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subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Methods_of_calculation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pauling_electronegativity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pauling_electronegativity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Pauling electronegativity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pauling_electronegativity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mulliken_electronegativity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mulliken_electronegativity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Mulliken electronegativity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mulliken_electronegativity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Allred–Rochow_electronegativity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Allred–Rochow_electronegativity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Allred–Rochow electronegativity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Allred–Rochow_electronegativity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sanderson_electronegativity_equalization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sanderson_electronegativity_equalization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Sanderson electronegativity equalization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sanderson_electronegativity_equalization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Allen_electronegativity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Allen_electronegativity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Allen electronegativity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Allen_electronegativity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Correlation_of_electronegativity_with_other_properties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Correlation_of_electronegativity_with_other_properties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Correlation of electronegativity with other properties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Correlation_of_electronegativity_with_other_properties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trends_in_electronegativity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trends_in_electronegativity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Trends in electronegativity</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Trends_in_electronegativity-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Trends in electronegativity subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Trends_in_electronegativity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Periodic_trends" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Periodic_trends"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Periodic trends</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Periodic_trends-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Variation_of_electronegativity_with_oxidation_number" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Variation_of_electronegativity_with_oxidation_number"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Variation of electronegativity with oxidation number</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Variation_of_electronegativity_with_oxidation_number-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electronegativity_and_hybridization_scheme" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electronegativity_and_hybridization_scheme"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Electronegativity and hybridization scheme</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electronegativity_and_hybridization_scheme-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Group_electronegativity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Group_electronegativity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Group electronegativity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Group_electronegativity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electropositivity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electropositivity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Electropositivity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electropositivity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Electronegativity</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 77 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-77" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">77 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronegatiwiteit" title="Elektronegatiwiteit – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Elektronegatiwiteit" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D9%87%D8%B1%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="كهرسلبية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="كهرسلبية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronegatividat" title="Electronegatividat – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Electronegatividat" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronegativid%C3%A1" title="Electronegatividá – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Electronegatividá" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A7%8E_%E0%A6%8B%E0%A6%A3%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE" title="তড়িৎ ঋণাত্মকতা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="তড়িৎ ঋণাত্মকতা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80_%D1%82%D0%B8%D2%AB%D0%BA%D3%99%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA" title="Электр тиҫкәрелек – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Электр тиҫкәрелек" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%9E%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%86%D1%8C" title="Электраадмоўнасць – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Электраадмоўнасць" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82" title="Електроотрицателност – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Електроотрицателност" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronegativnost" title="Elektronegativnost – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Elektronegativnost" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronegativitat" title="Electronegativitat – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Electronegativitat" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BB%C4%83%D1%85" title="Электронегативлăх – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Электронегативлăх" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronegativita" title="Elektronegativita – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Elektronegativita" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronegatifedd" title="Electronegatifedd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Electronegatifedd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronegativitet" title="Elektronegativitet – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Elektronegativitet" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D9%87%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="كهروسلبية – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="كهروسلبية" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronegativit%C3%A4t" title="Elektronegativität – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Elektronegativität" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronegatiwita" title="Elektronegatiwita – Lower Sorbian" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Elektronegatiwita" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="Lower Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dolnoserbski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronegatiivsus" title="Elektronegatiivsus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Elektronegatiivsus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%97%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BA%CF%84%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BD%CE%B7%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%84%CE%B1" title="Ηλεκτραρνητικότητα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ηλεκτραρνητικότητα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronegatividad" title="Electronegatividad – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Electronegatividad" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronegativeco" title="Elektronegativeco – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Elektronegativeco" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eletronegativi%C3%A1" title="Eletronegativiá – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Eletronegativiá" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronegatibotasun" title="Elektronegatibotasun – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Elektronegatibotasun" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86%DA%AF%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C%D9%88%DB%8C" title="الکترونگاتیوی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="الکترونگاتیوی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89lectron%C3%A9gativit%C3%A9" title="Électronégativité – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Électronégativité" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leictridhi%C3%BAltacht" title="Leictridhiúltacht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Leictridhiúltacht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronegatividade" title="Electronegatividade – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Electronegatividade" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%84%EA%B8%B0_%EC%9D%8C%EC%84%B1%EB%8F%84" title="전기 음성도 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="전기 음성도" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B7%D5%AC%D5%A5%D5%AF%D5%BF%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A1%D6%81%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Էլեկտրաբացասականություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Էլեկտրաբացասականություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D-%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE" title="विद्युत्-ऋणात्मकता – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="विद्युत्-ऋणात्मकता" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronegativnost" title="Elektronegativnost – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Elektronegativnost" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronegativitas" title="Elektronegativitas – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Elektronegativitas" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elettronegativit%C3%A0" title="Elettronegatività – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Elettronegatività" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%A7%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A9%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA" title="אלקטרושליליות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אלקטרושליליות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A6%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%A6%E0%B3%83%E0%B2%A3%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B5" title="ವಿದ್ಯುದೃಣತ್ವ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ವಿದ್ಯುದೃಣತ್ವ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A3%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A7%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%97%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="ელექტროუარყოფითობა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ელექტროუარყოფითობა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA" title="Электртерістілік – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Электртерістілік" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektwonegativite" title="Elektwonegativite – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Elektwonegativite" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronegativit%C4%81te" title="Elektronegativitāte – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Elektronegativitāte" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektroneigiamumas" title="Elektroneigiamumas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Elektroneigiamumas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eletrunegativit%C3%A0" title="Eletrunegatività – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Eletrunegatività" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronegativit%C3%A1s" title="Elektronegativitás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Elektronegativitás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82" title="Електронегативност – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Електронегативност" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%8B%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%A4" title="വിദ്യുത് ഋണത – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="വിദ്യുത് ഋണത" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keelektronegatifan" title="Keelektronegatifan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Keelektronegatifan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D1%81%D3%A9%D1%80%D3%A9%D0%B3_%D1%87%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Цахилгаан сөрөг чанар – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Цахилгаан сөрөг чанар" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%AE%E1%80%9C%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%91%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%94%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA_%E1%80%86%E1%80%BD%E1%80%B2%E1%80%84%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%A1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8" title="အီလက်ထရောနစ် ဆွဲငင်အား – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အီလက်ထရောနစ် ဆွဲငင်အား" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronegativiteit" title="Elektronegativiteit – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Elektronegativiteit" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E6%B0%97%E9%99%B0%E6%80%A7%E5%BA%A6" title="電気陰性度 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="電気陰性度" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronegativitet" title="Elektronegativitet – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Elektronegativitet" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronegativitet" title="Elektronegativitet – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Elektronegativitet" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronegativitat" title="Electronegativitat – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Electronegativitat" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrmanfiylik" title="Elektrmanfiylik – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Elektrmanfiylik" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%B9%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C%DA%AF%DB%8C%D9%B9%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%B9%DB%8C" title="الیکٹرونیگیٹیوٹی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="الیکٹرونیگیٹیوٹی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronegativit%C3%A4t" title="Elektronegativität – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Elektronegativität" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektroujemno%C5%9B%C4%87" title="Elektroujemność – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Elektroujemność" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eletronegatividade" title="Eletronegatividade – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Eletronegatividade" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronegativitate" title="Electronegativitate – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Electronegativitate" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Электроотрицательность – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Электроотрицательность" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronegativiteti" title="Elektronegativiteti – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Elektronegativiteti" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronegativity" title="Electronegativity – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Electronegativity" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronegativita" title="Elektronegativita – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Elektronegativita" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronegativnost" title="Elektronegativnost – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Elektronegativnost" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82" title="Електронегативност – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Електронегативност" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronegativnost" title="Elektronegativnost – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Elektronegativnost" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronegatiivisuus" title="Elektronegatiivisuus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Elektronegatiivisuus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronegativitet" title="Elektronegativitet – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Elektronegativitet" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%88" title="மின்னெதிர்த்தன்மை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மின்னெதிர்த்தன்மை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B4%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%81%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B5" title="อิเล็กโตรเนกาทิวิตี – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="อิเล็กโตรเนกาทิวิตี" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronegatiflik" title="Elektronegatiflik – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Elektronegatiflik" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Електронегативність – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Електронегативність" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%82%DB%8C_%D9%85%D9%86%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%AA" title="برقی منفیت – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="برقی منفیت" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BB%99_%C3%A2m_%C4%91i%E1%BB%87n" title="Độ âm điện – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Độ âm điện" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a 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class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Electropositive&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Electropositive">Electropositive</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Tendency of an atom to attract a shared pair of electrons</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Electronegative" redirects here. For the Nightfall EP, see <a href="/wiki/Electronegative_(EP)" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronegative (EP)"><i>Electronegative</i> (EP)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Electrostatic_Potential.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A water molecule is put into a see-through egg shape, which is color-coded by electrostatic potential. A concentration of red is near the top of the shape, where the oxygen atom is, and gradually shifts through yellow, green, and then to blue near the lower-right and lower-left corners of the shape where the hydrogen atoms are." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Electrostatic_Potential.jpg/330px-Electrostatic_Potential.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Electrostatic_Potential.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="439" data-file-height="110" /></a><figcaption>Electrostatic potential map of a water molecule, where the oxygen atom has a more negative charge (red) than the positive (blue) hydrogen atoms</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Electronegativity</b>, symbolized as <span class="nounderlines"><i><a href="/wiki/Chi_(letter)" title="Chi (letter)">χ</a></i></span>, is the tendency for an <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atom</a> of a given <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">chemical element</a> to attract shared <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Electron_density" title="Electron density">electron density</a>) when forming a <a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">chemical bond</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-definition_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-definition-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An atom's electronegativity is affected by both its <a href="/wiki/Atomic_number" title="Atomic number">atomic number</a> and the distance at which its <a href="/wiki/Valence_electrons" class="mw-redirect" title="Valence electrons">valence electrons</a> reside from the charged nucleus. The higher the associated electronegativity, the more an atom or a substituent group attracts electrons. Electronegativity serves as a simple way to quantitatively estimate the <a href="/wiki/Bond_energy" title="Bond energy">bond energy</a>, and the sign and magnitude of a bond's <a href="/wiki/Chemical_polarity" title="Chemical polarity">chemical polarity</a>, which characterizes a bond along the continuous scale from <a href="/wiki/Covalent_bonding" class="mw-redirect" title="Covalent bonding">covalent</a> to <a href="/wiki/Ionic_bonding" title="Ionic bonding">ionic bonding</a>. The loosely defined term <b>electropositivity</b> is the opposite of electronegativity: it characterizes an element's tendency to donate valence electrons. </p><p>On the most basic level, electronegativity is determined by factors like the <a href="/wiki/Effective_nuclear_charge" title="Effective nuclear charge">nuclear charge</a> (the more <a href="/wiki/Protons" class="mw-redirect" title="Protons">protons</a> an atom has, the more "pull" it will have on electrons) and the number and location of other electrons in the <a href="/wiki/Electron_shell" title="Electron shell">atomic shells</a> (the more electrons an atom has, the farther from the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">nucleus</a> the valence electrons will be, and as a result, the less positive charge they will experience—both because of their increased distance from the nucleus and because the other electrons in the lower energy core <a href="/wiki/Atomic_orbital" title="Atomic orbital">orbitals</a> will act to <a href="/wiki/Shielding_effect" title="Shielding effect">shield</a> the valence electrons from the positively charged nucleus). </p><p>The term "electronegativity" was introduced by <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius" title="Jöns Jacob Berzelius">Jöns Jacob Berzelius</a> in 1811,<sup id="cite_ref-Jensen_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jensen-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though the concept was known before that and was studied by many chemists including <a href="/wiki/Amadeo_Avogadro" class="mw-redirect" title="Amadeo Avogadro">Avogadro</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Jensen_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jensen-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In spite of its long history, an accurate scale of electronegativity was not developed until 1932, when <a href="/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling">Linus Pauling</a> proposed an electronegativity scale which depends on bond energies, as a development of <a href="/wiki/Valence_bond_theory" title="Valence bond theory">valence bond theory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-paulingJACS_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-paulingJACS-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been shown to correlate with a number of other chemical properties. Electronegativity cannot be directly measured and must be calculated from other atomic or molecular properties. Several methods of calculation have been proposed, and although there may be small differences in the numerical values of the electronegativity, all methods show the same <a href="/wiki/Periodic_trends" title="Periodic trends">periodic trends</a> between <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">elements</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most commonly used method of calculation is that originally proposed by Linus Pauling. This gives a <a href="/wiki/Dimensionless_quantity" title="Dimensionless quantity">dimensionless quantity</a>, commonly referred to as the <b>Pauling scale</b> (<i>χ</i><sub>r</sub>), on a relative scale running from 0.79 to 3.98 (<a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> = 2.20). When other methods of calculation are used, it is conventional (although not obligatory) to quote the results on a scale that covers the same range of numerical values: this is known as an electronegativity in <i>Pauling units</i>. </p><p>As it is usually calculated, electronegativity is not a property of an atom alone, but rather a property of an atom in a <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecule</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NOTCB_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NOTCB-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even so, the electronegativity of an atom is strongly correlated with the <a href="/wiki/Ionization_energy" title="Ionization energy">first ionization energy</a>. The electronegativity is slightly negatively correlated (for smaller electronegativity values) and rather strongly positively correlated (for most and larger electronegativity values) with the <a href="/wiki/Electron_affinity" title="Electron affinity">electron affinity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is to be expected that the electronegativity of an element will vary with its chemical environment,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but it is usually considered to be a <a href="/wiki/Transferability_(chemistry)" title="Transferability (chemistry)">transferable property</a>, that is to say that similar values will be valid in a variety of situations. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Caesium" title="Caesium">Caesium</a> is the least electronegative element (0.79); <a href="/wiki/Fluorine" title="Fluorine">fluorine</a> is the most (3.98). </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methods_of_calculation">Methods of calculation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electronegativity&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Methods of calculation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pauling_electronegativity">Pauling electronegativity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electronegativity&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Pauling electronegativity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="Pauling_electronegativity"></span> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling">Pauling</a> first proposed<sup id="cite_ref-paulingJACS_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-paulingJACS-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the concept of electronegativity in 1932 to explain why the <a href="/wiki/Covalent_bond" title="Covalent bond">covalent bond</a> between two different atoms (A–B) is stronger than the average of the A–A and the B–B bonds. According to <a href="/wiki/Valence_bond_theory" title="Valence bond theory">valence bond theory</a>, of which Pauling was a notable proponent, this "additional stabilization" of the <a href="/wiki/Heteronuclear" class="mw-redirect" title="Heteronuclear">heteronuclear</a> bond is due to the contribution of <a href="/wiki/Ionic_bond" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionic bond">ionic</a> <a href="/wiki/Resonance_(chemistry)" title="Resonance (chemistry)">canonical forms</a> to the bonding. </p><p>The difference in electronegativity between atoms A and B is given by: <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle |\chi _{\rm {A}}-\chi _{\rm {B}}|=({\rm {eV}})^{-1/2}{\sqrt {E_{\rm {d}}({\rm {AB}})-{\frac {E_{\rm {d}}({\rm {AA}})+E_{\rm {d}}({\rm {BB}})}{2}}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mi>χ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">A</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>χ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">B</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">V</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <msub> <mi>E</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">A</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">B</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msub> <mi>E</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">A</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">A</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>E</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">B</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">B</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> </msqrt> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle |\chi _{\rm {A}}-\chi _{\rm {B}}|=({\rm {eV}})^{-1/2}{\sqrt {E_{\rm {d}}({\rm {AB}})-{\frac {E_{\rm {d}}({\rm {AA}})+E_{\rm {d}}({\rm {BB}})}{2}}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e597995918168e09e95242eb3f83b37c69624465" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.838ex; width:54.584ex; height:7.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle |\chi _{\rm {A}}-\chi _{\rm {B}}|=({\rm {eV}})^{-1/2}{\sqrt {E_{\rm {d}}({\rm {AB}})-{\frac {E_{\rm {d}}({\rm {AA}})+E_{\rm {d}}({\rm {BB}})}{2}}}}}"></span> where the <a href="/wiki/Bond_dissociation_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Bond dissociation energy">dissociation energies</a>, <i>E</i><sub>d</sub>, of the A–B, A–A and B–B bonds are expressed in <a href="/wiki/Electronvolt" title="Electronvolt">electronvolts</a>, the factor (eV)<sup>−<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span></sup> being included to ensure a dimensionless result. Hence, the difference in Pauling electronegativity between hydrogen and <a href="/wiki/Bromine" title="Bromine">bromine</a> is 0.73 (dissociation energies: H–Br, 3.79 eV; H–H, 4.52 eV; Br–Br 2.00 eV) </p><p>As only differences in electronegativity are defined, it is necessary to choose an arbitrary reference point in order to construct a scale. Hydrogen was chosen as the reference, as it forms covalent bonds with a large variety of elements: its electronegativity was fixed first<sup id="cite_ref-paulingJACS_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-paulingJACS-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> at 2.1, later revised<sup id="cite_ref-Allred_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allred-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to 2.20. It is also necessary to decide which of the two elements is the more electronegative (equivalent to choosing one of the two possible signs for the square root). This is usually done using "chemical intuition": in the above example, <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bromide" title="Hydrogen bromide">hydrogen bromide</a> dissolves in water to form H<sup>+</sup> and Br<sup>−</sup> ions, so it may be assumed that bromine is more electronegative than hydrogen. However, in principle, since the same electronegativities should be obtained for any two bonding compounds, the data are in fact overdetermined, and the signs are unique once a reference point has been fixed (usually, for H or F). </p><p>To calculate Pauling electronegativity for an element, it is necessary to have data on the dissociation energies of at least two types of covalent bonds formed by that element. A. L. Allred updated Pauling's original values in 1961 to take account of the greater availability of thermodynamic data,<sup id="cite_ref-Allred_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allred-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and it is these "revised Pauling" values of the electronegativity that are most often used. </p><p>The essential point of Pauling electronegativity is that there is an underlying, quite accurate, semi-empirical formula for dissociation energies, namely: <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E_{\rm {d}}({\rm {AB}})={\frac {E_{\rm {d}}({\rm {AA}})+E_{\rm {d}}({\rm {BB}})}{2}}+(\chi _{\rm {A}}-\chi _{\rm {B}})^{2}{\rm {eV}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>E</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">A</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">B</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msub> <mi>E</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">A</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">A</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>E</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">B</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">B</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>χ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">A</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>χ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">B</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">V</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E_{\rm {d}}({\rm {AB}})={\frac {E_{\rm {d}}({\rm {AA}})+E_{\rm {d}}({\rm {BB}})}{2}}+(\chi _{\rm {A}}-\chi _{\rm {B}})^{2}{\rm {eV}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2888d5458beb898ac57dbc35e449167ddc5322d7" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:48.044ex; height:5.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E_{\rm {d}}({\rm {AB}})={\frac {E_{\rm {d}}({\rm {AA}})+E_{\rm {d}}({\rm {BB}})}{2}}+(\chi _{\rm {A}}-\chi _{\rm {B}})^{2}{\rm {eV}}}"></span> or sometimes, a more accurate fit <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E_{\rm {d}}({\rm {AB}})={\sqrt {E_{\rm {d}}({\rm {AA}})E_{\rm {d}}({\rm {BB}})}}+1.3(\chi _{\rm {A}}-\chi _{\rm {B}})^{2}{\rm {eV}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>E</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">A</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">B</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <msub> <mi>E</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">A</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">A</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <msub> <mi>E</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">B</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">B</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </msqrt> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1.3</mn> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>χ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">A</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>χ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">B</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">V</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E_{\rm {d}}({\rm {AB}})={\sqrt {E_{\rm {d}}({\rm {AA}})E_{\rm {d}}({\rm {BB}})}}+1.3(\chi _{\rm {A}}-\chi _{\rm {B}})^{2}{\rm {eV}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6f5caf5f8530548985cb19756995d5d12d6bc001" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:49.663ex; height:4.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E_{\rm {d}}({\rm {AB}})={\sqrt {E_{\rm {d}}({\rm {AA}})E_{\rm {d}}({\rm {BB}})}}+1.3(\chi _{\rm {A}}-\chi _{\rm {B}})^{2}{\rm {eV}}}"></span> </p><p>These are approximate equations but they hold with good accuracy. Pauling obtained the first equation by noting that a bond can be approximately represented as a quantum mechanical superposition of a covalent bond and two ionic bond-states. The covalent energy of a bond is approximate, by quantum mechanical calculations, the <a href="/wiki/Geometric_mean" title="Geometric mean">geometric mean</a> of the two energies of covalent bonds of the same molecules, and there is additional energy that comes from ionic factors, i.e. polar character of the bond. </p><p>The geometric mean is approximately equal to the <a href="/wiki/Arithmetic_mean" title="Arithmetic mean">arithmetic mean</a>—which is applied in the first formula above—when the energies are of a similar value, e.g., except for the highly electropositive elements, where there is a larger difference of two dissociation energies; the geometric mean is more accurate and almost always gives positive excess energy, due to ionic bonding. The square root of this excess energy, Pauling notes, is approximately additive, and hence one can introduce the electronegativity. Thus, it is these semi-empirical formulas for bond energy that underlie the concept of Pauling electronegativity. </p><p>The formulas are approximate, but this rough approximation is in fact relatively good and gives the right intuition, with the notion of the polarity of the bond and some theoretical grounding in quantum mechanics. The electronegativities are then determined to best fit the data. </p><p>In more complex compounds, there is an additional error since electronegativity depends on the molecular environment of an atom. Also, the energy estimate can be only used for single, not for multiple bonds. The enthalpy of formation of a molecule containing only single bonds can subsequently be estimated based on an electronegativity table, and it depends on the constituents and the sum of squares of differences of electronegativities of all pairs of bonded atoms. Such a formula for estimating energy typically has a relative error on the order of 10% but can be used to get a rough qualitative idea and understanding of a molecule. </p> <div style="text-align:center; background:#f8f8f8; border:1px solid #a9a9a9; width:100%; max-width:1300px; margin:0 auto; ;"> <div style="background:#d8d8d8; padding:2px 4px; font-weight: bold;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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<a href="/wiki/Atomic_radius" title="Atomic radius">Atomic radius</a> decreases → <a href="/wiki/Ionization_energy" title="Ionization energy">Ionization energy</a> increases → Electronegativity increases →</div> <table style="width:100% !important;table-layout: fixed; font-size: 90%"> <tbody><tr style="background:#e8e8e8;"> <th> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Alkali_metal" title="Alkali metal">1</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metal" title="Alkaline earth metal">2</a> </th> <th style="width: 2em"> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Group_3_element" title="Group 3 element">3</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Group_4_element" title="Group 4 element">4</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Group_5_element" title="Group 5 element">5</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Group_6_element" title="Group 6 element">6</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Group_7_element" title="Group 7 element">7</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Group_8_element" title="Group 8 element">8</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Group_9_element" title="Group 9 element">9</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Group_10_element" title="Group 10 element">10</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Group_11_element" title="Group 11 element">11</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Group_12_element" title="Group 12 element">12</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Boron_group" title="Boron group">13</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Carbon_group" title="Carbon group">14</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Pnictogen" title="Pnictogen">15</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Chalcogen" title="Chalcogen">16</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Halogen" title="Halogen">17</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Noble_gas" title="Noble gas">18</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Periodic_table_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Periodic table group">Group</a> → </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="text-align:left">↓ <a href="/wiki/Periodic_table_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Periodic table period">Period</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Period_1_element" title="Period 1 element">1</a> </th> <td style="background-color:#ff8a00"><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">H</a><br />2.20 </td> <td colspan="17"> </td> <td style="background-color:#bbbbbb"><a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">He</a><br />  </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Period_2_element" title="Period 2 element">2</a> </th> <td style="background-color:#ffe900"><a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">Li</a><br />0.98 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffbb00"><a href="/wiki/Beryllium" title="Beryllium">Be</a><br />1.57 </td> <td colspan="11"> </td> <td style="background-color:#ff9700"><a href="/wiki/Boron" title="Boron">B</a><br />2.04 </td> <td style="background-color:#ff6f00"><a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">C</a><br />2.55 </td> <td style="background-color:#ff4900"><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">N</a><br />3.04 </td> <td style="background-color:#ff2a00"><a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">O</a><br />3.44 </td> <td style="background-color:#ff0000"><a href="/wiki/Fluorine" title="Fluorine">F</a><br />3.98 </td> <td style="background-color:#bbbbbb"><a href="/wiki/Neon" title="Neon">Ne</a><br />  </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Period_3_element" title="Period 3 element">3</a> </th> <td style="background-color:#ffed00"><a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">Na</a><br />0.93 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffd000"><a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">Mg</a><br />1.31 </td> <td colspan="11"> </td> <td style="background-color:#ffb800"><a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">Al</a><br />1.61 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffa200"><a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">Si</a><br />1.90 </td> <td style="background-color:#ff8b00"><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">P</a><br />2.19 </td> <td style="background-color:#ff6d00"><a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">S</a><br />2.58 </td> <td style="background-color:#ff4000"><a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">Cl</a><br />3.16 </td> <td style="background-color:#bbbbbb"><a href="/wiki/Argon" title="Argon">Ar</a><br />  </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Period_4_element" title="Period 4 element">4</a> </th> <td style="background-color:#fff600"><a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">K</a><br />0.82 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffe800"><a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">Ca</a><br />1.00 </td> <td> </td> <td style="background-color:#ffcc00"><a href="/wiki/Scandium" title="Scandium">Sc</a><br />1.36 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffbe00"><a href="/wiki/Titanium" title="Titanium">Ti</a><br />1.54 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffb700"><a href="/wiki/Vanadium" title="Vanadium">V</a><br />1.63 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffb400"><a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">Cr</a><br />1.66 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffbd00"><a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">Mn</a><br />1.55 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffa700"><a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">Fe</a><br />1.83 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffa300"><a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">Co</a><br />1.88 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffa100"><a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">Ni</a><br />1.91 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffa200"><a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">Cu</a><br />1.90 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffb500"><a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">Zn</a><br />1.65 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffa900"><a href="/wiki/Gallium" title="Gallium">Ga</a><br />1.81 </td> <td style="background-color:#ff9900"><a href="/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium">Ge</a><br />2.01 </td> <td style="background-color:#ff8c00"><a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">As</a><br />2.18 </td> <td style="background-color:#ff6f00"><a href="/wiki/Selenium" title="Selenium">Se</a><br />2.55 </td> <td style="background-color:#ff4f00"><a href="/wiki/Bromine" title="Bromine">Br</a><br />2.96 </td> <td style="background-color:#ff4c00"><a href="/wiki/Krypton" title="Krypton">Kr</a><br />3.00 </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Period_5_element" title="Period 5 element">5</a> </th> <td style="background-color:#fff600"><a href="/wiki/Rubidium" title="Rubidium">Rb</a><br />0.82 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffec00"><a href="/wiki/Strontium" title="Strontium">Sr</a><br />0.95 </td> <td> </td> <td style="background-color:#ffd700"><a href="/wiki/Yttrium" title="Yttrium">Y</a><br />1.22 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffce00"><a href="/wiki/Zirconium" title="Zirconium">Zr</a><br />1.33 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffb900"><a href="/wiki/Niobium" title="Niobium">Nb</a><br />1.6 </td> <td style="background-color:#ff8d00"><a href="/wiki/Molybdenum" title="Molybdenum">Mo</a><br />2.16 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffa200"><a href="/wiki/Technetium" title="Technetium">Tc</a><br />1.9 </td> <td style="background-color:#ff8a00"><a href="/wiki/Ruthenium" title="Ruthenium">Ru</a><br />2.2 </td> <td style="background-color:#ff8400"><a href="/wiki/Rhodium" title="Rhodium">Rh</a><br />2.28 </td> <td style="background-color:#ff8a00"><a href="/wiki/Palladium" title="Palladium">Pd</a><br />2.20 </td> <td style="background-color:#ff9f00"><a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">Ag</a><br />1.93 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffb200"><a href="/wiki/Cadmium" title="Cadmium">Cd</a><br />1.69 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffab00"><a href="/wiki/Indium" title="Indium">In</a><br />1.78 </td> <td style="background-color:#ff9d00"><a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">Sn</a><br />1.96 </td> <td style="background-color:#ff9600"><a href="/wiki/Antimony" title="Antimony">Sb</a><br />2.05 </td> <td style="background-color:#ff9200"><a href="/wiki/Tellurium" title="Tellurium">Te</a><br />2.1 </td> <td style="background-color:#ff6700"><a href="/wiki/Iodine" title="Iodine">I</a><br />2.66 </td> <td style="background-color:#ff6000"><a href="/wiki/Xenon" title="Xenon">Xe</a><br />2.60 </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Period_6_element" title="Period 6 element">6</a> </th> <td style="background-color:#fff800"><a href="/wiki/Caesium" title="Caesium">Cs</a><br />0.79 </td> <td style="background-color:#fff000"><a href="/wiki/Barium" title="Barium">Ba</a><br />0.89 </td> <td style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="1 asterisk" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Asterisks_one.svg/16px-Asterisks_one.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Asterisks_one.svg/24px-Asterisks_one.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Asterisks_one.svg/32px-Asterisks_one.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="106" data-file-height="98" /></span></span> </td> <td style="background-color:#ffd300"><a href="/wiki/Lutetium" title="Lutetium">Lu</a><br />1.27 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffd000"><a href="/wiki/Hafnium" title="Hafnium">Hf</a><br />1.3 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffc100"><a href="/wiki/Tantalum" title="Tantalum">Ta</a><br />1.5 </td> <td style="background-color:#ff7e00"><a href="/wiki/Tungsten" title="Tungsten">W</a><br />2.36 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffa200"><a href="/wiki/Rhenium" title="Rhenium">Re</a><br />1.9 </td> <td style="background-color:#ff8a20"><a href="/wiki/Osmium" title="Osmium">Os</a><br />2.2 </td> <td style="background-color:#ff8a00"><a href="/wiki/Iridium" title="Iridium">Ir</a><br />2.20 </td> <td style="background-color:#ff8400"><a href="/wiki/Platinum" title="Platinum">Pt</a><br />2.28 </td> <td style="background-color:#ff7000"><a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">Au</a><br />2.54 </td> <td style="background-color:#ff9a00"><a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">Hg</a><br />2.00 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffb700"><a href="/wiki/Thallium" title="Thallium">Tl</a><br />1.62 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffa400"><a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">Pb</a><br />1.87 </td> <td style="background-color:#ff9800"><a href="/wiki/Bismuth" title="Bismuth">Bi</a><br />2.02 </td> <td style="background-color:#ff9a00"><a href="/wiki/Polonium" title="Polonium">Po</a><br />2.0 </td> <td style="background-color:#ff8a00"><a href="/wiki/Astatine" title="Astatine">At</a><br />2.2 </td> <td style="background-color:#ff8a01"><a href="/wiki/Radon" title="Radon">Rn</a><br />2.2 </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Period_7_element" title="Period 7 element">7</a> </th> <td style="background-color:#fff700"><a href="/wiki/Francium" title="Francium">Fr</a><br />>0.79<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>en 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td style="background-color:#ffef00"><a href="/wiki/Radium" title="Radium">Ra</a><br />0.9 </td> <td style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="1 asterisk" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Asterisks_2_%28vertical%29.svg/16px-Asterisks_2_%28vertical%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Asterisks_2_%28vertical%29.svg/24px-Asterisks_2_%28vertical%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Asterisks_2_%28vertical%29.svg/32px-Asterisks_2_%28vertical%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="106" data-file-height="98" /></span></span> </td> <td style="background-color:#ffd000"><a href="/wiki/Lawrencium" title="Lawrencium">Lr</a><br />1.3<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>en 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td style="background-color:#bbbbbb"><a href="/wiki/Rutherfordium" title="Rutherfordium">Rf</a><br />  </td> <td style="background-color:#bbbbbb"><a href="/wiki/Dubnium" title="Dubnium">Db</a><br />  </td> <td style="background-color:#bbbbbb"><a href="/wiki/Seaborgium" title="Seaborgium">Sg</a><br />  </td> <td style="background-color:#bbbbbb"><a href="/wiki/Bohrium" title="Bohrium">Bh</a><br />  </td> <td style="background-color:#bbbbbb"><a href="/wiki/Hassium" title="Hassium">Hs</a><br />  </td> <td style="background-color:#bbbbbb"><a href="/wiki/Meitnerium" title="Meitnerium">Mt</a><br />  </td> <td style="background-color:#bbbbbb"><a href="/wiki/Darmstadtium" title="Darmstadtium">Ds</a><br />  </td> <td style="background-color:#bbbbbb"><a href="/wiki/Roentgenium" title="Roentgenium">Rg</a><br />  </td> <td style="background-color:#bbbbbb"><a href="/wiki/Copernicium" title="Copernicium">Cn</a><br />  </td> <td style="background-color:#bbbbbb"><a href="/wiki/Nihonium" title="Nihonium">Nh</a><br />  </td> <td style="background-color:#bbbbbb"><a href="/wiki/Flerovium" title="Flerovium">Fl</a><br />  </td> <td style="background-color:#bbbbbb"><a href="/wiki/Moscovium" title="Moscovium">Mc</a><br />  </td> <td style="background-color:#bbbbbb"><a href="/wiki/Livermorium" title="Livermorium">Lv</a><br />  </td> <td style="background-color:#bbbbbb"><a href="/wiki/Tennessine" title="Tennessine">Ts</a><br />  </td> <td style="background-color:#bbbbbb"><a href="/wiki/Oganesson" title="Oganesson">Og</a><br />  </td></tr> <tr> <td><br /> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4" style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="1 asterisk" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Asterisks_one.svg/16px-Asterisks_one.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Asterisks_one.svg/24px-Asterisks_one.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Asterisks_one.svg/32px-Asterisks_one.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="106" data-file-height="98" /></span></span> </td> <td style="background-color:#ffe000"><a href="/wiki/Lanthanum" title="Lanthanum">La</a><br />1.1 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffde00"><a href="/wiki/Cerium" title="Cerium">Ce</a><br />1.12 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffde00"><a href="/wiki/Praseodymium" title="Praseodymium">Pr</a><br />1.13 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffdd00"><a href="/wiki/Neodymium" title="Neodymium">Nd</a><br />1.14 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffde00"><a href="/wiki/Promethium" title="Promethium">Pm</a><br />– </td> <td style="background-color:#ffda00"><a href="/wiki/Samarium" title="Samarium">Sm</a><br />1.17 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffd800"><a href="/wiki/Europium" title="Europium">Eu</a><br />– </td> <td style="background-color:#ffd800"><a href="/wiki/Gadolinium" title="Gadolinium">Gd</a><br />1.2 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffe000"><a href="/wiki/Terbium" title="Terbium">Tb</a><br />1.1 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffd700"><a href="/wiki/Dysprosium" title="Dysprosium">Dy</a><br />1.22 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffd600"><a href="/wiki/Holmium" title="Holmium">Ho</a><br />1.23 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffd500"><a href="/wiki/Erbium" title="Erbium">Er</a><br />1.24 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffd400"><a href="/wiki/Thulium" title="Thulium">Tm</a><br />1.25 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffe000"><a href="/wiki/Ytterbium" title="Ytterbium">Yb</a><br />– </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4" style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="1 asterisk" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Asterisks_2_%28vertical%29.svg/16px-Asterisks_2_%28vertical%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Asterisks_2_%28vertical%29.svg/24px-Asterisks_2_%28vertical%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Asterisks_2_%28vertical%29.svg/32px-Asterisks_2_%28vertical%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="106" data-file-height="98" /></span></span> </td> <td style="background-color:#ffe000"><a href="/wiki/Actinium" title="Actinium">Ac</a><br />1.1 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffd000"><a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">Th</a><br />1.3 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffc100"><a href="/wiki/Protactinium" title="Protactinium">Pa</a><br />1.5 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffca00"><a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">U</a><br />1.38 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffcc00"><a href="/wiki/Neptunium" title="Neptunium">Np</a><br />1.36 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffd200"><a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">Pu</a><br />1.28 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffde00"><a href="/wiki/Americium" title="Americium">Am</a><br />1.13 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffd200"><a href="/wiki/Curium" title="Curium">Cm</a><br />1.28 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffd000"><a href="/wiki/Berkelium" title="Berkelium">Bk</a><br />1.3 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffd000"><a href="/wiki/Californium" title="Californium">Cf</a><br />1.3 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffd000"><a href="/wiki/Einsteinium" title="Einsteinium">Es</a><br />1.3 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffd000"><a href="/wiki/Fermium" title="Fermium">Fm</a><br />1.3 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffd000"><a href="/wiki/Mendelevium" title="Mendelevium">Md</a><br />1.3 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffd000"><a href="/wiki/Nobelium" title="Nobelium">No</a><br />1.3 </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p style="text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;">See also: <a href="/wiki/Electronegativities_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Electronegativities of the elements (data page)">Electronegativities of the elements (data page)</a><br />There are no reliable sources for Pm, Eu and Yb other than the range of 1.1–1.2; see Pauling, Linus (1960). <i>The Nature of the Chemical Bond.</i> 3rd ed., Cornell University Press, p. 93.</p> </div> <div style="text-align:left; background:#f8f8f8; border:1px solid #a9a9a9; width:100%; max-width:1300px; margin:0 auto; ;"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The electronegativity of francium was chosen by Pauling as 0.7, close to that of caesium (also assessed 0.7 at that point). The base value of hydrogen was later increased by 0.10 and caesium's electronegativity was later refined to 0.79; however, no refinements have been made for francium as no experiment has been conducted. However, francium is expected and, to a small extent, observed to be more electronegative than caesium. See <a href="/wiki/Francium" title="Francium">francium</a> for details.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBrown2012" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Geoffrey (2012). <i>The Inaccessible Earth: An integrated view to its structure and composition</i>. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 88. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789401115162" title="Special:BookSources/9789401115162"><bdi>9789401115162</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Inaccessible+Earth%3A+An+integrated+view+to+its+structure+and+composition&rft.pages=88&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9789401115162&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronegativity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> </div> <p><br /> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mulliken_electronegativity">Mulliken electronegativity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electronegativity&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Mulliken electronegativity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="Mulliken_electronegativity"></span> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pauling_and_Mullikan_electronegativities.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Pauling_and_Mullikan_electronegativities.png/300px-Pauling_and_Mullikan_electronegativities.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Pauling_and_Mullikan_electronegativities.png/450px-Pauling_and_Mullikan_electronegativities.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Pauling_and_Mullikan_electronegativities.png/600px-Pauling_and_Mullikan_electronegativities.png 2x" data-file-width="1020" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>The correlation between Mulliken electronegativities (<i>x</i>-axis, in kJ/mol) and Pauling electronegativities (<i>y</i>-axis).</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Robert_S._Mulliken" title="Robert S. Mulliken">Robert S. Mulliken</a> proposed that the <a href="/wiki/Arithmetic_mean" title="Arithmetic mean">arithmetic mean</a> of the first <a href="/wiki/Ionization_energy" title="Ionization energy">ionization energy</a> (E<sub>i</sub>) and the <a href="/wiki/Electron_affinity" title="Electron affinity">electron affinity</a> (E<sub>ea</sub>) should be a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract electrons:<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \chi ={\frac {E_{\rm {i}}+E_{\rm {ea}}}{2}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>χ</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msub> <mi>E</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>E</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">a</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \chi ={\frac {E_{\rm {i}}+E_{\rm {ea}}}{2}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/18dad45a70ab6c91b70cb08761eae4ce5d0c6294" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:14.134ex; height:5.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \chi ={\frac {E_{\rm {i}}+E_{\rm {ea}}}{2}}}"></span> </p><p>As this definition is not dependent on an arbitrary relative scale, it has also been termed <b>absolute electronegativity</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with the units of <a href="/wiki/Joule_per_mole" title="Joule per mole">kilojoules per mole</a> or <a href="/wiki/Electronvolt" title="Electronvolt">electronvolts</a>. However, it is more usual to use a linear transformation to transform these absolute values into values that resemble the more familiar Pauling values. For ionization energies and electron affinities in electronvolts,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \chi =0.187(E_{\rm {i}}+E_{\rm {ea}})+0.17\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>χ</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0.187</mn> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>E</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>E</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">a</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mn>0.17</mn> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \chi =0.187(E_{\rm {i}}+E_{\rm {ea}})+0.17\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9bd845801b7424fb14e2c64df7ebc1577d3bc17f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:27.766ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \chi =0.187(E_{\rm {i}}+E_{\rm {ea}})+0.17\,}"></span> and for energies in kilojoules per mole,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \chi =(1.97\times 10^{-3})(E_{\rm {i}}+E_{\rm {ea}})+0.19.}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>χ</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>1.97</mn> <mo>×</mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>E</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>E</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">a</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mn>0.19.</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \chi =(1.97\times 10^{-3})(E_{\rm {i}}+E_{\rm {ea}})+0.19.}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/16b888ef685a5f41024e5e7a402014e1c89a4ecf" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:36.171ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \chi =(1.97\times 10^{-3})(E_{\rm {i}}+E_{\rm {ea}})+0.19.}"></span> </p><p>The Mulliken electronegativity can only be calculated for an element whose electron affinity is known. <a href="/wiki/Electron_affinity_(data_page)" title="Electron affinity (data page)">Measured values are available</a> for 72 elements, while approximate values have been <a href="/wiki/Electron_affinity_(data_page)" title="Electron affinity (data page)">estimated or calculated</a> for the remaining elements. </p><p>The Mulliken electronegativity of an atom is sometimes said to be the negative of the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_potential" title="Chemical potential">chemical potential</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By inserting the energetic definitions of the ionization potential and electron affinity into the Mulliken electronegativity, it is possible to show that the Mulliken chemical potential is a finite difference approximation of the electronic energy with respect to the number of electrons., i.e., <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mu ({\rm {Mulliken)=-\chi ({\rm {Mulliken)={}-{\frac {E_{\rm {i}}+E_{\rm {ea}}}{2}}}}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>μ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">M</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">u</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">l</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">l</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">k</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">n</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mi>χ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">M</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">u</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">l</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">l</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">k</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">n</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msub> <mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">a</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> </mrow> </mrow> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mu ({\rm {Mulliken)=-\chi ({\rm {Mulliken)={}-{\frac {E_{\rm {i}}+E_{\rm {ea}}}{2}}}}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/bc58ccc28d939c2e1933306447cd5e1650f47155" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:44.47ex; height:5.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mu ({\rm {Mulliken)=-\chi ({\rm {Mulliken)={}-{\frac {E_{\rm {i}}+E_{\rm {ea}}}{2}}}}}}}"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Allred–Rochow_electronegativity"><span id="Allred.E2.80.93Rochow_electronegativity"></span>Allred–Rochow electronegativity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electronegativity&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Allred–Rochow electronegativity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="Allred–Rochow_electronegativity"></span> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pauling_and_Allred-Rochow_electronegativities.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Pauling_and_Allred-Rochow_electronegativities.png/300px-Pauling_and_Allred-Rochow_electronegativities.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Pauling_and_Allred-Rochow_electronegativities.png/450px-Pauling_and_Allred-Rochow_electronegativities.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Pauling_and_Allred-Rochow_electronegativities.png/600px-Pauling_and_Allred-Rochow_electronegativities.png 2x" data-file-width="1020" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>The correlation between Allred–Rochow electronegativities (<i>x</i>-axis, in Å<sup>−2</sup>) and Pauling electronegativities (<i>y</i>-axis).</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Albert_L._Allred" title="Albert L. Allred">A. Louis Allred</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eugene_G._Rochow" title="Eugene G. Rochow">Eugene G. Rochow</a> considered<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that electronegativity should be related to the charge experienced by an electron on the "surface" of an atom: The higher the charge per unit area of atomic surface the greater the tendency of that atom to attract electrons. The <a href="/wiki/Effective_nuclear_charge" title="Effective nuclear charge">effective nuclear charge</a>, <i>Z</i><sub>eff</sub>, experienced by <a href="/wiki/Valence_electron" title="Valence electron">valence electrons</a> can be estimated using <a href="/wiki/Slater%27s_rules" title="Slater's rules">Slater's rules</a>, while the surface area of an atom in a molecule can be taken to be proportional to the square of the <a href="/wiki/Covalent_radius" title="Covalent radius">covalent radius</a>, <i>r</i><sub>cov</sub>. When <i>r</i><sub>cov</sub> is expressed in <a href="/wiki/Picometre" title="Picometre">picometres</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \chi =3590{{Z_{\rm {eff}}} \over {r_{\rm {cov}}^{2}}}+0.744}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>χ</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>3590</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi>Z</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">f</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">f</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mi>r</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">c</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">o</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">v</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mn>0.744</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \chi =3590{{Z_{\rm {eff}}} \over {r_{\rm {cov}}^{2}}}+0.744}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/678d2d58e48b427d5a5f14e4b604257df58fbaaa" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:21.95ex; height:6.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \chi =3590{{Z_{\rm {eff}}} \over {r_{\rm {cov}}^{2}}}+0.744}"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sanderson_electronegativity_equalization">Sanderson electronegativity equalization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electronegativity&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Sanderson electronegativity equalization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pauling_and_Sanderson_electronegativities.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Pauling_and_Sanderson_electronegativities.png/300px-Pauling_and_Sanderson_electronegativities.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Pauling_and_Sanderson_electronegativities.png/450px-Pauling_and_Sanderson_electronegativities.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Pauling_and_Sanderson_electronegativities.png/600px-Pauling_and_Sanderson_electronegativities.png 2x" data-file-width="1020" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>The correlation between Sanderson electronegativities (<i>x</i>-axis, arbitrary units) and Pauling electronegativities (<i>y</i>-axis).</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Robert_Thomas_Sanderson" title="Robert Thomas Sanderson">R.T. Sanderson</a> has also noted the relationship between Mulliken electronegativity and atomic size, and has proposed a method of calculation based on the reciprocal of the atomic volume.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With a knowledge of bond lengths, Sanderson's model allows the estimation of bond energies in a wide range of compounds.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sanderson's model has also been used to calculate molecular geometry, <i>s</i>-electron energy, <a href="/wiki/NMR" class="mw-redirect" title="NMR">NMR</a> spin-spin coupling constants and other parameters for organic compounds.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This work underlies the concept of <b>electronegativity equalization</b>, which suggests that electrons distribute themselves around a molecule to minimize or to equalize the Mulliken electronegativity.<sup id="cite_ref-Lipkowitz_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lipkowitz-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This behavior is analogous to the equalization of chemical potential in macroscopic thermodynamics.<sup id="cite_ref-Parr_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Parr-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Allen_electronegativity">Allen electronegativity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electronegativity&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Allen electronegativity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pauling_and_Allen_electronegativities.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Pauling_and_Allen_electronegativities.png/300px-Pauling_and_Allen_electronegativities.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Pauling_and_Allen_electronegativities.png/450px-Pauling_and_Allen_electronegativities.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Pauling_and_Allen_electronegativities.png/600px-Pauling_and_Allen_electronegativities.png 2x" data-file-width="1020" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>The correlation between Allen electronegativities (<i>x</i>-axis, in kJ/mol) and Pauling electronegativities (<i>y</i>-axis).</figcaption></figure> <p>Perhaps the simplest definition of electronegativity is that of Leland C. Allen, who has proposed that it is related to the average energy of the <a href="/wiki/Valence_electron" title="Valence electron">valence electrons</a> in a free atom,<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \chi ={n_{\rm {s}}\varepsilon _{\rm {s}}+n_{\rm {p}}\varepsilon _{\rm {p}} \over n_{\rm {s}}+n_{\rm {p}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>χ</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msub> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>ε</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">p</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>ε</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">p</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mrow> <msub> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">p</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \chi ={n_{\rm {s}}\varepsilon _{\rm {s}}+n_{\rm {p}}\varepsilon _{\rm {p}} \over n_{\rm {s}}+n_{\rm {p}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c1b064508265c16b2ea3cf506a51c7d35f0bbf17" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:17.239ex; height:6.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \chi ={n_{\rm {s}}\varepsilon _{\rm {s}}+n_{\rm {p}}\varepsilon _{\rm {p}} \over n_{\rm {s}}+n_{\rm {p}}}}"></span> </p><p>where <i>ε</i><sub>s,p</sub> are the one-electron energies of s- and p-electrons in the free atom and <i>n</i><sub>s,p</sub> are the number of s- and p-electrons in the valence shell. </p><p>The one-electron energies can be determined directly from <a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">spectroscopic data</a>, and so electronegativities calculated by this method are sometimes referred to as <b>spectroscopic electronegativities</b>. The necessary data are available for almost all elements, and this method allows the estimation of electronegativities for elements that cannot be treated by the other methods, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Francium" title="Francium">francium</a>, which has an Allen electronegativity of 0.67.<sup id="cite_ref-Fr_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fr-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, it is not clear what should be considered to be valence electrons for the d- and f-block elements, which leads to an ambiguity for their electronegativities calculated by the Allen method. </p><p>On this scale, <a href="/wiki/Neon" title="Neon">neon</a> has the highest electronegativity of all elements, followed by <a href="/wiki/Fluorine" title="Fluorine">fluorine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>. </p> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="1" style="text-align:center; background:#f8f8f8; border:1px solid #a9a9a9; width:90%; margin:0 auto; padding:2px; ;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="19" style="background:#d8d8d8; padding:2px 4px;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-collapse navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Periodic_table_(electronegativity_by_Allen_scale)" title="Template:Periodic table (electronegativity by Allen scale)"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Periodic_table_(electronegativity_by_Allen_scale)" title="Template talk:Periodic table (electronegativity by Allen scale)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Periodic_table_(electronegativity_by_Allen_scale)" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Periodic table (electronegativity by Allen scale)"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div class="navbar-ct-mini">Electronegativity using the Allen scale</div> </th></tr> <tr style="background:#e8e8e8"> <th style="width:3em;"><small><a href="/wiki/Periodic_table_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Periodic table group">Group</a> →</small> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Alkali_metal" title="Alkali metal">1</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Alkaline_earth" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkaline earth">2</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Group_3_element" title="Group 3 element">3</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Group_4_element" title="Group 4 element">4</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Group_5_element" title="Group 5 element">5</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Group_6_element" title="Group 6 element">6</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Group_7_element" title="Group 7 element">7</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Group_8_element" title="Group 8 element">8</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Group_9_element" title="Group 9 element">9</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Group_10_element" title="Group 10 element">10</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Group_11_element" title="Group 11 element">11</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Group_12_element" title="Group 12 element">12</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Boron_group" title="Boron group">13</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Carbon_group" title="Carbon group">14</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Pnictogen" title="Pnictogen">15</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Chalcogen" title="Chalcogen">16</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Halogen" title="Halogen">17</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Noble_gas" title="Noble gas">18</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="text-align:left"><small>↓ <a href="/wiki/Periodic_table_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Periodic table period">Period</a></small> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Period_1_element" title="Period 1 element">1</a> </th> <td style="background-color:#fff900"><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">H</a><br />2.300 </td> <td colspan="16"> </td> <td style="background-color:#ff3f00"><a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">He</a><br />4.160 </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Period_2_element" title="Period 2 element">2</a> </th> <td style="background-color:#7aff00"><a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">Li</a><br />0.912 </td> <td style="background-color:#bdff00"><a href="/wiki/Beryllium" title="Beryllium">Be</a><br />1.576 </td> <td colspan="10"> </td> <td style="background-color:#ecff00"><a href="/wiki/Boron" title="Boron">B</a><br />2.051 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffe100"><a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">C</a><br />2.544 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffac00"><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">N</a><br />3.066 </td> <td style="background-color:#ff7600"><a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">O</a><br />3.610 </td> <td style="background-color:#ff3c00"><a href="/wiki/Fluorine" title="Fluorine">F</a><br />4.193 </td> <td style="background-color:#ff0000"><a href="/wiki/Neon" title="Neon">Ne</a><br />4.787 </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Period_3_element" title="Period 3 element">3</a> </th> <td style="background-color:#76ff00"><a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">Na</a><br />0.869 </td> <td style="background-color:#a0ff00"><a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">Mg</a><br />1.293 </td> <td colspan="10"> </td> <td style="background-color:#c0ff00"><a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">Al</a><br />1.613 </td> <td style="background-color:#dfff00"><a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">Si</a><br />1.916 </td> <td style="background-color:#fffe00"><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">P</a><br />2.253 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffdc00"><a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">S</a><br />2.589 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffc000"><a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">Cl</a><br />2.869 </td> <td style="background-color:#ff9b00"><a href="/wiki/Argon" title="Argon">Ar</a><br />3.242 </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Period_4_element" title="Period 4 element">4</a> </th> <td style="background-color:#68ff00"><a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">K</a><br />0.734 </td> <td style="background-color:#86ff00"><a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">Ca</a><br />1.034 </td> <td style="background-color:#96ff00"><a href="/wiki/Scandium" title="Scandium">Sc</a><br />1.19 </td> <td style="background-color:#a9ff00"><a href="/wiki/Titanium" title="Titanium">Ti</a><br />1.38 </td> <td style="background-color:#b8ff00"><a href="/wiki/Vanadium" title="Vanadium">V</a><br />1.53 </td> <td style="background-color:#c4ff00"><a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">Cr</a><br />1.65 </td> <td style="background-color:#ceff00"><a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">Mn</a><br />1.75 </td> <td style="background-color:#d3ff00"><a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">Fe</a><br />1.80 </td> <td style="background-color:#d7ff00"><a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">Co</a><br />1.84 </td> <td style="background-color:#dbff00"><a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">Ni</a><br />1.88 </td> <td style="background-color:#d8ff00"><a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">Cu</a><br />1.85 </td> <td style="background-color:#beff00"><a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">Zn</a><br />1.588 </td> <td style="background-color:#cfff00"><a href="/wiki/Gallium" title="Gallium">Ga</a><br />1.756 </td> <td style="background-color:#e6ff00"><a href="/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium">Ge</a><br />1.994 </td> <td style="background-color:#fcff00"><a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">As</a><br />2.211 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffed00"><a href="/wiki/Selenium" title="Selenium">Se</a><br />2.424 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffd200"><a href="/wiki/Bromine" title="Bromine">Br</a><br />2.685 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffb600"><a href="/wiki/Krypton" title="Krypton">Kr</a><br />2.966 </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Period_5_element" title="Period 5 element">5</a> </th> <td style="background-color:#66ff00"><a href="/wiki/Rubidium" title="Rubidium">Rb</a><br />0.706 </td> <td style="background-color:#7fff00"><a href="/wiki/Strontium" title="Strontium">Sr</a><br />0.963 </td> <td style="background-color:#8fff00"><a href="/wiki/Yttrium" title="Yttrium">Y</a><br />1.12 </td> <td style="background-color:#a3ff00"><a href="/wiki/Zirconium" title="Zirconium">Zr</a><br />1.32 </td> <td style="background-color:#acff00"><a href="/wiki/Niobium" title="Niobium">Nb</a><br />1.41 </td> <td style="background-color:#b2ff00"><a href="/wiki/Molybdenum" title="Molybdenum">Mo</a><br />1.47 </td> <td style="background-color:#b6ff00"><a href="/wiki/Technetium" title="Technetium">Tc</a><br />1.51 </td> <td style="background-color:#b9ff00"><a href="/wiki/Ruthenium" title="Ruthenium">Ru</a><br />1.54 </td> <td style="background-color:#bbff00"><a href="/wiki/Rhodium" title="Rhodium">Rh</a><br />1.56 </td> <td style="background-color:#bdff00"><a href="/wiki/Palladium" title="Palladium">Pd</a><br />1.58 </td> <td style="background-color:#daff00"><a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">Ag</a><br />1.87 </td> <td style="background-color:#b7ff00"><a href="/wiki/Cadmium" title="Cadmium">Cd</a><br />1.521 </td> <td style="background-color:#c5ff00"><a href="/wiki/Indium" title="Indium">In</a><br />1.656 </td> <td style="background-color:#d5ff00"><a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">Sn</a><br />1.824 </td> <td style="background-color:#e5ff00"><a href="/wiki/Antimony" title="Antimony">Sb</a><br />1.984 </td> <td style="background-color:#f7ff00"><a href="/wiki/Tellurium" title="Tellurium">Te</a><br />2.158 </td> <td style="background-color:#fff300"><a href="/wiki/Iodine" title="Iodine">I</a><br />2.359 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffdd00"><a href="/wiki/Xenon" title="Xenon">Xe</a><br />2.582 </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Period_6_element" title="Period 6 element">6</a> </th> <td style="background-color:#61ff00"><a href="/wiki/Caesium" title="Caesium">Cs</a><br />0.659 </td> <td style="background-color:#77ff00"><a href="/wiki/Barium" title="Barium">Ba</a><br />0.881 </td> <td style="background-color:#8cff00"><a href="/wiki/Lutetium" title="Lutetium">Lu</a><br />1.09 </td> <td style="background-color:#93ff00"><a href="/wiki/Hafnium" title="Hafnium">Hf</a><br />1.16 </td> <td style="background-color:#a5ff00"><a href="/wiki/Tantalum" title="Tantalum">Ta</a><br />1.34 </td> <td style="background-color:#b2ff00"><a href="/wiki/Tungsten" title="Tungsten">W</a><br />1.47 </td> <td style="background-color:#bfff00"><a href="/wiki/Rhenium" title="Rhenium">Re</a><br />1.60 </td> <td style="background-color:#c4ff00"><a href="/wiki/Osmium" title="Osmium">Os</a><br />1.65 </td> <td style="background-color:#c7ff00"><a href="/wiki/Iridium" title="Iridium">Ir</a><br />1.68 </td> <td style="background-color:#cbff00"><a href="/wiki/Platinum" title="Platinum">Pt</a><br />1.72 </td> <td style="background-color:#dfff00"><a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">Au</a><br />1.92 </td> <td style="background-color:#cfff00"><a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">Hg</a><br />1.765 </td> <td style="background-color:#d2ff00"><a href="/wiki/Thallium" title="Thallium">Tl</a><br />1.789 </td> <td style="background-color:#d8ff00"><a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">Pb</a><br />1.854 </td> <td style="background-color:#e8ff00"><a href="/wiki/Bismuth" title="Bismuth">Bi</a><br />2.01 </td> <td style="background-color:#faff00"><a href="/wiki/Polonium" title="Polonium">Po</a><br />2.19 </td> <td style="background-color:#fff000"><a href="/wiki/Astatine" title="Astatine">At</a><br />2.39 </td> <td style="background-color:#ffdb00"><a href="/wiki/Radon" title="Radon">Rn</a><br />2.60 </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Period_7_element" title="Period 7 element">7</a> </th> <td style="background-color:#62ff00"><a href="/wiki/Francium" title="Francium">Fr</a><br />0.67 </td> <td style="background-color:#78ff00"><a href="/wiki/Radium" title="Radium">Ra</a><br />0.89 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="19" style="text-align:left">See also: <a href="/wiki/Electronegativities_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Electronegativities of the elements (data page)">Electronegativities of the elements (data page)</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Correlation_of_electronegativity_with_other_properties">Correlation of electronegativity with other properties</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electronegativity&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Correlation of electronegativity with other properties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sn-119_isomer_shifts_in_hexahalostannates.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Sn-119_isomer_shifts_in_hexahalostannates.png/300px-Sn-119_isomer_shifts_in_hexahalostannates.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Sn-119_isomer_shifts_in_hexahalostannates.png/450px-Sn-119_isomer_shifts_in_hexahalostannates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Sn-119_isomer_shifts_in_hexahalostannates.png/600px-Sn-119_isomer_shifts_in_hexahalostannates.png 2x" data-file-width="1020" data-file-height="550" /></a><figcaption>The variation of the isomer shift (<i>y</i>-axis, in mm/s) of [SnX<sub>6</sub>]<sup>2−</sup> anions, as measured by <sup>119</sup>Sn <a href="/wiki/M%C3%B6ssbauer_spectroscopy" title="Mössbauer spectroscopy">Mössbauer spectroscopy</a>, against the sum of the Pauling electronegativities of the halide substituents (<i>x</i>-axis).</figcaption></figure> <p>The wide variety of methods of calculation of electronegativities, which all give results that correlate well with one another, is one indication of the number of chemical properties that might be affected by electronegativity. The most obvious application of electronegativities is in the discussion of <a href="/wiki/Bond_polarity" class="mw-redirect" title="Bond polarity">bond polarity</a>, for which the concept was introduced by Pauling. In general, the greater the difference in electronegativity between two atoms the more polar the bond that will be formed between them, with the atom having the higher electronegativity being at the negative end of the dipole. Pauling proposed an equation to relate the "ionic character" of a bond to the difference in electronegativity of the two atoms,<sup id="cite_ref-NOTCB_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NOTCB-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although this has fallen somewhat into disuse. </p><p>Several correlations have been shown between <a href="/wiki/Infrared_spectroscopy" title="Infrared spectroscopy">infrared stretching frequencies</a> of certain bonds and the electronegativities of the atoms involved:<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, this is not surprising as such stretching frequencies depend in part on bond strength, which enters into the calculation of Pauling electronegativities. More convincing are the correlations between electronegativity and chemical shifts in <a href="/wiki/NMR_spectroscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="NMR spectroscopy">NMR spectroscopy</a><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or isomer shifts in <a href="/wiki/M%C3%B6ssbauer_spectroscopy" title="Mössbauer spectroscopy">Mössbauer spectroscopy</a><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (see figure). Both these measurements depend on the s-electron density at the nucleus, and so are a good indication that the different measures of electronegativity really are describing "the ability of an atom in a molecule to attract electrons to itself".<sup id="cite_ref-definition_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-definition-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NOTCB_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NOTCB-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Trends_in_electronegativity">Trends in electronegativity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electronegativity&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Trends in electronegativity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Periodic_trends">Periodic trends</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electronegativity&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Periodic trends"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Periodic_variation_of_Pauling_electronegativities.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Periodic_variation_of_Pauling_electronegativities.svg/330px-Periodic_variation_of_Pauling_electronegativities.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Periodic_variation_of_Pauling_electronegativities.svg/495px-Periodic_variation_of_Pauling_electronegativities.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Periodic_variation_of_Pauling_electronegativities.svg/660px-Periodic_variation_of_Pauling_electronegativities.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="567" data-file-height="319" /></a><figcaption>The variation of Pauling electronegativity (<i>y</i>-axis) as one descends the main groups of the periodic table from the second period to the sixth period</figcaption></figure> <p>In general, electronegativity increases on passing from left to right along a period and decreases on descending a group. Hence, <a href="/wiki/Fluorine" title="Fluorine">fluorine</a> is the most electronegative of the elements (not counting <a href="/wiki/Noble_gas" title="Noble gas">noble gases</a>), whereas <a href="/wiki/Caesium" title="Caesium">caesium</a> is the least electronegative, at least of those elements for which substantial data is available.<sup id="cite_ref-Fr_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fr-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are some exceptions to this general rule. <a href="/wiki/Gallium" title="Gallium">Gallium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium">germanium</a> have higher electronegativities than <a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a>, respectively, because of the <a href="/wiki/D-block_contraction" title="D-block contraction">d-block contraction</a>. Elements of the <a href="/wiki/Period_4_element" title="Period 4 element">fourth period</a> immediately after the first row of the transition metals have unusually small atomic radii because the 3d-electrons are not effective at shielding the increased nuclear charge, and smaller atomic size correlates with higher electronegativity (see <a href="#Allred–Rochow_electronegativity">Allred-Rochow electronegativity</a> and <a href="#Sanderson_electronegativity_equalization">Sanderson electronegativity</a> above). The anomalously high electronegativity of <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a>, in particular when compared to <a href="/wiki/Thallium" title="Thallium">thallium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bismuth" title="Bismuth">bismuth</a>, is an artifact of electronegativity varying with oxidation state: its electronegativity conforms better to trends if it is quoted for the +2 state with a Pauling value of 1.87 instead of the +4 state. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Variation_of_electronegativity_with_oxidation_number">Variation of electronegativity with oxidation number</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electronegativity&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Variation of electronegativity with oxidation number"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In inorganic chemistry, it is common to consider a single value of electronegativity to be valid for most "normal" situations. While this approach has the advantage of simplicity, it is clear that the electronegativity of an element is <i>not</i> an invariable atomic property and, in particular, increases with the <a href="/wiki/Oxidation_state" title="Oxidation state">oxidation state</a> of the element.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Allred used the Pauling method to calculate separate electronegativities for different oxidation states of the handful of elements (including tin and lead) for which sufficient data were available.<sup id="cite_ref-Allred_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allred-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, for most elements, there are not enough different covalent compounds for which bond dissociation energies are known to make this approach feasible. </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <tbody><tr> <th>Acid </th> <th>Formula </th> <th>Chlorine<br />oxidation<br />state </th> <th>p<i>K</i><sub>a</sub> </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hypochlorous_acid" title="Hypochlorous acid">Hypochlorous acid</a> </td> <td>HClO </td> <td>+1 </td> <td>+7.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chlorous_acid" title="Chlorous acid">Chlorous acid</a> </td> <td>HClO<sub>2</sub> </td> <td>+3 </td> <td>+2.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chloric_acid" title="Chloric acid">Chloric acid</a> </td> <td>HClO<sub>3</sub> </td> <td>+5 </td> <td>−1.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Perchloric_acid" title="Perchloric acid">Perchloric acid</a> </td> <td>HClO<sub>4</sub> </td> <td>+7 </td> <td>−10 </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p>The chemical effects of this increase in electronegativity can be seen both in the structures of oxides and halides and in the acidity of oxides and oxoacids. Hence <a href="/wiki/Chromium_trioxide" title="Chromium trioxide">CrO<sub>3</sub></a> and <a href="/wiki/Dimanganese_heptoxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Dimanganese heptoxide">Mn<sub>2</sub>O<sub>7</sub></a> are <a href="/wiki/Acidic_oxide" title="Acidic oxide">acidic oxides</a> with low <a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">melting points</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Chromium(III)_oxide" title="Chromium(III) oxide">Cr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub></a> is <a href="/wiki/Amphoteric_oxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Amphoteric oxide">amphoteric</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manganese(III)_oxide" title="Manganese(III) oxide">Mn<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub></a> is a completely <a href="/wiki/Basic_oxide" title="Basic oxide">basic oxide</a>. </p><p>The effect can also be clearly seen in the <a href="/wiki/Acid_dissociation_constant" title="Acid dissociation constant">dissociation constants</a> p<i>K</i><sub>a</sub> of the <a href="/wiki/Oxoacid" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxoacid">oxoacids</a> of <a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a>. The effect is much larger than could be explained by the negative charge being shared among a larger number of oxygen atoms, which would lead to a difference in p<i>K</i><sub>a</sub> of log<sub>10</sub>(<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span>) = –0.6 between <a href="/wiki/Hypochlorous_acid" title="Hypochlorous acid">hypochlorous acid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Perchloric_acid" title="Perchloric acid">perchloric acid</a>. As the oxidation state of the central chlorine atom increases, more electron density is drawn from the oxygen atoms onto the chlorine, diminishing the partial negative charge of individual oxygen atoms. At the same time, the positive partial charge on the hydrogen increases with a higher oxidation state. This explains the observed increased acidity with an increasing oxidation state in the oxoacids of chlorine. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electronegativity_and_hybridization_scheme">Electronegativity and hybridization scheme</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electronegativity&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Electronegativity and hybridization scheme"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The electronegativity of an atom changes depending on the hybridization of the orbital employed in bonding. Electrons in s orbitals are held more tightly than electrons in p orbitals. Hence, a bond to an atom that employs an sp<i><sup>x</sup></i> hybrid orbital for bonding will be more heavily polarized to that atom when the hybrid orbital has more s character. That is, when electronegativities are compared for different hybridization schemes of a given element, the order <span class="texhtml">χ(sp<sup>3</sup>) < χ(sp<sup>2</sup>) < χ(sp)</span> holds (the trend should apply to <a href="/wiki/Isovalent_hybridization" title="Isovalent hybridization">non-integer hybridization indices</a> as well). </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <tbody><tr> <th>Hybridization </th> <th><span class="texhtml">χ</span> (Pauling)<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <td>C(sp<sup>3</sup>) </td> <td>2.3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>C(sp<sup>2</sup>) </td> <td>2.6 </td></tr> <tr> <td>C(sp) </td> <td>3.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>'generic' C </td> <td>2.5 </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Group_electronegativity">Group electronegativity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electronegativity&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Group electronegativity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In organic chemistry, electronegativity is associated more with different functional groups than with individual atoms. The terms <b>group electronegativity</b> and <b>substituent electronegativity</b> are used synonymously. However, it is common to distinguish between the <a href="/wiki/Inductive_effect" title="Inductive effect">inductive effect</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Resonance_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Resonance effect">resonance effect</a>, which might be described as σ- and π-electronegativities, respectively. There are a number of <a href="/wiki/Linear_free-energy_relationship" class="mw-redirect" title="Linear free-energy relationship">linear free-energy relationships</a> that have been used to quantify these effects, of which the <a href="/wiki/Hammett_equation" title="Hammett equation">Hammett equation</a> is the best known. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kabachnik_Parameter&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kabachnik Parameter (page does not exist)">Kabachnik Parameters</a> are group electronegativities for use in <a href="/wiki/Organophosphorus_chemistry" title="Organophosphorus chemistry">organophosphorus chemistry</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Electropositivity">Electropositivity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electronegativity&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Electropositivity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Electropositivity</b> is a measure of an element's ability to donate <a href="/wiki/Electrons" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrons">electrons</a>, and therefore form <a href="/wiki/Cations" class="mw-redirect" title="Cations">positive</a> <a href="/wiki/Ions" class="mw-redirect" title="Ions">ions</a>; thus, it is antipode to electronegativity. </p><p>Mainly, this is an attribute of <a href="/wiki/Metals" class="mw-redirect" title="Metals">metals</a>, meaning that, in general, the greater the metallic character of an <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">element</a> the greater the electropositivity. Therefore, the <a href="/wiki/Alkali_metals" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkali metals">alkali metals</a> are the most electropositive of all. This is because they have a single electron in their outer shell and, as this is relatively far from the nucleus of the atom, it is easily lost; in other words, these metals have low <a href="/wiki/Ionization_energy" title="Ionization energy">ionization energies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While electronegativity increases along <a href="/wiki/Period_(periodic_table)" title="Period (periodic table)">periods</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a>, and decreases down <a href="/wiki/Periodic_table_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Periodic table group">groups</a>, electropositivity <i>decreases</i> along periods (from left to right) and <i>increases</i> down groups. This means that elements in the upper right of the periodic table of elements (oxygen, sulfur, chlorine, etc.) will have the greatest electronegativity, and those in the lower-left (rubidium, caesium, and francium) the greatest electropositivity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electronegativity&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_polarity" title="Chemical polarity">Chemical polarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_affinity" title="Electron affinity">Electron affinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronegativities_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Electronegativities of the elements (data page)">Electronegativities of the elements (data page)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionization_energy" title="Ionization energy">Ionization energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metallic_bonding" title="Metallic bonding">Metallic bonding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miedema%27s_model" title="Miedema's model">Miedema's model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_hybridization" class="mw-redirect" title="Orbital hybridization">Orbital hybridization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxidation_state" title="Oxidation state">Oxidation state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">Periodic table</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electronegativity&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-definition-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-definition_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-definition_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/International_Union_of_Pure_and_Applied_Chemistry" title="International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry">IUPAC</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/IUPAC_books#Gold_Book" class="mw-redirect" title="IUPAC books">Compendium of Chemical Terminology</a></i>, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://goldbook.iupac.org/terms/view/E01990.html">Electronegativity</a>". <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1351%2Fgoldbook.E01990">10.1351/goldbook.E01990</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jensen-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jensen_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jensen_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJensen,_W.B.1996" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_B._Jensen" title="William B. Jensen">Jensen, W.B.</a> (1996). "Electronegativity from Avogadro to Pauling: Part 1: Origins of the Electronegativity Concept". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Chemical_Education" title="Journal of Chemical Education">Journal of Chemical Education</a></i>. <b>73</b> (1): 11–20. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996JChEd..73...11J">1996JChEd..73...11J</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fed073p11">10.1021/ed073p11</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Chemical+Education&rft.atitle=Electronegativity+from+Avogadro+to+Pauling%3A+Part+1%3A+Origins+of+the+Electronegativity+Concept&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=11-20&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fed073p11&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1996JChEd..73...11J&rft.au=Jensen%2C+W.B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronegativity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-paulingJACS-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-paulingJACS_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-paulingJACS_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-paulingJACS_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPauling,_L.1932" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling">Pauling, L.</a> (1932). "The Nature of the Chemical Bond. IV. 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Cornell University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/natureofchemical00paul/page/88">88–107</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-0333-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-0333-0"><bdi>978-0-8014-0333-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nature+of+the+Chemical+Bond&rft.pages=88-107&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1960&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-0333-0&rft.au=Pauling%2C+Linus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnatureofchemical00paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronegativity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190621000348/https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/periodic-table/#view=table&property=Electronegativity">PubChem ElectroNegativity</a>," Downloaded, line-graphed, and correlated 'Electronegativity' with 'ElectronAffinity', showing a rather strong positive correlation of '0.712925965'. (Accessed linked site on 2023-09-16.)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenwood,_N._N.Earnshaw,_A.1984" class="citation book cs1">Greenwood, N. N.; Earnshaw, A. (1984). <i>Chemistry of the Elements</i>. 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New York (published 1900). p. 167. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fed050pA379.1">10.1021/ed050pA379.1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780060429874" title="Special:BookSources/9780060429874"><bdi>9780060429874</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/770736023">770736023</a>. inorganicchemist00huhe_0. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pdfdrive.com/inorganic-chemistry-principles-of-structure-and-reactivity-e175855674.html">the original</a> on September 8, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 15,</span> 2020</span> – via Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=17&rft.btitle=Inorganic+Chemistry%3A+Principles+of+Structure+and+Reactivity&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=167&rft.edition=3rd&rft.date=2008-12-01&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F770736023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fed050pA379.1&rft.isbn=9780060429874&rft.aulast=Huheey&rft.aufirst=J.E.&rft.au=Keiter%2C+E.A.&rft.au=Keiter%2C+R.L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pdfdrive.com%2Finorganic-chemistry-principles-of-structure-and-reactivity-e175855674.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronegativity" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/inorganicchemist00huhe_0">Alt URL</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This second relation has been recalculated using the best values of the first ionization energies and electron affinities available in 2006.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFranco-PérezGázquez2019" class="citation journal cs1">Franco-Pérez, Marco; Gázquez, José L. 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(November 1, 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pearson.com/us/higher-education/program/Housecroft-Inorganic-Chemistry-5th-Edition/PGM2178749.html"><i>Inorganic Chemistry</i></a> (eBook). Vol. 3 (15th ed.). Switzerland: Pearson Prentice-Hall. p. 38. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fed070pA304.1">10.1021/ed070pA304.1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780273742753" title="Special:BookSources/9780273742753"><bdi>9780273742753</bdi></a> – via University of Basel.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inorganic+Chemistry&rft.place=Switzerland&rft.pages=38&rft.edition=15th&rft.pub=Pearson+Prentice-Hall&rft.date=1993-11-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fed070pA304.1&rft.isbn=9780273742753&rft.aulast=Housecroft&rft.aufirst=C.E.&rft.au=Sharpe%2C+A.G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pearson.com%2Fus%2Fhigher-education%2Fprogram%2FHousecroft-Inorganic-Chemistry-5th-Edition%2FPGM2178749.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronegativity" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/Inorganic_Chemistry_4th_edition_by_Catherine_Housecroft_Alan_G._Sharpe">Alt URL</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSanderson,_R._T.1983" class="citation journal cs1">Sanderson, R. T. (1983). "Electronegativity and bond energy". <i>Journal of the American Chemical Society</i>. <b>105</b> (8): 2259–2261. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fja00346a026">10.1021/ja00346a026</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Chemical+Society&rft.atitle=Electronegativity+and+bond+energy&rft.volume=105&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=2259-2261&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fja00346a026&rft.au=Sanderson%2C+R.+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronegativity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSanderson,_R._T.1983" class="citation book cs1">Sanderson, R. T. (1983). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/polarcovalence0000sand"><i>Polar Covalence</i></a></span>. New York: Academic Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-618080-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-618080-0"><bdi>978-0-12-618080-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Polar+Covalence&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-12-618080-0&rft.au=Sanderson%2C+R.+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpolarcovalence0000sand&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronegativity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZefirovKirpichenokIzmailovTrofimov1987" class="citation journal cs1">Zefirov, N. S.; Kirpichenok, M. A.; Izmailov, F. F.; Trofimov, M. I. (1987). "Calculation schemes for atomic electronegativities in molecular graphs within the framework of Sanderson principle". <i><a href="/wiki/Doklady_Akademii_Nauk_SSSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR">Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR</a></i>. <b>296</b>: 883–887.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Doklady+Akademii+Nauk+SSSR&rft.atitle=Calculation+schemes+for+atomic+electronegativities+in+molecular+graphs+within+the+framework+of+Sanderson+principle&rft.volume=296&rft.pages=883-887&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Zefirov&rft.aufirst=N.+S.&rft.au=Kirpichenok%2C+M.+A.&rft.au=Izmailov%2C+F.+F.&rft.au=Trofimov%2C+M.+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronegativity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrofimov,_M._I.Smolenskii2005" class="citation journal cs1">Trofimov, M. I.; Smolenskii, E. A. (2005). "Application of the electronegativity indices of organic molecules to tasks of chemical informatics". <i>Russian Chemical Bulletin</i>. <b>54</b> (9): 2235–2246. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11172-006-0105-6">10.1007/s11172-006-0105-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:98716956">98716956</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Russian+Chemical+Bulletin&rft.atitle=Application+of+the+electronegativity+indices+of+organic+molecules+to+tasks+of+chemical+informatics&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=2235-2246&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11172-006-0105-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A98716956%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Trofimov%2C+M.+I.&rft.au=Smolenskii%2C+E.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronegativity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lipkowitz-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lipkowitz_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSW_RickSJ_Stuart2002" class="citation book cs1">SW Rick; SJ Stuart (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IqWXSLz6QE8C&pg=PA106">"Electronegativity equalization models"</a>. In Kenny B. Lipkowitz; Donald B. Boyd (eds.). <i>Reviews in computational chemistry</i>. Wiley. p. 106. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-21576-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-21576-9"><bdi>978-0-471-21576-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Electronegativity+equalization+models&rft.btitle=Reviews+in+computational+chemistry&rft.pages=106&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-471-21576-9&rft.au=SW+Rick&rft.au=SJ+Stuart&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIqWXSLz6QE8C%26pg%3DPA106&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronegativity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Parr-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Parr_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_G._ParrWeitao_Yang1994" class="citation book cs1">Robert G. Parr; Weitao Yang (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mGOpScSIwU4C&pg=PA91"><i>Density-functional theory of atoms and molecules</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 91. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-509276-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-509276-9"><bdi>978-0-19-509276-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Density-functional+theory+of+atoms+and+molecules&rft.pages=91&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-19-509276-9&rft.au=Robert+G.+Parr&rft.au=Weitao+Yang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmGOpScSIwU4C%26pg%3DPA91&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronegativity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllen,_Leland_C.1989" class="citation journal cs1">Allen, Leland C. (1989). "Electronegativity is the average one-electron energy of the valence-shell electrons in ground-state free atoms". <i>Journal of the American Chemical Society</i>. <b>111</b> (25): 9003–9014. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fja00207a003">10.1021/ja00207a003</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Chemical+Society&rft.atitle=Electronegativity+is+the+average+one-electron+energy+of+the+valence-shell+electrons+in+ground-state+free+atoms&rft.volume=111&rft.issue=25&rft.pages=9003-9014&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fja00207a003&rft.au=Allen%2C+Leland+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronegativity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMann,_Joseph_B.Meek,_Terry_L.Allen,_Leland_C.2000" class="citation journal cs1">Mann, Joseph B.; Meek, Terry L.; Allen, Leland C. (2000). "Configuration Energies of the Main Group Elements". <i>Journal of the American Chemical Society</i>. <b>122</b> (12): 2780–2783. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fja992866e">10.1021/ja992866e</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Chemical+Society&rft.atitle=Configuration+Energies+of+the+Main+Group+Elements&rft.volume=122&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=2780-2783&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fja992866e&rft.au=Mann%2C+Joseph+B.&rft.au=Meek%2C+Terry+L.&rft.au=Allen%2C+Leland+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronegativity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMann,_Joseph_B.Meek,_Terry_L.Knight,_Eugene_T.Capitani,_Joseph_F.2000" class="citation journal cs1">Mann, Joseph B.; Meek, Terry L.; Knight, Eugene T.; Capitani, Joseph F.; Allen, Leland C. (2000). "Configuration energies of the d-block elements". <i>Journal of the American Chemical Society</i>. <b>122</b> (21): 5132–5137. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fja9928677">10.1021/ja9928677</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Chemical+Society&rft.atitle=Configuration+energies+of+the+d-block+elements&rft.volume=122&rft.issue=21&rft.pages=5132-5137&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fja9928677&rft.au=Mann%2C+Joseph+B.&rft.au=Meek%2C+Terry+L.&rft.au=Knight%2C+Eugene+T.&rft.au=Capitani%2C+Joseph+F.&rft.au=Allen%2C+Leland+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronegativity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fr-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fr_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fr_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">The widely quoted Pauling electronegativity of 0.7 for francium is an extrapolated value of uncertain provenance. The Allen electronegativity of caesium is 0.66.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, e.g., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBellamy,_L._J.1958" class="citation book cs1">Bellamy, L. J. (1958). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/infraredspectrao0000bell_w1a8/page/392"><i>The Infra-Red Spectra of Complex Molecules</i></a>. New York: Wiley. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/infraredspectrao0000bell_w1a8/page/392">392</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-412-13850-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-412-13850-8"><bdi>978-0-412-13850-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Infra-Red+Spectra+of+Complex+Molecules&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=392&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=1958&rft.isbn=978-0-412-13850-8&rft.au=Bellamy%2C+L.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Finfraredspectrao0000bell_w1a8%2Fpage%2F392&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronegativity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpieseke,_H.Schneider,_W._G.1961" class="citation journal cs1">Spieseke, H.; Schneider, W. G. (1961). "Effect of Electronegativity and Magnetic Anisotropy of Substituents on C13 and H1 Chemical Shifts in CH3X and CH3CH2X Compounds". <i>Journal of Chemical Physics</i>. <b>35</b> (2): 722. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1961JChPh..35..722S">1961JChPh..35..722S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1731992">10.1063/1.1731992</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Chemical+Physics&rft.atitle=Effect+of+Electronegativity+and+Magnetic+Anisotropy+of+Substituents+on+C13+and+H1+Chemical+Shifts+in+CH3X+and+CH3CH2X+Compounds&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=722&rft.date=1961&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.1731992&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1961JChPh..35..722S&rft.au=Spieseke%2C+H.&rft.au=Schneider%2C+W.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronegativity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClasen,_C._A.Good,_M._L.1970" class="citation journal cs1">Clasen, C. A.; Good, M. L. (1970). "Interpretation of the Moessbauer spectra of mixed-hexahalo complexes of tin(IV)". <i>Inorganic Chemistry</i>. <b>9</b> (4): 817–820. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fic50086a025">10.1021/ic50086a025</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Inorganic+Chemistry&rft.atitle=Interpretation+of+the+Moessbauer+spectra+of+mixed-hexahalo+complexes+of+tin%28IV%29&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=817-820&rft.date=1970&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fic50086a025&rft.au=Clasen%2C+C.+A.&rft.au=Good%2C+M.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronegativity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiXue2006" class="citation journal cs1">Li, Keyan; Xue, Dongfeng (2006-10-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/jp062886k">"Estimation of Electronegativity Values of Elements in Different Valence States"</a>. <i>The Journal of Physical Chemistry A</i>. <b>110</b> (39): 11332–11337. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006JPCA..11011332L">2006JPCA..11011332L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fjp062886k">10.1021/jp062886k</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1089-5639">1089-5639</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17004743">17004743</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Physical+Chemistry+A&rft.atitle=Estimation+of+Electronegativity+Values+of+Elements+in+Different+Valence+States&rft.volume=110&rft.issue=39&rft.pages=11332-11337&rft.date=2006-10-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fjp062886k&rft.issn=1089-5639&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17004743&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006JPCA..11011332L&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Keyan&rft.au=Xue%2C+Dongfeng&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubs.acs.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1021%2Fjp062886k&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronegativity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFleming2009" class="citation book cs1">Fleming, Ian (2009). <i>Molecular orbitals and organic chemical reactions</i> (Student ed.). Chichester, West Sussex, U.K.: Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-4707-4660-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-4707-4660-8"><bdi>978-0-4707-4660-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/424555669">424555669</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Molecular+orbitals+and+organic+chemical+reactions&rft.place=Chichester%2C+West+Sussex%2C+U.K.&rft.edition=Student&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F424555669&rft.isbn=978-0-4707-4660-8&rft.aulast=Fleming&rft.aufirst=Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronegativity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20091101004334/http://au.encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_781538810/Electropositivity.html">Electropositivity</a>," <a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Encarta" class="mw-redirect" title="Microsoft Encarta">Microsoft Encarta</a> Online Encyclopedia 2009. (Archived 2009-10-31).</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electronegativity&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJolly1991" class="citation book cs1">Jolly, William L. (1991). <i>Modern Inorganic Chemistry</i> (2nd ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/McGraw-Hill" class="mw-redirect" title="McGraw-Hill">McGraw-Hill</a>. pp. 71–76. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-112651-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-112651-9"><bdi>978-0-07-112651-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Inorganic+Chemistry&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=71-76&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-07-112651-9&rft.aulast=Jolly&rft.aufirst=William+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronegativity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMullay1987" class="citation book cs1">Mullay, J. (1987). "Estimation of atomic and group electronegativities". <i>Electronegativity</i>. Structure and Bonding. Vol. 66. pp. 1–25. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBFb0029834">10.1007/BFb0029834</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-17740-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-17740-1"><bdi>978-3-540-17740-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Estimation+of+atomic+and+group+electronegativities&rft.btitle=Electronegativity&rft.series=Structure+and+Bonding&rft.pages=1-25&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBFb0029834&rft.isbn=978-3-540-17740-1&rft.aulast=Mullay&rft.aufirst=J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronegativity" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electronegativity&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Electronegativity" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Electronegativity">Electronegativity</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.webelements.com/">WebElements</a>, lists values of electronegativities by a number of different methods of calculation</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120516075254/http://sciencehack.com/videos/view/6952235798166539784">Video explaining electronegativity</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://electronegativitychart.com">Electronegativity Chart</a>, a summary listing of the electronegativity of each element along with an interactive periodic table</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup 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navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Navbox_periodic_table" title="Template:Navbox periodic table"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Navbox_periodic_table" title="Template talk:Navbox periodic table"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Navbox_periodic_table" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Navbox periodic table"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Periodic_table" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">Periodic table</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group wraplinks" style="width:1%;white-space: normal !important;">Periodic table forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Types_of_periodic_tables" title="Types of periodic tables">Alternatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_periodic_table" title="Extended periodic table">Extended periodic table</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group wraplinks" style="width:1%;white-space: normal !important;"><a href="/wiki/Names_for_sets_of_chemical_elements" title="Names for sets of chemical elements">Sets of elements</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal !important;">By periodic table structure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Group_(periodic_table)" title="Group (periodic table)">Groups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alkali_metal" title="Alkali metal">1 (Hydrogen and alkali metals)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metal" title="Alkaline earth metal">2 (Alkaline earth metals)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_3_element" title="Group 3 element">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_4_element" title="Group 4 element">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_5_element" title="Group 5 element">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_6_element" title="Group 6 element">6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_7_element" title="Group 7 element">7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_8_element" title="Group 8 element">8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_9_element" title="Group 9 element">9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_10_element" title="Group 10 element">10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_11_element" title="Group 11 element">11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_12_element" title="Group 12 element">12</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boron_group" title="Boron group">13 (Triels)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_group" title="Carbon group">14 (Tetrels)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pnictogen" title="Pnictogen">15 (Pnictogens)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalcogen" title="Chalcogen">16 (Chalcogens)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halogen" title="Halogen">17 (Halogens)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_gas" title="Noble gas">18 (Noble gases)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Period_(periodic_table)" title="Period (periodic table)">Periods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Period_1_element" title="Period 1 element">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Period_2_element" title="Period 2 element">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Period_3_element" title="Period 3 element">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Period_4_element" title="Period 4 element">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Period_5_element" title="Period 5 element">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Period_6_element" title="Period 6 element">6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Period_7_element" title="Period 7 element">7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_periodic_table" title="Extended periodic table">8+</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extended_periodic_table#Aufbau_model" title="Extended periodic table">Aufbau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_periodic_table#Fricke" title="Extended periodic table">Fricke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_periodic_table#Pyykkö" title="Extended periodic table">Pyykkö</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Block_(periodic_table)" title="Block (periodic table)">Blocks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aufbau_principle" title="Aufbau principle">Aufbau principle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal !important;">By <a href="/wiki/Properties_of_metals,_metalloids_and_nonmetals" title="Properties of metals, metalloids and nonmetals">metallicity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">Metals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lanthanide" title="Lanthanide">Lanthanides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actinide" title="Actinide">Actinides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal" title="Transition metal">Transition metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-transition_metal" title="Post-transition metal">Post-transition metals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Metalloid" title="Metalloid">Metalloids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_metalloids" title="Lists of metalloids">Lists of metalloids by source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dividing_line_between_metals_and_nonmetals" title="Dividing line between metals and nonmetals">Dividing line</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nonmetal" title="Nonmetal">Nonmetals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Noble_gas" title="Noble gas">Noble gases</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal !important;">Other sets</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Platinum_group" title="Platinum group">Platinum-group metals (PGM)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rare-earth_element" title="Rare-earth element">Rare-earth elements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refractory_metals" title="Refractory metals">Refractory metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precious_metal" title="Precious metal">Precious metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coinage_metals" title="Coinage metals">Coinage metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_metal" title="Noble metal">Noble metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_metal_element" title="Heavy metal element">Heavy metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_metal" title="Native metal">Native metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transuranium_element" title="Transuranium element">Transuranium elements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superheavy_element" title="Superheavy element">Superheavy elements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Major_actinide" title="Major actinide">Major actinides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minor_actinide" title="Minor actinide">Minor actinides</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group wraplinks" style="width:1%;white-space: normal !important;"><a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">Elements</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_chemical_elements" title="List of chemical elements">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>By: <a href="/wiki/Abundance_of_the_chemical_elements" title="Abundance of the chemical elements">Abundance</a> (<a href="/wiki/Composition_of_the_human_body" title="Composition of the human body">in humans</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_elements_by_atomic_properties" title="List of elements by atomic properties">Atomic properties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_elements_by_stability_of_isotopes" title="List of elements by stability of isotopes">Nuclear stability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_symbol" title="Chemical symbol">Symbol</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chemical_element#Properties" title="Chemical element">Properties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_aqueous_ions_by_element" title="List of aqueous ions by element">Aqueous chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodic_table_(crystal_structure)" title="Periodic table (crystal structure)">Crystal structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodic_table_(electron_configurations)" title="Periodic table (electron configurations)">Electron configuration</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Electronegativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goldschmidt_classification" title="Goldschmidt classification">Goldschmidt classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Term_symbol" title="Term symbol">Term symbol</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal;">Data pages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abundances_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Abundances of the elements (data page)">Abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_radii_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Atomic radii of the elements (data page)">Atomic radius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boiling_points_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Boiling points of the elements (data page)">Boiling point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_points_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Critical points of the elements (data page)">Critical point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Densities_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Densities of the elements (data page)">Density</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elastic_properties_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Elastic properties of the elements (data page)">Elasticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistivities_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Electrical resistivities of the elements (data page)">Electrical resistivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_affinity_(data_page)" title="Electron affinity (data page)">Electron affinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_configurations_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Electron configurations of the elements (data page)">Electron configuration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronegativities_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Electronegativities of the elements (data page)">Electronegativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardnesses_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Hardnesses of the elements (data page)">Hardness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_capacities_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Heat capacities of the elements (data page)">Heat capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heats_of_fusion_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Heats of fusion of the elements (data page)">Heat of fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heats_of_vaporization_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Heats of vaporization of the elements (data page)">Heat of vaporization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionization_energies_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Ionization energies of the elements (data page)">Ionization energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melting_points_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Melting points of the elements (data page)">Melting point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxidation_state" title="Oxidation state">Oxidation state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speeds_of_sound_of_the_elements" title="Speeds of sound of the elements">Speed of sound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_conductivities_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Thermal conductivities of the elements (data page)">Thermal conductivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_expansivities_of_the_elements" title="Thermal expansivities of the elements">Thermal expansion coefficient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vapor_pressures_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Vapor pressures of the elements (data page)">Vapor pressure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group wraplinks" style="width:1%;white-space: normal !important;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_periodic_table" title="History of the periodic table">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_chemical_elements" title="Discovery of chemical elements">Element discoveries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dmitri_Mendeleev" title="Dmitri Mendeleev">Dmitri Mendeleev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dmitri_Mendeleev#Periodic_table" title="Dmitri Mendeleev">1871 table</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendeleev%27s_predicted_elements" title="Mendeleev's predicted elements">1869 predictions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naming_of_chemical_elements" title="Naming of chemical elements">Naming</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chemical_element_name_etymologies" title="List of chemical element name etymologies">etymology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chemical_element_naming_controversies" title="List of chemical element naming controversies">controversies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chemical_elements_named_after_places" title="List of chemical elements named after places">for places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chemical_elements_named_after_people" title="List of chemical elements named after people">for people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_elements_in_East_Asian_languages" title="Chemical elements in East Asian languages">in East Asian languages</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group wraplinks" style="width:1%;white-space: normal !important;">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Union_of_Pure_and_Applied_Chemistry" title="International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry">IUPAC</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_nomenclature" title="Chemical nomenclature">nomenclature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematic_element_name" title="Systematic element name">systematic element name</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trivial_name" title="Trivial name">Trivial name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dmitri_Mendeleev" title="Dmitri Mendeleev">Dmitri Mendeleev</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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href="/wiki/Vitamin_C_and_the_Common_Cold_(book)" title="Vitamin C and the Common Cold (book)">Vitamin C and the Common Cold</a></i> (1970 book)</li> <li><i>How to Live Longer and Feel Better</i> (1986)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Valence_bond_theory" title="Valence bond theory">Valence bond theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_hybridisation" title="Orbital hybridisation">Orbital hybridisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resonance_(chemistry)" title="Resonance (chemistry)">Resonance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Pauling_electronegativity">Pauling Electronegativity Scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pauling%27s_rules" title="Pauling's rules">Pauling's rules</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" 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acid">Intravenous ascorbic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linus_Pauling_Award" title="Linus Pauling Award">Linus Pauling Award</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condon_State_Airport" title="Condon State Airport">Pauling Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/4674_Pauling" title="4674 Pauling">4674 Pauling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" 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