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et_pb_css_mix_blend_mode_passthrough et-last-child"> <div class="et_pb_module et_pb_text et_pb_text_0 yoastBC et_pb_text_align_center et_pb_bg_layout_light"> <div class="et_pb_text_inner"><span><span><a href="https://www.tolkienestate.com/es/">Home</a></span> / <span><a href="https://www.tolkienestate.com/es/estudiar/">Estudiar</a></span> / <span class="breadcrumb_last" aria-current="page">Leo Carruthers, Comprender Beowulf</span></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </div><div class="et_pb_section et_pb_section_1 et_pb_with_background et_section_regular" > <div class="et_pb_row et_pb_row_1"> <div class="et_pb_column et_pb_column_4_4 et_pb_column_1 et_pb_css_mix_blend_mode_passthrough et-last-child"> <div class="et_pb_module et_pb_text et_pb_text_1 et_pb_text_align_center et_pb_bg_layout_light"> <div class="et_pb_text_inner"><p>ESTUDIAR</p></div> </div><div class="et_pb_module et_pb_text et_pb_text_2 et_pb_text_align_left et_pb_bg_layout_light"> <div class="et_pb_text_inner"><h1>Leo Carruthers, Comprender Beowulf</h1></div> </div> </div> </div> </div><div class="et_pb_section et_pb_section_2 et_pb_with_background et_section_regular" > <div class="et_pb_row et_pb_row_2"> <div class="et_pb_column et_pb_column_4_4 et_pb_column_2 et_pb_css_mix_blend_mode_passthrough et-last-child"> <div class="et_pb_module et_pb_text et_pb_text_3 et_animated et_pb_text_align_left et_pb_bg_layout_light"> <div class="et_pb_text_inner"><p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Leo Carruthers, an academic specializing in Anglo-Saxon literature, particularly </span><i><span style="font-weight: 400;">Beowulf</span></i><span style="font-weight: 400;">, presents his views on the medieval poem, setting it in a historical context and discussing its importance in Tolkien’s work.</span></p></div> </div> </div> </div> </div><div class="et_pb_section et_pb_section_3 et_section_regular" > <div class="et_pb_row et_pb_row_3"> <div class="et_pb_column et_pb_column_4_4 et_pb_column_3 et_pb_css_mix_blend_mode_passthrough et-last-child"> <div class="et_pb_module et_pb_text et_pb_text_4 et_animated et_pb_text_align_left et_pb_bg_layout_light"> <div class="et_pb_text_inner"><p><strong>Un<span> </span><em>romance</em><span> </span>heroico anglosajón (siglo VIII<sup>e</sup>-XI<sup>e</sup>)</strong></p> <p><em>Beowulf</em> es un poema en inglés antiguo, sin título en el manuscrito, pero conocido generalmente por el nombre del personaje central – convención aprobada por Tolkien. La trama se divide en tres secciones de longitud aproximada, centradas en criaturas monstruosas, cada una de las cuales aparece en cada sección, y es combatida y eliminada por Beowulf. El poema presenta, asimismo, dos partes desiguales, basadas en el contraste entre la juventud y la vejez, ilustradas por la vida del héroe.</p> <p>En la primera parte, Beowulf, un joven guerrero invencible de fuerza sin igual, se pone al servicio del rey de un pueblo vecino y obtiene fama y honor por matar a los monstruos, Grendel y su madre, antes de regresar a casa.</p> <p>Dando de repente un salto hacia delante en el tiempo, la segunda parte muestra a Beowulf bajo la apariencia de un rey muy anciano, que reina sobre su tribu desde hace cincuenta años. Mata a un dragón que sopla fuego, pero muere gravemente herido en el combate; una conmovedora ceremonia fúnebre concluye el relato. No existe un «final feliz», y la escena final lleva la triste predicción de lo que le espera al pueblo privado de su rey. Esta inusual mezcla de coraje y melancolía que caracteriza la obra llevó a Tolkien a crear el neologismo «<strong>elegía heroica</strong>» para definir el género del poema. La discusión acerca de <em>Beowulf</em> y de si se debe considerar como «épico» o «romance», como «leyenda» o aun como «espejo de príncipes» mezcla de historia y de mitología, no representa para los especialistas más que uno de los aspectos de interés del poema.</p> <p>La opinión de J.R.R. Tolkien resultó significativa. Si bien el héroe es imaginario y los monstruos pertenecen al género de los mitos y de los cuentos de hadas, la presencia en el texto de auténticos reyes, que emergen de un oscuro pasado, sitúa la acción en el siglo VI de nuestra era.</p> <p>Es más, la historia es muy alusiva, ya que presenta repetidas referencias a personajes tanto reales como legendarios, procedentes de cuentos y canciones, que a menudo se incluyen en «digresiones» con poca relación respecto a la trama principal. Si estas referencias no suelen ser evidentes para el lector moderno, algunas de ellas tampoco fueron claras para el público originario; sin embargo, al contribuir a una sensación de antigüedad, de profundidad histórica arraigada en la tradición, sirven al propósito del poeta. Es una técnica que J.R.R Tolkien adoptó a su vez en<span> </span><em>El Señor de</em><em><span> </span>los Anillos</em>, donde el antiguo plano de fondo está siempre presente, raramente explicado.</p> <p>El poeta anónimo no desempeña el papel de cronista; no proporciona ninguna fecha, negándose a realizar precisiones temporales, así como evitando la trampa del género literario sencillo. El resultado es único en más de un sentido. Por lo tanto, los especialistas siguen discutiendo los orígenes del poema, su fecha, su contexto histórico, así como su interpretación. Probablemente, sea imposible establecer un consenso sobre todos los puntos. ¿Qué podemos decir con certeza acerca de <em>Beowulf</em>?</p> <p> </p> <p><strong>Un manuscrito</strong><strong><span> </span>superviviente</strong><strong>,</strong><strong><span> </span>una historia «Inglesa»</strong></p> <p>Para empezar, el texto del poema, escrito por dos manos diferentes, existe en un solo manuscrito, único testigo, conservado en la British Library, en Londres. La fecha de este documento es incierta: probablemente copiado hacia el año mil, se remonta quizás a las primeras décadas del siglo XI.</p> <p>Asimismo,<span> </span><em>Beowulf</em><span> </span>está escrito en el inglés antiguo clásico, que abarca el periodo de 950 hasta 1050, lo que corresponde al dialecto de Wessex hablado por los reyes ingleses. Sin embargo, todavía existen algunos vestigios de otros dialectos que presumiblemente escaparon a la atención de los copistas, lo que hace pensar que estos transcribían, o reescribían, un texto más antiguo, hoy en día desaparecido, procedente de otra región.</p> <p>Si, por desgracia, este manuscrito único de<span> </span><em>Beowulf</em><span> </span>hubiera sido destruido, a semejanza de muchos otros durante la Edad Media, no se sabría absolutamente nada de este poema, porque no subsiste nada análogo en otras lenguas y literaturas. Es cierto que algunos episodios registrados en textos nórdicos posteriores (islandeses) parecen tener paralelismos o personajes parcialmente similares – lo que puede sugerir un origen común – pero no se halla mención alguna a Beowulf, héroe de la obra inglesa.</p> <p>A pesar de que<span> </span><em>Beowulf</em><span> </span>fuese compuesto en Inglaterra y en inglés antiguo, es sorprendente observar que no contiene ninguna mención al pueblo inglés. De hecho, el poema es una especie de «romance histórico», en el sentido de que el poeta reflexiona sobre una época antigua, un período en el que los antepasados no vivían en la isla de Bretaña, sino en el continente. Estos, en cuestión, eran paganos y analfabetos, a diferencia de los cristianos cultos que, en opinión de Tolkien, eran el poeta inglés y sus contemporáneos.</p> <p>Toda la acción tiene lugar en Escandinavia: en Dinamarca en la primera parte (las luchas contra Grendel y su madre) y en la segunda parte en el territorio de los Getas, región del sur de la actual Suecia, donde el héroe mata al dragón. El propio Beowulf es Geta, miembro de una tribu relacionada con los famosos Godos, siendo los Getas enemigos de los Suecos.</p> <p>El rey veterano recuerda en sus pensamientos las largas guerras durante las que los Getas vencieron en varias ocasiones a los Suecos – lo que no impide la destrucción final de su pueblo, así como lo predice la lúgubre conclusión del poema.</p> <p>Así bien, la importancia del contexto literario e histórico para la cultura germánica en el más amplio sentido, entrega a la obra una perspectiva que va mucho más allá de la propia Inglaterra. Por tanto,<span> </span><em>Beowulf</em><span> </span>es el más largo y el más significativo de todos los antiguos poemas conservados en los pueblos nórdicos.</p> <p> </p> <p><strong>Historia cristiana y leyendas paganas</strong></p> <p>Los Anglos y los Sajones de Dinamarca y del norte de la actual Alemania no se establecieron en la isla de Bretaña antes del siglo V de nuestra era. Seiscientos años después, sus descendientes no habían olvidado sus raíces continentales ni su parentesco con otras naciones germánicas; las cuales les distinguían, por el lenguaje y la cultura, de los habitantes originales de la isla, los Bretones, a quienes les gustaba llamar<span> </span><em>Welsh<span> </span></em>[Galeses], es decir, «extranjeros».</p> <p>Este complejo plano de fondo explica por qué una audiencia anglosajona podía interesarse todavía a principios del siglo XI en un drama histórico-legendario acerca de sus antepasados escandinavos. Además, el público incluía también una población danesa recién llegada a Inglaterra, los Vikingos. De hecho, éstos eran tan fuertes que un príncipe danés, Knut (Cnut en inglés), logró tomar el trono de Inglaterra en 1016 – precisamente en el momento en que se redactaba el manuscrito de<span> </span><em>Beowulf</em>. Esto podría explicar por qué el prefacio del poema destaca la antigua genealogía real danesa.</p> <p>Todos estos temas plantean cuestiones a las que eruditos como Tolkien debían responder, interrogantes sobre la interpretación de muchos pasajes y del poema de manera global.</p> <p>¿Era ya antigua la obra bajo su forma actual en el momento de la redacción del manuscrito, suponiendo que ésta se realizase hacia los años 1000-1020? ¿Experimentó la obra, en parte o en su totalidad, una existencia independiente respecto al único testigo superviviente? Si es así, ¿hasta cuándo se remonta? ¿Su transmisión fue escrita o puramente oral, típica de una cultura vernácula? En todo caso, ¿en qué momento pudo haber sido realizado el poema? ¿Representaba la supervivencia de una antigua literatura heroica y pagana desaparecida durante la conversión de los ingleses al cristianismo?</p> <p>Como los reyes identificados vivieron en el siglo VI, se puede deducir que las historias sobre ellos se transmitieron oralmente durante generaciones; lo que no quiere decir que un poema de la longitud o calidad de<span> </span><em>Beowulf</em><span> </span>existiera en su época, sobre todo teniendo en cuenta la condición de la sociedad germánica pagana. Es más plausible suponer que un poeta anglosajón del siglo VIII fuera el primero en componer esta nueva obra, para su lectura ante una corte real inglesa, tras haber escuchado cuentos y leyendas heredados de los antiguos países escandinavos.</p> <p>Durante su larga carrera académica, Tolkien impartió a menudo clases sobre<span> </span><em>Beowulf</em>. Su influencia en la opinión científica del siglo XX se basa en la famosa conferencia que pronunció en 1936 en la Academia Británica, titulada «<em>Beowulf</em>: los monstruos y los críticos», publicada más tarde como un artículo.</p> <p>Al ubicar a los monstruos en el centro en lugar de la periferia, Tolkien contribuyó a la aceptación del poema como una obra de arte en un contexto literario e histórico preciso. Durante su vida sólo publicó otro artículo sobre<em><span> </span>Beowulf</em>, en el que desarrolló sus ideas sobre el vocabulario y el estilo de una traducción en prosa. Esta pieza aparece como prólogo a la edición de Wrenn, publicada en 1940, de la traducción de<span> </span><em>Beowulf</em><span> </span>realizada por Clark Hall. Diez años más tarde, Wrenn presenta la introducción de Tolkien como la parte más elogiable y duradera de dicho libro.</p> <p>En efecto, el artículo (reimpreso en varias antologías) sigue siendo esencial para entender la traducción de Tolkien (publicada bajo el título de<span> </span><em>Beowulf: traducción y comentario, incluye Sellic Spell</em>, en una edición de Christopher Tolkien), ya que en ella explica el gusto del traductor, no sólo por la prosa rítmica basada en las estructuras naturales del inglés hablado, sino también por el vocabulario noble y la gramática arcaica. Los comentarios de Tolkien sobre muchas cuestiones de interpretación literaria y lingüística de<span> </span><em>Beowulf</em>, ahora disponibles, acompañan su traducción.</p> <p>Tolkien pertenecía a la corriente de pensamiento que veía en <em>Beowulf</em><span> </span> un «romance histórico», compuesto por un anglosajón cristiano en la primera mitad del siglo VIII, mucho antes del período vikingo. El desconocido autor basa su historia en las antiguas leyendas de los antepasados, los daneses y los getas, que vivieron unos 150 años antes de su composición.</p> <p>La religión del poeta aparece a través de sus muchas alusiones a Dios, Padre y Creador; y se encuentran totalmente dispersas en el texto al que pertenecen, como los hilos de un tapiz que no se pueden retirar sin romper el dibujo. No se halla, sin embargo, ninguna mención a Cristo o a la Iglesia, ya que impediría la atmósfera antigua que el poeta quiere crear.</p> <p>Los personajes viven en un mundo que es, por decirlo así, más bien «pre-convertido», antes que «pagano», a semejanza de los creyentes del Antiguo Testamento, que esperan la revelación cristiana. Esta visión concuerda con la imagen de Dios como Señor, Rey y Juez, una noción que comparte<span> </span><em>Beowulf</em><em><span> </span></em>con las Escrituras Hebreas. Sin negar lo añadido o las revisiones realizadas por otros poetas y escribas a lo largo del tiempo, Tolkien consideraba el poema como una obra unificada llevada por la voz dominante de un solo autor del siglo VIII.</p> <p>El poeta presenta a su héroe, Beowulf, como un gran guerrero de antaño que sabía utilizar sabiamente los dones de Dios, que pone su fuerza excepcional al servicio de sus semejantes. Casi tres siglos después, durante la redacción del manuscrito, esta voz magistral evocaba un código de honor que seguía en vigor, no sin cierta nostalgia por el pasado heroico, en el seno de la nobleza anglosajona y danesa de Inglaterra.</p></div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article> </div> <footer class="et-l et-l--footer"> <div class="et_builder_inner_content et_pb_gutters3"> <div class="et_pb_section et_pb_section_0_tb_footer et_pb_with_background et_section_regular" > <div class="et_pb_row et_pb_row_0_tb_footer"> <div class="et_pb_column et_pb_column_4_4 et_pb_column_0_tb_footer et_pb_css_mix_blend_mode_passthrough et-last-child"> <div class="et_pb_module et_pb_image et_pb_image_0_tb_footer"> <span class="et_pb_image_wrap "><img decoding="async" src="https://jrrtestate.wpenginepowered.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/footerlogo.png" alt="" title="" /></span> </div> </div> </div><div class="et_pb_row et_pb_row_1_tb_footer"> <div class="et_pb_column 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