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vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_advance_of_On_the_Origin_of_Species"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>In advance of <i>On the Origin of Species</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_advance_of_On_the_Origin_of_Species-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button 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id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p> The <b>history of zoology</b> before <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>'s 1859 theory of <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> traces the organized study of the <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animal kingdom</a> from <a href="/wiki/Ancient" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient">ancient</a> to <a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">modern</a> times. Although the concept of <i><a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">zoology</a></i> as a single coherent field arose much later, systematic study of zoology is seen in the works of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a> in the ancient <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman world</a>. This work was developed in the Middle Ages by <a href="/wiki/Islamic_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic medicine">Islamic medicine</a> and scholarship, and in turn their work was extended by European scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Albertus_Magnus" title="Albertus Magnus">Albertus Magnus</a>. </p><p>During the European <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> and early modern period, zoological thought was revolutionized in Europe by a renewed interest in <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a> and the discovery of many novel organisms. Prominent in this movement were the anatomist <a href="/wiki/Vesalius" class="mw-redirect" title="Vesalius">Vesalius</a> and the physiologist <a href="/wiki/William_Harvey" title="William Harvey">William Harvey</a>, who used experimentation and careful observation, and naturalists such as <a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carl Linnaeus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffon" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon">Buffon</a> who began to <a href="/wiki/Scientific_classification" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific classification">classify the diversity of life</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Fossil_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil record">fossil record</a>, as well as the development and behavior of organisms. <a href="/wiki/Microscopy" title="Microscopy">Microscopy</a> revealed the previously unknown world of microorganisms, laying the groundwork for <a href="/wiki/Cell_theory" title="Cell theory">cell theory</a>. The growing importance of <a href="/wiki/Natural_theology" title="Natural theology">natural theology</a>, partly a response to the rise of <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical philosophy">mechanical philosophy</a>, encouraged the growth of natural history (although it entrenched the <a href="/wiki/Teleological_argument" title="Teleological argument">argument from design</a>). </p><p>Over the 18th and 19th centuries, zoology became increasingly professional <a href="/wiki/Scientific_discipline" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific discipline">scientific disciplines</a>. Explorer-naturalists such as <a href="/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt" title="Alexander von Humboldt">Alexander von Humboldt</a> investigated the interaction between organisms and their environment, and the ways this relationship depends on geography—laying the foundations for <a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">biogeography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">ecology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">ethology</a>. Naturalists began to reject <a href="/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">essentialism</a> and consider the importance of <a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">extinction</a> and the <a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">mutability of species</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cell_theory" title="Cell theory">Cell theory</a> provided a new perspective on the fundamental basis of life. These developments, as well as the results from <a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">embryology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">paleontology</a>, were synthesized in <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>'s theory of <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> by <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>. In 1859, Darwin placed the theory of organic evolution on a new footing, by his discovery of a process by which organic evolution can occur, and provided observational evidence that it had done so. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pre-scientific_zoology">Pre-scientific zoology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_zoology_through_1859&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Pre-scientific zoology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Sennudem_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Sennudem_001.jpg/220px-Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Sennudem_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Sennudem_001.jpg/330px-Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Sennudem_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Sennudem_001.jpg/440px-Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Sennudem_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1337" /></a><figcaption>An ancient Egyptian plows his fields with a pair of oxen, used as beasts of burden and a source of food.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Earliest_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Earliest humans">earliest humans</a> must have had and passed on knowledge about <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a> to increase their chances of survival. This may have included unsystematic knowledge of human and animal anatomy and aspects of animal behavior (such as migration patterns). People learnt more about animals with the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a> about 10,000 years ago. Humans <a href="/wiki/Domestication" title="Domestication">domesticated</a> animals as people became <a href="/wiki/Pastoralism" title="Pastoralism">pastoralists</a> and then farmers instead of <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">hunter-gatherers</a> in civilisations such as those of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_eastern_cultures">Ancient eastern cultures</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_zoology_through_1859&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Ancient eastern cultures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The ancient cultures of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/History_of_India" title="History of India">Indian subcontinent</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">China</a>, among others, produced renowned surgeons and students of the natural sciences such as <a href="/wiki/Susruta" class="mw-redirect" title="Susruta">Susruta</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zhongjing" title="Zhang Zhongjing">Zhang Zhongjing</a>, reflecting independent sophisticated systems of natural philosophy. Taoist philosophers, such as <a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuangzi</a> in the 4th century BC, expressed ideas related to <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a>, such as denying the fixity of biological species and speculating that species had developed differing attributes in response to differing environments.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ancient Indian <a href="/wiki/Ayurveda" title="Ayurveda">Ayurveda</a> tradition independently developed the concept of three humours, resembling that of the <a href="/wiki/Humorism" title="Humorism">four humours</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_medicine" title="Ancient Greek medicine">ancient Greek medicine</a>, though the Ayurvedic system included further complications, such as the body being composed of <a href="/wiki/Classical_element" title="Classical element">five elements</a> and seven basic <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">tissues</a>. Ayurvedic writers also classified living things into four categories based on the method of birth (from the womb, eggs, heat & moisture, and seeds) and explained the conception of a <a href="/wiki/Fetus" title="Fetus">fetus</a> in detail. They also made considerable advances in the field of <a href="/wiki/Surgery" title="Surgery">surgery</a>, often without the use of human <a href="/wiki/Dissection" title="Dissection">dissection</a> or animal <a href="/wiki/Vivisection" title="Vivisection">vivisection</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the earliest Ayurvedic treatises was the <i><a href="/wiki/Sushruta_Samhita" title="Sushruta Samhita">Sushruta Samhita</a></i>, attributed to Sushruta in the 6th century BC. It was also an early <a href="/wiki/Materia_medica" title="Materia medica">materia medica</a>, describing 700 medicinal plants, 64 preparations from mineral sources, and 57 preparations based on animal sources.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the roots of modern zoology are usually traced back to the <a href="/wiki/Secular" class="mw-redirect" title="Secular">secular</a> tradition of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">ancient Greek philosophy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_Greek_traditions">Ancient Greek traditions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_zoology_through_1859&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Ancient Greek traditions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">pre-Socratic philosophers</a> asked many questions about life but produced little systematic knowledge of specifically zoological interest—though the attempts of the <a href="/wiki/Atomists" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomists">atomists</a> to explain life in purely physical terms would recur periodically through the history of zoology. However, the medical theories of <a href="/wiki/Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates">Hippocrates</a> and his followers, especially <a href="/wiki/Humorism" title="Humorism">humorism</a>, had a lasting impact.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aristotelian_zoology">Aristotelian zoology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_zoology_through_1859&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Aristotelian zoology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aristotle">Aristotle</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_zoology_through_1859&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Aristotle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Torpedo_fuscomaculata2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Torpedo_fuscomaculata2.jpg/220px-Torpedo_fuscomaculata2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Torpedo_fuscomaculata2.jpg/330px-Torpedo_fuscomaculata2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Torpedo_fuscomaculata2.jpg/440px-Torpedo_fuscomaculata2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Aristotle reported correctly that <a href="/wiki/Electric_ray" title="Electric ray">electric rays</a> were able to stun their prey.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_biology" title="Aristotle's biology">Aristotle's biology</a></div> <p>The philosopher <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> created <a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_biology" title="Aristotle's biology">the science of biology</a>, basing its theory on both his <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics#Aristotle" title="Metaphysics">metaphysical</a> principles and on observation. He proposed theories for the processes of metabolism, temperature regulation, information processing, embryonic development and inheritance. He made detailed observations of nature, especially the habits and <a href="/wiki/Abstraction" title="Abstraction">attributes</a> of <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a> in the sea at <a href="/wiki/Lesbos" title="Lesbos">Lesbos</a>. He classified 540 animal species, and dissected at least 50.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aristotle, and nearly all Western scholars after him until the 18th century, believed that creatures were arranged in a graded scale of perfection rising from plants on up to humans: the <i>scala naturae</i> or <a href="/wiki/Great_Chain_of_Being" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Chain of Being">Great Chain of Being</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hellenistic_zoology">Hellenistic zoology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_zoology_through_1859&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Hellenistic zoology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A few scholars in the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_dynasty" title="Ptolemaic dynasty">Ptolemies</a>—particularly <a href="/wiki/Herophilos" title="Herophilos">Herophilus of Chalcedon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Erasistratus" title="Erasistratus">Erasistratus of Chios</a>—amended Aristotle's physiological work, even performing experimental dissections and vivisections.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Claudius Galen</a> became the most important authority on medicine and anatomy. Though a few ancient <a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">atomists</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a> challenged the <a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">teleological</a> Aristotelian viewpoint that all aspects of life are the result of design or purpose, teleology (and after the rise of <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Natural_theology" title="Natural theology">natural theology</a>) remained central to biological thought until the 18th and 19th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval_and_Islamic_zoology">Medieval and Islamic zoology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_zoology_through_1859&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Medieval and Islamic zoology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Frederick_II_and_eagle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Frederick_II_and_eagle.jpg/170px-Frederick_II_and_eagle.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Frederick_II_and_eagle.jpg/255px-Frederick_II_and_eagle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Frederick_II_and_eagle.jpg/340px-Frederick_II_and_eagle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="593" data-file-height="818" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Frederick_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor">Frederick II's</a> influential <i><a href="/wiki/De_arte_venandi" class="mw-redirect" title="De arte venandi">De arte venandi</a></i> explored bird <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphology</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The decline of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> led to the disappearance or destruction of much knowledge, though physicians still incorporated many aspects of the Aristotelian tradition into training and practice. In <a href="/wiki/Byzantium" title="Byzantium">Byzantium</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Islamic" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic">Islamic</a> world, many of Aristotle's works were translated into <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> and commented upon by scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> and <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mayr-91-94_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mayr-91-94-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Medieval <a href="/wiki/Islamic_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic medicine">Muslim physicians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic science">scientists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">philosophers</a> made significant contributions to zoological knowledge between the 8th and 13th centuries during the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a>. The Arab scholar <a href="/wiki/Al-Jahiz" title="Al-Jahiz">al-Jahiz</a> (781–869) described the idea of a <a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">food chain</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was an early adherent of <a href="/wiki/Environmental_determinism" title="Environmental determinism">environmental determinism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a>, a few European scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Hildegard_of_Bingen" title="Hildegard of Bingen">Hildegard of Bingen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Albertus_Magnus" title="Albertus Magnus">Albertus Magnus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frederick_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor">Frederick II</a> expanded the natural history canon. Magnus's <i>De animalibus libri XXVI</i> was one of the most extensive studies of zoological observation published before modern times.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Renaissance_and_early_modern">Renaissance and early modern</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_zoology_through_1859&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Renaissance and early modern"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="From_anatomy_to_systematic_taxonomy">From anatomy to systematic taxonomy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_zoology_through_1859&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: From anatomy to systematic taxonomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gessner_Conrad_1516-1565.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Gessner_Conrad_1516-1565.jpg/170px-Gessner_Conrad_1516-1565.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Gessner_Conrad_1516-1565.jpg/255px-Gessner_Conrad_1516-1565.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Gessner_Conrad_1516-1565.jpg/340px-Gessner_Conrad_1516-1565.jpg 2x" data-file-width="425" data-file-height="454" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Conrad_Gesner" class="mw-redirect" title="Conrad Gesner">Conrad Gesner</a> (1516–1565). His <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Historiae_animalium_(Gesner)" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiae animalium (Gesner)">Historiae animalium</a></i></span> is considered the beginning of modern zoology.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> was the age of collectors and travellers, when many of the stories were actually demonstrated as true when the living or preserved specimens were brought to Europe. Verification by collecting of things, instead of the accumulation of anecdotes, then became more common, and scholars developed a new faculty of careful observation.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Renaissance brought expanded interest in both empirical natural history and physiology. In 1543, <a href="/wiki/Andreas_Vesalius" title="Andreas Vesalius">Andreas Vesalius</a> inaugurated the modern era of Western medicine with his seminal <a href="/wiki/Human_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Human anatomy">human anatomy</a> treatise <i><a href="/wiki/De_humani_corporis_fabrica" class="mw-redirect" title="De humani corporis fabrica">De humani corporis fabrica</a></i>, which was based on dissection of corpses. Vesalius was the first in a series of anatomists who gradually replaced <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholasticism</a> with <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a> in physiology and medicine, relying on first-hand experience rather than authority and abstract reasoning. <a href="/wiki/Bestiaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Bestiaries">Bestiaries</a>—a genre that combines both the natural and figurative knowledge of animals—also became more sophisticated. <a href="/wiki/Conrad_Gessner" title="Conrad Gessner">Conrad Gessner</a>'s great zoological work, <i><a href="/wiki/Historiae_animalium" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiae animalium">Historiae animalium</a></i>, appeared in four volumes, 1551–1558, at Zürich, a fifth being issued in 1587. His works were the starting-point of modern zoology. Other major works were produced by <a href="/wiki/William_Turner_(ornithologist)" class="mw-redirect" title="William Turner (ornithologist)">William Turner</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Belon" title="Pierre Belon">Pierre Belon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Rondelet" title="Guillaume Rondelet">Guillaume Rondelet</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ulisse_Aldrovandi" title="Ulisse Aldrovandi">Ulisse Aldrovandi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Artists such as <a href="/wiki/Albrecht_D%C3%BCrer" title="Albrecht Dürer">Albrecht Dürer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a>, often working with naturalists, were also interested in the bodies of animals and humans, studying physiology in detail and contributing to the growth of anatomical knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 17th century, the enthusiasts of the new sciences, the investigators of nature by means of observation and experiment, banded themselves into academies or societies for mutual support and discourse. The first founded of surviving European academies, the <a href="/wiki/Academia_Naturae_Curiosorum" class="mw-redirect" title="Academia Naturae Curiosorum">Academia Naturae Curiosorum</a> (1651) especially confined itself to the description and illustration of the structure of plants and animals; eleven years later (1662) the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society_of_London" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Society of London">Royal Society of London</a> was incorporated by <a href="/wiki/Royal_charter" title="Royal charter">royal charter</a>, having existed without a name or fixed organisation for seventeen years previously (from 1645). A little later the <a href="/wiki/Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Academy of Sciences">Academy of Sciences</a> of <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a> was established by <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XIV of France">Louis XIV</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> later still the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Sciences_in_Uppsala" title="Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala">Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala</a> was founded. Systematizing, naming and classifying dominated zoology throughout the 17th and 18th centuries. <a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carl Linnaeus</a> published a basic <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">taxonomy</a> for the natural world in 1735 (variations of which have been in use ever since), and in the 1750s introduced <a href="/wiki/Binomial_nomenclature" title="Binomial nomenclature">scientific names</a> for all his species.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While Linnaeus conceived of species as unchanging parts of a designed hierarchy, the other great naturalist of the 18th century, <a href="/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffon" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon">Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon</a>, treated species as artificial categories and living forms as malleable—even suggesting the possibility of <a href="/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">common descent</a>. Though he was writing in an era before evolution was recognized, Buffon is a key figure in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">history of evolutionary thought</a>; his "transformist" theory would influence the evolutionary theories of both <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck" title="Jean-Baptiste Lamarck">Jean-Baptiste Lamarck</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Before the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Exploration" class="mw-redirect" title="Age of Exploration">Age of Exploration</a>, naturalists had little idea of the sheer scale of biological diversity. The discovery and description of new species and the collection of specimens became a passion of scientific gentlemen and a lucrative enterprise for entrepreneurs; many naturalists traveled the globe in search of scientific knowledge and adventure.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Linnaeus_-_Regnum_Animale_(1735).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Linnaeus_-_Regnum_Animale_%281735%29.png/220px-Linnaeus_-_Regnum_Animale_%281735%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Linnaeus_-_Regnum_Animale_%281735%29.png/330px-Linnaeus_-_Regnum_Animale_%281735%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Linnaeus_-_Regnum_Animale_%281735%29.png/440px-Linnaeus_-_Regnum_Animale_%281735%29.png 2x" data-file-width="2348" data-file-height="1481" /></a><figcaption>Table of the Animal Kingdom ("Regnum Animale") from the 1st edition of Linnaeus' <i><a href="/wiki/Systema_Naturae" title="Systema Naturae">Systema Naturae</a></i> (1735)</figcaption></figure> <p>Extending the work of Vesalius into experiments on still living bodies (of both humans and animals), <a href="/wiki/William_Harvey" title="William Harvey">William Harvey</a> investigated the roles of blood, veins and arteries. Harvey's <i><a href="/wiki/De_motu_cordis" class="mw-redirect" title="De motu cordis">De motu cordis</a></i> in 1628 was the beginning of the end for Galenic theory, and alongside <a href="/wiki/Santorio_Santorio" title="Santorio Santorio">Santorio Santorio</a>'s studies of metabolism, it served as an influential model of quantitative approaches to physiology.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Impact_of_the_microscope">Impact of the microscope</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_zoology_through_1859&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Impact of the microscope"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the early 17th century, the micro-world of zoology was just beginning to open up. A few lensmakers and natural philosophers had been creating crude <a href="/wiki/Microscope" title="Microscope">microscopes</a> since the late 16th century, and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a> published the seminal <i><a href="/wiki/Micrographia" title="Micrographia">Micrographia</a></i> based on observations with his own compound microscope in 1665. But it was not until <a href="/wiki/Antony_van_Leeuwenhoek" class="mw-redirect" title="Antony van Leeuwenhoek">Antony van Leeuwenhoek</a>'s dramatic improvements in lensmaking beginning in the 1670s—ultimately producing up to 200-fold magnification with a single lens—that scholars discovered <a href="/wiki/Spermatozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Spermatozoa">spermatozoa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Infusoria" title="Infusoria">infusoria</a> and the sheer strangeness and diversity of microscopic life. Similar investigations by <a href="/wiki/Jan_Swammerdam" title="Jan Swammerdam">Jan Swammerdam</a> led to new interest in <a href="/wiki/Entomology" title="Entomology">entomology</a> and built the basic techniques of microscopic dissection and <a href="/wiki/Staining" title="Staining">staining</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Debate over the <a href="/wiki/Noachian_flood" class="mw-redirect" title="Noachian flood">flood described in the Bible</a> catalyzed the development of <a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">paleontology</a>; in 1669 <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Steno" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholas Steno">Nicholas Steno</a> published an essay on how the remains of living organisms could be trapped in layers of sediment and mineralized to produce <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossils</a>. Although Steno's ideas about fossilization were well known and much debated among natural philosophers, an organic origin for all fossils would not be accepted by all naturalists until the end of the 18th century due to philosophical and theological debate about issues such as the age of the earth and <a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">extinction</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Old-microscopes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Old-microscopes.jpg/220px-Old-microscopes.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Old-microscopes.jpg/330px-Old-microscopes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Old-microscopes.jpg/440px-Old-microscopes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1634" /></a><figcaption>18th century microscopes from the <a href="/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_des_Arts_et_M%C3%A9tiers" title="Musée des Arts et Métiers">Musée des Arts et Métiers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Advances in <a href="/wiki/Microscopy" title="Microscopy">microscopy</a> also had a profound impact on biological thinking. In the early 19th century, a number of biologists pointed to the central importance of the <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cell</a>. In 1838 and 1839, <a href="/wiki/Matthias_Jakob_Schleiden" title="Matthias Jakob Schleiden">Schleiden</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Schwann" title="Theodor Schwann">Schwann</a> began promoting the ideas that (1) the basic unit of organisms is the cell and (2) that individual cells have all the characteristics of <a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">life</a>, though they opposed the idea that (3) all cells come from the division of other cells. Thanks to the work of <a href="/wiki/Robert_Remak" title="Robert Remak">Robert Remak</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Virchow" title="Rudolf Virchow">Rudolf Virchow</a>, however, by the 1860s most biologists accepted all three tenets of what came to be known as <a href="/wiki/Cell_theory" title="Cell theory">cell theory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_advance_of_On_the_Origin_of_Species">In advance of <i>On the Origin of Species</i></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_zoology_through_1859&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: In advance of On the Origin of Species"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Up through the 19th century, the scope of zoology was largely divided between physiology, which investigated questions of form and function, and natural history, which was concerned with the diversity of life and interactions among different forms of life and between life and non-life. By 1900, much of these domains overlapped, while natural history (and its counterpart <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a>) had largely given way to more specialized scientific disciplines—<a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">cytology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bacteriology" title="Bacteriology">bacteriology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">embryology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">geography</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a>. Widespread travel by naturalists in the early-to-mid-19th century resulted in a wealth of new information about the diversity and distribution of living organisms. Of particular importance was the work of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt" title="Alexander von Humboldt">Alexander von Humboldt</a>, which analyzed the relationship between organisms and their environment (i.e., the domain of <a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">natural history</a>) using the quantitative approaches of <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a> (i.e., <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>). Humboldt's work laid the foundations of <a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">biogeography</a> and inspired several generations of scientists.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Darwins_first_tree.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Darwins_first_tree.jpg/220px-Darwins_first_tree.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Darwins_first_tree.jpg/330px-Darwins_first_tree.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Darwins_first_tree.jpg/440px-Darwins_first_tree.jpg 2x" data-file-width="695" data-file-height="616" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>'s first sketch of an evolutionary tree from his <i>First Notebook on Transmutation of Species</i> (1837)</figcaption></figure> <p>The emerging discipline of geology also brought natural history and natural philosophy closer together; <a href="/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier">Georges Cuvier</a> and others made great strides in <a href="/wiki/Comparative_anatomy" title="Comparative anatomy">comparative anatomy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">paleontology</a> in the late 1790s and early 19th century. In a series of lectures and papers that made detailed comparisons between living mammals and <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossil</a> remains Cuvier was able to establish that the fossils were remains of species that had become <a href="/wiki/Extinct" class="mw-redirect" title="Extinct">extinct</a>—rather than being remains of species still alive elsewhere in the world, as had been widely believed.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fossils discovered and described by <a href="/wiki/Gideon_Mantell" title="Gideon Mantell">Gideon Mantell</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Buckland" title="William Buckland">William Buckland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mary_Anning" title="Mary Anning">Mary Anning</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Owen" title="Richard Owen">Richard Owen</a> among others helped establish that there had been an 'age of reptiles' that had preceded even the prehistoric mammals. These discoveries captured the public imagination and focused attention on the history of life on earth.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>, combining the biogeographical approach of Humboldt, the uniformitarian geology of Lyell, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Malthus" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Malthus">Thomas Malthus</a>'s writings on population growth, and his own morphological expertise, created a more successful evolutionary theory based on <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>; similar evidence led <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace" title="Alfred Russel Wallace">Alfred Russel Wallace</a> to independently reach the same conclusions.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>'s early interest in nature led him on a <a href="/wiki/Second_voyage_of_HMS_Beagle" title="Second voyage of HMS Beagle">five-year voyage</a> on <a href="/wiki/HMS_Beagle" title="HMS Beagle">HMS <i>Beagle</i></a> which established him as an eminent <a href="/wiki/Geologist" title="Geologist">geologist</a> whose observations and theories supported <a href="/wiki/Charles_Lyell" title="Charles Lyell">Charles Lyell</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism_(science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Uniformitarianism (science)">uniformitarian</a> ideas, and publication of his <a href="/wiki/The_Voyage_of_the_Beagle" title="The Voyage of the Beagle">journal of the voyage</a> made him famous as a popular author.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Puzzled by the geographical distribution of wildlife and <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossils</a> he collected on the voyage, Darwin investigated the <a href="/wiki/Transmutation_of_species" title="Transmutation of species">transmutation of species</a> and conceived his theory of natural selection in 1838.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although he discussed his ideas with several naturalists, he needed time for extensive research and his geological work had priority.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was writing up his theory in 1858 when <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace" title="Alfred Russel Wallace">Alfred Russel Wallace</a> sent him an essay which described the same idea, prompting immediate joint publication of <a href="/wiki/On_the_Tendency_of_Species_to_form_Varieties;_and_on_the_Perpetuation_of_Varieties_and_Species_by_Natural_Means_of_Selection" title="On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection">both of their theories</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Darwin's <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i>, published on 24 November 1859, a seminal work of scientific literature, was to be the foundation of evolutionary biology. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_zoology_through_1859&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span 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Publications in Zoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_zoology" title="Timeline of zoology">Timeline of zoology</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_zoology_through_1859&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Magner, <i>A History of the Life Sciences</i>, pp 2–3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFNeedhamRonan1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Needham" title="Joseph Needham">Needham, Joseph</a>; Ronan, Colin Alistair (1995). <i>The Shorter Science and Civilisation in China: An Abridgement of Joseph Needham's Original Text, Vol. 1</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 101. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29286-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29286-3"><bdi>978-0-521-29286-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Shorter+Science+and+Civilisation+in+China%3A+An+Abridgement+of+Joseph+Needham%27s+Original+Text%2C+Vol.+1&rft.pages=101&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-521-29286-3&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft.au=Ronan%2C+Colin+Alistair&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+zoology+through+1859" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Magner, <i>A History of the Life Sciences</i>, p. 6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGirish_Dwivedi2007" class="citation journal cs1">Girish Dwivedi, Shridhar Dwivedi (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081010045900/http://medind.nic.in/iae/t07/i4/iaet07i4p243.pdf">"History of Medicine: Sushruta – the Clinician – Teacher par Excellence"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/National_Informatics_Centre" title="National Informatics Centre">National Informatics Centre</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://medind.nic.in/iae/t07/i4/iaet07i4p243.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2008-10-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-10-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=History+of+Medicine%3A+Sushruta+%E2%80%93+the+Clinician+%E2%80%93+Teacher+par+Excellence&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Girish+Dwivedi&rft.aufirst=Shridhar+Dwivedi&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmedind.nic.in%2Fiae%2Ft07%2Fi4%2Fiaet07i4p243.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+zoology+through+1859" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Magner, <i>A History of the Life Sciences</i>, pp 3–9</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Magner, <i>A History of the Life Sciences</i>, pp 9–27</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mayr, <i>The Growth of Biological Thought</i>, pp 84–90, 135</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mason, <i>A History of the Sciences</i>, pp 41–44</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeroi,_Armand_Marie2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Armand_Marie_Leroi" title="Armand Marie Leroi">Leroi, Armand Marie</a> (2014). <a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_Lagoon" class="mw-redirect" title="Aristotle's Lagoon"><i>The Lagoon: How Aristotle Invented Science</i></a>. Bloomsbury. pp. 370–373. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4088-3622-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4088-3622-4"><bdi>978-1-4088-3622-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Lagoon%3A+How+Aristotle+Invented+Science&rft.pages=370-373&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-4088-3622-4&rft.au=Leroi%2C+Armand+Marie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+zoology+through+1859" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mayr, <i>The Growth of Biological Thought</i>, pp 201–202; see also: Lovejoy, <i>The Great Chain of Being</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barnes, <i>Hellenistic Philosophy and Science</i>, p 383–384</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Annas, <i>Classical Greek Philosophy</i>, p 252</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mayr-91-94-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mayr-91-94_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mayr, <i>The Growth of Biological Thought</i>, pp 91–94</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frank N. Egerton, "A History of the Ecological Sciences, Part 6: Arabic Language Science - Origins and Zoological", <i>Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America</i>, April 2002: 142–146 [143]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lawrence I. Conrad (1982), "Taun and Waba: Conceptions of Plague and Pestilence in Early Islam", <i>Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient</i> <b>25</b> (3), pp. 268–307 [278].</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Albertus Magnus. On Animals: A Medieval Summa Zoologica. The Review of Metaphysics | December 01, 2001 | Tkacz, Michael W.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mayr, <i>The Growth of Biological Thought</i>, pp 91–94: "As far as biology as a whole is concerned, it was not until the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century that the universities became centers of biological research."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EB1911-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="noprint"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span> </span>One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLankester1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ray_Lankester" title="Ray Lankester">Lankester, Edwin Ray</a> (1911). "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Zoology" class="extiw" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Zoology">Zoology</a>". In <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 28 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 1022–1039.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Zoology&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=1022-1039&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Lankester&rft.aufirst=Edwin+Ray&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+zoology+through+1859" class="Z3988"></span> See especially pp. 1022–1024.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mayr, <i>The Growth of Biological Thought</i>, pp 166–171</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Magner, <i>A History of the Life Sciences</i>, pp 80–83</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mayr, <i>The Growth of Biological Thought</i>, chapter 4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mayr, <i>The Growth of Biological Thought</i>, chapter 7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Raby, <i>Bright Paradise</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Magner, <i>A History of the Life Sciences</i>, pp 103–113</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Magner, <i>A History of the Life Sciences</i>, pp 133–144</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rudwick, <i>The Meaning of Fossils</i>, pp 41–93</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sapp, <i>Genesis</i>, chapter 7; Coleman, <i>Biology in the Nineteenth Century</i>, chapters 2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bowler, <i>The Earth Encompassed</i>, pp 204–211</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rudwick, <i>The Meaning of Fossils</i>, pp 112–113</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bowler, <i>The Earth Encompassed</i>, pp 211–220</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mayr, <i>The Growth of Biological Thought</i>, chapter 10: "Darwin's evidence for evolution and common descent"; and chapter 11: "The causation of evolution: natural selection"; Larson, <i>Evolution</i>, chapter 3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDesmondMoore1991">Desmond & Moore 1991</a>, pp. 210, 284–285</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDesmondMoore1991">Desmond & Moore 1991</a>, pp. 263–274</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_Wyhe,_John2007" class="citation journal cs1">van Wyhe, John (2007). "Mind the gap : did Darwin avoid publishing his theory for many years?". <i>Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London</i>. <b>61</b> (2): 177–207. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsnr.2006.0171">10.1098/rsnr.2006.0171</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:202574857">202574857</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Notes+and+Records+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London&rft.atitle=Mind+the+gap+%3A+did+Darwin+avoid+publishing+his+theory+for+many+years%3F&rft.volume=61&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=177-207&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsnr.2006.0171&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A202574857%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=van+Wyhe%2C+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+zoology+through+1859" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeddall1968" class="citation journal cs1">Beddall, B. G. (1968). "Wallace, Darwin, and the Theory of Natural Selection". <i>Journal of the History of Biology</i>. <b>1</b> (2): 261–323. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00351923">10.1007/BF00351923</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:81107747">81107747</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+History+of+Biology&rft.atitle=Wallace%2C+Darwin%2C+and+the+Theory+of+Natural+Selection&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=261-323&rft.date=1968&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF00351923&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A81107747%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Beddall&rft.aufirst=B.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+zoology+through+1859" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_zoology_through_1859&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDesmondMoore1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adrian_Desmond" title="Adrian Desmond">Desmond, Adrian J.</a>; <a href="/wiki/James_Moore_(biographer)" title="James Moore (biographer)">Moore, James</a> (1991). <i>Darwin</i>. Warner Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Darwin&rft.pub=Warner+Books&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Desmond&rft.aufirst=Adrian+J.&rft.au=Moore%2C+James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+zoology+through+1859" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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aria-labelledby="History_of_biology_(timeline)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_biology" title="Template:History of biology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_biology" title="Template talk:History of biology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_biology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of biology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_biology_(timeline)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">History of biology</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry" title="Timeline of biology and organic chemistry">timeline</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fields,<br />disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agricultural_science" title="History of agricultural science">Agricultural science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_anatomy" title="History of anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biochemistry" title="History of biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biotechnology" title="History of biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_botany" title="History of botany">Botany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ecology" title="History of ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">Evolutionary thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_genetics" title="History of genetics">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geology" title="History of geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_immunology" title="Timeline of immunology">Immunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_model_organisms" title="History of model organisms">Model organisms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_biology" title="History of molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_evolution" title="History of molecular evolution">Molecular evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_paleontology" title="History of paleontology">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_phycology" title="History of phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_plant_systematics" title="History of plant systematics">Plant systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_RNA_biology" title="History of RNA biology">RNA biology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Zoology (through 1859)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_zoology_since_1859" class="mw-redirect" title="History of zoology since 1859">Zoology (since 1859)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories,<br />concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">Germ theory of disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_dogma_of_molecular_biology" title="Central dogma of molecular biology">Central dogma of molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darwinism" title="Darwinism">Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_chain_of_being" title="Great chain of being">Great chain of being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_organisation" title="Biological organisation">Hierarchy of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_gene%E2%80%93one_enzyme_hypothesis" title="One gene–one enzyme hypothesis">One gene–one enzyme hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protocell" title="Protocell">Protocell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RNA_world" title="RNA world">RNA world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sequence_hypothesis" title="Sequence hypothesis">Sequence hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_generation" title="Spontaneous generation">Spontaneous generation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Philosophy of biology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Teleology_in_biology" title="Teleology in biology">Teleology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnobotany" title="Ethnobotany">Ethnobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysgenics" title="Dysgenics">Dysgenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_creation%E2%80%93evolution_controversy" title="History of the creation–evolution controversy">History of the creation-evolution controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project">Human Genome Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humboldtian_science" title="Humboldtian science">Humboldtian science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">Natural history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">Natural philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_theology" title="Natural theology">Natural theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_biology" title="Category:History of biology">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Zoology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Zoology" title="Template:Zoology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Zoology" title="Template talk:Zoology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Zoology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Zoology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Zoology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">Zoology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_zoology" title="Outline of zoology">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:;width:1%">Branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthropodology" title="Arthropodology">Arthropodology</a> (<a href="/wiki/Arachnology" title="Arachnology">Arachnology</a> (<a href="/wiki/Acarology" title="Acarology">Acarology</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carcinology" title="Carcinology">Carcinology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entomology" title="Entomology">Entomology</a> (<a href="/wiki/Coleopterology" title="Coleopterology">Coleopterology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lepidopterology" title="Lepidopterology">Lepidopterology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melittology" title="Melittology">Melittology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myrmecology" title="Myrmecology">Myrmecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthopterology" title="Orthopterology">Orthopterology</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myriapodology" title="Myriapodology">Myriapodology</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryozoology" title="Bryozoology">Bryozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cnidariology" title="Cnidariology">Cnidariology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnozoology" title="Ethnozoology">Ethnozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">Ethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helminthology" title="Helminthology">Helminthology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herpetology" title="Herpetology">Herpetology</a> (<a href="/wiki/Batrachology" title="Batrachology">Batrachology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ophiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Ophiology">Ophiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testudinology" class="mw-redirect" title="Testudinology">Testudinology</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyology" title="Ichthyology">Ichthyology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malacology" title="Malacology">Malacology</a> (<a href="/wiki/Conchology" title="Conchology">Conchology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teuthology" title="Teuthology">Teuthology</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammalogy" title="Mammalogy">Mammalogy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cetology" title="Cetology">Cetology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynology" title="Cynology">Cynology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felinology" title="Felinology">Felinology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippology" title="Hippology">Hippology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nematology" title="Nematology">Nematology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroethology" title="Neuroethology">Neuroethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ornithology" title="Ornithology">Ornithology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitology" title="Parasitology">Parasitology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleozoology" title="Paleozoology">Paleozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planktology" title="Planktology">Planktology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zooarchaeology" title="Zooarchaeology">Zooarchaeology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animal</a> groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge">Porifera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ctenophora" title="Ctenophora">Ctenophora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placozoa" title="Placozoa">Placozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria">Cnidaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenacoelomorpha" title="Xenacoelomorpha">Xenacoelomorpha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambulacraria" title="Ambulacraria">Ambulacraria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chordate" title="Chordate">Chordata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aschelminthes" class="mw-redirect" title="Aschelminthes">Aschelminthes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">Arthropoda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flatworm" title="Flatworm">Platyhelminthes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca">Mollusca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annelid" title="Annelid">Annelida</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">Animal anatomy</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">Animal morphology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">Histology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)#Animal_tissue" title="Tissue (biology)">Tissues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epithelium" title="Epithelium">Epithelial tissue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscle_tissue" class="mw-redirect" title="Muscle tissue">Muscular tissue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nervous_tissue" title="Nervous tissue">Nervous tissue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connective_tissue" title="Connective tissue">Connective tissues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineralized_tissues" title="Mineralized tissues">Mineralized tissues</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_anatomy" title="Molecular anatomy">Molecular anatomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Comparative_anatomy" title="Comparative anatomy">Anatomy <br /> and morphology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mammal#Anatomy" title="Mammal">Mammalian anatomy and morphology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Human anatomy">Human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dog_anatomy" title="Dog anatomy">Dog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elephant#Anatomy_and_morphology" title="Elephant">Elephant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cat_anatomy" title="Cat anatomy">Cat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_anatomy" title="Bird anatomy">Bird anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_anatomy" title="Fish anatomy">Fish anatomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shark_anatomy" title="Shark anatomy">Shark anatomy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spider_anatomy" title="Spider anatomy">Spider anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insect_morphology" title="Insect morphology">Insect morphology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Physiology#Animals" title="Physiology">Animal physiology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General physiology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Respiration_(physiology)" title="Respiration (physiology)">Respiration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system" title="Respiratory system">Respiratory system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breathing" title="Breathing">Breathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_exchange" title="Gas exchange">Gas exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_pigment" title="Respiratory pigment">Respiratory pigment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">Cellular respiration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Vascular system">Vascular system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blood" title="Blood">Blood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lymph" title="Lymph">Lymph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_vessel" title="Blood vessel">Blood vessels</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Arteries">Arteries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vein" title="Vein">Veins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capillaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Capillaries">Capillaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heart" title="Heart">Heart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_vascular_system" title="Water vascular system">Water vascular system</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By species</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Insect_physiology" title="Insect physiology">Insect physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_physiology" title="Fish physiology">Fish physiology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_zoologists" class="mw-redirect" title="List of zoologists">Zoologists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ernst_von_Baer" title="Karl Ernst von Baer">Karl Ernst von Baer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier">Georges Cuvier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Henri_Fabre" title="Jean-Henri Fabre">Jean-Henri Fabre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Kirby_(entomologist)" title="William Kirby (entomologist)">William Kirby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carl Linnaeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Lorenz" title="Konrad Lorenz">Konrad Lorenz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Say" title="Thomas Say">Thomas Say</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jakob_von_Uexk%C3%BCll" class="mw-redirect" title="Jakob von Uexküll">Jakob von Uexküll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace" title="Alfred Russel Wallace">Alfred Russel Wallace</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:;width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Pre-Darwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_zoology_(1859%E2%80%93present)" title="History of zoology (1859–present)">Post-Darwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_zoology" title="Timeline of zoology">Timeline of zoology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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