+History+of+Rome+and+the+Barbarians&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-19-532541-6&rft.au=Heather%2C+Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Ages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHelle,_KnutKouri,_E._I.Olesen,_Jens_E.2003" class="citation book cs1">Helle, Knut; Kouri, E. I.; Olesen, Jens E., eds. (2003). Cambridge History of Scandinavia Part 1. New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-47299-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-47299-7"><bdi>0-521-47299-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cambridge+History+of+Scandinavia+Part+1&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-521-47299-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Ages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenderson,_George1977" class="citation book cs1">Henderson, George (1977). Early Medieval (Revised ed.). New York: Penguin. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/641757789">641757789</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Medieval&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=Revised&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F641757789&rft.au=Henderson%2C+George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Ages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolmes,_George1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Holmes_(historian)" title="George Holmes (historian)">Holmes, George</a>, ed. (1988). The Oxford History of Medieval Europe. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-285272-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-285272-8"><bdi>0-19-285272-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+History+of+Medieval+Europe&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=0-19-285272-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Ages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIlardi,_Vincent2007" class="citation book cs1">Ilardi, Vincent (2007). Renaissance Vision from Spectacles to Telescopes. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87169-259-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87169-259-7"><bdi>978-0-87169-259-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Renaissance+Vision+from+Spectacles+to+Telescopes&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=American+Philosophical+Society&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-87169-259-7&rft.au=Ilardi%2C+Vincent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Ages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames,_Edward2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_James_(historian)" title="Edward James (historian)">James, Edward</a> (2009). Europe's Barbarians: AD 200–600. The Medieval World. Harlow, UK: Pearson Longman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-77296-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-582-77296-0"><bdi>978-0-582-77296-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Europe%27s+Barbarians%3A+AD+200%E2%80%93600&rft.place=Harlow%2C+UK&rft.series=The+Medieval+World&rft.pub=Pearson+Longman&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-582-77296-0&rft.au=James%2C+Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Ages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJordan,_William_C.2003" class="citation book cs1">Jordan, William C. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/europeinhighmidd00jord">Europe in the High Middle Ages</a>. Penguin History of Europe. New York: Viking. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-670-03202-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-670-03202-0"><bdi>978-0-670-03202-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Europe+in+the+High+Middle+Ages&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Penguin+History+of+Europe&rft.pub=Viking&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-670-03202-0&rft.au=Jordan%2C+William+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Feuropeinhighmidd00jord&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Ages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKamen,_Henry2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Kamen" title="Henry Kamen">Kamen, Henry</a> (2005). Spain 1469–1714 (Third ed.). New York: Pearson/Longman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-78464-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-78464-6"><bdi>0-582-78464-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spain+1469%E2%80%931714&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=Third&rft.pub=Pearson%2FLongman&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-582-78464-6&rft.au=Kamen%2C+Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Ages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaufmann,_J._E.Kaufmann,_H._W.2001" class="citation book cs1">Kaufmann, J. E.; Kaufmann, H. W. (2001). The Medieval Fortress: Castles, Forts and Walled Cities of the Middle Ages (2004 ed.). Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-306-81358-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-306-81358-0"><bdi>0-306-81358-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Medieval+Fortress%3A+Castles%2C+Forts+and+Walled+Cities+of+the+Middle+Ages&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.edition=2004&rft.pub=Da+Capo+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-306-81358-0&rft.au=Kaufmann%2C+J.+E.&rft.au=Kaufmann%2C+H.+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Ages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeen,_Maurice1988" class="citation book cs1">Keen, Maurice (1988) [1968]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/pelicanhistoryof00keen">The Pelican History of Medieval Europe</a>. 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London: British Museum. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/510455">510455</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Medieval+Art+at+the+British+Museum&rft.place=London&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=British+Museum&rft.date=1955&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F510455&rft.au=Kitzinger%2C+Ernst&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Ages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnox,_E._L." class="citation web cs1">Knox, E. L. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120203005134/http://www.boisestate.edu/courses/latemiddleages/renaissance/historyren.shtml">"History of the Idea of the Renaissance"</a>. Europe in the Late Middle Ages. Boise State University. 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New York: Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-056036-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-056036-X"><bdi>0-14-056036-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ars+Sacra%2C+800%E2%80%931200&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Penguin+History+of+Art+%28now+Yale%29&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=0-14-056036-X&rft.au=Lasko%2C+Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Ages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLawrence,_C.H2001" class="citation book cs1">Lawrence, C.H (2001). Medieval Monasticism: Forms of Religious Life in Western Europe in the Middle Ages (Third ed.). Harlow, UK: Longman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-40427-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-40427-4"><bdi>0-582-40427-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Monasticism%3A+Forms+of+Religious+Life+in+Western+Europe+in+the+Middle+Ages&rft.place=Harlow%2C+UK&rft.edition=Third&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-582-40427-4&rft.au=Lawrence%2C+C.H&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Ages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLightbown,_Ronald_W.1978" class="citation book cs1">Lightbown, Ronald W. (1978). Secular Goldsmiths' Work in Medieval France: A History. Reports of the Research Committee of the Society of Antiquaries of London. London: Thames and Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-500-99027-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-500-99027-1"><bdi>0-500-99027-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Secular+Goldsmiths%27+Work+in+Medieval+France%3A+A+History&rft.place=London&rft.series=Reports+of+the+Research+Committee+of+the+Society+of+Antiquaries+of+London&rft.pub=Thames+and+Hudson&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=0-500-99027-1&rft.au=Lightbown%2C+Ronald+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Ages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindberg,_David_C.Numbers,_Ronald_L.1986" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_C._Lindberg" title="David C. 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London: Brockhampton Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-86019-889-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-86019-889-9"><bdi>1-86019-889-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Warfare+Source+Book%3A+Warfare+In+Western+Christendom&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Brockhampton+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=1-86019-889-9&rft.au=Nicolle%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Ages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNumbers,_Ronald2006" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Numbers" title="Ronald Numbers">Numbers, Ronald</a> (11 May 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.faraday.st-edmunds.cam.ac.uk/CIS/Numbers/Numbers_Lecture.pdf">"Myths and Truths in Science and Religion: A historical perspective"</a> (PDF). 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New York: Cooper Square Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8154-1086-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8154-1086-7"><bdi>0-8154-1086-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dream+and+the+Tomb%3A+A+History+of+the+Crusades&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=First+paperback&rft.pub=Cooper+Square+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-8154-1086-7&rft.au=Payne%2C+Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Ages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeters,_Ted2005" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ted_Peters_(theologian)" title="Ted Peters (theologian)">Peters, Ted</a> (2005). "Science and Religion". In Jones, Lindsay (ed.). Encyclopedia of Religion. Vol. 12 (Second ed.). 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Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 115–174. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-285220-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-285220-5"><bdi>0-19-285220-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Society+of+Northern+Europe+in+the+High+Middle+Ages%2C+900%E2%80%931200&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Illustrated+History+of+Medieval+Europe&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK&rft.pages=115-174&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-19-285220-5&rft.au=Whitton%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Ages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWickham,_Chris2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Wickham" class="mw-redirect" title="Christopher Wickham">Wickham, Chris</a> (2009). The Inheritance of Rome: Illuminating the Dark Ages 400–1000. New York: Penguin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-311742-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-311742-1"><bdi>978-0-14-311742-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Inheritance+of+Rome%3A+Illuminating+the+Dark+Ages+400%E2%80%931000&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-14-311742-1&rft.au=Wickham%2C+Chris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Ages" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 60em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCantor,_Norman_F.1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Norman_Cantor" title="Norman Cantor">Cantor, Norman F.</a> (1991). Inventing the Middle Ages: The Lives, Works, and Ideas of the Great Medievalists of the Twentieth Century. New York: W. Morrow. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-688-09406-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-688-09406-5"><bdi>978-0-688-09406-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inventing+the+Middle+Ages%3A+The+Lives%2C+Works%2C+and+Ideas+of+the+Great+Medievalists+of+the+Twentieth+Century&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.+Morrow&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-688-09406-5&rft.au=Cantor%2C+Norman+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Ages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGurevich,_Aron1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Aron_Gurevich" title="Aron Gurevich">Gurevich, Aron</a> (1992). Howlett, Janet (translator) (ed.). Historical Anthropology of the Middle Ages. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-31083-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-31083-1"><bdi>978-0-226-31083-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Anthropology+of+the+Middle+Ages&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-226-31083-1&rft.au=Gurevich%2C+Aron&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Ages" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|editor=</code> has generic name (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#generic_name" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolmesStanden" class="citation cs2">Holmes, Catherine; <a href="/wiki/Naomi_Standen" title="Naomi Standen">Standen, Naomi</a>, "Introduction: Towards a Global Middle Ages", Past & Present, 238: 1–44, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fpastj%2Fgty030">10.1093/pastj/gty030</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Past+%26+Present&rft.atitle=Introduction%3A+Towards+a+Global+Middle+Ages&rft.volume=238&rft.pages=1-44&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fpastj%2Fgty030&rft.aulast=Holmes&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rft.au=Standen%2C+Naomi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Ages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith,_Julia2005" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Julia (2005). Europe After Rome: A New Cultural History, 500–1000. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-924427-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-924427-0"><bdi>978-0-19-924427-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Europe+After+Rome%3A+A+New+Cultural+History%2C+500%E2%80%931000&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-924427-0&rft.au=Smith%2C+Julia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Ages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStuard,_Susan_Mosher1987" class="citation book cs1">Stuard, Susan Mosher (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/womeninmedievalh0000unse_n1j5">Women in Medieval History and Historiography</a>. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-1290-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-1290-7"><bdi>978-0-8122-1290-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+in+Medieval+History+and+Historiography&rft.place=Philadelphia%2C+PA&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-1290-7&rft.au=Stuard%2C+Susan+Mosher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwomeninmedievalh0000unse_n1j5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Ages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWickham,_Chris2016" class="citation book cs1">Wickham, Chris (2016). Medieval Europe. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-22221-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-22221-0"><bdi>978-0-300-22221-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Europe&rft.place=New+Haven+and+London&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-300-22221-0&rft.au=Wickham%2C+Chris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Ages" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.netserf.org/">NetSERF</a> The Internet Connection for Medieval Resources.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.deremilitari.org/">De Re Militari: The Society for Medieval Military History</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.medievalmap.org/">Medievalmap.org</a> Interactive maps of the Medieval era (Flash plug-in required).</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/medieval/medievalrealms.html">Medieval Realms</a> Learning resources from the British Library including studies of beautiful medieval manuscripts.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.medievalists.net/">Medievalists.net</a> News and articles about the period.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://medieval-history.org/">Medieval History Database (MHDB)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_worlds" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval worlds">Medieval Worlds</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://medieval.vlg.oeaw.ac.at">Official Website</a> Comparative and interdisciplinary articles about the period.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.the-orb.net/">ORB The Online Reference Book of Medieval Studies</a> Academic peer-reviewed articles and encyclopedia.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blogs.commons.georgetown.edu/labyrinth/">The Labyrinth</a> Resources for Medieval Studies.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 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.navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="European_Middle_Ages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Middle_Ages" title="Template:Middle Ages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:Middle Ages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Middle_Ages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Middle Ages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="European_Middle_Ages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">European Middle Ages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">Decline of the Western Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbarian_kingdoms" title="Barbarian kingdoms">Barbarian kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_pagans_in_the_late_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire">Decline of Hellenistic religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Christianity in the Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam" title="Spread of Islam">Rise of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First Bulgarian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Frankish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Croatia_(925%E2%80%931102)" title="Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102)">Kingdom of Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic" title="Old Church Slavonic">Old Church Slavonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Rise of the Venetian Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civitas_Schinesghe" title="Civitas Schinesghe">Civitas Schinesghe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Justinian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty">Growth of the Eastern Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second Bulgarian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom of Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Rise of the Republic of Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">Great Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capet%E2%80%93Plantagenet_feud" class="mw-redirect" title="Capet–Plantagenet feud">Capet–Plantagenet feud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_commune" title="Medieval commune">Communalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">Manorialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Warm_Period" title="Medieval Warm Period">Medieval Warm Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Kingdom of Portugal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses" title="Wars of the Roses">Wars of the Roses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hussite_Wars" title="Hussite Wars">Hussite Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy" title="Duchy of Burgundy">Burgundy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Castile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Western Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Rise of the Ottoman Empire">Rise of the Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_mercenaries" title="Swiss mercenaries">Swiss mercenaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chivalry" title="Chivalry">Chivalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university">Universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_late_Middle_Ages" title="Crisis of the late Middle Ages">Crisis of the late Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_1315%E2%80%931317" title="Great Famine of 1315–1317">Great Famine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age">Little Ice Age</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Agriculture in the Middle Ages">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_architecture" title="Medieval architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_art" title="Medieval art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_and_state_in_medieval_Europe" title="Church and state in medieval Europe">Church and State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_cuisine" title="Medieval cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_dance" title="Medieval dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_demography" title="Medieval demography">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medieval_Arabic_and_Western_European_domes" title="History of medieval Arabic and Western European domes">Domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hastilude" title="Hastilude">Hastilude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_household" title="Medieval household">Household</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_hunting" title="Medieval hunting">Hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages_in_popular_culture" title="Middle Ages in popular culture">In popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itinerant_court" title="Itinerant court">Itinerant court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_literature" title="Medieval literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_medicine_of_Western_Europe" title="Medieval medicine of Western Europe">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minstrel" title="Minstrel">Minstrel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_music" title="Medieval music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_poetry" title="Medieval poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_science_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="European science in the Middle Ages">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_medieval_Europe" title="Slavery in medieval Europe">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_technology" title="Medieval technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_theatre" title="Medieval theatre">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_warfare" title="Medieval warfare">Warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Women in the Middle Ages">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Ages_(historiography)" title="Dark Ages (historiography)">Dark Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Disability in the Middle Ages">Disability in the Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Middle_Ages" title="Outline of the Middle Ages">Basic topics list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_land_terms" title="List of medieval land terms">Land terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medievalism" title="Medievalism">Medievalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_reenactment" title="Medieval reenactment">Medieval reenactment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_studies" title="Medieval studies">Medieval studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_the_Middle_Ages" title="List of common misconceptions about the Middle Ages">Misconceptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-medievalism" title="Neo-medievalism">Neo-medievalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_post-classical_history" title="Timeline of post-classical history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Historiography in the Middle Ages">Historiography in the Middle Ages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Middle_Ages" title="Portal:Middle Ages">Portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Middle_Ages" title="Category:Middle Ages">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Middle_Ages" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Middle Ages">WikiProject</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="European_Middle_Ages_by_region" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Middle_Ages_by_region" title="Template:Middle Ages by region"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Middle_Ages_by_region" title="Template talk:Middle Ages by region"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Middle_Ages_by_region" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Middle Ages by region"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="European_Middle_Ages_by_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Middle_Ages_by_country" title="Category:Middle Ages by country">European Middle Ages by region</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval histories of current political units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western and Northern Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Corsica" title="Medieval Corsica">Corsica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Denmark#Middle_Ages" title="History of Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/England_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="England in the Middle Ages">England</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Early</a>, <a href="/wiki/England_in_the_High_Middle_Ages" title="England in the High Middle Ages">High</a>, <a href="/wiki/England_in_the_Late_Middle_Ages" title="England in the Late Middle Ages">Late</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/France_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="France in the Middle Ages">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany#Middle_Ages" title="History of Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland" title="History of Ireland">Ireland</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(400%E2%80%93800)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Ireland (400–800)">400–800</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(800%E2%80%931169)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Ireland (800–1169)">800–1169</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(1169%E2%80%931536)" title="History of Ireland (1169–1536)">1169–1536</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italy_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Italy in the Middle Ages">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Scotland in the Middle Ages">Scotland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages" title="Scotland in the Early Middle Ages">Early</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_High_Middle_Ages" title="Scotland in the High Middle Ages">High</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_Late_Middle_Ages" title="Scotland in the Late Middle Ages">Late</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spain_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Spain in the Middle Ages">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sweden_(800%E2%80%931521)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Sweden (800–1521)">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Wales in the Middle Ages">Wales</a> (<a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages" title="Wales in the Early Middle Ages">Early</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_High_Middle_Ages" title="Wales in the High Middle Ages">High</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_Late_Middle_Ages" title="Wales in the Late Middle Ages">Late</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central, Eastern Europe and Near East</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albania_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Albania in the Middle Ages">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Armenia" title="Medieval Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Middle Ages">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Croatia_(925%E2%80%931102)" title="Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102)">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Lands_of_the_Bohemian_Crown_(Middle_Ages)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Lands of the Bohemian Crown (Middle Ages)">Czech lands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Georgia" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li>Greece (<a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Greece" title="Byzantine Greece">Byzantine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Greece" title="Ottoman Greece">Ottoman</a>)</li> <li>Hungary (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary_(1000%E2%80%931301)" title="Kingdom of Hungary (1000–1301)">High Medieval Kingdom</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary_(1301%E2%80%931526)" title="Kingdom of Hungary (1301–1526)">Late Medieval Kingdom</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_during_the_Piast_dynasty" title="History of Poland during the Piast dynasty">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romania_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Romania in the Middle Ages">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbia_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Serbia in the Middle Ages">Serbia</a></li> <li>Anatolia (<a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Anatolia" title="Byzantine Anatolia">Byzantine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuk</a>-<a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_R%C3%BBm" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultanate of Rûm">Rum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Anatolia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Anatolia">Ottoman</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western and Northern Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Frankish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bohemia" title="Kingdom of Bohemia">Kingdom of Bohemia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(Holy_Roman_Empire)" title="Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire)">Kingdom of Italy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Growth_of_the_Old_Swiss_Confederacy" title="Growth of the Old Swiss Confederacy">Swiss Confederacy</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Kingdom of Sicily</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples" title="Kingdom of Naples">Kingdom of Naples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Republic of Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Republic of Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy" title="Duchy of Burgundy">Duchy of Burgundy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Burgundian_Netherlands" title="Burgundian Netherlands">Burgundian Netherlands</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Crown of Castile</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Asturias" title="Kingdom of Asturias">Kingdom of Asturias</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Le%C3%B3n" title="Kingdom of León">Kingdom of León</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Castile" title="Kingdom of Castile">Kingdom of Castile</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Galicia" title="Kingdom of Galicia">Kingdom of Galicia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragon" title="Kingdom of Aragon">Kingdom of Aragon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Catalonia" title="Principality of Catalonia">Principality of Catalonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Valencia" title="Kingdom of Valencia">Kingdom of Valencia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Majorca" title="Kingdom of Majorca">Kingdom of Majorca</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Navarre" title="Kingdom of Navarre">Kingdom of Navarre</a></li> <li>Portugal (<a href="/wiki/County_of_Portugal" title="County of Portugal">County</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Kingdom of Portugal</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">Kingdom of England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Scotland" title="Kingdom of Scotland">Kingdom of Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lordship_of_Ireland" title="Lordship of Ireland">Lordship of Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">al-Andalus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphate of Córdoba">Caliphate of Córdoba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taifa" title="Taifa">Taifa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohads</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Granada" title="Emirate of Granada">Emirate of Granada</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hereditary_Kingdom_of_Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="Hereditary Kingdom of Norway">Hereditary Kingdom of Norway</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central, Eastern Europe and Near East</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li>Bulgarian Empire <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li>Croatia (<a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Croatia" title="Duchy of Croatia">Dalmatia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Pannonian_Croatia" class="mw-redirect" title="Duchy of Pannonian Croatia">Pannonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Croatia_(925%E2%80%931102)" title="Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102)">Kingdom of Croatia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusader_states" title="Crusader states">Crusader states</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cyprus" title="Kingdom of Cyprus">Cyprus</a>, <a href="/wiki/County_of_Tripoli" title="County of Tripoli">Tripoli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Antioch" title="Principality of Antioch">Antioch</a>, <a href="/wiki/County_of_Edessa" title="County of Edessa">Edessa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem" title="Kingdom of Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>)</li> <li>Bosnia and Herzegovina (<a href="/wiki/Banate_of_Bosnia" title="Banate of Bosnia">Banate of Bosnia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bosnia" title="Kingdom of Bosnia">Kingdom of Bosnia</a>)</li> <li>Ukraine (<a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Rus%27" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Rus'">Kingdom of Rus'</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Chernigov" title="Principality of Chernigov">Principality of Chernigov</a>)</li> <li>Russia (<a href="/wiki/Rus%27_Khaganate" title="Rus' Khaganate">Rus' Khaganate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Novgorod_Republic" title="Novgorod Republic">Novgorod Republic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Ryazan" title="Principality of Ryazan">Ryazan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Moscow" title="Principality of Moscow">Moscow</a>)</li> <li>Serbia (<a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Serbia_(early_medieval)" title="Principality of Serbia (early medieval)">Principality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grand_Principality_of_Serbia" title="Grand Principality of Serbia">Grand Principality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Serbia_(medieval)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Serbia (medieval)">Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moravian_Serbia" title="Moravian Serbia">Lordship</a>, <a href="/wiki/Serbian_Despotate" title="Serbian Despotate">Despotate</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Europe" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Europe" title="Template talk:History of Europe"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">History of Europe</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Europe" title="Prehistoric Europe">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_Europe" title="Paleolithic Europe">Paleolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Europe" title="Neolithic Europe">Neolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">Bronze Age Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Europe" title="Iron Age Europe">Iron Age Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Christianity in late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of the Western Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Christianity in the Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li>Bulgarian Empire <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime republics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Pisa" title="Republic of Pisa">Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Amalfi" title="Duchy of Amalfi">Amalfi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragon" title="Kingdom of Aragon">Aragon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Catalonia" title="Principality of Catalonia">Catalonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Valencia" title="Kingdom of Valencia">Valencia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Majorca" title="Kingdom of Majorca">Majorca</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmar_Union" title="Kalmar Union">Kalmar Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Christianity in the modern era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern France">Early modern France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Cossack Hetmanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Swedish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_in_Europe" title="Rise of nationalism in Europe">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_integration" title="European integration">European integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_debt_crisis" title="European debt crisis">European debt crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Europe" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Europe">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_European_history" title="Bibliography of European history">Bibliography of European history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Europe" title="Genetic history of Europe">Genetic history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_region" title="History of the Mediterranean region">History of the Mediterranean region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_European_Union" title="History of the European Union">History of the European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History of Western civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Europe" title="Maritime history of Europe">Maritime history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Europe" title="Military history of Europe">Military history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Western_world_and_culture" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Western_world" title="Template:Western world"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Western_world" title="Template talk:Western world"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Western_world" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Western world"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Western_world_and_culture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">culture</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foundations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization" title="Cradle of civilization">Cradle of civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman world</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Roman legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_culture" title="Gallo-Roman culture">Gallo-Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">European Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">high</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">late</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Revolution" title="Age of Revolution">Age of Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">Universal suffrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Post–Cold War era">Post–Cold War era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">Alphabet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Periods_in_Western_art_history" title="Periods in Western art history">Periods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_cuisine" title="European cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_pattern_diet" title="Western pattern diet">Diet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_tradition" title="Classical tradition">Classical tradition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">Studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_dress_codes" title="Western dress codes">Clothing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_fashion" title="History of Western fashion">History</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_dance_(Europe_and_North_America)" class="mw-redirect" title="Western dance (Europe and North America)">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_education" title="Western education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Esotericism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_astrology" title="Western astrology">Astrology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_folklore" title="European folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_Western_world" title="Immigration to the Western world">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_law" title="Western law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eurolinguistics" title="Eurolinguistics">Eurolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Average_European" title="Standard Average European">Standard Average European</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_literature" title="Western literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_canon" title="Western canon">Canon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_media" title="Western media">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chant" title="Chant">Chant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_music" title="Classical music">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_European_folk_music_traditions" title="List of European folk music traditions">Folk</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="European mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_painting" title="Western painting">Painting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/20th-century_Western_painting" title="20th-century Western painting">contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_(Western_philosophy)" title="Values (Western philosophy)">Values</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_physical_culture" title="Western physical culture">Physical culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_sports" title="Western sports">Sport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Christianity_in_the_Western_world" title="Decline of Christianity in the Western world">Decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Ancient Roman philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Christian_ethics" title="Judeo-Christian ethics">Judeo-Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian existentialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular humanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Tolerance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_tolerance" title="Paradox of tolerance">Paradox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peritrope" title="Peritrope">Peritrope</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanticism" title="Atlanticism">Atlanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereigntism" title="Sovereigntism">Sovereigntism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_values" title="Western values">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_values" title="European values">European</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western</a>/<a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodoxy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Church" title="Greek Orthodox Church">Greek Orthodox Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Culture</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">Paganism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_paganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Finnish paganism">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankish mythology">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_paganism" title="Gothic paganism">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Old Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_religion" title="Hellenistic religion">Hellenistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_paganism" title="Modern paganism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_law" title="Western law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">Equality before the law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_life" title="Right to life">Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_thought" title="Freedom of thought">Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">Press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">Property</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">International law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary integration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ABCANZ_Armies" title="ABCANZ Armies">ABCANZ Armies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_of_European_Regions" title="Assembly of European Regions">AER</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Portuguese_Alliance" title="Anglo-Portuguese Alliance">Anglo-Portuguese Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUK" title="ANZUK">ANZUK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUS" title="ANZUS">ANZUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Council" title="Arctic Council">Arctic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AUKUS" title="AUKUS">AUKUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AUSCANNZUKUS" title="AUSCANNZUKUS">AUSCANNZUKUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Assembly" title="Baltic Assembly">Baltic Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benelux" title="Benelux">Benelux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British%E2%80%93Irish_Council" title="British–Irish Council">British–Irish Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_the_Black_Sea_Economic_Cooperation" title="Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation">BSEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bucharest_Nine" title="Bucharest Nine">Bucharest Nine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CANZUK" title="CANZUK">CANZUK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Baltic_Sea_States" title="Council of the Baltic Sea States">CBSS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_European_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="Central European Free Trade Agreement">CEFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Europe" title="Council of Europe">Council of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craiova_Group" title="Craiova Group">Craiova Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_European_Group" title="Eastern European Group">Eastern European Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Partnership" title="Eastern Partnership">Eastern Partnership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Area" title="European Economic Area">EEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Free_Trade_Association" title="European Free Trade Association">EFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Political_Community" title="European Political Community">EPC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">ESA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">EU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union_Customs_Union" title="European Union Customs Union">EU Customs Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurozone" title="Eurozone">Eurozone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EU%E2%80%93UK_Trade_and_Cooperation_Agreement" title="EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement">EU–UK TCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Eyes" title="Five Eyes">Five Eyes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G7" title="G7">G7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lancaster_House_Treaties" title="Lancaster House Treaties">Lancaster House Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lublin_Triangle" title="Lublin Triangle">Lublin Triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Council" title="Nordic Council">Nordic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_American_States" title="Organization of American States">OAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Balkan" title="Open Balkan">Open Balkan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_for_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europe" title="Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe">OSCE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Islands_Forum" title="Pacific Islands Forum">Pacific Islands Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_for_the_Progress_and_Integration_of_South_America" title="Forum for the Progress and Integration of South America">PROSUR/PROSUL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-American_Treaty_of_Reciprocal_Assistance" title="Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance">Rio Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schengen_Area" title="Schengen Area">Schengen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Relationship" title="Special Relationship">Special Relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Seas_Initiative" title="Three Seas Initiative">Three Seas Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UKUSA_Agreement" title="UKUSA Agreement">UKUSA Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States%E2%80%93Mexico%E2%80%93Canada_Agreement" title="United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement">USMCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visegr%C3%A1d_Group" title="Visegrád Group">Visegrád Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Nordic_Council" title="West Nordic Council">West Nordic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_European_and_Others_Group" title="Western European and Others Group">Western European and Others Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westernization" title="Westernization">Westernization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12554#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12554#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12554#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1020301/">FAST</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4129108-6">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85085001">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb133185191">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb133185191">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph126223&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000050418&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007533694105171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kulturnav.org/8186a38a-1c8d-4d43-8c60-5ebfbdbad5e4">KulturNav</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10641432">NARA</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:<ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp.PNG/19px-The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp.PNG" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp.PNG/29px-The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp.PNG/38px-The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp.PNG 2x" data-file-width="267" data-file-height="267" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Middle_Ages" title="Portal:Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/21px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/32px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/42px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="map" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Europe_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/19px-Europe_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Europe_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/29px-Europe_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Europe_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/38px-Europe_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="541" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Europe" title="Portal:Europe">Europe</a></li></ul></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236088147">.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;font-size:88%;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em 0 0;padding:0 2em}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;padding:0.2em 0;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px;line-height:22px}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;align-items:baseline;padding:0.2em 0;column-gap:1em;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{display:flex;align-items:baseline;margin:0.15em 0;min-height:24px;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-logo{width:22px;line-height:22px;margin:0 0.2em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-link{margin:0 0.2em;text-align:left}@media screen and (max-width:960px){.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{flex-flow:column wrap;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{flex:0 1}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{flex:1;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{flex:0 0 20em;min-width:20em}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.portal-bar{margin-top:-1px}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="noprint metadata sister-bar" role="navigation" aria-label="sister-projects"><div class="sister-bar-header">Middle Ages at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/21px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/28px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages" class="extiw" title="c:Middle Ages">Media</a> from Commons</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/16px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/24px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/32px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Middle_Ages" class="extiw" title="q:Middle Ages">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/28px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/36px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Middle_Ages" class="extiw" title="s:Special:Search/Middle Ages">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" 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