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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Series" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Series"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Series</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Series-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Protopangea–Paleopangea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Protopangea–Paleopangea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Protopangea–Paleopangea</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Protopangea–Paleopangea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cycles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cycles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Cycles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cycles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Volcanism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Volcanism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Volcanism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Volcanism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plate_tectonics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plate_tectonics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Plate tectonics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plate_tectonics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Climate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Climate</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Climate-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Climate subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Climate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Glacial" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Glacial"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Glacial</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Glacial-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Precipitation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Precipitation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Precipitation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Precipitation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Temperature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Temperature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Temperature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Temperature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Milankovitch_cycles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Milankovitch_cycles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Milankovitch cycles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Milankovitch_cycles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Atmospheric_gases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Atmospheric_gases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Atmospheric gases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Atmospheric_gases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Proxies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proxies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Proxies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proxies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Supercontinent</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 64 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-64" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">64 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superkontinent" title="Superkontinent – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Superkontinent" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%B9%D8%B8%D9%85%D9%89" title="قارة عظمى – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="قارة عظمى" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercontinente" title="Supercontinente – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Supercontinente" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B6" title="অতিমহাদেশ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অতিমহাদেশ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Суперкантынент – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Суперкантынент" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Суперконтинент – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Суперконтинент" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superkontinent" title="Superkontinent – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Superkontinent" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dreistkevandir" title="Dreistkevandir – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Dreistkevandir" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercontinent" title="Supercontinent – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Supercontinent" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Суперконтинент – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Суперконтинент" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superkontinent" title="Superkontinent – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Superkontinent" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uwchgyfandir" title="Uwchgyfandir – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Uwchgyfandir" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superkontinent" title="Superkontinent – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Superkontinent" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superkontinent" title="Superkontinent – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Superkontinent" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%89%DE%A7%DE%84%DE%A6%DE%87%DE%B0%DE%83%DE%AA" title="މާބައްރު – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="މާބައްރު" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ދިވެހިބަސް</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiidmanner" title="Hiidmanner – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Hiidmanner" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A5%CF%80%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%AE%CF%80%CE%B5%CE%B9%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Υπερήπειρος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Υπερήπειρος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercontinente" title="Supercontinente – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Supercontinente" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kontinentego" title="Kontinentego – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kontinentego" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superkontinente" title="Superkontinente – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Superkontinente" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%87" title="ابرقاره – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ابرقاره" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercontinent" title="Supercontinent – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Supercontinent" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercontinente" title="Supercontinente – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Supercontinente" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-glk mw-list-item"><a href="https://glk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%84%CB%87_%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D9%B0%D9%86" title="پیلˇ قاره‌ٰن – Gilaki" lang="glk" hreflang="glk" data-title="پیلˇ قاره‌ٰن" data-language-autonym="گیلکی" data-language-local-name="Gilaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>گیلکی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B4%88%EB%8C%80%EB%A5%99" title="초대륙 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="초대륙" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%BA%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B5%D6%80%D6%81%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%A1%D6%84" title="Սուպերմայրցամաք – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Սուպերմայրցամաք" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AA" title="अधिमहाद्वीप – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अधिमहाद्वीप" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superkontinent" title="Superkontinent – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Superkontinent" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superbenua" title="Superbenua – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Superbenua" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercontinente" title="Supercontinente – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Supercontinente" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%99%D7%91%D7%A9%D7%AA-%D7%A2%D7%9C" title="יבשת-על – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="יבשת-על" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9E%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98" title="სუპერკონტინენტი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="სუპერკონტინენტი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superkontinents" title="Superkontinents – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Superkontinents" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szuperkontinens" title="Szuperkontinens – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Szuperkontinens" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Суперконтинент – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Суперконтинент" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superbenua" title="Superbenua – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Superbenua" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercontinent" title="Supercontinent – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Supercontinent" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AA" title="अधिमहाद्वीप – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="अधिमहाद्वीप" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E5%A4%A7%E9%99%B8" title="超大陸 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="超大陸" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superkontinent" title="Superkontinent – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Superkontinent" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superkontinent" title="Superkontinent – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Superkontinent" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superkontynent" title="Superkontynent – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Superkontynent" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercontinente" title="Supercontinente – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Supercontinente" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superkontinent" title="Superkontinent – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Superkontinent" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercontinent" title="Supercontinent – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Supercontinent" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rmy mw-list-item"><a href="https://rmy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superbarodvip" title="Superbarodvip – Vlax Romani" lang="rmy" hreflang="rmy" data-title="Superbarodvip" data-language-autonym="Romani čhib" data-language-local-name="Vlax Romani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Romani čhib</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Суперконтинент – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Суперконтинент" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercontinent" title="Supercontinent – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Supercontinent" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superkontinent" title="Superkontinent – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Superkontinent" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nadcelina" title="Nadcelina – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Nadcelina" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Суперконтинент – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Суперконтинент" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superkontinent" title="Superkontinent – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Superkontinent" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superbenua" title="Superbenua – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Superbenua" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A4ttil%C3%A4ismanner" title="Jättiläismanner – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Jättiläismanner" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superkontinent" title="Superkontinent – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Superkontinent" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="மீப்பெரும் கண்டம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மீப்பெரும் கண்டம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%9B" title="มหาทวีป – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="มหาทวีป" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BCperk%C4%B1ta" title="Süperkıta – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Süperkıta" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Суперконтинент – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Суперконтинент" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%B8%D9%85_%D8%B9%D8%B8%D9%85%DB%8C" title="براعظم عظمی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="براعظم عظمی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Si%C3%AAu_l%E1%BB%A5c_%C4%91%E1%BB%8Ba" title="Siêu lục địa – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Siêu lục địa" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E5%A4%A7%E9%99%86" title="超大陆 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="超大陆" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E5%A4%A7%E9%99%B8" title="超大陸 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="超大陸" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zgh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zgh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%B4%B0%E2%B5%8F%E2%B5%89%E2%B4%B3%E2%B5%8E%E2%B5%8F%E2%B5%A5%E2%B4%B0%E2%B5%A1" title="ⴰⵏⵉⴳⵎⵏⵥⴰⵡ – Standard Moroccan Tamazight" lang="zgh" hreflang="zgh" data-title="ⴰⵏⵉⴳⵎⵏⵥⴰⵡ" data-language-autonym="ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ" data-language-local-name="Standard Moroccan Tamazight" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pangea_assembly_250.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Pangea_assembly_250.png/300px-Pangea_assembly_250.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Pangea_assembly_250.png/450px-Pangea_assembly_250.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Pangea_assembly_250.png/600px-Pangea_assembly_250.png 2x" data-file-width="1123" data-file-height="794" /></a><figcaption>The supercontinent of <a href="/wiki/Pangaea" title="Pangaea">Pangaea</a> with the positions of the continents at the <a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">Permian</a>-<a href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">Triassic</a> boundary, about 250 Ma. AR=Amuria; NC=<a href="/wiki/North_China_Craton" title="North China Craton">North China</a>; SC=<a href="/wiki/South_China_Craton" title="South China Craton">South China</a>; PA=<a href="/wiki/Panthalassic_Ocean" class="mw-redirect" title="Panthalassic Ocean">Panthalassic Ocean</a>; PT=<a href="/wiki/Paleotethys_Ocean" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleotethys Ocean">Paleotethys Ocean</a>; NT=<a href="/wiki/Neotethys_Ocean" class="mw-redirect" title="Neotethys Ocean">Neotethys Ocean</a>. <a href="/wiki/Orogen" class="mw-redirect" title="Orogen">Orogens</a> shown in red. <a href="/wiki/Subduction_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Subduction zone">Subduction zones</a> shown in black. <a href="/wiki/Spreading_center" class="mw-redirect" title="Spreading center">Spreading centers</a> shown in green.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Afro-Eurasia.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Afro-Eurasia.png/220px-Afro-Eurasia.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Afro-Eurasia.png/330px-Afro-Eurasia.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Afro-Eurasia.png/440px-Afro-Eurasia.png 2x" data-file-width="3002" data-file-height="3002" /></a><figcaption>Although not a supercontinent, the current <a href="/wiki/Afro-Eurasia" title="Afro-Eurasia">Afro-Eurasian</a> landmass contains about 57% of Earth's land area.</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a>, a <b>supercontinent</b> is the assembly of most or all of <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Continent" title="Continent">continental blocks</a> or <a href="/wiki/Craton" title="Craton">cratons</a> to form a single large landmass.<sup id="cite_ref-rogers_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rogers-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rogers_&_Santosh_2002_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rogers_&_Santosh_2002-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hoffman_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hoffman-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, some geologists use a different definition, "a grouping of formerly dispersed continents", which leaves room for interpretation and is easier to apply to <a href="/wiki/Precambrian" title="Precambrian">Precambrian</a> times.<sup id="cite_ref-bradley_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bradley-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To separate supercontinents from other groupings, a limit has been proposed in which a continent must include at least about 75% of the continental crust then in existence in order to qualify as a supercontinent.<sup id="cite_ref-Meert_2012_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Meert_2012-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Moving under the forces of <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">plate tectonics</a>, supercontinents have assembled and dispersed multiple times in the geologic past. According to modern definitions, a supercontinent does not exist today;<sup id="cite_ref-rogers_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rogers-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the closest is the current <a href="/wiki/Afro-Eurasia" title="Afro-Eurasia">Afro-Eurasian</a> landmass, which covers approximately 57% of Earth's total land area. The last period in which the continental landmasses were near to one another was 336 to 175 million years ago, forming the supercontinent <a href="/wiki/Pangaea" title="Pangaea">Pangaea</a>. The positions of continents have been accurately determined back to the early <a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a>, shortly before the breakup of Pangaea.<sup id="cite_ref-flutaeu_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-flutaeu-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pangaea's predecessor <a href="/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana">Gondwana</a> is not considered a supercontinent under the first definition since the landmasses of <a href="/wiki/Baltica" title="Baltica">Baltica</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laurentia" title="Laurentia">Laurentia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siberia_(continent)" title="Siberia (continent)">Siberia</a> were separate at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-Bradley_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bradley-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A future supercontinent, termed <a href="/wiki/Pangaea_Proxima" title="Pangaea Proxima">Pangaea Proxima</a>, is hypothesized to form within the next 250 million years.<sup id="cite_ref-WilliamsNield2007_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WilliamsNield2007-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theories">Theories</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Supercontinent&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Theories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Phanerozoic" title="Phanerozoic">Phanerozoic</a> supercontinent Pangaea began to break up <span class="nowrap">215 Ma</span> and this distancing continues today. Because Pangaea is the most recent of Earth's supercontinents, it is the best known and understood. Contributing to Pangaea's popularity in the classroom, its reconstruction is almost as simple as fitting together the present continents bordering the Atlantic ocean like puzzle pieces.<sup id="cite_ref-bradley_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bradley-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For the period before Pangaea, there are two contrasting models for supercontinent evolution through <a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale" title="Geologic time scale">geological time</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Series">Series</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Supercontinent&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Series"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first model theorizes that at least two separate supercontinents existed comprising <a href="/wiki/Vaalbara" title="Vaalbara">Vaalbara</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kenorland" title="Kenorland">Kenorland</a>, with Kenorland comprising <a href="/wiki/Superior_Craton" title="Superior Craton">Superia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sclavia_Craton" title="Sclavia Craton">Sclavia</a>. These parts of <a href="/wiki/Neoarchean" title="Neoarchean">Neoarchean</a> age broke off at ~2480 and <span class="nowrap">2312 Ma</span>, and portions of them later collided to form <a href="/wiki/Columbia_(supercontinent)" title="Columbia (supercontinent)">Nuna</a> (Northern Europe and North America). Nuna continued to develop during the <a href="/wiki/Mesoproterozoic" title="Mesoproterozoic">Mesoproterozoic</a>, primarily by lateral <a href="/wiki/Accretion_(geology)" title="Accretion (geology)">accretion</a> of juvenile arcs, and in <span class="nowrap">~1000 Ma</span> Nuna collided with other land masses, forming <a href="/wiki/Rodinia" title="Rodinia">Rodinia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-bradley_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bradley-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between ~825 and <span class="nowrap">750 Ma</span> Rodinia broke apart.<sup id="cite_ref-donnadieu_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-donnadieu-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, before completely breaking up, some fragments of Rodinia had already come together to form <a href="/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana">Gondwana</a> by <span class="nowrap">~608 Ma</span>. Pangaea formed through the collision of Gondwana, <a href="/wiki/Laurasia" title="Laurasia">Laurasia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Laurentia" title="Laurentia">Laurentia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baltica" title="Baltica">Baltica</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Protopangea–Paleopangea"><span id="Protopangea.E2.80.93Paleopangea"></span>Protopangea–Paleopangea</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Supercontinent&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Protopangea–Paleopangea"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The second model (Kenorland-Arctica) is based on both <a href="/wiki/Paleomagnetism" title="Paleomagnetism">palaeomagnetic</a> and geological evidence and proposes that the continental crust comprised a single supercontinent from <span class="nowrap">~2.72 Ga</span> until break-up during the <a href="/wiki/Ediacaran" title="Ediacaran">Ediacaran</a> period after <span class="nowrap">~0.573 Ga</span>. The <a href="/wiki/Plate_reconstruction" title="Plate reconstruction">reconstruction</a><sup id="cite_ref-piper1_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-piper1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is derived from the observation that palaeomagnetic poles converge to quasi-static positions for long intervals between ~2.72–2.115 Ga; 1.35–1.13 Ga; and <span class="nowrap">0.75–0.573 Ga</span> with only small peripheral modifications to the reconstruction.<sup id="cite_ref-piper2_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-piper2-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the intervening periods, the poles conform to a unified apparent polar wander path. </p><p>Although it contrasts the first model, the first phase (Protopangea) essentially incorporates Vaalbara and Kenorland of the first model. The explanation for the prolonged duration of the Protopangea–Paleopangea supercontinent appears to be that <a href="/wiki/Lid_tectonics" title="Lid tectonics">lid tectonics</a> (comparable to the tectonics operating on Mars and Venus) prevailed during <a href="/wiki/Precambrian" title="Precambrian">Precambrian</a> times. According to this theory, <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">plate tectonics</a> as seen on the contemporary Earth became dominant only during the latter part of geological times.<sup id="cite_ref-piper2_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-piper2-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This approach was widely criticized by many researchers as it uses incorrect application of paleomagnetic data.<sup id="cite_ref-li2009_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-li2009-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cycles">Cycles</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Supercontinent&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Cycles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Supercontinent_cycle" title="Supercontinent cycle">supercontinent cycle</a> is the break-up of one supercontinent and the development of another, which takes place on a global scale.<sup id="cite_ref-bradley_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bradley-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Supercontinent cycles are not the same as the <a href="/wiki/Wilson_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilson cycle">Wilson cycle</a>, which is the opening and closing of an individual <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_basin" title="Oceanic basin">oceanic basin</a>. The Wilson cycle rarely synchronizes with the timing of a supercontinent cycle.<sup id="cite_ref-rogers_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rogers-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, supercontinent cycles and Wilson cycles were both involved in the creation of Pangaea and Rodinia.<sup id="cite_ref-flutaeu_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-flutaeu-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Secular_variation" title="Secular variation">Secular</a> trends such as <a href="/wiki/Carbonatite" title="Carbonatite">carbonatites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Granulite" title="Granulite">granulites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eclogite" title="Eclogite">eclogites</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Greenstone_belt" title="Greenstone belt">greenstone belt</a> deformation events are all possible indicators of Precambrian supercontinent cyclicity, although the Protopangea–Paleopangea solution implies that Phanerozoic style of supercontinent cycles did not operate during these times. Also, there are instances where these secular trends have a weak, uneven, or absent imprint on the supercontinent cycle; secular methods for supercontinent reconstruction will produce results that have only one explanation, and each explanation for a trend must fit in with the rest.<sup id="cite_ref-bradley_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bradley-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The following table names reconstructed ancient supercontinents, using Bradley's 2011 looser definition,<sup id="cite_ref-Bradley_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bradley-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with an approximate timescale of millions of years ago (Ma). </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Supercontinent name</th> <th>Age (Ma)</th> <th>Period/Era Range</th> <th>Comment </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Vaalbara" title="Vaalbara">Vaalbara</a> </td> <td>3,636–2,803</td> <td>Eoarchean-Mesoarchean</td> <td>Also described as a supercraton or just a continent<sup id="cite_ref-de_Kock_etal_2009_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-de_Kock_etal_2009-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ur_(continent)" title="Ur (continent)">Ur</a></td> <td>2,803–2,408</td> <td>Mesoarchean-Siderian</td> <td>Described as both a continent<sup id="cite_ref-Rogers_&_Santosh_2002_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rogers_&_Santosh_2002-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a supercontinent<sup id="cite_ref-Mahapatro_etal_2011_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mahapatro_etal_2011-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Kenorland" title="Kenorland">Kenorland</a></td> <td>2,720–2,114</td> <td>Neoarchean-Rhyacian</td> <td>Alternatively the continents may have formed into two groupings <a href="/wiki/Superior_Craton" title="Superior Craton">Superia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sclavia_Craton" title="Sclavia Craton">Sclavia</a><sup id="cite_ref-Nance_etal_2014_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nance_etal_2014-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-bradley_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bradley-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Arctica" title="Arctica">Arctica</a></td> <td>2,114–1,995</td> <td>Rhyacian-Orosirian</td> <td>Not generally regarded as a supercontinent, depending on definition<sup id="cite_ref-Rogers_&_Santosh_2002_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rogers_&_Santosh_2002-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Atlantica" title="Atlantica">Atlantica</a> </td> <td>1,991–1,124</td> <td>Orosirian-Stenian</td> <td>Not generally regarded as a supercontinent, depending on definition<sup id="cite_ref-Rogers_&_Santosh_2002_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rogers_&_Santosh_2002-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Columbia_(supercontinent)" title="Columbia (supercontinent)">Columbia (Nuna)</a></td> <td>1,820–1,350</td> <td>Orosirian-Ectasian</td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-Nance_etal_2014_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nance_etal_2014-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rodinia" title="Rodinia">Rodinia</a></td> <td>1,130–750</td> <td>Stenian-Tonian</td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-Nance_etal_2014_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nance_etal_2014-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pannotia" title="Pannotia">Pannotia</a></td> <td>633–573</td> <td>Ediacaran</td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-Nance_etal_2014_15-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nance_etal_2014-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana">Gondwana</a></td> <td>550–175</td> <td>Ediacaran-Jurassic</td> <td>From the Carboniferous, formed part of Pangaea,<sup id="cite_ref-bradley_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bradley-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> not always regarded as a supercontinent<sup id="cite_ref-Evans_2013_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Evans_2013-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pangaea" title="Pangaea">Pangaea</a></td> <td>336–175</td> <td>Carboniferous-Jurassic</td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Volcanism">Volcanism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Supercontinent&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Volcanism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The causes of supercontinent assembly and dispersal are thought to be driven by <a href="/wiki/Convection" title="Convection">convection</a> processes in <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_mantle" title="Earth's mantle">Earth's mantle</a>. Approximately 660 km into the mantle, a discontinuity occurs, affecting the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_crust" title="Earth's crust">surface crust</a> through processes involving <a href="/wiki/Mantle_plume" title="Mantle plume">plumes</a> and <i>superplumes</i> (aka <a href="/wiki/Large_low-shear-velocity_provinces" title="Large low-shear-velocity provinces">large low-shear-velocity provinces</a>). When a slab of the <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">subducted</a> crust is denser than the surrounding mantle, it sinks to discontinuity. Once the slabs build up, they will sink through to the <a href="/wiki/Lower_mantle" title="Lower mantle">lower mantle</a> in what is known as a "slab avalanche". This displacement at the discontinuity will cause the lower mantle to compensate and rise elsewhere. The rising mantle can form a plume or superplume.<sup id="cite_ref-rogers_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rogers-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Besides having compositional effects on the <a href="/wiki/Upper_mantle" title="Upper mantle">upper mantle</a> by replenishing the <a href="/wiki/Incompatible_element" title="Incompatible element">large-ion lithophile elements</a>, volcanism affects plate movement.<sup id="cite_ref-rogers_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rogers-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The plates will be moved towards a geoidal low perhaps where the slab avalanche occurred and pushed away from the geoidal high that can be caused by the plumes or superplumes. This causes the continents to push together to form supercontinents and was evidently the process that operated to cause the early continental crust to aggregate into Protopangea.<sup id="cite_ref-piper3_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-piper3-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Dispersal of supercontinents is caused by the accumulation of heat underneath the crust due to the rising of very large <a href="/wiki/Convection_cell" title="Convection cell">convection cells</a> or plumes, and a massive heat release resulted in the final break-up of Paleopangea.<sup id="cite_ref-piper4_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-piper4-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Accretion occurs over geoidal lows that can be caused by avalanche slabs or the downgoing limbs of convection cells. Evidence of the accretion and dispersion of supercontinents is seen in the geological rock record. </p><p>The influence of known volcanic eruptions does not compare to that of <a href="/wiki/Flood_basalt" title="Flood basalt">flood basalts</a>. The timing of flood basalts has corresponded with a large-scale continental break-up. However, due to a lack of data on the time required to produce flood basalts, the climatic impact is difficult to quantify. The timing of a single lava flow is also undetermined. These are important factors on how flood basalts influenced <a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">paleoclimate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-flutaeu_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-flutaeu-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Plate_tectonics">Plate tectonics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Supercontinent&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Plate tectonics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Global <a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography" title="Palaeogeography">palaeogeography</a> and plate interactions as far back as Pangaea are relatively well understood today. However, the evidence becomes more sparse further back in geologic history. Marine magnetic anomalies, <a href="/wiki/Passive_margin" title="Passive margin">passive margin</a> match-ups, geologic interpretation of <a href="/wiki/Orogenic_belt" title="Orogenic belt">orogenic belts</a>, paleomagnetism, <a href="/wiki/Paleobiogeography" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleobiogeography">paleobiogeography</a> of fossils, and distribution of climatically sensitive strata are all methods to obtain evidence for continent locality and indicators of the environment throughout time.<sup id="cite_ref-bradley_4-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bradley-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Phanerozoic (541 Ma to present) and Precambrian (<span class="nowrap">4.6 Ga</span> to <span class="nowrap">541 Ma</span>) had primarily passive margins and detrital <a href="/wiki/Zircon" title="Zircon">zircons</a> (and orogenic <a href="/wiki/Granite" title="Granite">granites</a>), whereas the tenure of Pangaea contained few.<sup id="cite_ref-bradley_4-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bradley-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Matching edges of continents are where passive margins form. The edges of these continents may <a href="/wiki/Rift" title="Rift">rift</a>. At this point, <a href="/wiki/Seafloor_spreading" title="Seafloor spreading">seafloor spreading</a> becomes the driving force. Passive margins are therefore born during the break-up of supercontinents and die during supercontinent assembly. Pangaea's supercontinent cycle is a good example of the efficiency of using the presence or lack of these entities to record the development, tenure, and break-up of supercontinents. There is a sharp decrease in passive margins between 500 and <span class="nowrap">350 Ma</span> during the timing of Pangaea's assembly. The tenure of Pangaea is marked by a low number of passive margins during 336 to <span class="nowrap">275 Ma,</span> and its break-up is indicated accurately by an increase in passive margins.<sup id="cite_ref-bradley_4-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bradley-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Orogenic belts can form during the assembly of continents and supercontinents. The orogenic belts present on continental blocks are classified into three different categories and have implications for interpreting geologic bodies.<sup id="cite_ref-rogers_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rogers-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Intercratonic orogenic belts are characteristic of ocean basin closure. Clear indicators of intracratonic activity contain <a href="/wiki/Ophiolite" title="Ophiolite">ophiolites</a> and other oceanic materials that are present in the suture zone. Intracratonic orogenic belts occur as thrust belts and do not contain any oceanic material. However, the absence of ophiolites is not strong evidence for intracratonic belts, because the oceanic material can be squeezed out and eroded away in an intracratonic environment. The third kind of orogenic belt is a confined orogenic belt which is the closure of small basins. The assembly of a supercontinent would have to show intracratonic orogenic belts.<sup id="cite_ref-rogers_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rogers-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, interpretation of orogenic belts can be difficult. </p><p>The collision of Gondwana and Laurasia occurred in the late Palaeozoic. By this collision, the <a href="/wiki/Variscan_orogeny" title="Variscan orogeny">Variscan mountain range</a> was created, along the equator.<sup id="cite_ref-flutaeu_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-flutaeu-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This 6000-km-long mountain range is usually referred to in two parts: the <a href="/wiki/Variscan_orogeny" title="Variscan orogeny">Hercynian mountain range</a> of the late Carboniferous makes up the eastern part, and the western part is the <a href="/wiki/Appalachian_Mountains" title="Appalachian Mountains">Appalachian Mountains</a>, uplifted in the <a href="/wiki/Cisuralian" title="Cisuralian">early Permian</a>. (The existence of a flat elevated plateau like the <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Plateau" title="Tibetan Plateau">Tibetan Plateau</a> is under debate.) The locality of the Variscan range made it influential to both the northern and southern hemispheres. The elevation of the Appalachians would greatly influence global atmospheric circulation.<sup id="cite_ref-flutaeu_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-flutaeu-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Climate">Climate</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Supercontinent&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Climate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Continents affect the climate of the planet drastically, with supercontinents having a larger, more prevalent influence. Continents modify global wind patterns, control ocean current paths, and have a higher <a href="/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo">albedo</a> than the oceans.<sup id="cite_ref-rogers_1-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rogers-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Winds are redirected by mountains, and albedo differences cause shifts in onshore winds. Higher elevation in continental interiors produces a cooler, drier climate, the phenomenon of <a href="/wiki/Continental_climate" title="Continental climate">continentality</a>. This is seen today in <a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a>, and rock record shows evidence of continentality in the middle of Pangaea.<sup id="cite_ref-rogers_1-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rogers-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Glacial">Glacial</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Supercontinent&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Glacial"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term glacial-epoch refers to a long episode of <a href="/wiki/Glacial_period" title="Glacial period">glaciation</a> on Earth over millions of years.<sup id="cite_ref-eyles_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eyles-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Glaciers have major implications on the climate, particularly through <a href="/wiki/Sea_level_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea level change">sea level change</a>. Changes in the position and elevation of the continents, the paleolatitude and ocean circulation affect the glacial epochs. There is an association between the rifting and breakup of continents and supercontinents and glacial epochs.<sup id="cite_ref-eyles_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eyles-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the model for Precambrian supercontinent series, the breakup of Kenorland and Rodinia was associated with the <a href="/wiki/Paleoproterozoic" title="Paleoproterozoic">Paleoproterozoic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neoproterozoic" title="Neoproterozoic">Neoproterozoic</a> glacial epochs, respectively. </p><p>In contrast, the Protopangea–Paleopangea theory shows that these glaciations correlated with periods of low continental velocity, and it is concluded that a fall in tectonic and corresponding volcanic activity was responsible for these intervals of global frigidity.<sup id="cite_ref-piper2_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-piper2-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the accumulation of supercontinents with times of regional uplift, glacial epochs seem to be rare with little supporting evidence. However, the lack of evidence does not allow for the conclusion that glacial epochs are not associated with the collisional assembly of supercontinents.<sup id="cite_ref-eyles_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eyles-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This could just represent a <a href="/wiki/Preservation_bias" class="mw-redirect" title="Preservation bias">preservation bias</a>. </p><p>During the late <a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</a> (~458.4 Ma), the particular configuration of Gondwana may have allowed for glaciation and high CO<sub>2</sub> levels to occur at the same time.<sup id="cite_ref-crowley_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crowley-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, some geologists disagree and think that there was a temperature increase at this time. This increase may have been strongly influenced by the movement of Gondwana across the South Pole, which may have prevented lengthy snow accumulation. Although late Ordovician temperatures at the South Pole may have reached freezing, there were no ice sheets during the <a href="/wiki/Llandovery_epoch" class="mw-redirect" title="Llandovery epoch">early Silurian</a> <span class="nowrap">(~443.8 Ma)</span> through the late <a href="/wiki/Mississippian_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Mississippian age">Mississippian</a> <span class="nowrap">(~330.9 Ma).</span><sup id="cite_ref-flutaeu_6-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-flutaeu-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Agreement can be met with the theory that continental snow can occur when the edge of a continent is near the pole. Therefore Gondwana, although located tangent to the South Pole, may have experienced glaciation along its coasts.<sup id="cite_ref-crowley_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crowley-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Precipitation">Precipitation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Supercontinent&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Precipitation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Though precipitation rates during <a href="/wiki/Monsoon" title="Monsoon">monsoonal</a> circulations are difficult to predict, there is evidence for a large orographic barrier within the interior of Pangaea during the late Paleozoic <span class="nowrap">(~251.9 Ma).</span> The possibility of the southwest–northeast trending Appalachian-Hercynian Mountains makes the region's monsoonal circulations potentially relatable to present-day monsoonal circulations surrounding the Tibetan Plateau, which is known to positively influence the magnitude of monsoonal periods within Eurasia. It is therefore somewhat expected that lower topography in other regions of the supercontinent during the <a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a> would negatively influence precipitation variations. The breakup of supercontinents may have affected local precipitation.<sup id="cite_ref-Baum_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baum-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When any supercontinent breaks up, there will be an increase in precipitation <a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">runoff</a> over the surface of the continental landmasses, increasing <a href="/wiki/Silicate_mineral" title="Silicate mineral">silicate</a> <a href="/wiki/Weathering" title="Weathering">weathering</a> and the consumption of CO<sub>2</sub>.<sup id="cite_ref-donnadieu_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-donnadieu-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Temperature">Temperature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Supercontinent&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Temperature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Even though during the Archaean solar radiation was reduced by 30 percent and the <a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian</a>-<a href="/wiki/Precambrian" title="Precambrian">Precambrian</a> boundary by 6 percent, the Earth has only experienced three <a href="/wiki/Ice_age" title="Ice age">ice ages</a> throughout the Precambrian.<sup id="cite_ref-flutaeu_6-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-flutaeu-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Erroneous conclusions are more likely to be made when models are limited to one climatic configuration (which is usually present-day).<sup id="cite_ref-baum_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-baum-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cold winters in continental interiors are due to rate ratios of radiative cooling (greater) and heat transport from continental rims. To raise winter temperatures within continental interiors, the rate of heat transport must increase to become greater than the rate of radiative cooling. Through climate models, alterations in atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> content and ocean heat transport are not comparatively effective.<sup id="cite_ref-baum_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-baum-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>CO<sub>2</sub> models suggest that values were low in the late Cenozoic and Carboniferous-Permian glaciations. Although early Paleozoic values are much larger (more than 10 percent higher than that of today). This may be due to high seafloor spreading rates after the breakup of Precambrian supercontinents and the lack of land plants as a <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sink</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-crowley_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crowley-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the late Permian, it is expected that seasonal Pangaean temperatures varied drastically. Subtropic summer temperatures were warmer than that of today by as much as 6–10 degrees, and mid-latitudes in the winter were less than −30 degrees Celsius. These seasonal changes within the supercontinent were influenced by the large size of Pangaea. And, just like today, coastal regions experienced much less variation.<sup id="cite_ref-flutaeu_6-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-flutaeu-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the Jurassic, summer temperatures did not rise above zero degrees Celsius along the northern rim of Laurasia, which was the northernmost part of Pangaea (the southernmost portion of Pangaea was Gondwana). Ice-rafted <a href="/wiki/Dropstone" title="Dropstone">dropstones</a> sourced from Russia are indicators of this northern boundary. The Jurassic is thought to have been approximately 10 degrees Celsius warmer along 90 degrees East <a href="/wiki/Paleomagnetism" title="Paleomagnetism">paleolongitude</a> compared to the present temperature of today's central Eurasia.<sup id="cite_ref-baum_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-baum-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Milankovitch_cycles">Milankovitch cycles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Supercontinent&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Milankovitch cycles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many studies of the <a href="/wiki/Milankovitch_cycles" title="Milankovitch cycles">Milankovitch cycles</a> during supercontinent time periods have focused on the mid-Cretaceous. Present amplitudes of Milankovitch cycles over present-day Eurasia may be mirrored in both the southern and northern hemispheres of the supercontinent Pangaea. Climate modeling shows that summer fluctuations varied 14–16 degrees Celsius on Pangaea, which is similar or slightly higher than summer temperatures of Eurasia during the Pleistocene. The largest-amplitude Milankovitch cycles are expected to have been at mid-to high-latitudes during the Triassic and Jurassic.<sup id="cite_ref-baum_22-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-baum-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Atmospheric_gases">Atmospheric gases</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Supercontinent&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Atmospheric gases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate tectonics</a> and the chemical composition of the atmosphere (specifically <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gases</a>) are the two most prevailing factors present within the geologic time scale. <a href="/wiki/Continental_drift" title="Continental drift">Continental drift</a> influences both cold and warm climatic episodes. Atmospheric circulation and climate are strongly influenced by the location and formation of continents and supercontinents. Therefore, continental drift influences mean global temperature.<sup id="cite_ref-flutaeu_6-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-flutaeu-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Oxygen levels of the Archaean were negligible, and today they are roughly 21 percent. It is thought that the Earth's oxygen content has risen in stages: six or seven steps that are timed very closely to the development of Earth's supercontinents.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>Continents collide</li> <li>Super-mountains form</li> <li>Erosion of super-mountains</li> <li>Large quantities of minerals and nutrients wash out to open ocean</li> <li>Explosion of marine algae life (partly sourced from noted nutrients)</li> <li>Mass amounts of oxygen produced during photosynthesis</li></ol> <p>The process of Earth's increase in atmospheric oxygen content is theorized to have started with the continent-continent collision of huge landmasses forming supercontinents, and therefore possibly supercontinent mountain ranges (super-mountains). These super-mountains would have eroded, and the mass amounts of nutrients, including <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a>, would have washed into oceans, just as is seen happening today. The oceans would then be rich in nutrients essential to photosynthetic organisms, which would then be able to respire mass amounts of oxygen. There is an apparent direct relationship between <a href="/wiki/Orogeny" title="Orogeny">orogeny</a> and the atmospheric oxygen content. There is also evidence for increased sedimentation concurrent with the timing of these mass oxygenation events, meaning that the organic carbon and <a href="/wiki/Pyrite" title="Pyrite">pyrite</a> at these times were more likely to be buried beneath sediment and therefore unable to react with the free oxygen. This sustained the atmospheric oxygen increases.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At <span class="nowrap">2.65 Ga</span> there was an increase in <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_molybdenum" title="Isotopes of molybdenum">molybdenum isotope</a> fractionation. It was temporary but supports the increase in atmospheric oxygen because molybdenum isotopes require free oxygen to fractionate. Between 2.45 and <span class="nowrap">2.32 Ga,</span> the second period of oxygenation occurred, which has been called the 'great oxygenation event.' Evidence supporting this event includes <a href="/wiki/Red_beds" title="Red beds">red beds</a> appearance <span class="nowrap">2.3 Ga</span> (meaning that Fe<sup>3+</sup> was being produced and became an important component in soils). </p><p>The third oxygenation stage approximately <span class="nowrap">1.8 Ga</span> is indicated by the disappearance of iron formations. <a href="/wiki/Neodymium" title="Neodymium">Neodymium</a> isotopic studies suggest that iron formations are usually from continental sources, meaning that dissolved Fe and Fe<sup>2+</sup> had to be transported during continental erosion. A rise in atmospheric oxygen prevents Fe transport, so the lack of iron formations may have been the result of an increase in oxygen. The fourth oxygenation event, roughly <span class="nowrap">0.6 Ga,</span> is based on modeled rates of <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_sulfur" title="Isotopes of sulfur">sulfur isotopes</a> from marine carbonate-associated <a href="/wiki/Sulfate" title="Sulfate">sulfates</a>. An increase (near doubled concentration) of sulfur isotopes, which is suggested by these models, would require an increase in the oxygen content of the deep oceans. </p><p>Between 650 and <span class="nowrap">550 Ma</span> there were three increases in ocean oxygen levels, this period is the fifth oxygenation stage. One of the reasons indicating this period to be an oxygenation event is the increase in <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">redox</a>-sensitive <a href="/wiki/Molybdenum" title="Molybdenum">molybdenum</a> in black <a href="/wiki/Shale" title="Shale">shales</a>. The sixth event occurred between 360 and <span class="nowrap">260 Ma</span> and was identified by models suggesting shifts in the balance of <sup>34</sup>S in <a href="/wiki/Sulfate" title="Sulfate">sulfates</a> and <sup>13</sup>C in <a href="/wiki/Carbonate" title="Carbonate">carbonates</a>, which were strongly influenced by an increase in atmospheric oxygen.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Proxies">Proxies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Supercontinent&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Proxies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Granites and detrital zircons have notably similar and episodic appearances in the rock record. Their fluctuations correlate with Precambrian supercontinent cycles. The <a href="/wiki/Uranium%E2%80%93lead_dating" title="Uranium–lead dating">U–Pb zircon dates</a> from orogenic granites are among the most reliable aging determinants. </p><p>Some issues exist with relying on granite sourced zircons, such as a lack of evenly globally sourced data and the loss of granite zircons by sedimentary coverage or <a href="/wiki/Pluton" class="mw-redirect" title="Pluton">plutonic</a> consumption. Where granite zircons are less adequate, detrital zircons from <a href="/wiki/Sandstone" title="Sandstone">sandstones</a> appear and make up for the gaps. These detrital zircons are taken from the sands of major modern rivers and their <a href="/wiki/Drainage_basin" title="Drainage basin">drainage basins</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-bradley_4-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bradley-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oceanic magnetic anomalies and paleomagnetic data are the primary resources used for reconstructing continent and supercontinent locations back to roughly 150 Ma.<sup id="cite_ref-flutaeu_6-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-flutaeu-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Supercontinent&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_paleocontinents" title="List of paleocontinents">List of paleocontinents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superocean" title="Superocean">Superocean</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Supercontinent&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-rogers-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-rogers_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rogers_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rogers_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rogers_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rogers_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rogers_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rogers_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rogers_1-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rogers_1-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRogersSantosh2004" class="citation book cs1">Rogers, John J. 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Scotese</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Continents_of_Earth513" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th 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4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Continents_of_Earth" title="Template:Continents of Earth"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Continents_of_Earth" title="Template talk:Continents of Earth"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Continents_of_Earth" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Continents of Earth"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Continents_of_Earth513" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Continent" title="Continent">Continents</a> of <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:5em">   </td><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;text-align:center;width:14%;"><div> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/75px-Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/113px-Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/150px-Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> </p> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:14%;"><div> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Antarctica_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/75px-Antarctica_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Antarctica_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/113px-Antarctica_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Antarctica_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/150px-Antarctica_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="537" data-file-height="536" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a> </p> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:14%;"><div> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/75px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/113px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/150px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="541" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a> </p> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:14%;"><div> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Australia_(continent)" title="Australia (continent)"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Australia-New_Guinea_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/75px-Australia-New_Guinea_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Australia-New_Guinea_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/113px-Australia-New_Guinea_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Australia-New_Guinea_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/150px-Australia-New_Guinea_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="541" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Australia_(continent)" title="Australia (continent)">Australia</a> </p> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:14%;"><div> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Europe_orthographic_Caucasus_Urals_boundary.svg/75px-Europe_orthographic_Caucasus_Urals_boundary.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Europe_orthographic_Caucasus_Urals_boundary.svg/113px-Europe_orthographic_Caucasus_Urals_boundary.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Europe_orthographic_Caucasus_Urals_boundary.svg/150px-Europe_orthographic_Caucasus_Urals_boundary.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="537" data-file-height="536" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> </p> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:14%;"><div> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Location_North_America.svg/75px-Location_North_America.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Location_North_America.svg/113px-Location_North_America.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Location_North_America.svg/150px-Location_North_America.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a> </p> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:14%;"><div> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/South_America_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/75px-South_America_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/South_America_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/113px-South_America_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/South_America_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/150px-South_America_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="541" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a> </p> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:5em">   </td><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;text-align:center;width:25%;"><div> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Afro-Eurasia" title="Afro-Eurasia"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Afro-Eurasia_%28orthographic_projection%29_political.svg/75px-Afro-Eurasia_%28orthographic_projection%29_political.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Afro-Eurasia_%28orthographic_projection%29_political.svg/113px-Afro-Eurasia_%28orthographic_projection%29_political.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Afro-Eurasia_%28orthographic_projection%29_political.svg/150px-Afro-Eurasia_%28orthographic_projection%29_political.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Afro-Eurasia" title="Afro-Eurasia">Afro-Eurasia</a> </p> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:25%;"><div> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/75px-Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/113px-Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/150px-Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a> </p> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:25%;"><div> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Eurasia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/75px-Eurasia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Eurasia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/113px-Eurasia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Eurasia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/150px-Eurasia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a> </p> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:25%;"><div> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Oceania" title="Oceania"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Oceania_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/75px-Oceania_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Oceania_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/113px-Oceania_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Oceania_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/150px-Oceania_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="541" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Oceania" title="Oceania">Oceania</a> </p> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:5em">   </td><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;padding-left:1.0em;text-align:center; padding-right:1.0em;width:35%;"><div> <ul><li><span style="font-size:120%"><b>Prehistoric <a class="mw-selflink selflink">supercontinents</a></b></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Columbia_(supercontinent)" title="Columbia (supercontinent)">Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana">Gondwana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenorland" title="Kenorland">Kenorland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurasia" title="Laurasia">Laurasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nena_(supercontinent)" title="Nena (supercontinent)">Nena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pangaea" title="Pangaea">Pangaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pannotia" title="Pannotia">Pannotia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodinia" title="Rodinia">Rodinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ur_(continent)" title="Ur (continent)">Ur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaalbara" title="Vaalbara">Vaalbara</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;padding-left:1.0em;text-align:center; padding-right:1.0em;width:65%;"><div> <ul><li><span style="font-size:120%"><b>Other prehistoric continents</b></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Amazonian_Craton" title="Amazonian Craton">Amazonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctica" title="Arctica">Arctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asiamerica" class="mw-redirect" title="Asiamerica">Asiamerica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantica" title="Atlantica">Atlantica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avalonia" title="Avalonia">Avalonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltica" title="Baltica">Baltica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilenia" title="Chilenia">Chilenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cimmeria_(continent)" title="Cimmeria (continent)">Cimmeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congo_Craton" title="Congo Craton">Congo Craton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuyania" title="Cuyania">Cuyania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Antarctic_Shield" title="East Antarctic Shield">East Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurasia#Euramerica/Laurussia" title="Laurasia">Euramerica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalahari_Craton" title="Kalahari Craton">Kalaharia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakhstania" title="Kazakhstania">Kazakhstania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laramidia" title="Laramidia">Laramidia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurentia" title="Laurentia">Laurentia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_China_Craton" title="North China Craton">North China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pampia" title="Pampia">Pampia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahul" title="Sahul">Sahul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siberia_(continent)" title="Siberia (continent)">Siberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_China_Craton" title="South China Craton">South China</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;;border-bottom:0;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:5em">   </td><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;padding-left:1.0em;text-align:center;padding-right:1.0em;width:25%;"><div> <ul><li><span style="font-size:120%"><b><a href="/wiki/Submerged_continent" title="Submerged continent">Submerged continent</a>/<a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">lands</a> and <a href="/wiki/Continental_fragment" title="Continental fragment">microcontinents</a></b></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Beringia" title="Beringia">Beringia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cathaysia" title="Cathaysia">Cathaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doggerland" title="Doggerland">Doggerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Australian_Bight" title="Great Australian Bight">Great Australian Bight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Mayen_Microcontinent" title="Jan Mayen Microcontinent">Jan Mayen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerguelen_Plateau" title="Kerguelen Plateau">Kerguelen Plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauritia_(microcontinent)" title="Mauritia (microcontinent)">Mauritia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahul_Shelf" title="Sahul Shelf">Sahul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seychelles_Microcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="Seychelles Microcontinent">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunda_Shelf" title="Sunda Shelf">Sunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zealandia" title="Zealandia">Zealandia</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;padding-left:1.0em;text-align:center;padding-right:1.0em;width:20%;"><div> <ul><li><span style="font-size:120%"><b>Possible future supercontinents</b></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Amasia_(supercontinent)" title="Amasia (supercontinent)">Amasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurica_(supercontinent)" title="Aurica (supercontinent)">Aurica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novopangaea" title="Novopangaea">Novopangaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pangaea_Proxima" title="Pangaea Proxima">Pangaea Proxima</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;padding-left:1.0em;text-align:center;padding-right:1.0em;width:25%;"><div> <ul><li><span style="font-size:120%"><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_mythological_places" title="List of mythological places">Mythical</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_lost_lands" class="mw-redirect" title="List of lost lands">lost</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Phantom_island" title="Phantom island">hypothesised</a> continents</b></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Atlantis" title="Atlantis">Atlantis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperborea" title="Hyperborea">Hyperborea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumari_Kandam" title="Kumari Kandam">Kumari Kandam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemuria" title="Lemuria">Lemuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meropis" title="Meropis">Meropis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mu_(mythical_lost_continent)" title="Mu (mythical lost continent)">Mu</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Terra_Australis" title="Terra Australis">Terra Australis</a></i></li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;padding-left:1.0em;text-align:center;padding-right:1.0em;width:30%;"><div> <ul><li><span style="font-size:120%"><b><a href="/wiki/Continent#Subcontinents" title="Continent">Subcontinents</a></b></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_America" title="Central America">Central America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_plate" title="Somali plate">Eastern Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Far_East" title="Russian Far East">Eastern Siberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian Subcontinent</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"><ul><li>See also: <b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/16px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/24px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/32px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="3002" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:World" title="Portal:World">World portal</a></b></li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Regions_of_the_world" title="Template:Regions of the world">Regions of the world</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Continental_fragment" title="Continental fragment">Continental fragment</a></li><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Continents" title="Category:Continents">Category</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_continents" title="Chronology of continents">Chronology of continents</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Supercontinent&oldid=1265861622">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Supercontinent&oldid=1265861622</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Continents" title="Category:Continents">Continents</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Historical_geology" title="Category:Historical geology">Historical 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