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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rime_tables" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rime_tables"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Rime tables </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rime_tables-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_dialects_and_Sino-Xenic_pronunciations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_dialects_and_Sino-Xenic_pronunciations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Modern dialects and Sino-Xenic pronunciations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_dialects_and_Sino-Xenic_pronunciations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transcription_evidence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transcription_evidence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 Transcription evidence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transcription_evidence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Methodology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methodology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Methodology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Methodology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Phonology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Phonology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Initials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Initials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Initials </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Initials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Finals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Finals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Finals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Finals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tones" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tones"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Tones </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tones-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Changes_from_Old_to_Modern_Chinese" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Changes_from_Old_to_Modern_Chinese"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Changes from Old to Modern Chinese </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Changes_from_Old_to_Modern_Chinese-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Grammar </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Works cited </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Middle Chinese</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 27 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-27" aria-hidden="true" > 27 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinu_mediu" title="Chinu mediu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Chinu mediu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mittelchinesisch" title="Mittelchinesisch – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Mittelchinesisch" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chino_medio" title="Chino medio – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Chino medio" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C_%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%87" title="چینی میانه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="چینی میانه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinois_m%C3%A9di%C3%A9val" title="Chinois médiéval – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Chinois médiéval" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A4%91%EA%B3%A0_%ED%95%9C%EC%96%B4" title="중고 한어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="중고 한어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasni_srednjovjekovni_kineski_jezik" title="Kasni srednjovjekovni kineski jezik – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kasni srednjovjekovni kineski jezik" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Tionghoa_Pertengahan" title="Bahasa Tionghoa Pertengahan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Tionghoa Pertengahan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_cinese_media" title="Lingua cinese media – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua cinese media" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_Cina_Tengahan" title="Basa Cina Tengahan – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Basa Cina Tengahan" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Cina_Pertengahan" title="Bahasa Cina Pertengahan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bahasa Cina Pertengahan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%E1%B9%B3%CC%86ng-g%C5%AB_H%C3%A1ng-ng%E1%B9%B3%CC%84" title="Dṳ̆ng-gū Háng-ngṳ̄ – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Dṳ̆ng-gū Háng-ngṳ̄" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%8F%A4%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E8%AA%9E" title="中古中国語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="中古中国語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middelalderkinesisk" title="Middelalderkinesisk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Middelalderkinesisk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyk_%C5%9Bredniochi%C5%84ski" title="Język średniochiński – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Język średniochiński" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Среднекитайский язык – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Среднекитайский язык" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Middle Chinese" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%9A%D0%B8_%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Средњи кинески језик – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Средњи кинески језик" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srednji_kineski_jezik" title="Srednji kineski jezik – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Srednji kineski jezik" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keskikiina" title="Keskikiina – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Keskikiina" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medeltidskinesiska" title="Medeltidskinesiska – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Medeltidskinesiska" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orta_%C3%87ince" title="Orta Çince – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Orta Çince" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%8C%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Середньокитайська мова – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Середньокитайська мова" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFng_H%C3%A1n_trung_c%E1%BB%95" title="Tiếng Hán trung cổ – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tiếng Hán trung cổ" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%8F%A4%E6%B1%89%E8%AF%AD" title="中古汉语 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="中古汉语" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%8F%A4%E6%BC%A2%E8%AA%9E" title="中古漢語 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="中古漢語" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%8F%A4%E6%B1%89%E8%AF%AD" title="中古汉语 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="中古汉语" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a 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.navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: salmon;">Middle Chinese</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: salmon;">Ancient Chinese</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: salmon;">漢語 hɑnH ŋɨʌX</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Tangyun_-_Chinese_Dictionary_Museum.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A scroll with Chinese writing, with large head characters" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Tangyun_-_Chinese_Dictionary_Museum.JPG/200px-Tangyun_-_Chinese_Dictionary_Museum.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="286" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Tangyun_-_Chinese_Dictionary_Museum.JPG/300px-Tangyun_-_Chinese_Dictionary_Museum.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Tangyun_-_Chinese_Dictionary_Museum.JPG/400px-Tangyun_-_Chinese_Dictionary_Museum.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1564" data-file-height="2240" /></a><div class="infobox-caption" style="padding:0.35em 0.35em 0.25em;line-height:1.25em;">Part of the Tangyun, an 8th-century edition of the <a href="/wiki/Qieyun" title="Qieyun">Qieyun</a> dictionary</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Native to</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Era</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">4th–12th centuries<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXiang2023i-1">[1]</a> <a href="/wiki/Northern_and_Southern_dynasties" title="Northern and Southern dynasties">Northern and Southern dynasties</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_period" title="Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period">Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period</a>, <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Sinitic_languages" title="Sinitic languages">Sinitic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li>Middle Chinese</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Early forms</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Han_Chinese" title="Eastern Han Chinese">Eastern Han Chinese</a> </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: salmon;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/ltc" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:ltc">ltc</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Linguist_List" title="Linguist List">Linguist List</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200101010101/http://multitree.org/codes/ltc">ltc</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/midd1344">midd1344</a></code></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: salmon;">Chinese name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data">中古漢語</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data">中古汉语</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Zhōnggǔ Hànyǔ</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td class="infobox-data">chung1-ku3 Han4-yü3</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">[ʈʂʊ́ŋkù xânỳ]</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Yue: Cantonese</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Yale_romanization_of_Cantonese" title="Yale romanization of Cantonese">Yale Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Jūnggú Honyúh</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jyutping" title="Jyutping">Jyutping</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Zung1gu2 Hon3jyu5</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">[tsóŋkǔː hɔ̄ːny̬ː]</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern Min</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Romanization_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Taiwanese Romanization System">Tâi-lô</a></th><td class="infobox-data">tiong-kóo Hàn-gú</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> Middle Chinese (formerly known as Ancient Chinese) or the Qieyun system (QYS) is the historical variety of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a> recorded in the <a href="/wiki/Qieyun" title="Qieyun">Qieyun</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Rime_dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Rime dictionary">rime dictionary</a> first published in 601 and followed by several revised and expanded editions. The Swedish linguist <a href="/wiki/Bernhard_Karlgren" title="Bernhard Karlgren">Bernhard Karlgren</a> believed that the dictionary recorded a speech standard of the capital <a href="/wiki/Chang%27an" title="Chang'an">Chang'an</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasties</a>. However, based on the preface of the Qieyun, most scholars now believe that it records a compromise between northern and southern reading and poetic traditions from the late <a href="/wiki/Northern_and_Southern_dynasties" title="Northern and Southern dynasties">Northern and Southern dynasties</a> period. This composite system contains important information for the reconstruction of the preceding system of <a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese_phonology" title="Old Chinese phonology">Old Chinese phonology</a> (early 1st millennium BC). The <a href="/wiki/Fanqie" title="Fanqie">fanqie</a> method used to indicate pronunciation in these dictionaries, though an improvement on earlier methods, proved awkward in practice. The mid-12th-century <a href="/wiki/Yunjing" title="Yunjing">Yunjing</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Rime_table" title="Rime table">rime tables</a> incorporate a more sophisticated and convenient analysis of the Qieyun phonology. The rime tables attest to a number of sound changes that had occurred over the centuries following the publication of the Qieyun. Linguists sometimes refer to the system of the Qieyun as Early Middle Chinese and the variant revealed by the rime tables as Late Middle Chinese. The dictionaries and tables describe pronunciations in relative terms, but do not give their actual sounds. Karlgren was the first to attempt <a href="/wiki/Karlgren%E2%80%93Li_reconstruction_of_Middle_Chinese" title="Karlgren–Li reconstruction of Middle Chinese">a reconstruction of the sounds of Middle Chinese</a>, comparing its categories with modern <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">varieties of Chinese</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sino-Xenic_pronunciations" class="mw-redirect" title="Sino-Xenic pronunciations">Sino-Xenic pronunciations</a> used in the reading traditions of neighbouring countries. Several other scholars have produced their own reconstructions using similar methods. The Qieyun system is often used as a framework for Chinese dialectology. With the exception of <a href="/wiki/Min_Chinese" title="Min Chinese">Min</a> varieties, which show independent developments from Old Chinese, modern Chinese varieties can be largely treated as divergent developments from Middle Chinese. The study of Middle Chinese also provides for a better understanding and analysis of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese_poetry" title="Classical Chinese poetry">Classical Chinese poetry</a>, such as the study of <a href="/wiki/Tang_poetry" title="Tang poetry">Tang poetry</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_Chinese&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> The reconstruction of Middle Chinese phonology is largely dependent upon detailed descriptions in a few original sources. The most important of these is the Qieyun <a href="/wiki/Rime_dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Rime dictionary">rime dictionary</a> (601) and its revisions. The Qieyun is often used together with interpretations in <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Rime_table" title="Rime table">rime tables</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Yunjing" title="Yunjing">Yunjing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qiyin_l%C3%BCe" title="Qiyin lüe">Qiyin lüe</a>, and the later Qieyun zhizhangtu and Sisheng dengzi. The documentary sources are supplemented by comparison with modern <a href="/wiki/Chinese_varieties" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese varieties">Chinese varieties</a>, pronunciation of Chinese words borrowed by other languages—particularly <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a>—<a href="/wiki/Transcription_into_Chinese_characters" title="Transcription into Chinese characters">transcription into Chinese characters</a> of foreign names, transcription of Chinese names in alphabetic scripts such as <a href="/wiki/Brahmi_script" title="Brahmi script">Brahmi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Tibetan alphabet">Tibetan</a> and Uyghur, and evidence regarding rhyme and tone patterns from classical <a href="/wiki/Chinese_poetry" title="Chinese poetry">Chinese poetry</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198824–41-2">[2]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rime_dictionaries">Rime dictionaries</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_Chinese&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Rime dictionaries">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rime_dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Rime dictionary">Rime dictionary</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Guangyun_Dong_Rhyme_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="two pages of a Chinese dictionary, comprising the end of the index and the start of the entries" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Guangyun_Dong_Rhyme_1.jpg/390px-Guangyun_Dong_Rhyme_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="390" height="259" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Guangyun_Dong_Rhyme_1.jpg/585px-Guangyun_Dong_Rhyme_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Guangyun_Dong_Rhyme_1.jpg/780px-Guangyun_Dong_Rhyme_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1375" data-file-height="912" /></a><figcaption>The start of the first rhyme class of the <a href="/wiki/Guangyun" title="Guangyun">Guangyun</a> (東 dōng 'east')</figcaption></figure> Chinese scholars of the <a href="/wiki/Northern_and_Southern_dynasties" title="Northern and Southern dynasties">Northern and Southern dynasties</a> period were concerned with the correct recitation of the classics. Various schools produced dictionaries to codify reading pronunciations and the associated rhyme conventions of regulated verse.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin2003379-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[a]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Qieyun" title="Qieyun">Qieyun</a> (601) was an attempt to merge the distinctions in six earlier dictionaries, which were eclipsed by its success and are no longer extant. It was accepted as the standard reading pronunciation during the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a>, and went through several revisions and expansions over the following centuries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198825-6">[5]</a> The Qieyun is thus the oldest surviving rhyme dictionary and the main source for the pronunciation of characters in Early Middle Chinese (EMC). At the time of <a href="/wiki/Bernhard_Karlgren" title="Bernhard Karlgren">Bernhard Karlgren</a>'s seminal work on Middle Chinese in the early 20th century, only fragments of the Qieyun were known, and scholars relied on the <a href="/wiki/Guangyun" title="Guangyun">Guangyun</a> (1008), a much expanded edition from the Song dynasty. However, significant sections of a version of the Qieyun itself were subsequently discovered in the caves of <a href="/wiki/Dunhuang" title="Dunhuang">Dunhuang</a>, and a complete copy of Wang Renxu's 706 edition from the Palace Library was found in 1947.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198824–25-7">[6]</a> The rhyme dictionaries organize Chinese characters by their pronunciation, according to a hierarchy of tone, rhyme and homophony. Characters with identical pronunciations are grouped into homophone classes, whose pronunciation is described using two <a href="/wiki/Fanqie" title="Fanqie">fanqie</a> characters, the first of which has the initial sound of the characters in the homophone class and second of which has the same sound as the rest of the syllable (the final). The use of fanqie was an important innovation of the Qieyun and allowed the pronunciation of all characters to be described exactly; earlier dictionaries simply described the pronunciation of unfamiliar characters in terms of the most similar-sounding familiar character.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter199233–35-8">[7]</a> The fanqie system uses multiple equivalent characters to represent each particular initial, and likewise for finals. The categories of initials and finals actually represented were first identified by the Cantonese scholar <a href="/wiki/Chen_Li_(scholar)" title="Chen Li (scholar)">Chen Li</a> in a careful analysis published in his Qieyun kao (1842). Chen's method was to equate two fanqie initials (or finals) whenever one was used in the fanqie spelling of the pronunciation of the other, and to follow chains of such equivalences to identify groups of spellers for each initial or final.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984142–143-9">[8]</a> For example, the pronunciation of the character 東 was given using the fanqie spelling 德紅, the pronunciation of 德 was given as 多特, and the pronunciation of 多 was given as 德河, from which we can conclude that the words 東, 德 and 多 all had the same initial sound.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201410-10">[9]</a> The Qieyun classified homonyms under 193 rhyme classes, each of which is placed within one of the four tones.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984136-11">[10]</a> A single rhyme class may contain multiple finals, generally differing only in the medial (especially when it is /w/) or in so-called <a href="/wiki/Chongniu" title="Chongniu">chongniu</a> doublets.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198827-12">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank198478,_142–143-13">[12]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rime_tables">Rime tables</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_Chinese&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Rime tables">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rime_table" title="Rime table">Rime table</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yunjing.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="table of 23 columns and 16 rows, with Chinese characters in some cells" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Yunjing.jpg/390px-Yunjing.jpg" decoding="async" width="390" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Yunjing.jpg/585px-Yunjing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Yunjing.jpg/780px-Yunjing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1752" data-file-height="1108" /></a><figcaption>The first table of the <a href="/wiki/Yunjing" title="Yunjing">Yunjing</a>, covering the Guangyun rhyme classes 東 dōng, 董 dǒng, 送 sòng and 屋 wū (/-k/ in Middle Chinese)</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Yunjing" title="Yunjing">Yunjing</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1150 AD) is the oldest of the so-called <a href="/wiki/Rime_table" title="Rime table">rime tables</a>, which provide a more detailed phonological analysis of the system contained in the Qieyun. The Yunjing was created centuries after the Qieyun, and the authors of the Yunjing were attempting to interpret a phonological system that differed in significant ways from that of their own Late Middle Chinese (LMC) dialect. They were aware of this, and attempted to reconstruct Qieyun phonology as well as possible through a close analysis of regularities in the system and co-occurrence relationships between the initials and finals indicated by the fanqie characters. However, the analysis inevitably shows some influence from LMC, which needs to be taken into account when interpreting difficult aspects of the system.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198829–30-14">[13]</a> The Yunjing is organized into 43 tables, each covering several Qieyun rhyme classes, and classified as:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198831–32-15">[14]</a> <ul><li>One of 16 broad rhyme classes (shè)—each described as either "inner" or "outer". The meaning of this is debated but it has been suggested that it refers to the height of the main vowel, with "outer" finals having an <a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">open vowel</a> (/ɑ/ or /a/, /æ/) and "inner" finals having a <a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">mid</a> or <a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">close vowel</a>.</li> <li>"Open mouth" or "closed mouth", indicating whether <a href="/wiki/Lip_rounding" class="mw-redirect" title="Lip rounding">lip rounding</a> is present. "Closed" finals either have a rounded vowel (e.g. /u/) or rounded glide.</li></ul> Each table has 23 columns, one for each initial consonant. Although the Yunjing distinguishes 36 initials, they are placed in 23 columns by combining palatals, retroflexes, and dentals under the same column. This does not lead to cases where two homophone classes are conflated, as the grades (rows) are arranged so that all would-be <a href="/wiki/Minimal_pairs" class="mw-redirect" title="Minimal pairs">minimal pairs</a> distinguished only by the retroflex vs. palatal vs. alveolar character of the initial end up in different rows.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter199243-16">[15]</a> Each initial is further classified as follows:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198830–31-17">[16]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Place_of_articulation" title="Place of articulation">Place of articulation</a>: <a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">labials</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">alveolars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">velars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Affricate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate consonant">affricates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sibilant_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Sibilant consonant">sibilants</a>, and laryngeals</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonation" title="Phonation">Phonation</a>: voiceless, voiceless aspirated, voiced, <a href="/wiki/Nasal_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasal stop">nasal</a> or <a href="/wiki/Liquid_consonant" title="Liquid consonant">liquid</a></li></ul> Each table also has 16 rows, with a group of 4 rows for each of the four tones of the traditional system in which finals ending in /p/, /t/ or /k/ are considered to be <a href="/wiki/Checked_tone" title="Checked tone">checked tone</a> variants of finals ending in /m/, /n/ or /ŋ/ rather than separate finals in their own right. The significance of the 4 rows within each tone is difficult to interpret, and is strongly debated. These rows are usually denoted I, II, III and IV, and are thought to relate to differences in <a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">palatalization</a> or <a href="/wiki/Retroflexion" class="mw-redirect" title="Retroflexion">retroflexion</a> of the syllable's initial or medial, or differences in the quality of similar main vowels (e.g. /ɑ/, /a/, /ɛ/).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198831–32-15">[14]</a> Other scholars do not view them not as phonetic categories, but instead as formal devices exploiting distributional patterns in the Qieyun to achieve a compact presentation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranner2006a15,_32–34-18">[17]</a> Each square in a table contains a character corresponding to a particular homophone class in the Qieyun, if any such character exists. From this arrangement, each homophone class can be placed in the above categories.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198828-19">[18]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_dialects_and_Sino-Xenic_pronunciations">Modern dialects and Sino-Xenic pronunciations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_Chinese&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Modern dialects and Sino-Xenic pronunciations">edit</a>]</div> The rime dictionaries and rime tables identify categories of phonetic distinctions but do not indicate the actual pronunciations of these categories. The varied pronunciations of words in modern <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">varieties of Chinese</a> can help, but most modern varieties descend from a Late Middle Chinese <a href="/wiki/Koin%C3%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="Koiné">koiné</a> and cannot very easily be used to determine the pronunciation of Early Middle Chinese. During the Early Middle Chinese period, large amounts of Chinese vocabulary were systematically borrowed by Vietnamese, Korean and Japanese (collectively the <a href="/wiki/Sino-Xenic_pronunciations" class="mw-redirect" title="Sino-Xenic pronunciations">Sino-Xenic pronunciations</a>), but many distinctions were inevitably lost in mapping Chinese phonology onto foreign phonological systems.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198834–37-20">[19]</a> For example, the following table shows the pronunciation of the numerals in three modern Chinese varieties, as well as borrowed forms in Vietnamese, Korean and Japanese: <table class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto; border:0; text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="border:none"> </th> <th colspan="3">Modern Chinese varieties </th> <th rowspan="2" scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Sino-Vietnamese_vocabulary" title="Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary">Sino-Vietnamese</a> </th> <th rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Sino-Korean_vocabulary" title="Sino-Korean vocabulary">Sino-Korean</a>(<a href="/wiki/Yale_romanization_of_Korean" title="Yale romanization of Korean">Yale</a>) </th> <th colspan="2" scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Sino-Japanese_vocabulary" title="Sino-Japanese vocabulary">Sino-Japanese</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1967336-21">[20]</a> </th> <th rowspan="2" scope="col">Middle Chinese<a href="#cite_note-22">[b]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Beijing</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Suzhou_dialect" title="Suzhou dialect">Suzhou</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Guangzhou</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Go-on" title="Go-on">Go-on</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Kan-on" title="Kan-on">Kan-on</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td scope="row">1 </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%80#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:一">一</a></td> <td>yī</td> <td>ɤʔ7</td> <td>jat1</td> <td>nhất</td> <td>il</td> <td>ichi</td> <td>itsu</td> <td>ʔjit </td></tr> <tr> <td scope="row">2 </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BA%8C#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:二">二</a></td> <td>èr</td> <td>ɲi6</td> <td>ji6</td> <td>nhị</td> <td>i</td> <td>ni</td> <td>ji</td> <td>nyijH </td></tr> <tr> <td scope="row">3 </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%89#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:三">三</a></td> <td>sān</td> <td>sɛ1</td> <td>saam1</td> <td>tam</td> <td>sam</td> <td colspan="2">san</td> <td>sam </td></tr> <tr> <td scope="row">4 </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%9B%9B#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:四">四</a></td> <td>sì</td> <td>sɨ5</td> <td>sei3</td> <td>tứ</td> <td>sa</td> <td colspan="2">shi</td> <td>sijH </td></tr> <tr> <td scope="row">5 </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BA%94#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:五">五</a></td> <td>wǔ</td> <td>ŋ6</td> <td>ng5</td> <td>ngũ</td> <td>o</td> <td colspan="2">go</td> <td>nguX </td></tr> <tr> <td scope="row">6 </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%85%AD#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:六">六</a></td> <td>liù</td> <td>loʔ8</td> <td>luk6</td> <td>lục</td> <td>[r]yuk</td> <td>roku</td> <td>riku</td> <td>ljuwk </td></tr> <tr> <td scope="row">7 </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%83#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:七">七</a></td> <td>qī</td> <td>tsʰiɤʔ7</td> <td>cat1</td> <td>thất</td> <td>chil</td> <td>shichi</td> <td>shitsu</td> <td>tshit </td></tr> <tr> <td scope="row">8 </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%85%AB#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:八">八</a></td> <td>bā</td> <td>poʔ7</td> <td>baat3</td> <td>bát</td> <td>phal</td> <td>hachi</td> <td>hatsu</td> <td>pɛt </td></tr> <tr> <td scope="row">9 </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B9%9D#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:九">九</a></td> <td>jiǔ</td> <td>tɕiøy3</td> <td>gau2</td> <td>cửu</td> <td>kwu</td> <td>ku</td> <td>kyū</td> <td>kjuwX </td></tr> <tr> <td scope="row">10 </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8D%81#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:十">十</a></td> <td>shí'</td> <td>zɤʔ8</td> <td>sap6</td> <td>thập</td> <td>sip</td> <td colspan="2">jū ← jiɸu</td> <td>dzyip </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transcription_evidence">Transcription evidence</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_Chinese&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Transcription evidence">edit</a>]</div> Although the evidence from Chinese transcriptions of foreign words is much more limited, and is similarly obscured by the mapping of foreign pronunciations onto Chinese phonology, it serves as direct evidence of a sort that is lacking in all the other types of data, since the pronunciation of the foreign languages borrowed from—especially <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gandhari_language" title="Gandhari language">Gandhari</a>—is known in great detail.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984147-23">[21]</a> For example, the nasal initials /m n ŋ/ were used to transcribe Sanskrit nasals in the early Tang, but later they were used for Sanskrit unaspirated voiced initials /b d ɡ/, suggesting that they had become <a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_stops" class="mw-redirect" title="Prenasalized stops">prenasalized stops</a> [ᵐb] [ⁿd] [ᵑɡ] in some northwestern Chinese dialects.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalmqvist2010300-24">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984163-25">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methodology">Methodology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_Chinese&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Methodology">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bernhard_Karlgren.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Bernhard_Karlgren.jpg/170px-Bernhard_Karlgren.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Bernhard_Karlgren.jpg/255px-Bernhard_Karlgren.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Bernhard_Karlgren.jpg/340px-Bernhard_Karlgren.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1100" /></a><figcaption>Bernhard Karlgren</figcaption></figure> The rime dictionaries and rime tables yield phonological categories, but with little hint of what sounds they represent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStimson19761-26">[24]</a> At the end of the 19th century, European students of Chinese sought to solve this problem by applying the methods of <a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">historical linguistics</a> that had been used in reconstructing <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-European">Proto-Indo-European</a>. Volpicelli (1896) and Schaank (1897) compared the rime tables at the front of the <a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Dictionary" title="Kangxi Dictionary">Kangxi Dictionary</a> with modern pronunciations in several varieties, but had little knowledge of linguistics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198832,_34-27">[25]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bernhard_Karlgren" title="Bernhard Karlgren">Bernhard Karlgren</a>, trained in transcription of Swedish dialects, carried out the first systematic survey of modern varieties of Chinese. He used the oldest known rime tables as descriptions of the sounds of the rime dictionaries, and also studied the Guangyun, at that time the oldest known rime dictionary.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERamsey1987126–131-28">[26]</a> Unaware of Chen Li's study, he repeated the analysis of the fanqie required to identify the initials and finals of the dictionary. He believed that the resulting categories reflected the speech standard of the capital <a href="/wiki/Chang%27an" title="Chang'an">Chang'an</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasties</a>. He interpreted the many distinctions as a <a href="/wiki/Narrow_transcription" class="mw-redirect" title="Narrow transcription">narrow transcription</a> of the precise sounds of this language, which he sought to reconstruct by treating the Sino-Xenic and modern dialect pronunciations as reflexes of the Qieyun categories. A small number of Qieyun categories were not distinguished in any of the surviving pronunciations, and Karlgren assigned them identical reconstructions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198834–39-29">[27]</a> Karlgren's transcription involved a large number of consonants and vowels, many of them very unevenly distributed. Accepting Karlgren's reconstruction as a description of medieval speech, <a href="/wiki/Chao_Yuen_Ren" class="mw-redirect" title="Chao Yuen Ren">Chao Yuen Ren</a> and <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Martin_(linguist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Samuel Martin (linguist)">Samuel E. Martin</a> analysed its contrasts to extract a <a href="/wiki/Phonemic" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonemic">phonemic</a> description.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198839-30">[28]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hugh_McBirney_Stimson" class="mw-redirect" title="Hugh McBirney Stimson">Hugh M. Stimson</a> used a simplified version of Martin's system as an approximate indication of the pronunciation of Tang poetry.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStimson19761-26">[24]</a> Karlgren himself viewed phonemic analysis as a detrimental "craze".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERamsey1987132-31">[29]</a> Older versions of the rime dictionaries and rime tables came to light over the first half of the 20th century, and were used by such linguists as <a href="/wiki/Wang_Li_(linguist)" title="Wang Li (linguist)">Wang Li</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dong_Tonghe" title="Dong Tonghe">Dong Tonghe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Li_Rong_(linguist)" title="Li Rong (linguist)">Li Rong</a> in their own reconstructions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198839-30">[28]</a> <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Pulleyblank" class="mw-redirect" title="Edwin Pulleyblank">Edwin Pulleyblank</a> argued that the systems of the Qieyun and the rime tables should be reconstructed as two separate (but related) systems, which he called Early and Late Middle Chinese, respectively. He further argued that his Late Middle Chinese reflected the standard language of the late Tang dynasty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1970204-32">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1971-33">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984xiv-34">[32]</a> The preface of the Qieyun recovered in 1947 indicates that it records a compromise between northern and southern reading and poetic traditions from the late <a href="/wiki/Northern_and_Southern_dynasties" title="Northern and Southern dynasties">Northern and Southern dynasties</a> period (a <a href="/wiki/Diasystem" title="Diasystem">diasystem</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984134-35">[33]</a> Most linguists now believe that no single dialect contained all the distinctions recorded, but that each distinction did occur somewhere.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198824–25-7">[6]</a> Several scholars have compared the Qieyun system to cross-dialectal descriptions of English pronunciations, such as <a href="/wiki/John_C._Wells" title="John C. Wells">John C. Wells</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Lexical_set" title="Lexical set">lexical sets</a>, or the notation used in some dictionaries. For example, the words "trap", "bath", "palm", "lot", "cloth" and "thought" contain four different vowels in <a href="/wiki/Received_Pronunciation" title="Received Pronunciation">Received Pronunciation</a> and three in <a href="/wiki/General_American" class="mw-redirect" title="General American">General American</a>; these pronunciations and others can be specified in terms of these six cases.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter199237-36">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChan2004144–146-37">[35]</a> Although the Qieyun system is no longer viewed as describing a single form of speech, linguists argue that this enhances its value in reconstructing earlier forms of Chinese, just as a cross-dialectal description of English pronunciations contains more information about earlier forms of English than any single modern form.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter199237-36">[34]</a> The emphasis has shifted from precise <a href="/wiki/Phone_(phonetics)" title="Phone (phonetics)">phones</a> to the structure of the <a href="/wiki/Phonological" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonological">phonological</a> system. <a href="/wiki/Li_Fang-Kuei" title="Li Fang-Kuei">Li Fang-Kuei</a>, as a prelude to his reconstruction of <a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a>, produced a <a href="/wiki/Karlgren%E2%80%93Li_reconstruction_of_Middle_Chinese" title="Karlgren–Li reconstruction of Middle Chinese">revision of Karlgren's notation</a>, adding new notations for the few categories not distinguished by Karlgren, without assigning them pronunciations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi1974–1975224-38">[36]</a> This notation is still widely used, but its symbols, based on <a href="/wiki/Johan_August_Lundell" title="Johan August Lundell">Johan August Lundell</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Swedish_Dialect_Alphabet" title="Swedish Dialect Alphabet">Swedish Dialect Alphabet</a>, differ from the familiar <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</a>. To remedy this, <a href="/wiki/William_H._Baxter" title="William H. Baxter">William H. Baxter</a> produced <a href="/wiki/Baxter%27s_transcription_for_Middle_Chinese" title="Baxter's transcription for Middle Chinese">his own notation</a> for the Qieyun and rime table categories for use in his reconstruction of Old Chinese.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter199227–32-39">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[c]</a> All reconstructions of Middle Chinese since Karlgren have followed his approach of beginning with the categories extracted from the rime dictionaries and tables, and using dialect and Sino-Xenic data (and in some cases transcription data) in a subsidiary role to fill in sound values for these categories.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198834–37-20">[19]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jerry_Norman_(sinologist)" title="Jerry Norman (sinologist)">Jerry Norman</a> and <a href="/wiki/W._South_Coblin" title="W. South Coblin">W. South Coblin</a> have criticized this approach, arguing that viewing the dialect data through the rime dictionaries and rime tables distorts the evidence. They argue for a full application of the <a href="/wiki/Comparative_method" title="Comparative method">comparative method</a> to the modern varieties, supplemented by systematic use of transcription data.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENormanCoblin1995-42">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_Chinese&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Phonology">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_syllable_tree.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Chinese_syllable_tree.svg/220px-Chinese_syllable_tree.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Chinese_syllable_tree.svg/330px-Chinese_syllable_tree.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Chinese_syllable_tree.svg/440px-Chinese_syllable_tree.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="250" /></a><figcaption>Traditional Chinese syllable structure</figcaption></figure> The traditional analysis of the Chinese <a href="/wiki/Syllable" title="Syllable">syllable</a>, derived from the fanqie method, is into an initial consonant, or "initial", (shēngmǔ 聲母) and a final (yùnmǔ 韻母). Modern linguists subdivide the final into an optional "medial" glide (yùntóu 韻頭), a main vowel or "nucleus" (yùnfù 韻腹) and an optional final consonant or "coda" (yùnwěi 韻尾). Most reconstructions of Middle Chinese include the glides /j/ and /w/, as well as a combination /jw/, but many also include vocalic "glides" such as /i̯/ in a diphthong /i̯e/. Final consonants /j/, /w/, /m/, /n/, /ŋ/, /p/, /t/ and /k/ are widely accepted, sometimes with additional codas such as /wk/ or /wŋ/.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198827–28-43">[40]</a> Rhyming syllables in the Qieyun are assumed to have the same nuclear vowel and coda, but often have different medials.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter199234,_814-44">[41]</a> Middle Chinese reconstructions by different modern linguists vary.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranner2006b266–269-45">[42]</a> These differences are minor and fairly uncontroversial in terms of consonants; however, there is a more significant difference as to the vowels. The most widely used transcriptions are <a href="/wiki/Karlgren%E2%80%93Li_reconstruction_of_Middle_Chinese" title="Karlgren–Li reconstruction of Middle Chinese">Li Fang-Kuei's modification of Karlgren's reconstruction</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baxter%27s_transcription_for_Middle_Chinese" title="Baxter's transcription for Middle Chinese">William Baxter's typeable notation</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Initials">Initials</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_Chinese&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Initials">edit</a>]</div> The preface of the Yunjing identifies a traditional set of <a href="/wiki/36_initials" class="mw-redirect" title="36 initials">36 initials</a>, each named with an exemplary character. An earlier version comprising 30 initials is known from fragments among the <a href="/wiki/Dunhuang_manuscripts" title="Dunhuang manuscripts">Dunhuang manuscripts</a>. In contrast, identifying the initials of the Qieyun required a painstaking analysis of fanqie relationships across the whole dictionary, a task first undertaken by the Cantonese scholar <a href="/wiki/Chen_Li_(scholar)" title="Chen Li (scholar)">Chen Li</a> in 1842 and refined by others since. This analysis revealed a slightly different set of initials from the traditional set. Moreover, most scholars believe that some distinctions among the 36 initials were no longer current at the time of the rime tables, but were retained under the influence of the earlier dictionaries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter199243,_45–59-46">[43]</a> Early Middle Chinese (EMC) had three types of stops: voiced, voiceless, and voiceless aspirated. There were five series of <a href="/wiki/Coronal_consonant" title="Coronal consonant">coronal</a> <a href="/wiki/Obstruent" title="Obstruent">obstruents</a>, with a three-way distinction between <a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">dental</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">alveolar</a>), <a href="/wiki/Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant">retroflex</a> and <a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">palatal</a> among <a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">fricatives</a> and <a href="/wiki/Affricate" title="Affricate">affricates</a>, and a two-way dental/retroflex distinction among <a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">stop consonants</a>. The following table shows the initials of Early Middle Chinese, with their traditional names and approximate values: <table class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"> <caption>Early Middle Chinese initials<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter199245–59-47">[44]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">Stops</a> and <a href="/wiki/Affricate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate consonant">affricates</a> </th> <th scope="col" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasal stop">Nasals</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Fricatives</a> </th> <th scope="col" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Approximant" title="Approximant">Approximants</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Tenuis_consonant" title="Tenuis consonant">Tenuis</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Aspiration_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspiration (phonetics)">Aspirate</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">Voiced</a> </th> <th scope="col">Tenuis </th> <th scope="col">Voiced </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labials</a> </th> <td><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style>幫 p </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">滂 pʰ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">並 b </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">明 m </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Coronal_consonant" title="Coronal consonant">Dentals</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[d]</a> </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">端 t </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">透 tʰ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">定 d </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">泥 n </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant">Retroflex stops</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[e]</a> </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">知 ʈ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">徹 ʈʰ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">澄 ɖ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">娘 ɳ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Lateral_consonant" title="Lateral consonant">Lateral</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td align="center"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">來 l </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Affricate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate consonant">Dental sibilants</a> </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">精 ts </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">清 tsʰ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">從 dz </td> <td> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">心 s </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">邪 z </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Retroflex sibilants </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">莊 ʈʂ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">初 ʈʂʰ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">崇 ɖʐ </td> <td> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">生 ʂ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">俟 ʐ<a href="#cite_note-53">[f]</a> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Alveolo-palatal_consonant" title="Alveolo-palatal consonant">Palatals</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[g]</a> </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">章 tɕ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">昌 tɕʰ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">禪 dʑ<a href="#cite_note-dzr-57">[h]</a> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">日 ɲ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">書 ɕ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">船 ʑ<a href="#cite_note-dzr-57">[h]</a> </td> <td align="center"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">以 j<a href="#cite_note-palatal-59">[i]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velars</a> </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">見 k </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">溪 kʰ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">群 ɡ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">疑 ŋ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Laryngeals</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[j]</a> </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">影 ʔ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">曉 x </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">匣/<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">云 ɣ<a href="#cite_note-palatal-59">[i]</a> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a> had a simpler system with no palatal or retroflex consonants; the more complex system of EMC is thought to have arisen from a combination of Old Chinese obstruents with a following /r/ and/or /j/.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992177–179-62">[52]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bernhard_Karlgren" title="Bernhard Karlgren">Bernhard Karlgren</a> developed the <a href="/wiki/Karlgren%E2%80%93Li_reconstruction_of_Middle_Chinese" title="Karlgren–Li reconstruction of Middle Chinese">first modern reconstruction of Middle Chinese</a>. The main differences between Karlgren and newer reconstructions of the initials are: <ul><li>The reversal of /ʑ/ and /dʑ/. Karlgren based his reconstruction on the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Rime_table" title="Rime table">rime tables</a>. However, because of mergers between these two sounds between Early and Late Middle Chinese, the Chinese phonologists who created the rime tables could rely only on tradition to tell what the respective values of these two consonants were; evidently they were accidentally reversed at one stage.</li> <li>Karlgren also assumed that the EMC <a href="/wiki/Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant">retroflex</a> stops were actually <a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">palatal</a> stops based on their tendency to co-occur with front vowels and /j/, but this view is no longer held.</li> <li>Karlgren assumed that voiced consonants were actually <a href="/wiki/Breathy_voiced" class="mw-redirect" title="Breathy voiced">breathy voiced</a>. This is now assumed only for LMC, not EMC.</li></ul> Other sources from around the same time as the Qieyun reveal a slightly different system, which is believed to reflect southern pronunciation. In this system, the voiced fricatives /z/ and /ʐ/ are not distinguished from the voiced affricates /dz/ and /ɖʐ/, respectively, and the retroflex stops are not distinguished from the dental stops.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984144-63">[53]</a> Several changes occurred between the time of the Qieyun and the rime tables: <ul><li>Palatal sibilants merged with retroflex sibilants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter199253-64">[54]</a></li> <li>/ʐ/ merged with /ɖʐ/ (hence reflecting four separate EMC phonemes).</li> <li>The palatal nasal /ɲ/ also became retroflex, but turned into a new phoneme /r/ rather than merging with any existing phoneme.</li> <li>The palatal allophone of /ɣ/ (云) merged with /j/ (以) as a single laryngeal initial /j/ (喻).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter199255–56,_59-58">[50]</a></li> <li>A new series of labiodentals emerged from labials in certain environments, typically where both fronting and rounding occurred (e.g. /j/ plus a back vowel in William Baxter's reconstruction, or a <a href="/wiki/Front_rounded_vowel" title="Front rounded vowel">front rounded vowel</a> in Chan's reconstruction). However, modern <a href="/wiki/Min_Chinese" title="Min Chinese">Min</a> dialects retain bilabial initials in such words, while modern <a href="/wiki/Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka</a> dialects preserve them in some common words.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter199246–48-65">[55]</a></li> <li>Voiced <a href="/wiki/Obstruent" title="Obstruent">obstruents</a> gained phonetic <a href="/wiki/Breathy_voice" title="Breathy voice">breathy voice</a> (still reflected in the <a href="/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese">Wu Chinese</a> varieties).</li></ul> The following table shows a representative account of the initials of Late Middle Chinese. <table class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"> <caption>Late Middle Chinese initials<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank199110-66">[56]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">Stops</a> and <a href="/wiki/Affricate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate consonant">affricates</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Sonorant" title="Sonorant">Sonorants</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Fricatives</a> </th> <th scope="col" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Approximant" title="Approximant">Approximants</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Tenuis_consonant" title="Tenuis consonant">Tenuis</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Aspiration_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspiration (phonetics)">Aspirate</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Breathy_voice" title="Breathy voice">Breathy voiced</a> </th> <th>Tenuis</th> <th>Breathy </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Bilabial_consonant" title="Bilabial consonant">Labial stops</a> </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">幫 p</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">滂 pʰ</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">並 pɦ</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">明 m</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Labial fricatives </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">非 f</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">敷 f<a href="#cite_note-69">[k]</a></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">奉 fɦ</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">微 ʋ<a href="#cite_note-71">[l]</a></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Coronal_consonant" title="Coronal consonant">Dental stops</a> </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">端 t</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">透 tʰ</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">定 tɦ</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">泥 n</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant">Retroflex stops</a> </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">知 ʈ</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">徹 ʈʰ</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">澄 ʈɦ</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">娘 ɳ<a href="#cite_note-72">[m]</a></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Lateral_consonant" title="Lateral consonant">Lateral</a> </th> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td align="center"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">來 l </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Affricate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate consonant">Dental sibilants</a> </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">精 ts</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">清 tsʰ</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">從 tsɦ</td> <td></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">心 s</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">邪 sɦ</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Retroflex sibilants </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">照 ʈʂ</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">穿 ʈʂʰ</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">牀 (ʈ)ʂɦ<a href="#cite_note-74">[n]</a></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">日 ɻ<a href="#cite_note-77">[o]</a></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">審 ʂ</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">禪 ʂɦ</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velars</a> </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">見 k</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">溪 kʰ</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">群 kɦ</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">疑 ŋ</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Laryngeals</a> </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">影 ʔ</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">曉 x</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">匣 xɦ</td> <td align="center"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">喻 j </td></tr></tbody></table> The voicing distinction is retained in modern <a href="/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese">Wu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Old_Xiang" title="Old Xiang">Old Xiang</a> dialects, but has disappeared from other varieties. In Min dialects the retroflex dentals are represented with the dentals, while elsewhere they have merged with the retroflex sibilants. In the south these have also merged with the dental sibilants, but the distinction is retained in most <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a> dialects. The palatal series of modern Mandarin dialects, resulting from a merger of palatal allophones of dental sibilants and velars, is a much more recent development, unconnected with the earlier palatal consonants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter199245–46,_49–55-78">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Finals">Finals</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_Chinese&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Finals">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese_finals" title="Middle Chinese finals">Middle Chinese finals</a></div> The remainder of a syllable after the initial consonant is the final, represented in the Qieyun by several equivalent second fanqie spellers. Each final is contained within a single rhyme class, but a rhyme class may contain between one and four finals. Finals are usually analysed as consisting of an optional medial, either a <a href="/wiki/Semivowel" title="Semivowel">semivowel</a>, reduced vowel or some combination of these, a vowel, an optional final consonant and a tone. Their reconstruction is much more difficult than the initials due to the combination of multiple phonemes into a single class.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198836–38-79">[64]</a> The generally accepted final consonants are semivowels /j/ and /w/, nasals /m/, /n/ and /ŋ/, and stops /p/, /t/ and /k/. Some authors also propose codas /wŋ/ and /wk/, based on the separate treatment of certain rhyme classes in the dictionaries. Finals with vocalic and nasal codas may have one of three <a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">tones</a>, named level, rising and departing. Finals with stop codas are distributed in the same way as corresponding nasal finals, and are described as their <a href="/wiki/Entering_tone" class="mw-redirect" title="Entering tone">entering tone</a> counterparts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter199261–63-80">[65]</a> There is much less agreement regarding the medials and vowels. It is generally agreed that "closed" finals had a rounded glide /w/ or vowel /u/, and that the vowels in "outer" finals were more open than those in "inner" finals. The interpretation of the "divisions" is more controversial. Three classes of Qieyun finals occur exclusively in the first, second or fourth rows of the rime tables, respectively, and have thus been labelled finals of divisions I, II and IV. The remaining finals are labelled division-III finals because they occur in the third row, but they may also occur in the second or fourth rows for some initials. Most linguists agree that division-III finals contained a /j/ medial and that division-I finals had no such medial, but further details vary between reconstructions. To account for the many rhyme classes distinguished by the Qieyun, Karlgren proposed 16 vowels and 4 medials. Later scholars have proposed numerous variations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198831–32,_37–39-81">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tones">Tones</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_Chinese&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Tones">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Four_tones_(Middle_Chinese)" title="Four tones (Middle Chinese)">Four tones (Middle Chinese)</a></div> The four tones of Middle Chinese were first listed by <a href="/wiki/Shen_Yue" title="Shen Yue">Shen Yue</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 500 AD.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992303-82">[67]</a> The first three, the "even" or "level", "rising" and "departing" tones, occur in open syllables and syllables ending with <a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">nasal consonants</a>. The remaining syllables, ending in <a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">stop consonants</a>, were described as the "<a href="/wiki/Checked_tone" title="Checked tone">entering</a>" tone counterparts of syllables ending with the corresponding nasals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198852-83">[68]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Qieyun" title="Qieyun">Qieyun</a> and its successors were organized around these categories, with two volumes for the even tone, which had the most words, and one volume each for the other tones.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERamsey1987118-84">[69]</a> The pitch contours of modern reflexes of the four Middle Chinese tones vary so widely that linguists have not been able to establish the probable Middle Chinese values by means of the <a href="/wiki/Comparative_method" title="Comparative method">comparative method</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198853-85">[70]</a> Karlgren interpreted the names of the first three tones literally as level, rising and falling pitch contours, respectively,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198852–53-86">[71]</a> and this interpretation remains widely accepted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201414-87">[72]</a> Accordingly, Pan and Zhang reconstruct the level tone as mid (˧ or 33), the rising tone as mid rising (˧˥ or 35), the departing tone as high falling (˥˩ or 51), and the entering tone as ˧3ʔ.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPanZhang201552-88">[73]</a> Some scholars have voiced doubts about the degree to which the names were descriptive, because they are also examples of the tone categories.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198853-85">[70]</a> Some descriptions from contemporaries and other data seem to suggest a somewhat different picture. For example, the oldest known description of the tones, which is found in a Song dynasty quotation from the early 9th century Yuanhe Yunpu 元和韻譜 (no longer extant): <blockquote> Level tone is sad and stable. Rising tone is strident and rising. Departing tone is clear and distant. Entering tone is straight and abrupt.<a href="#cite_note-89">[p]</a> </blockquote> In 880, the Japanese monk Annen, citing an account from the early 8th century, stated <blockquote> the level tone was straight and low, ... the rising tone was straight and high, ... the departing tone was slightly drawn out, ... the entering tone stops abruptly<a href="#cite_note-91">[q]</a> </blockquote> Based on Annen's description, other similar statements and related data, <a href="/wiki/Mei_Tsu-lin" title="Mei Tsu-lin">Mei Tsu-lin</a> concluded that the level tone was long, level and low, the rising tone was short, level and high, the departing tone was somewhat long and probably high and rising, and the entering tone was short (as the syllable ended in a voiceless stop) and probably high.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMei1970104-92">[75]</a> The tone system of Middle Chinese is strikingly similar to those of its neighbours in the <a href="/wiki/Mainland_Southeast_Asia_linguistic_area" title="Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area">Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area</a>—<a href="/wiki/Proto-Hmong%E2%80%93Mien" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Hmong–Mien">proto-Hmong–Mien</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proto-Tai" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Tai">proto-Tai</a> and early <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a>—none of which is genetically related to Chinese. Moreover, the earliest strata of loans display a regular correspondence between tonal categories in the different languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198854–55-93">[76]</a> In 1954, <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9-Georges_Haudricourt" title="André-Georges Haudricourt">André-Georges Haudricourt</a> showed that Vietnamese counterparts of the rising and departing tones corresponded to final /ʔ/ and /s/, respectively, in other (atonal) <a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic languages</a>. He thus argued that the Austroasiatic proto-language had been atonal, and that the development of tones in Vietnamese had been conditioned by these consonants, which had subsequently disappeared, a process now known as <a href="/wiki/Tonogenesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Tonogenesis">tonogenesis</a>. Haudricourt further proposed that tone in the other languages, including Middle Chinese, had a similar origin. Other scholars have since uncovered transcriptional and other evidence for these consonants in early forms of Chinese, and many linguists now believe that <a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a> was atonal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198854–57-94">[77]</a> Around the end of the first millennium AD, Middle Chinese and the southeast Asian languages experienced a <a href="/wiki/Phonemic_differentiation#Phonemic_splits" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonemic differentiation">phonemic split</a> of their tone categories. Syllables with voiced initials tended to be pronounced with a lower pitch, and by the late <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a>, each of the tones had split into two registers conditioned by the initials, known as the "upper" and "lower". When voicing was lost in most varieties (except in the <a href="/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese">Wu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Old_Xiang" title="Old Xiang">Old Xiang</a> groups and some <a href="/wiki/Gan_Chinese" title="Gan Chinese">Gan</a> dialects), this distinction became phonemic, yielding up to eight tonal categories, with a six-way contrast in unchecked syllables and a two-way contrast in checked syllables. <a href="/wiki/Standard_Cantonese" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Cantonese">Cantonese</a> maintains these tones and has developed an additional distinction in checked syllables, resulting in a total of nine tonal categories. However, most varieties have fewer tonal distinctions. For example, in Mandarin dialects the lower rising category merged with the departing category to form the modern falling tone, leaving a system of four tones. Furthermore, final stop consonants disappeared in most Mandarin dialects, and such syllables were reassigned to one of the other four tones.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198852–54-95">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Changes_from_Old_to_Modern_Chinese">Changes from Old to Modern Chinese</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_Chinese&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Changes from Old to Modern Chinese">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Historical_Chinese_phonology" title="Historical Chinese phonology">Historical Chinese phonology</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Middle_Chinese" title="Special:EditPage/Middle Chinese">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (May 2011) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Middle Chinese had a structure similar to many modern varieties, especially conservative ones like Cantonese, with largely monosyllabic words, little or no derivational morphology, three tones, and a syllable structure consisting of initial consonant, glide, main vowel and final consonant, with a large number of initial consonants and a fairly small number of final consonants. Without counting the glide, no clusters could occur at the beginning or end of a syllable. <a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a>, on the other hand, had a significantly different structure. There were no tones, a smaller imbalance between possible initial and final consonants, and many initial and final clusters. There was a well-developed system of derivational and possibly inflectional morphology, formed using consonants added onto the beginning or end of a syllable. The system is similar to the system reconstructed for <a href="/wiki/Proto-Sino-Tibetan" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Sino-Tibetan">Proto-Sino-Tibetan</a> and still visible, for example, in <a href="/wiki/Classical_Tibetan" title="Classical Tibetan">Classical Tibetan</a>; it is also largely similar to the system that occurs in the more conservative <a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic languages</a>, such as modern <a href="/wiki/Khmer_language" title="Khmer language">Khmer</a>. The main changes leading to the modern varieties have been a reduction in the number of consonants and vowels and a corresponding increase in the number of tones (typically through a Pan-East-Asiatic tone split that doubled the number of tones and eliminated the distinction between voiced and unvoiced consonants). That has led to a gradual decrease in the number of possible syllables. <a href="/wiki/Standard_Mandarin" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Mandarin">Standard Mandarin</a> has only about 1,300 possible syllables, and many other <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">varieties of Chinese</a> even fewer (for example, modern <a href="/wiki/Shanghainese" title="Shanghainese">Shanghainese</a> has been reported to have only about 700 syllables). The result in Mandarin, for example, has been the proliferation of the number of two-syllable compound words, which have steadily replaced former monosyllabic words; most words in Standard Mandarin now have two syllables. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammar">Grammar</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_Chinese&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Grammar">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_grammar" title="Chinese grammar">Chinese grammar</a></div> The extensive surviving body of Middle Chinese (MC) literature of various types provides much source material for the study of MC grammar. Due to the lack of <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphological</a> development, grammatical analysis of MC tends to focus on the nature and meanings of the individual words themselves and the <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntactic rules</a> by which their arrangement together in sentences communicates meaning.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStimson19769-96">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_Chinese&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karlgren%E2%80%93Li_reconstruction_of_Middle_Chinese" title="Karlgren–Li reconstruction of Middle Chinese">Karlgren–Li reconstruction of Middle Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baxter%27s_transcription_for_Middle_Chinese" title="Baxter's transcription for Middle Chinese">Baxter's transcription for Middle Chinese</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_Chinese&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> Karlgren used the <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> spelling "rime" in his English-language writing, and this practice has been followed by several other authors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranner2006a2-4">[4]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> Middle Chinese forms are given in <a href="/wiki/Baxter%27s_transcription_for_Middle_Chinese" title="Baxter's transcription for Middle Chinese">Baxter's transcription</a>, in which -X and -H denote the rising and departing tones respectively. </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> By convention, Middle Chinese reconstructions are shown without an asterisk, while Old Chinese reconstructions are almost always shown preceded by an asterisk.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter199216-40">[38]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> It is not clear whether these had an <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">alveolar</a> or <a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">dental</a> articulation. They are mostly alveolar in modern Chinese varieties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter199249-48">[45]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> Karlgren reconstructed these as palatal stops, but most scholars now believe they were retroflex stops.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter199250-50">[46]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> The ʐ initial occurs in only two words <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BF%9F#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:俟">俟</a> and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%BC%A6#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:漦">漦</a> in the Qieyun, and is merged with ɖʐ in the <a href="/wiki/Guangyun" title="Guangyun">Guangyun</a>. It is omitted in many reconstructions, and has no standard Chinese name.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter199256–57,_206-52">[47]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> The retroflex and palatal sibilants were treated as a single series in the rime tables. Chen Li was the first to realize (in 1842) that they were distinguished in the Qieyun.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter199254–55-54">[48]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-dzr-57">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dzr_57-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-dzr_57-1">b</a> The initials 禪 and 船 are reversed from their positions in the rime tables, which are believed to have confused them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter199252–54-56">[49]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-palatal-59">^ <a href="#cite_ref-palatal_59-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-palatal_59-1">b</a> In the rime tables, the palatal allophone of ɣ (云) is combined with j (以) as a single laryngeal initial 喻. However in the Qieyun system j patterns with the palatals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter199255–56,_59-58">[50]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> The point of articulation of the fricatives is not clear, and varies between the modern varieties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter199258-60">[51]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> This initial was probably indistinguishable from 非 at the LMC stage, but was retained to record its origin from a different Qieyun initial.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank198469-67">[57]</a> A distinction between [f] and [fʰ] would be unusual, but the two initials might have been distinguished at an earlier phase as affricates [pf] and [pfʰ].<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter199248-68">[58]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> This initial becomes [w] in Mandarin dialects and [v] or [m] in some southern dialects.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman2006234-70">[59]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> This initial, which was not included in the lists of 30 initials in the Dunhuang fragments, later merged with n.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank198469-67">[57]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> This initial was not included in the lists of 30 initials in the Dunhuang fragments, and was probably not phonemically distinct from 禪 ʂɦ by that time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1970222–223-73">[60]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> This initial was derived from the EMC palatal nasal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank198466-75">[61]</a> In northern dialects it has become [ʐ] (or [ɻ]), while southern dialects have [j], [z], [ɲ], or [n].<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman2006236–237-76">[62]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> 「平聲哀而安，上聲厲而舉，去聲清而遠，入聲直而促」, translated in <a href="#CITEREFTing1996">Ting (1996)</a>, p. 152 </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> The word translated "straight" (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%9B%B4#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:直">直</a> zhí) could mean level or rising with a constant slope.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMei197091,_93-90">[74]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_Chinese&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_Chinese&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEXiang2023i-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXiang2023i_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFXiang2023">Xiang (2023)</a>, p. i. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198824–41-2"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198824–41_2-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 24–41. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin2003379-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin2003379_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCoblin2003">Coblin (2003)</a>, p. 379. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranner2006a2-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranner2006a2_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBranner2006a">Branner (2006a)</a>, p. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198825-6"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198825_6-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 25. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198824–25-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198824–25_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198824–25_7-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 24–25. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter199233–35-8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxter199233–35_8-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, pp. 33–35. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984142–143-9"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984142–143_9-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1984">Pulleyblank (1984)</a>, pp. 142–143. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201410-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201410_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaxterSagart2014">Baxter & Sagart (2014)</a>, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984136-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984136_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1984">Pulleyblank (1984)</a>, p. 136. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198827-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198827_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 27. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank198478,_142–143-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank198478,_142–143_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1984">Pulleyblank (1984)</a>, pp. 78, 142–143. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198829–30-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198829–30_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 29–30. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198831–32-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198831–32_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198831–32_15-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 31–32. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter199243-16"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxter199243_16-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, p. 43. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198830–31-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198830–31_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 30–31. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranner2006a15,_32–34-18"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranner2006a15,_32–34_18-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBranner2006a">Branner (2006a)</a>, pp. 15, 32–34. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198828-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198828_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 28. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198834–37-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198834–37_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198834–37_20-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 34–37. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1967336-21"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1967336_21-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMiller1967">Miller (1967)</a>, p. 336. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984147-23"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984147_23-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1984">Pulleyblank (1984)</a>, p. 147. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalmqvist2010300-24"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalmqvist2010300_24-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMalmqvist2010">Malmqvist (2010)</a>, p. 300. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984163-25"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984163_25-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1984">Pulleyblank (1984)</a>, p. 163. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStimson19761-26">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStimson19761_26-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStimson19761_26-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFStimson1976">Stimson (1976)</a>, p. 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198832,_34-27"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198832,_34_27-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 32, 34. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERamsey1987126–131-28"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERamsey1987126–131_28-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRamsey1987">Ramsey (1987)</a>, pp. 126–131. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198834–39-29"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198834–39_29-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 34–39. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198839-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198839_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198839_30-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 39. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERamsey1987132-31"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERamsey1987132_31-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRamsey1987">Ramsey (1987)</a>, p. 132. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1970204-32"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1970204_32-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1970">Pulleyblank (1970)</a>, p. 204. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1971-33"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1971_33-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1971">Pulleyblank (1971)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984xiv-34"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984xiv_34-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1984">Pulleyblank (1984)</a>, p. xiv. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984134-35"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984134_35-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1984">Pulleyblank (1984)</a>, p. 134. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter199237-36">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxter199237_36-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxter199237_36-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, p. 37. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChan2004144–146-37"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChan2004144–146_37-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChan2004">Chan (2004)</a>, pp. 144–146. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELi1974–1975224-38"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi1974–1975224_38-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLi1974–1975">Li (1974–1975)</a>, p. 224. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter199227–32-39"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxter199227–32_39-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, pp. 27–32. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter199216-40"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxter199216_40-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, p. 16. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENormanCoblin1995-42"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENormanCoblin1995_42-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNormanCoblin1995">Norman & Coblin (1995)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198827–28-43"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198827–28_43-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 27–28. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter199234,_814-44"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxter199234,_814_44-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, pp. 34, 814. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranner2006b266–269-45"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranner2006b266–269_45-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBranner2006b">Branner (2006b)</a>, pp. 266–269. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter199243,_45–59-46"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxter199243,_45–59_46-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, pp. 43, 45–59. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter199245–59-47"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxter199245–59_47-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, pp. 45–59. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter199249-48"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxter199249_48-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, p. 49. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter199250-50"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxter199250_50-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, p. 50. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter199256–57,_206-52"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxter199256–57,_206_52-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, pp. 56–57, 206. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter199254–55-54"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxter199254–55_54-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, pp. 54–55. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter199252–54-56"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxter199252–54_56-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, pp. 52–54. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter199255–56,_59-58">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxter199255–56,_59_58-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxter199255–56,_59_58-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, pp. 55–56, 59. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter199258-60"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxter199258_60-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, p. 58. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992177–179-62"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992177–179_62-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, pp. 177–179. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984144-63"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984144_63-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1984">Pulleyblank (1984)</a>, p. 144. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter199253-64"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxter199253_64-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, p. 53. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter199246–48-65"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxter199246–48_65-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, pp. 46–48. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank199110-66"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank199110_66-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1991">Pulleyblank (1991)</a>, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank198469-67">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank198469_67-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank198469_67-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1984">Pulleyblank (1984)</a>, p. 69. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter199248-68"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxter199248_68-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, p. 48. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman2006234-70"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman2006234_70-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman2006">Norman (2006)</a>, p. 234. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1970222–223-73"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1970222–223_73-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1970">Pulleyblank (1970)</a>, pp. 222–223. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank198466-75"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank198466_75-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1984">Pulleyblank (1984)</a>, p. 66. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman2006236–237-76"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman2006236–237_76-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman2006">Norman (2006)</a>, pp. 236–237. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter199245–46,_49–55-78"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxter199245–46,_49–55_78-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, pp. 45–46, 49–55. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198836–38-79"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198836–38_79-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 36–38. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter199261–63-80"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxter199261–63_80-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, pp. 61–63. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198831–32,_37–39-81"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198831–32,_37–39_81-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 31–32, 37–39. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992303-82"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992303_82-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, p. 303. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198852-83"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198852_83-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 52. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERamsey1987118-84"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERamsey1987118_84-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRamsey1987">Ramsey (1987)</a>, p. 118. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198853-85">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198853_85-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198853_85-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 53. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198852–53-86"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198852–53_86-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 52–53. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201414-87"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201414_87-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaxterSagart2014">Baxter & Sagart (2014)</a>, p. 14. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPanZhang201552-88"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPanZhang201552_88-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPanZhang2015">Pan & Zhang (2015)</a>, p. 52. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMei197091,_93-90"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMei197091,_93_90-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMei1970">Mei (1970)</a>, pp. 91, 93. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMei1970104-92"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMei1970104_92-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMei1970">Mei (1970)</a>, p. 104. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198854–55-93"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198854–55_93-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 54–55. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198854–57-94"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198854–57_94-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 54–57. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198852–54-95"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198852–54_95-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 52–54. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStimson19769-96"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStimson19769_96-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStimson1976">Stimson (1976)</a>, p. 9. </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_Chinese&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Works cited">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBaxter1992" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/William_H._Baxter" title="William H. Baxter">Baxter, William H.</a> (1992), A Handbook of Old Chinese Phonology, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-012324-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-012324-1"><bdi>978-3-11-012324-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Handbook+of+Old+Chinese+Phonology&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=Mouton+de+Gruyter&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-3-11-012324-1&rft.aulast=Baxter&rft.aufirst=William+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaxterSagart2014" class="citation cs2">Baxter, William H.; Sagart, Laurent (2014), Old Chinese: A New Reconstruction, Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-994537-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-994537-5"><bdi>978-0-19-994537-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Old+Chinese%3A+A+New+Reconstruction&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-994537-5&rft.aulast=Baxter&rft.aufirst=William+H.&rft.au=Sagart%2C+Laurent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBranner2006a" class="citation cs2">Branner, David Prager (2006a), "What are rime tables and what do they mean?", in Branner, David Prager (ed.), The Chinese Rime Tables: Linguistic Philosophy and Historical-Comparative Phonology, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 1–34, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-272-4785-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-272-4785-8"><bdi>978-90-272-4785-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=What+are+rime+tables+and+what+do+they+mean%3F&rft.btitle=The+Chinese+Rime+Tables%3A+Linguistic+Philosophy+and+Historical-Comparative+Phonology&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pages=1-34&rft.pub=John+Benjamins&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-90-272-4785-8&rft.aulast=Branner&rft.aufirst=David+Prager&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Chinese" class="Z3988"> See also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brannerchinese.com/publications/Branner_Corrigenda_Rime_Tables.pdf">List of Corrigenda</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171201043631/https://brannerchinese.com/publications/Branner_Corrigenda_Rime_Tables.pdf">Archived</a> 1 December 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBranner2006b" class="citation cs2">——— (2006b), "Appendix II: Comparative transcriptions of rime rable phonology", in Branner, David Prager (ed.), The Chinese Rime Tables: Linguistic Philosophy and Historical-Comparative Phonology, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 265–302, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-272-4785-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-272-4785-8"><bdi>978-90-272-4785-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Appendix+II%3A+Comparative+transcriptions+of+rime+rable+phonology&rft.btitle=The+Chinese+Rime+Tables%3A+Linguistic+Philosophy+and+Historical-Comparative+Phonology&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pages=265-302&rft.pub=John+Benjamins&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-90-272-4785-8&rft.aulast=Branner&rft.aufirst=David+Prager&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChan2004" class="citation cs2">Chan, Abraham (2004), "Early Middle Chinese: towards a new paradigm", T'oung Pao, 90 (1/3): 122–162, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1568532042523149">10.1163/1568532042523149</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4528958">4528958</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=T%27oung+Pao&rft.atitle=Early+Middle+Chinese%3A+towards+a+new+paradigm&rft.volume=90&rft.issue=1%2F3&rft.pages=122-162&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F1568532042523149&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4528958%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Chan&rft.aufirst=Abraham&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoblin2003" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Weldon_South_Coblin" class="mw-redirect" title="Weldon South Coblin">Coblin, W. South</a> (2003), "The Chiehyunn system and the current state of Chinese historical phonology", Journal of the American Oriental Society, 123 (2): 377–383, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3217690">10.2307/3217690</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3217690">3217690</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Oriental+Society&rft.atitle=The+Chiehyunn+system+and+the+current+state+of+Chinese+historical+phonology&rft.volume=123&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=377-383&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3217690&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3217690%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Coblin&rft.aufirst=W.+South&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLi1974–1975" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Li_Fang-Kuei" title="Li Fang-Kuei">Li, Fang-Kuei</a> (1974–1975), "Studies on Archaic Chinese", Monumenta Serica, 31, Gilbert L. Mattos (trans.): 219–287, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F02549948.1974.11731100">10.1080/02549948.1974.11731100</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40726172">40726172</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Monumenta+Serica&rft.atitle=Studies+on+Archaic+Chinese&rft.volume=31&rft.pages=219-287&rft.date=1974%2F1975&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F02549948.1974.11731100&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40726172%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Fang-Kuei&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalmqvist2010" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6ran_Malmqvist" title="Göran Malmqvist">Malmqvist, Göran</a> (2010), Bernhard Karlgren: Portrait of a Scholar, Rowman & Littlefield, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61146-001-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61146-001-8"><bdi>978-1-61146-001-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bernhard+Karlgren%3A+Portrait+of+a+Scholar&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-61146-001-8&rft.aulast=Malmqvist&rft.aufirst=G%C3%B6ran&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMei1970" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Mei_Tsu-lin" title="Mei Tsu-lin">Mei, Tsu-lin</a> (1970), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160308135251/http://tlmei.com/tm17web/res/tones.pdf">"Tones and prosody in Middle Chinese and the origin of the rising tone"</a> (PDF), Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, 30: 86–110, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2718766">10.2307/2718766</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2718766">2718766</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Journal+of+Asiatic+Studies&rft.atitle=Tones+and+prosody+in+Middle+Chinese+and+the+origin+of+the+rising+tone&rft.volume=30&rft.pages=86-110&rft.date=1970&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2718766&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2718766%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Mei&rft.aufirst=Tsu-lin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20160308135251%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Ftlmei.com%2Ftm17web%2Fres%2Ftones.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller1967" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Roy_Andrew_Miller" title="Roy Andrew Miller">Miller, Roy Andrew</a> (1967), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/japaneselanguage0000mill_o3y1">The Japanese Language</a>, University of Chicago Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-52717-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-52717-8"><bdi>978-0-226-52717-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Japanese+Language&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=978-0-226-52717-8&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Roy+Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjapaneselanguage0000mill_o3y1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorman1988" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Norman_(sinologist)" title="Jerry Norman (sinologist)">Norman, Jerry</a> (1988), Chinese, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29653-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29653-3"><bdi>978-0-521-29653-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-521-29653-3&rft.aulast=Norman&rft.aufirst=Jerry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorman2006" class="citation cs2">——— (2006), "Common Dialectal Chinese", in Branner, David Prager (ed.), The Chinese Rime Tables: Linguistic Philosophy and Historical-Comparative Phonology, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 233–254, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-272-4785-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-272-4785-8"><bdi>978-90-272-4785-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Common+Dialectal+Chinese&rft.btitle=The+Chinese+Rime+Tables%3A+Linguistic+Philosophy+and+Historical-Comparative+Phonology&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pages=233-254&rft.pub=John+Benjamins&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-90-272-4785-8&rft.aulast=Norman&rft.aufirst=Jerry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNormanCoblin1995" class="citation cs2">Norman, Jerry L.; Coblin, W. South (1995), "A New Approach to Chinese Historical Linguistics", Journal of the American Oriental Society, 115 (4): 576–584, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F604728">10.2307/604728</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/604728">604728</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Oriental+Society&rft.atitle=A+New+Approach+to+Chinese+Historical+Linguistics&rft.volume=115&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=576-584&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F604728&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F604728%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Norman&rft.aufirst=Jerry+L.&rft.au=Coblin%2C+W.+South&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPanZhang2015" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Pan_Wuyun" title="Pan Wuyun">Pan, Wuyun</a>; Zhang, Hongming (2015), "Middle Chinese Phonology and Qieyun", in Wang, William S-Y.; Sun, Chaofen (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Chinese Linguistics, Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1998-5633-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1998-5633-6"><bdi>978-0-1998-5633-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Middle+Chinese+Phonology+and+Qieyun&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Chinese+Linguistics&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-1998-5633-6&rft.aulast=Pan&rft.aufirst=Wuyun&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Hongming&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPulleyblank1970" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Edwin_G._Pulleyblank" title="Edwin G. Pulleyblank">Pulleyblank, Edwin George</a> (1970), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www2.ihp.sinica.edu.tw/file/1791fTLnTeT.pdf">"Late Middle Chinese, Part I"</a> (PDF), Asia Major, 15: 197–239.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Asia+Major&rft.atitle=Late+Middle+Chinese%2C+Part+I&rft.volume=15&rft.pages=197-239&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Pulleyblank&rft.aufirst=Edwin+George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww2.ihp.sinica.edu.tw%2Ffile%2F1791fTLnTeT.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPulleyblank1971" class="citation cs2">——— (1971), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www2.ihp.sinica.edu.tw/file/1756PYbzTVX.pdf">"Late Middle Chinese, Part II"</a> (PDF), Asia Major, 16: 121–166.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Asia+Major&rft.atitle=Late+Middle+Chinese%2C+Part+II&rft.volume=16&rft.pages=121-166&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Pulleyblank&rft.aufirst=Edwin+George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww2.ihp.sinica.edu.tw%2Ffile%2F1756PYbzTVX.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPulleyblank1984" class="citation cs2">——— (1984), Middle Chinese: a study in historical phonology, Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-0192-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-0192-8"><bdi>978-0-7748-0192-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Middle+Chinese%3A+a+study+in+historical+phonology&rft.place=Vancouver&rft.pub=University+of+British+Columbia+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-7748-0192-8&rft.aulast=Pulleyblank&rft.aufirst=Edwin+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPulleyblank1991" class="citation cs2">——— (1991), Lexicon of reconstructed pronunciation in early Middle Chinese, late Middle Chinese, and early Mandarin, Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-0366-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-0366-3"><bdi>978-0-7748-0366-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lexicon+of+reconstructed+pronunciation+in+early+Middle+Chinese%2C+late+Middle+Chinese%2C+and+early+Mandarin&rft.place=Vancouver&rft.pub=University+of+British+Columbia+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-7748-0366-3&rft.aulast=Pulleyblank&rft.aufirst=Edwin+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRamsey1987" class="citation cs2">Ramsey, S. Robert (1987), The Languages of China, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-01468-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-01468-5"><bdi>978-0-691-01468-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Languages+of+China&rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-691-01468-5&rft.aulast=Ramsey&rft.aufirst=S.+Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStimson1976" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_McBirney_Stimson" class="mw-redirect" title="Hugh McBirney Stimson">Stimson, Hugh M.</a> (1976), Fifty-five T'ang Poems, Yale University, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88710-026-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88710-026-0"><bdi>978-0-88710-026-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fifty-five+T%27ang+Poems&rft.pub=Yale+University&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-88710-026-0&rft.aulast=Stimson&rft.aufirst=Hugh+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTing1996" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Ting_Pang-hsin" title="Ting Pang-hsin">Ting, Pang-Hsin</a> (1996), "Tonal evolution and tonal reconstruction in Chinese", in Huang, Cheng-Teh James; Li, Yen-Hui Audrey (eds.), New Horizons in Chinese Linguistics, Kluwer, pp. 141–159, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-3867-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-3867-3"><bdi>978-0-7923-3867-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Tonal+evolution+and+tonal+reconstruction+in+Chinese&rft.btitle=New+Horizons+in+Chinese+Linguistics&rft.pages=141-159&rft.pub=Kluwer&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-7923-3867-3&rft.aulast=Ting&rft.aufirst=Pang-Hsin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFXiang2023" class="citation cs2">Xiang, Xi (2023), A Brief History of the Chinese Language II: From Old Chinese to Middle Chinese Phonetic System, London and New York: Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-032-38108-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-032-38108-4"><bdi>978-1-032-38108-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+the+Chinese+Language+II%3A+From+Old+Chinese+to+Middle+Chinese+Phonetic+System&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1-032-38108-4&rft.aulast=Xiang&rft.aufirst=Xi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_Chinese&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Aldridge, Edith (2013), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262909098">"Survey of Chinese historical syntax part II: Middle Chinese"</a>, Language and Linguistics Compass, 7 (1): 58–77, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Flnc3.12007">10.1111/lnc3.12007</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language+and+Linguistics+Compass&rft.atitle=Survey+of+Chinese+historical+syntax+part+II%3A+Middle+Chinese&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=58-77&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Flnc3.12007&rft.aulast=Aldridge&rft.aufirst=Edith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F262909098&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Yuen_Ren_Chao" title="Yuen Ren Chao">Chao, Yuen Ren</a> (1941), "Distinctions Within Ancient Chinese", Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, 5 (3/4): 203–233, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2717913">10.2307/2717913</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2717913">2717913</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Journal+of+Asiatic+Studies&rft.atitle=Distinctions+Within+Ancient+Chinese&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=3%2F4&rft.pages=203-233&rft.date=1941&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2717913&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2717913%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Chao&rft.aufirst=Yuen+Ren&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Chen, Chung-yu (2001), Tonal evolution from pre-Middle Chinese to modern Pekinese: three tiers of changes and their intricacies, Berkeley, CA: Project on Linguistic Analysis, University of California, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23888251">23888251</a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/248994047">248994047</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tonal+evolution+from+pre-Middle+Chinese+to+modern+Pekinese%3A+three+tiers+of+changes+and+their+intricacies&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+CA&rft.pub=Project+on+Linguistic+Analysis%2C+University+of+California&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F248994047&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23888251%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.aufirst=Chung-yu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Hashimoto, Mantaro J. (1966), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1486632201171712">Phonology of ancient Chinese</a> (PhD thesis), Ohio State University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phonology+of+ancient+Chinese&rft.pub=Ohio+State+University&rft.date=1966&rft.aulast=Hashimoto&rft.aufirst=Mantaro+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frave.ohiolink.edu%2Fetdc%2Fview%3Facc_num%3Dosu1486632201171712&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Bernhard_Karlgren" title="Bernhard Karlgren">Karlgren, Bernhard</a> (1915), Études sur la phonologie chinoise, Leyde and Stockholm: Brill and P.A. Nobstedt, <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10111%2FUIUCBB%3Akarlbe0001etusur">10111/UIUCBB:karlbe0001etusur</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%C3%89tudes+sur+la+phonologie+chinoise&rft.place=Leyde+and+Stockholm&rft.pub=Brill+and+P.A.+Nobstedt&rft.date=1915&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10111%2FUIUCBB%3Akarlbe0001etusur&rft.aulast=Karlgren&rft.aufirst=Bernhard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">——— (1957), <a href="/wiki/Grammata_Serica_Recensa" title="Grammata Serica Recensa">Grammata Serica Recensa</a>, Stockholm: Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1999753">1999753</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Grammata+Serica+Recensa&rft.place=Stockholm&rft.pub=Museum+of+Far+Eastern+Antiquities&rft.date=1957&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1999753&rft.aulast=Karlgren&rft.aufirst=Bernhard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Newman, J.; Raman, A. V. (1999), Chinese historical phonology: a compendium of Beijing and Cantonese pronunciations of characters and their derivations from Middle Chinese, LINCOM studies in Asian linguistics, vol. 27, Munich: LINCOM Europa, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-89586-543-5" title="Special:BookSources/3-89586-543-5"><bdi>3-89586-543-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+historical+phonology%3A+a+compendium+of+Beijing+and+Cantonese+pronunciations+of+characters+and+their+derivations+from+Middle+Chinese&rft.place=Munich&rft.series=LINCOM+studies+in+Asian+linguistics&rft.pub=LINCOM+Europa&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=3-89586-543-5&rft.aulast=Newman&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Raman%2C+A.+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Volpicelli, Zenone (1896), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924023354248">Chinese phonology: an attempt to discover the sounds of the ancient language and to recover the lost rhymes of China</a>, Shanghai: China Gazette, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/24264173">24264173</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+phonology%3A+an+attempt+to+discover+the+sounds+of+the+ancient+language+and+to+recover+the+lost+rhymes+of+China&rft.place=Shanghai&rft.pub=China+Gazette&rft.date=1896&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F24264173&rft.aulast=Volpicelli&rft.aufirst=Zenone&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcu31924023354248&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_Chinese&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/2261552/Introduction_to_Chinese_historical_phonology">Introduction to Chinese Historical Phonology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Jacques" title="Guillaume Jacques">Guillaume Jacques</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/2261629/Traditional_Chinese_Phonology">Traditional Chinese Phonology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Jacques" title="Guillaume Jacques">Guillaume Jacques</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dylansung.tripod.com/chinese/index.html">Historical Chinese Phonology/Philology at Technical Notes on the Chinese Language Dialects</a>, Dylan W.H. Sung</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr38/index.html#kTang">Note on Tang pronunciations</a> in <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a>, using the simplification of Karlgren's system used by <a href="/wiki/Hugh_M._Stimson" title="Hugh M. Stimson">Hugh M. Stimson</a> in his Fifty-Five T'ang Poems</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lodel.ehess.fr/crlao/document.php?id=1217">Middle Chinese readings for 9000 characters in Baxter's notation</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\stb\sin&limit=-1">StarLing website reconstructing Middle Chinese and Old Chinese as well as intermediate forms</a></li> <li>(in Chinese) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eastling.org/zgycx.php">EastLing form yielding Middle Chinese from character search</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hiongyim.neocities.org/stimson.htm">Hugh Stimson's Middle Chinese reconstruction and kTang data from Unicode.</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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#e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">Major groups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_Mandarin" title="Northeastern Mandarin">Northeastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Changchun_dialect" title="Changchun dialect">Changchun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harbin_dialect" title="Harbin dialect">Harbin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shenyang_Mandarin" title="Shenyang Mandarin">Shenyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taz_dialect" title="Taz dialect">Taz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Beijing_Mandarin_(division_of_Mandarin)" title="Beijing Mandarin (division of Mandarin)">Beijing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beijing_dialect" title="Beijing dialect">Beijing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Mandarin" title="Taiwanese Mandarin">Taiwan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jilu_Mandarin" title="Jilu Mandarin">Jilu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tianjin_dialect" title="Tianjin dialect">Tianjin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinan_dialect" title="Jinan dialect">Jinan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jiaoliao_Mandarin" title="Jiaoliao Mandarin">Jiaoliao</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dalian_dialect" title="Dalian dialect">Dalian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qingdao_dialect" title="Qingdao dialect">Qingdao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weihai_dialect" title="Weihai dialect">Weihai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Central_Plains_Mandarin" title="Central Plains Mandarin">Central Plains</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dongping_dialect" title="Dongping dialect">Dongping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gangou_language" title="Gangou language">Gangou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanzhong_dialect" title="Guanzhong dialect">Guanzhong</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xi%27an_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Xi'an dialect">Xi'an</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luoyang_dialect" title="Luoyang dialect">Luoyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xuzhou_dialect" title="Xuzhou dialect">Xuzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_language" title="Dungan language">Dungan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_Mandarin" title="Xinjiang Mandarin">Xinjiang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Mandarin" title="Southwestern Mandarin">Southwestern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sichuanese_dialects" title="Sichuanese dialects">Sichuanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chengdu-Chongqing_dialect" title="Chengdu-Chongqing dialect">Chengdu–Chongqing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minjiang_dialect" title="Minjiang dialect">Minjiang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leshan_dialect" title="Leshan dialect">Leshan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Renshou%E2%80%93Fushun_Mandarin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Renshou–Fushun Mandarin (page does not exist)">Renshou–Fushun</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zigong_dialect" title="Zigong dialect">Zigong</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunming_dialect" title="Kunming dialect">Kunming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanping_dialect" title="Nanping dialect">Nanping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuhan_dialect" title="Wuhan dialect">Wuhan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gui%E2%80%93Liu_Mandarin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gui–Liu Mandarin (page does not exist)">Gui–Liu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wuming_Mandarin" title="Wuming Mandarin">Wuming</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Lower_Yangtze_Mandarin" title="Lower Yangtze Mandarin">Jianghuai</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_dialect" title="Nanjing dialect">Nanjing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nantong_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Nantong dialect">Nantong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanping_dialect" title="Nanping dialect">Nanping</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Lanyin_Mandarin" title="Lanyin Mandarin">Lanyin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lanzhou_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lanzhou dialect (page does not exist)">Lanzhou dialect</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%B0%E5%B7%9E%E8%AF%9D" class="extiw" title="zh:兰州话">zh</a>]</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urumqi_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Urumqi dialect (page does not exist)">Urumqi dialect</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B9%8C%E9%B2%81%E6%9C%A8%E9%BD%90%E8%AF%9D" class="extiw" title="zh:乌鲁木齐话">zh</a>]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_Mandarin" title="Xinjiang Mandarin">Xinjiang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Junjiahua" title="Junjiahua">Junjiahua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qinjiang_Mandarin" title="Qinjiang Mandarin">Qinjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gyami_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gyami language">Gyami</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jin_Chinese" title="Jin Chinese">Jin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhangjiakou%E2%80%93Hohhot_dialect" title="Zhangjiakou–Hohhot dialect">Zhangjiakou–Hohhot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhi-Yan_dialect" title="Zhi-Yan dialect">Zhi–Yan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese">Wu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Taihu_Wu" title="Taihu Wu">Taihu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shanghainese" title="Shanghainese">Shanghai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suzhou_dialect" title="Suzhou dialect">Suzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuxi_dialect" title="Wuxi dialect">Wuxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Changzhou_dialect" title="Changzhou dialect">Changzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hangzhou_dialect" title="Hangzhou dialect">Hangzhou</a> (?)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaoxing_dialect" title="Shaoxing dialect">Shaoxing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ningbo_dialect" title="Ningbo dialect">Ningbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinxiang_dialect" title="Jinxiang dialect">Jinxiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiangyin_dialect" title="Jiangyin dialect">Jiangyin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadi_dialect" title="Shadi dialect">Shadi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Taizhou_Wu" title="Taizhou Wu">Taizhou Wu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taizhou_dialect" title="Taizhou dialect">Taizhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai_dialect" title="Tiantai dialect">Tiantai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Oujiang</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wenzhounese" title="Wenzhounese">Wenzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rui%27an_dialect" title="Rui'an dialect">Rui'an</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wencheng_dialect" title="Wencheng dialect">Wencheng</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wuzhou_Wu" title="Wuzhou Wu">Wuzhou</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jinhua_dialect" title="Jinhua dialect">Jinhua</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chu%E2%80%93Qu_Wu" title="Chu–Qu Wu">Chu–Qu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quzhou_dialect" title="Quzhou dialect">Quzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiangshan_dialect" title="Jiangshan dialect">Jiangshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qingtian_dialect" title="Qingtian dialect">Qingtian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Xuanzhou_Wu_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Xuanzhou Wu dialects">Xuanzhou</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuancheng_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Xuancheng dialect">Xuancheng</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Huizhou_Chinese" title="Huizhou Chinese">Hui</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ji-She&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ji-She (page does not exist)">Ji-She</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BB%A9%E6%AD%99%E7%89%87" class="extiw" title="zh:绩歙片">zh</a>]</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Xiu-Yi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Xiu-Yi (page does not exist)">Xiu-Yi</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%91%E9%BB%9F%E7%89%87" class="extiw" title="zh:休黟片">zh</a>]</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qi-De&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Qi-De (page does not exist)">Qi-De</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A5%81%E5%A9%BA%E7%89%87" class="extiw" title="zh:祁婺片">zh</a>]</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yanzhou_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yanzhou dialect (page does not exist)">Yanzhou</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%97%8C%E5%8D%A0%E7%89%87" class="extiw" title="zh:旌占片">zh</a>]</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jing-Zhan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jing-Zhan (page does not exist)">Jing-Zhan</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%A5%E5%B7%9E%E7%89%87" class="extiw" title="zh:严州片">zh</a>]</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gan_Chinese" title="Gan Chinese">Gan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chang%E2%80%93Du_Gan" title="Chang–Du Gan">Chang–Du</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanchang_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanchang dialect">Nanchang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi%E2%80%93Liu_Gan" title="Yi–Liu Gan">Yi–Liu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ying%E2%80%93Yi_Gan" title="Ying–Yi Gan">Ying–Yi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Da%E2%80%93Tong_Gan" title="Da–Tong Gan">Da–Tong</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Xiang_Chinese" title="Xiang Chinese">Xiang</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Xiang" title="New Xiang">Changyi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Changsha_dialect" title="Changsha dialect">Changsha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Xiang" title="Old Xiang">Loushao</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shuangfeng_dialect" title="Shuangfeng dialect">Shuangfeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiangxiang_dialect" title="Xiangxiang dialect">Xiangxiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wugang_dialect" title="Wugang dialect">Wugang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ji%E2%80%93Xu_Xiang" title="Ji–Xu Xiang">Ji–Xu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yong%E2%80%93Quan_Xiang" title="Yong–Quan Xiang">Yong–Quan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qiyang_dialect" title="Qiyang dialect">Qiyang</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Min_Chinese" title="Min Chinese">Min</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Min" title="Eastern Min">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Houguan_language_group&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Houguan language group (page does not exist)">Houguan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fuzhou_dialect" title="Fuzhou dialect">Fuzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuqing_dialect" title="Fuqing dialect">Fuqing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Changle_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Changle dialect">Changle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_dialect" title="Gutian dialect">Gutian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matsu_dialect" title="Matsu dialect">Matsu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fu%E2%80%93Ning_language_group&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fu–Ning language group (page does not exist)">Fu–Ning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ningde_dialect" title="Ningde dialect">Ningde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fu%27an_dialect" title="Fu'an dialect">Fu'an</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manjiang_dialect" title="Manjiang dialect">Manjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhongshan_Min" title="Zhongshan Min">Zhongshan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Longdu_dialect" title="Longdu dialect">Longdu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanlang_dialect" title="Nanlang dialect">Nanlang</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quanzhou_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Quanzhou dialect">Quanzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhangzhou_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhangzhou dialect">Zhangzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amoy_dialect" title="Amoy dialect">Amoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chawan_dialect" title="Chawan dialect">Chawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Hokkien" title="Taiwanese Hokkien">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_Hokkien" title="Philippine Hokkien">Philippine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medan_Hokkien" title="Medan Hokkien">Pedan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penang_Hokkien" title="Penang Hokkien">Penang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singaporean_Hokkien" title="Singaporean Hokkien">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Peninsular_Malaysian_Hokkien" title="Southern Peninsular Malaysian Hokkien">Malaysian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Teochew_Min" title="Teochew Min">Teochew</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swatow_dialect" title="Swatow dialect">Swatow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haklau_Min" title="Haklau Min">Haklau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Zhongshan_Min" title="Zhongshan Min">Zhongshan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sanxiang_dialect" title="Sanxiang dialect">Sanxiang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhenan_Min" title="Zhenan Min">Zhenan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longyan_Min" class="mw-redirect" title="Longyan Min">Longyan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Min" title="Northern Min">Northern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jian%27ou_dialect" title="Jian'ou dialect">Jian'ou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jianyang_dialect" title="Jianyang dialect">Jianyang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Min" title="Central Min">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pu%E2%80%93Xian_Min" title="Pu–Xian Min">Pu–Xian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shao%E2%80%93Jiang_Min" title="Shao–Jiang Min">Shao–Jiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leizhou_Min" title="Leizhou Min">Leizhou</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhanjiang_dialect" title="Zhanjiang dialect">Zhanjiang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hainanese" title="Hainanese">Hainan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wenchang_dialect" title="Wenchang dialect">Wenchang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haikou_dialect" title="Haikou dialect">Haikou</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Banqiao_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Banqiao dialect (page does not exist)">Banqiao</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meixian_dialect" title="Meixian dialect">Meixian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuhua_dialect" title="Wuhua dialect">Wuhua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huizhou_dialect" title="Huizhou dialect">Huizhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tingzhou_dialect" title="Tingzhou dialect">Tingzhou</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Changting_dialect" title="Changting dialect">Changting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Hakka" title="Taiwanese Hakka">Taiwanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sixian_dialect" title="Sixian dialect">Sixian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hailu_dialect" title="Hailu dialect">Hailu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raoping_Hakka" title="Raoping Hakka">Raoping</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Yue_Chinese" title="Yue Chinese">Yue</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Yuehai_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Yuehai dialects">Yuehai</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Guangzhou</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Cantonese" title="Hong Kong Cantonese">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Cantonese" title="Malaysian Cantonese">Malaysia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiguan_dialect" title="Xiguan dialect">Xiguan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiujiang_dialect" title="Jiujiang dialect">Jiujiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiqi_dialect" title="Shiqi dialect">Shiqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weitou_dialect" title="Weitou dialect">Weitou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dapeng_dialect" title="Dapeng dialect">Dapeng</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Siyi_Yue" title="Siyi Yue">Siyi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taishanese" title="Taishanese">Taishan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Xinhui_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Xinhui dialect (page does not exist)">Xinhui</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gao%E2%80%93Yang_Yue" title="Gao–Yang Yue">Gao–Yang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goulou_Yue" title="Goulou Yue">Goulou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu%E2%80%93Hua_Yue" title="Wu–Hua Yue">Wu–Hua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yong%E2%80%93Xun_Yue" title="Yong–Xun Yue">Yong–Xun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luo%E2%80%93Guang_Yue" title="Luo–Guang Yue">Luo–Guang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qin%E2%80%93Lian_Yue" title="Qin–Lian Yue">Qin–Lian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pinghua" title="Pinghua">Pinghua</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pinghua#Dialects" title="Pinghua">Northern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tongdao_Pinghua" title="Tongdao Pinghua">Tongdao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Younian_dialect" title="Younian dialect">Younian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinghua#Dialects" title="Pinghua">Southern</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yongjiang_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yongjiang dialect (page does not exist)">Yongjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Guandao_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Guandao dialect (page does not exist)">Guandao</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rongjiang_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rongjiang dialect (page does not exist)">Rongjiang</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%">Unclassified</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shaozhou_Tuhua" title="Shaozhou Tuhua">Shaozhou Tuhua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiangnan_Tuhua" title="Xiangnan Tuhua">Xiangnan Tuhua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Badong_Yao_language" title="Badong Yao language">Badong Yao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danzhou_dialect" title="Danzhou dialect">Danzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mai_Chinese" title="Mai Chinese">Mai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/She_Chinese" title="She Chinese">Shehua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waxiang_Chinese" title="Waxiang Chinese">Waxiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeheni_language" title="Yeheni language">Yeheni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huizhou_dialect" title="Huizhou dialect">Huizhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bai_language" title="Bai language">Bai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cai%E2%80%93Long_languages" title="Cai–Long languages">Cai-Long</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caijia_language" title="Caijia language">Caijia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longjia_language" title="Longjia language">Longjia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luren_language" title="Luren language">Luren</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuanqing_people#Language" title="Chuanqing people">Laobeizi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="9" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg/350px-Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="785" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg/525px-Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg/700px-Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="920" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_national_standards_of_Chinese" title="Comparison of national standards of Chinese">Standard forms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sichuanese_Standard_Chinese" title="Sichuanese Standard Chinese">Sichuanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Mandarin" title="Taiwanese Mandarin">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_Mandarin" class="mw-redirect" title="Philippine Mandarin">Philippine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Mandarin" title="Malaysian Mandarin">Malaysian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singaporean_Mandarin" title="Singaporean Mandarin">Singaporean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Singaporean_Mandarin" title="Standard Singaporean Mandarin">Standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singdarin" title="Singdarin">Singdarin</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hakka" class="mw-redirect" title="Hakka">Hakka</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%">Phonology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Chinese_phonology" title="Historical Chinese phonology">Historical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese_phonology" title="Old Chinese phonology">Old</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_National_Pronunciation" title="Old National Pronunciation">Old National</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_phonology" title="Cantonese phonology">Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hokkien_phonology" title="Hokkien phonology">Hokkien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Wu_phonology" title="Northern Wu phonology">Northern Wu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese_phonology" title="Standard Chinese phonology">Mandarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_and_colloquial_readings_of_Chinese_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters">Literary and colloquial readings</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_grammar" title="Chinese grammar">Grammar</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_numerals" title="Chinese numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_classifier" title="Chinese classifier">Classifiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_honorifics" title="Chinese honorifics">Honorifics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_grammar" title="Cantonese grammar">Cantonese grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese_grammar" title="Classical Chinese grammar">Classical grammar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%">Idioms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chengyu" title="Chengyu">Chengyu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiehouyu" title="Xiehouyu">Xiehouyu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_input_methods_for_computers" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese input methods for computers">Input</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biaoxingma_method" title="Biaoxingma method">Biaoxingma</a></li> <li>Boshiamy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cangjie_input_method" title="Cangjie input method">Cangjie</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Cangjie" title="Simplified Cangjie">Simplified</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CKC_Chinese_Input_System" title="CKC Chinese Input System">CKC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayi_method" title="Dayi method">Dayi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinyin_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinyin method">Pinyin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Google_Pinyin" title="Google Pinyin">Google</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Pinyin_IME" title="Microsoft Pinyin IME">Microsoft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sogou_Pinyin" title="Sogou Pinyin">Sogou</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stroke_count_method" title="Stroke count method">Stroke count</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wubi_method" title="Wubi method">Wubi (Wang Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhengma_method" title="Zhengma method">ZhengMa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Chinese_language" title="History of the Chinese language">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Han_Chinese" title="Eastern Han Chinese">Eastern Han</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Middle Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Mandarin" title="Old Mandarin">Old Mandarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_(late_imperial_lingua_franca)" title="Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)">Middle Mandarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Min" title="Proto-Min">Proto-Min</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Hakka" title="Proto-Hakka">Proto-Hakka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%E2%80%93Shu_Chinese" title="Ba–Shu Chinese">Ba–Shu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Gan_Chinese" title="History of Gan Chinese">Gan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%">Literary forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Official" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Official</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese" title="Classical Chinese">Classical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adoption_of_Chinese_literary_culture" title="Adoption of Chinese literary culture">Adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanbun" title="Kanbun">in Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_Chinese_in_Vietnam" title="Literary Chinese in Vietnam">in Vietnam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Written_vernacular_Chinese" title="Written vernacular Chinese">Vernacular</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Written_Cantonese" title="Written Cantonese">Written Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_alphabets" title="Dungan alphabets">Written Dungan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Written_Hokkien" title="Written Hokkien">Written Hokkien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sichuanese_characters" title="Sichuanese characters">Written Sichuanese</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Written_Chinese" title="Written Chinese">Scripts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Logographic" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Logographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Logographic">Logographic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Script_styles" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Script_styles" class="mw-redirect" title="Script styles">Script styles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Oracle_bone_script" title="Oracle bone script">Oracle bone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_bronze_inscriptions" title="Chinese bronze inscriptions">Bronze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seal_script" title="Seal script">Seal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clerical_script" title="Clerical script">Clerical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semi-cursive_script" title="Semi-cursive script">Semi-cursive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursive_script_(East_Asia)" title="Cursive script (East Asia)">Cursive</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simplified_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Simplified characters">Simplified</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditional characters">Traditional</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_punctuation" title="Chinese punctuation">Punctuation</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Braille" title="Braille">Braille</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_Braille" title="Cantonese Braille">Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mainland_Chinese_Braille" title="Mainland Chinese Braille">Mainland Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Braille" title="Taiwanese Braille">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-cell_Chinese_Braille" title="Two-cell Chinese Braille">Two-cell</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Phonetic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillization_of_Chinese" title="Cyrillization of Chinese">Cyrillization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_language#Writing_system" title="Dungan language">Dungan Cyrillic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Chinese" title="Romanization of Chinese">Romanization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gwoyeu_Romatzyh" title="Gwoyeu Romatzyh">Gwoyeu Romatzyh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Phonetic_Symbols_II" title="Mandarin Phonetic Symbols II">MPS II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_postal_romanization" title="Chinese postal romanization">Postal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongyong_Pinyin" title="Tongyong Pinyin">Tongyong Pinyin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EFEO_Chinese_transcription" title="EFEO Chinese transcription">EFEO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lessing-Othmer" title="Lessing-Othmer">Lessing-Othmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yale_romanization_of_Mandarin" title="Yale romanization of Mandarin">Yale</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_Bopomofo" class="mw-redirect" title="Cantonese Bopomofo">Cantonese Bopomofo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Phonetic_Symbols" title="Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols">Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_kana" title="Taiwanese kana">Taiwanese kana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Hangul" title="Taiwanese Hangul">Taiwanese Hangul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiao%27erjing" title="Xiao'erjing">Xiao'erjing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C3%BCshu" title="Nüshu">Nüshu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background: #e0e0b0;"><div><img alt="" 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Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2003-06-01T00:19:26Z","dateModified":"2024-08-10T22:30:47Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/d\/d1\/Tangyun_-_Chinese_Dictionary_Museum.JPG","headline":"System of Chinese pronunciation contained in the Qieyun (used in the Northern and Southern dynasties, Sui dynasty and Tang dynasty)"}</script> </body> </html>