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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Construction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Construction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aperture_and_focal_length" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aperture_and_focal_length"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Aperture and focal length</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aperture_and_focal_length-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Number_of_elements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Number_of_elements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Number of elements</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Number_of_elements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lens_mounts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lens_mounts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Lens mounts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lens_mounts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types_of_lenses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types_of_lenses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Types of lenses</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types_of_lenses-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Types of lenses subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Types_of_lenses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-"Close-up"_or_macro" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Close-up"_or_macro"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>"Close-up" or macro</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Close-up"_or_macro-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Zoom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Zoom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Zoom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Zoom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Special-purpose" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Special-purpose"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Special-purpose</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Special-purpose-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_and_technical_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_and_technical_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>History and technical development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_and_technical_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lens_designs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lens_designs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Lens designs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lens_designs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Camera lens</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 51 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-51" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">51 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%A9_%D8%AA%D8%B5%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%B1_%D8%B6%D9%88%D8%A6%D9%8A" title="عدسة تصوير ضوئي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="عدسة تصوير ضوئي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obyektiv" title="Obyektiv – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Obyektiv" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%E2%80%99%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%9E" title="Аб’ектыў – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Аб’ектыў" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%E2%80%99%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%9E" title="Аб’ектыў – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Аб’ектыў" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2" title="Обектив – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Обектив" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferenneg" title="Ferenneg – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Ferenneg" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objectiu" title="Objectiu – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Objectiu" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotografick%C3%BD_objektiv" title="Fotografický objektiv – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Fotografický objektiv" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objektiiv" title="Objektiiv – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Objektiiv" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CF%89%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%B3%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%86%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82_%CF%86%CE%B1%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Φωτογραφικός φακός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Φωτογραφικός φακός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objetivo_(fotograf%C3%ADa)" title="Objetivo (fotografía) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Objetivo (fotografía)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objektivo" title="Objektivo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Objektivo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objektibo_(argazkilaritza)" title="Objektibo (argazkilaritza) – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Objektibo (argazkilaritza)" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%86%D8%B2_%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%86" title="لنز دوربین – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="لنز دوربین" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objectif_photographique" title="Objectif photographique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Objectif photographique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B9%B4%EB%A9%94%EB%9D%BC_%EB%A0%8C%EC%A6%88" title="카메라 렌즈 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="카메라 렌즈" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%95%D5%A2%D5%B5%D5%A5%D5%AF%D5%BF%D5%AB%D5%BE" title="Օբյեկտիվ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Օբյեկտիվ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objektiv" title="Objektiv – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Objektiv" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lensa_fotografi" title="Lensa fotografi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Lensa fotografi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obiettivo_(fotografia)" title="Obiettivo (fotografia) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Obiettivo (fotografia)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%93%D7%A9%D7%94_(%D7%9E%D7%A6%D7%9C%D7%9E%D7%94)" title="עדשה (מצלמה) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="עדשה (מצלמה)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B1%D1%8A%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2" title="Объектив – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Объектив" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B1%D1%8A%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2" title="Объектив – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Объектив" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objekt%C4%ABvs" title="Objektīvs – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Objektīvs" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objekt%C3%ADv_(f%C3%A9nyk%C3%A9p%C3%A9szet)" title="Objektív (fényképészet) – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Objektív (fényképészet)" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B1%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2" title="Објектив – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Објектив" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%B1_%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%86%E0%B5%BB%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D" title="ക്യാമറ ലെൻസ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ക്യാമറ ലെൻസ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanta_fotografi" title="Kanta fotografi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kanta fotografi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objectief_(fotografie)" title="Objectief (fotografie) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Objectief (fotografie)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%86%99%E7%9C%9F%E3%83%AC%E3%83%B3%E3%82%BA" title="写真レンズ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="写真レンズ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objektiv" title="Objektiv – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Objektiv" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objektiv" title="Objektiv – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Objektiv" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%80%E1%9F%82%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%98%E1%9F%89%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%8A%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%90%E1%9E%8F" title="កែវម៉ាស៊ីនថត – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="កែវម៉ាស៊ីនថត" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obiektyw_fotograficzny" title="Obiektyw fotograficzny – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Obiektyw fotograficzny" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objetiva_(fotografia)" title="Objetiva (fotografia) – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Objetiva (fotografia)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B1%D1%8A%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2" title="Объектив – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Объектив" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%90%E0%B6%B8%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8F_%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%A0" title="කැමරා කාච – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="කැමරා කාච" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_lens" title="Camera lens – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Camera lens" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotografick%C3%BD_objekt%C3%ADv" title="Fotografický objektív – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Fotografický objektív" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objektiv" title="Objektiv – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Objektiv" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%DB%8E%D9%86%D8%B2%DB%8C_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8E%D8%B1%D8%A7" title="لێنزی کامێرا – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="لێنزی کامێرا" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B1%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2" title="Објектив – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Објектив" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objektiivi" title="Objektiivi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Objektiivi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objektiv" title="Objektiv – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Objektiv" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%92%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%88" title="ஒளிப்படக்கருவி வில்லை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஒளிப்படக்கருவி வில்லை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a 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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Optical lens or assembly of lenses used with a camera to create images</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This section is about the optical system. For the organism, see <a href="/wiki/Kamera_lens" title="Kamera lens">Kamera lens</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Photographic_lenses_front_view.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Photographic_lenses_front_view.jpg/290px-Photographic_lenses_front_view.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Photographic_lenses_front_view.jpg/435px-Photographic_lenses_front_view.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Photographic_lenses_front_view.jpg/580px-Photographic_lenses_front_view.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3815" data-file-height="2539" /></a><figcaption>Different kinds of camera lenses, including wide angle, telephoto and speciality</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>camera lens</b> (also known as <b>photographic lens</b> or <b>photographic objective</b>) is an optical <a href="/wiki/Lens_(optics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lens (optics)">lens</a> or assembly of lenses used in conjunction with a <a href="/wiki/Camera" title="Camera">camera</a> body and mechanism to <a href="/wiki/Imaging" title="Imaging">make images</a> of objects either on <a href="/wiki/Photographic_film" title="Photographic film">photographic film</a> or on other media capable of storing an image <a href="/wiki/Photosensitivity" title="Photosensitivity">chemically</a> or <a href="/wiki/Image_sensor" title="Image sensor">electronically</a>. </p><p>There is no major difference in principle between a lens used for a <a href="/wiki/Still_camera" class="mw-redirect" title="Still camera">still camera</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Video_camera" title="Video camera">video camera</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">telescope</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Microscope" title="Microscope">microscope</a>, or other apparatus, but the details of design and construction are different. A lens might be permanently fixed to a camera, or it might be <a href="/w/index.php?title=Interchangeable_lens_camera&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Interchangeable lens camera (page does not exist)">interchangeable</a> with lenses of different <a href="/wiki/Focal_length" title="Focal length">focal lengths</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aperture" title="Aperture">apertures</a>, and other properties. </p><p>While in principle a <a href="/wiki/Simple_lens" title="Simple lens">simple convex lens</a> will suffice, in practice a compound lens made up of a number of optical lens elements is required to correct (as much as possible) the many <a href="/wiki/Optical_aberration" title="Optical aberration">optical aberrations</a> that arise. Some aberrations will be present in any lens system. It is the job of the lens designer to balance these and produce a design that is suitable for photographic use and possibly mass production. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theory_of_operation">Theory of operation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Camera_lens&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Theory of operation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Typical <a href="/wiki/Rectilinear_lens" title="Rectilinear lens">rectilinear lenses</a> can be thought of as "improved" <a href="/wiki/Pinhole_camera" title="Pinhole camera">pinhole "lenses"</a>. As shown, a pinhole "lens" is simply a small aperture that blocks most rays of light, ideally selecting one ray to the object for each point on the image sensor. Pinhole lenses have a few severe limitations: </p> <ul><li>A pinhole camera with a large <a href="/wiki/Aperture" title="Aperture">aperture</a> is blurry because each pixel is essentially the shadow of the aperture stop, so its size is no smaller than the size of the aperture (third image). Here a pixel is the area of the detector exposed to light from a point on the object.</li> <li>Making the pinhole smaller improves resolution (up to a limit), but reduces the amount of light captured.</li> <li>At a certain point, shrinking the hole does not improve the resolution because of the <a href="/wiki/Diffraction_limit" class="mw-redirect" title="Diffraction limit">diffraction limit</a>. Beyond this limit, making the hole smaller makes the image blurrier as well as darker.</li></ul> <p>Practical lenses can be thought of as an answer to the question: "how can a pinhole lens be modified to admit more light and give a smaller spot size?". A first step is to put a simple convex lens at the pinhole with a focal length equal to the distance to the film plane (assuming the camera will take pictures of distant objects<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). This allows the pinhole to be opened up significantly (fourth image) because a thin convex lens bends light rays in proportion to their distance to the axis of the lens, with rays striking the center of the lens passing straight through. The geometry is almost the same as with a simple pinhole lens, but rather than being illuminated by single rays of light, each image point is illuminated by a focused <a href="/wiki/Pencil_(optics)" title="Pencil (optics)">"pencil" of light rays</a>. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1248256098">@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery{width:100%!important}}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery{display:table}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-default{background:transparent;margin-top:4px}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-center{margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-none{float:none}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-collapsible{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .main,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer{display:table-row}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title>div{display:table-cell;padding:0 4px 4px;text-align:center;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .main>div{display:table-cell}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .gallery{line-height:1.35em}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer>div{display:table-cell;padding:4px;text-align:right;font-size:85%;line-height:1em}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title>div *,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer>div *{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .gallerybox img{background:none!important}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .bordered-images .thumb img{border:solid var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0)1px}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .whitebg .thumb{background:var(--background-color-base,#fff)!important}</style><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default mod-gallery-center"><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker bordered-images whitebg"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 255px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 250px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pinhole-camera.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Principle of a pinhole camera. Light rays from an object pass through a small hole to form an image."><img alt="Principle of a pinhole camera. Light rays from an object pass through a small hole to form an image." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Pinhole-camera.svg/220px-Pinhole-camera.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Pinhole-camera.svg/330px-Pinhole-camera.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Pinhole-camera.svg/440px-Pinhole-camera.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="273" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Principle of a pinhole camera. <a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">Light</a> rays from an object pass through a small hole to form an image.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 255px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 250px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Big_pinhole.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="With a large pinhole, the image spot is large, resulting in a blurry image."><img alt="With a large pinhole, the image spot is large, resulting in a blurry image." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Big_pinhole.svg/220px-Big_pinhole.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Big_pinhole.svg/330px-Big_pinhole.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Big_pinhole.svg/440px-Big_pinhole.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="158" data-file-height="76" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">With a large pinhole, the image spot is large, resulting in a blurry image.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 255px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 250px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tiny_pinhole-diffraction.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="With a small pinhole light is reduced, but diffraction prevents the image spot from getting arbitrarily small."><img alt="With a small pinhole light is reduced, but diffraction prevents the image spot from getting arbitrarily small." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Tiny_pinhole-diffraction.svg/220px-Tiny_pinhole-diffraction.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Tiny_pinhole-diffraction.svg/330px-Tiny_pinhole-diffraction.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Tiny_pinhole-diffraction.svg/440px-Tiny_pinhole-diffraction.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="158" data-file-height="76" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">With a small pinhole light is reduced, but diffraction prevents the image spot from getting arbitrarily small.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 255px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 250px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Big_pinhole_with_lens.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="With a simple lens, much more light can be brought into sharp focus."><img alt="With a simple lens, much more light can be brought into sharp focus." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Big_pinhole_with_lens.svg/220px-Big_pinhole_with_lens.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Big_pinhole_with_lens.svg/330px-Big_pinhole_with_lens.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Big_pinhole_with_lens.svg/440px-Big_pinhole_with_lens.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="158" data-file-height="76" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">With a simple lens, much more light can be brought into sharp focus.</div> </li> </ul></div></div></div> <p>From the front of the camera, the small hole (the aperture), would be seen. The <a href="/wiki/Virtual_image" title="Virtual image">virtual image</a> of the aperture as seen from the world is known as the lens's <a href="/wiki/Entrance_pupil" title="Entrance pupil">entrance pupil</a>; ideally, all rays of light leaving a point on the object that enter the entrance pupil will be focused to the same point on the image sensor/film (provided the object point is in the field of view). If one were inside the camera, one would see the lens acting as a <a href="/wiki/Image_projector" class="mw-redirect" title="Image projector">projector</a>. The virtual image of the aperture from inside the camera is the lens's <a href="/wiki/Exit_pupil" title="Exit pupil">exit pupil</a>. In this simple case, the aperture, entrance pupil, and exit pupil are all in the same place because the only optical element is in the plane of the aperture, but in general these three will be in different places. Practical photographic lenses include more lens elements. The additional elements allow lens designers to reduce various aberrations, but the principle of operation remains the same: <a href="/wiki/Pencil_beam" class="mw-redirect" title="Pencil beam">pencils of rays</a> are collected at the entrance pupil and focused down from the exit pupil onto the image plane. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Construction">Construction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Camera_lens&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Construction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Photographic_lens_design" title="Photographic lens design">Photographic lens design</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_photographic_lens_design" title="History of photographic lens design">History of photographic lens design</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Telephoto.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Telephoto.jpg/220px-Telephoto.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Telephoto.jpg/330px-Telephoto.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Telephoto.jpg/440px-Telephoto.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2047" data-file-height="1212" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Zoom_lens" title="Zoom lens">zoom lens</a> assembly of the <a href="/wiki/Canon_ELPH_(camera)" class="mw-redirect" title="Canon ELPH (camera)">Canon Elph</a></figcaption></figure> <p>A camera lens may be made from a number of elements: from one, as in the <a href="/wiki/Brownie_(camera)" class="mw-redirect" title="Brownie (camera)">Box Brownie</a>'s meniscus lens, to over 20 in the more complex zooms. These elements may themselves comprise a group of lenses cemented together. </p><p>The front element is critical to the performance of the whole assembly. In all modern lenses the surface is coated to reduce abrasion, <a href="/wiki/Lens_flare" title="Lens flare">flare</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Anti-reflective_coating" title="Anti-reflective coating">surface reflectance</a>, and to adjust color balance. To minimize aberration, the curvature is usually set so that the <a href="/wiki/Angle_of_incidence_(optics)" title="Angle of incidence (optics)">angle of incidence</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Angle_of_refraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Angle of refraction">angle of refraction</a> are equal. In a prime lens this is easy, but in a zoom there is always a compromise. </p><p>The lens usually is <a href="/wiki/Focus_(optics)" title="Focus (optics)">focused</a> by adjusting the distance from the lens assembly to the image plane, or by moving elements of the lens assembly. To improve performance, some lenses have a cam system that adjusts the distance between the groups as the lens is focused. Manufacturers call this different things: <a href="/wiki/Nikon" title="Nikon">Nikon</a> calls it CRC (close range correction); <a href="/wiki/Canon_Inc." title="Canon Inc.">Canon</a> calls it a floating system; and <a href="/wiki/Hasselblad" title="Hasselblad">Hasselblad</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mamiya" title="Mamiya">Mamiya</a> call it FLE (floating lens element).<sup id="cite_ref-photonotes_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-photonotes-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Glass is the most common material used to construct lens elements, due to its good optical properties and resistance to scratching. Other materials are also used, such as <a href="/wiki/Quartz_glass" class="mw-redirect" title="Quartz glass">quartz glass</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fluorite" title="Fluorite">fluorite</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> plastics like <a href="/wiki/Acrylic_glass" class="mw-redirect" title="Acrylic glass">acrylic</a> (Plexiglass), and even <a href="/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium">germanium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Meteorite" title="Meteorite">meteoritic glass</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Plastics allow the manufacturing of strongly <a href="/wiki/Aspheric_lens" title="Aspheric lens">aspherical lens elements</a> which are difficult or impossible to manufacture in glass, and which simplify or improve lens manufacturing and performance.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Plastics are not used for the outermost elements of all but the cheapest lenses as they scratch easily. Molded plastic lenses have been used for the cheapest disposable cameras for many years, and have acquired a bad reputation: manufacturers of quality optics tend to use euphemisms such as "optical resin". However many modern, high performance (and high priced) lenses from popular manufacturers include molded or hybrid aspherical elements, so it is not true that all lenses with plastic elements are of low photographic quality.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="These lenses contain molded GLASS elements, not plastic ones; I do not know of any high-quality lens which uses a plastic or "optical resin" element. (November 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/1951_USAF_resolution_test_chart" title="1951 USAF resolution test chart">1951 USAF resolution test chart</a> is one way to measure the resolving power of a lens. The quality of the material, coatings, and build affect the resolution. Lens resolution is ultimately limited by <a href="/wiki/Diffraction" title="Diffraction">diffraction</a>, and very few photographic lenses approach this resolution. Ones that do are called "diffraction limited" and are usually extremely expensive.<sup id="cite_ref-luminous-landscape_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-luminous-landscape-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Today, most lenses are <a href="/wiki/Optical_coating" title="Optical coating">multi-coated</a> in order to minimize <a href="/wiki/Lens_flare" title="Lens flare">lens flare</a> and other unwanted effects. Some lenses have a UV coating to keep out the <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> light that could taint color. Most modern optical cements for bonding glass elements also block UV light, negating the need for a UV filter. However, this leaves an avenue for <a href="/wiki/Lens_fungus" title="Lens fungus">lens fungus</a> to attack if lenses are not cared for appropriately. UV photographers must go to great lengths to find lenses with no cement or coatings. </p><p>A lens will most often have an aperture adjustment mechanism, usually an <a href="/wiki/Diaphragm_(optics)" title="Diaphragm (optics)">iris diaphragm</a>, to regulate the amount of light that passes. In early camera models a rotating plate or slider with different sized holes was used. These <a href="/wiki/Waterhouse_stop" title="Waterhouse stop">Waterhouse stops</a> may still be found on modern, specialized lenses. A <a href="/wiki/Shutter_(photography)" title="Shutter (photography)">shutter</a>, to regulate the time during which light may pass, may be incorporated within the lens assembly (for better quality imagery), within the camera, or even, rarely, in front of the lens. Some cameras with leaf shutters in the lens omit the aperture, and the shutter does double duty. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aperture_and_focal_length">Aperture and focal length</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Camera_lens&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Aperture and focal length"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lenses_with_different_apertures.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Lenses_with_different_apertures.jpg/170px-Lenses_with_different_apertures.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Lenses_with_different_apertures.jpg/255px-Lenses_with_different_apertures.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Lenses_with_different_apertures.jpg/340px-Lenses_with_different_apertures.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3450" data-file-height="2200" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Apertures" class="mw-redirect" title="Apertures">Apertures</a> in 1-stop increments on the same lens.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Focal_length.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Focal_length.jpg/220px-Focal_length.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="440" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Focal_length.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>How focal length affects photograph composition: adjusting the camera's distance from the main subject while changing focal length, the main subject can remain the same size, while the other at a different distance changes size.</figcaption></figure> <p>The two fundamental parameters of an optical lens are the <a href="/wiki/Focal_length" title="Focal length">focal length</a> and the maximum <a href="/wiki/Aperture" title="Aperture">aperture</a>. The lens' focal length determines the magnification of the image projected onto the image plane, and the aperture the light intensity of that image. For a given photographic system the focal length determines the <a href="/wiki/Angle_of_view" class="mw-redirect" title="Angle of view">angle of view</a>, short focal lengths giving a wider field of view than longer focal length lenses. A wider aperture, identified by a smaller f-number, allows using a faster shutter speed for the same exposure. The <a href="/wiki/F-number#Camera_equation_(G#)" title="F-number">camera equation</a>, or G#, is the ratio of the <a href="/wiki/Radiance" title="Radiance">radiance</a> reaching the camera sensor to the <a href="/wiki/Irradiance" title="Irradiance">irradiance</a> on the focal plane of the camera lens.<sup id="cite_ref-g-number_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-g-number-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The maximum usable aperture of a lens is specified as the focal ratio or <a href="/wiki/F-number" title="F-number">f-number</a>, defined as the lens's <a href="/wiki/Focal_length" title="Focal length">focal length</a> divided by the effective aperture (or <a href="/wiki/Entrance_pupil" title="Entrance pupil">entrance pupil</a>), a dimensionless number. The lower the f-number, the higher light intensity at the focal plane. Larger apertures (smaller f-numbers) provide a much shallower <a href="/wiki/Depth_of_field" title="Depth of field">depth of field</a> than smaller apertures, other conditions being equal. Practical lens assemblies may also contain mechanisms to deal with measuring light, secondary apertures for flare reduction,<sup id="cite_ref-mir_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mir-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and mechanisms to hold the aperture open until the instant of exposure to allow <a href="/wiki/Single-lens_reflex_camera" title="Single-lens reflex camera">SLR</a> cameras to focus with a brighter image with shallower depth of field, theoretically allowing better focus accuracy. </p><p>Focal lengths are usually specified in millimetres (mm), but older lenses might be marked in centimetres (cm) or inches. For a given film or sensor size, specified by the length of the diagonal, a lens may be classified as a: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Normal_lens" title="Normal lens">Normal lens</a>: angle of view of the diagonal about 50° and a focal length approximately equal to the image diagonal.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wide-angle_lens" title="Wide-angle lens">Wide-angle lens</a>: angle of view wider than 60° and focal length shorter than normal.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long-focus_lens" title="Long-focus lens">Long-focus lens</a>: any lens with a focal length longer than the diagonal measure of the film or sensor.<sup id="cite_ref-google2_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-google2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Angle of view is narrower. The most common type of long-focus lens is the <a href="/wiki/Telephoto_lens" title="Telephoto lens">telephoto lens</a>, a design that uses special optical configurations to make the lens shorter than its focal length.</li></ul> <p>A side effect of using lenses of different focal lengths is the different distances from which a subject can be framed, resulting in a different <a href="/wiki/Perspective_(visual)" class="mw-redirect" title="Perspective (visual)">perspective</a>. Photographs can be taken of a person stretching out a hand with a wideangle, a normal lens, and a telephoto, which contain exactly the same image size by changing the distance from the subject. But the perspective will be different. With the wideangle, the hands will be exaggeratedly large relative to the head. As the focal length increases, the emphasis on the outstretched hand decreases. However, if pictures are taken from the same distance, and enlarged and cropped to contain the same view, the pictures will have identical perspective. A moderate long-focus (telephoto) lens is often recommended for portraiture because the perspective corresponding to the longer shooting distance is considered to look more flattering. </p><p>The widest aperture lens in history of photography is believed to be the <a href="/wiki/Carl_Zeiss_Planar_50mm_f/0.7" title="Carl Zeiss Planar 50mm f/0.7">Carl Zeiss Planar 50mm f/0.7</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-worldfastest_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-worldfastest-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which was designed and made specifically for the NASA <a href="/wiki/Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">Apollo</a> lunar program to capture the far side of the Moon in 1966. Three of these lenses were purchased by filmmaker <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Kubrick" title="Stanley Kubrick">Stanley Kubrick</a> in order to film scenes in his 1975 film <i><a href="/wiki/Barry_Lyndon" title="Barry Lyndon">Barry Lyndon</a></i>, using candlelight as the sole light source.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-zeiss_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zeiss-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1248256098"><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default mod-gallery-center"><div class="title"><div>An example of how lens choice affects angle of view. The photos were taken by a <a href="/wiki/135_film" title="135 film">35 mm</a> camera at a constant distance from the subject.</div></div><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker bordered-images whitebg"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Angleofview_28mm_f4.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="28 mm lens"><img alt="28 mm lens" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Angleofview_28mm_f4.jpg/180px-Angleofview_28mm_f4.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Angleofview_28mm_f4.jpg/270px-Angleofview_28mm_f4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Angleofview_28mm_f4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="298" data-file-height="195" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">28 mm lens</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Angleofview_50mm_f4.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="50 mm lens"><img alt="50 mm lens" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Angleofview_50mm_f4.jpg/180px-Angleofview_50mm_f4.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Angleofview_50mm_f4.jpg/270px-Angleofview_50mm_f4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Angleofview_50mm_f4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="192" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">50 mm lens</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Angleofview_70mm_f4.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="70 mm lens"><img alt="70 mm lens" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Angleofview_70mm_f4.jpg/180px-Angleofview_70mm_f4.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Angleofview_70mm_f4.jpg/270px-Angleofview_70mm_f4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Angleofview_70mm_f4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="191" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">70 mm lens</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Angleofview_210mm_f4.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="210 mm lens"><img alt="210 mm lens" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Angleofview_210mm_f4.jpg/180px-Angleofview_210mm_f4.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Angleofview_210mm_f4.jpg/270px-Angleofview_210mm_f4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/Angleofview_210mm_f4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="195" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">210 mm lens</div> </li> </ul></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Number_of_elements">Number of elements</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Camera_lens&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Number of elements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="Convertible_lens"></span> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Photographic_lens_design" title="Photographic lens design">Photographic lens design</a></div> <p>The complexity of a lens — the number of elements and their degree of asphericity — depends upon the angle of view, the maximum aperture, and intended price point, among other variables. An extreme wideangle lens of large aperture must be of very complex construction to correct for optical aberrations, which are worse at the edge of the field and when the edge of a large lens is used for image-forming. A long-focus lens of small aperture can be of very simple construction to attain comparable image quality: a doublet (two elements) will often suffice. Some older cameras were fitted with convertible lenses (German: <i><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Satzobjektiv</i></span></i>) of normal focal length. The front element could be unscrewed, leaving a lens of twice the focal length, and half the angle of view and half the aperture. The simpler half-lens was of adequate quality for the narrow angle of view and small relative aperture. This would require the <a href="/wiki/Bellows_(photography)" title="Bellows (photography)">bellows</a> had to be extended to twice the normal length. </p><p>Good-quality lenses with maximum aperture no greater than f/2.8 and fixed, normal, focal length need at least three (triplet) or four elements (the trade name "<a href="/wiki/Tessar" title="Tessar">Tessar</a>" derives from the <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> <i>tessera</i>, meaning "four"). The widest-range zooms often have fifteen or more. The reflection of light at each of the many interfaces between different optical media (air, glass, plastic) seriously degraded the <a href="/wiki/Contrast_(vision)" title="Contrast (vision)">contrast</a> and <a href="/wiki/Color_saturation" class="mw-redirect" title="Color saturation">color saturation</a> of early lenses, particularly zoom lenses, especially where the lens was directly illuminated by a light source. The introduction many years ago of optical coatings, and advances in coating technology over the years, have resulted in major improvements, and modern high-quality zoom lenses give images of quite acceptable contrast, although zoom lenses with many elements will transmit less light than lenses made with fewer elements (all other factors such as aperture, focal length, and coatings being equal).<sup id="cite_ref-google_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-google-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Lens_mounts">Lens mounts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Camera_lens&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Lens mounts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lens_mount" title="Lens mount">Lens mount</a></div> <p>Many <a href="/wiki/Single-lens_reflex_camera" title="Single-lens reflex camera">single-lens reflex cameras</a> and some <a href="/wiki/Rangefinder_camera" title="Rangefinder camera">rangefinder cameras</a> have detachable lenses. A few other types do as well, notably the Mamiya <a href="/wiki/Twin-lens_reflex_camera" title="Twin-lens reflex camera">TLR cameras</a> and SLR, medium format cameras (<a href="/wiki/Mamiya_RZ67" title="Mamiya RZ67">RZ67</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mamiya_RB67" title="Mamiya RB67">RB67</a>, 645-1000s)other companies that produce medium format equipment such as Bronica, Hasselblad and Fuji have similar camera styles that allow interchangeability in the lenses as well, and <a href="/wiki/Mirrorless_interchangeable-lens_camera" class="mw-redirect" title="Mirrorless interchangeable-lens camera">mirrorless interchangeable-lens cameras</a>. The lenses attach to the camera using a <b>lens mount</b>, which contains mechanical linkages and often also electrical contacts between the lens and camera body. </p><p>The lens mount design is an important issue for compatibility between cameras and lenses. There is no universal standard for lens mounts, and each major camera maker typically uses its own proprietary design, incompatible with other makers.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A few older manual focus lens mount designs, such as the Leica <a href="/wiki/M39_lens_mount" title="M39 lens mount">M39 lens mount</a> for rangefinders, <a href="/wiki/M42_lens_mount" title="M42 lens mount">M42 lens mount</a> for early SLRs, and the <a href="/wiki/Pentax_K_mount" class="mw-redirect" title="Pentax K mount">Pentax K mount</a> are found across multiple brands, but this is not common today. A few mount designs, such as the Olympus/Kodak <a href="/wiki/Four_Thirds_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Four Thirds System">Four Thirds System</a> mount for DSLRs, have also been licensed to other makers.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most large-format cameras take interchangeable lenses as well, which are usually mounted in a lensboard or on the front standard. </p><p>The most common interchangeable lens mounts on the market today include the Canon <a href="/wiki/Canon_EF_lens_mount" title="Canon EF lens mount">EF</a>, <a href="/wiki/EF-S" class="mw-redirect" title="EF-S">EF-S</a> and <a href="/wiki/Canon_EF-M_lens_mount" title="Canon EF-M lens mount">EF-M</a> autofocus lens mounts. Others include the Nikon <a href="/wiki/Nikon_F-mount" title="Nikon F-mount">F</a> manual and autofocus mounts, the <a href="/wiki/Olympus_Corporation" title="Olympus Corporation">Olympus</a>/<a href="/wiki/Kodak" title="Kodak">Kodak</a> Four Thirds and Olympus/Panasonic <a href="/wiki/Micro_Four_Thirds" class="mw-redirect" title="Micro Four Thirds">Micro Four Thirds</a> digital-only mounts, the <a href="/wiki/Pentax_K_mount" class="mw-redirect" title="Pentax K mount">Pentax K mount</a> and autofocus variants, the Sony <a href="/wiki/Minolta_A-mount" class="mw-redirect" title="Minolta A-mount">Alpha</a> mount (derived from the <a href="/wiki/Minolta_AF" class="mw-redirect" title="Minolta AF">Minolta</a> mount) and the Sony <a href="/wiki/Sony_NEX" class="mw-redirect" title="Sony NEX">E</a> digital-only mount. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_of_lenses">Types of lenses</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Camera_lens&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Types of lenses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id=""Close-up"_or_macro"><span id=".22Close-up.22_or_macro"></span>"Close-up" or macro</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Camera_lens&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: "Close-up" or macro"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A macro lens used in <a href="/wiki/Macro_photography" title="Macro photography">macro</a> or "close-up" photography (not to be confused with the compositional term <i><a href="/wiki/Close_up" class="mw-redirect" title="Close up">close up</a></i>) is any lens that produces an image on the focal plane (i.e., film or a digital sensor) that is one quarter of life size (1:4) to the same size (1:1) as the subject being imaged. There is no official standard to define a macro lens, usually a <a href="/wiki/Prime_lens" title="Prime lens">prime lens</a>, but a 1:1 ratio is, typically, considered "true" macro. Magnification from life size to larger is called "Micro" photography (2:1, 3:1 etc.). This configuration is generally used to image <i>close-up</i> very small subjects. A macro lens may be of any focal length, the actual focus length being determined by its practical use, considering magnification, the required ratio, access to the subject, and illumination considerations. It can be a special lens corrected optically for close up work or it can be any lens modified (with adapters or spacers, which are also known as "extension tubes".) to bring the focal plane "forward" for very close photography. Depending on the camera to subject distance and aperture, the depth-of-field can be very narrow, limiting the linear depth of the area that will be in focus. Lenses are usually stopped down to give a greater depth-of-field. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Zoom">Zoom</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Camera_lens&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Zoom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Zoom_lens" title="Zoom lens">Zoom lens</a></div> <p>Some lenses, called <b>zoom lenses</b>, have a focal length that varies as internal elements are moved, typically by rotating the barrel or pressing a button which activates an <a href="/wiki/Electric_motor" title="Electric motor">electric motor</a>. Commonly, the lens may zoom from moderate wide-angle, through normal, to moderate telephoto; or from normal to extreme telephoto. The zoom range is limited by manufacturing constraints; the ideal of a lens of large maximum aperture which will zoom from extreme wideangle to extreme telephoto is not attainable. Zoom lenses are widely used for small-format cameras of all types: still and cine cameras with fixed or interchangeable lenses. Bulk and price limit their use for larger film sizes. Motorized zoom lenses may also have the focus, iris, and other functions motorized. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Special-purpose">Special-purpose</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Camera_lens&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Special-purpose"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:24mm-tilt-lens.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/24mm-tilt-lens.jpg/220px-24mm-tilt-lens.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/24mm-tilt-lens.jpg/330px-24mm-tilt-lens.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/24mm-tilt-lens.jpg/440px-24mm-tilt-lens.jpg 2x" data-file-width="536" data-file-height="310" /></a><figcaption>A tilt/shift lens, set to its maximum degree of tilt relative to the camera body.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apochromat" title="Apochromat">Apochromat</a> (apo) lenses have added correction for <a href="/wiki/Chromatic_aberration" title="Chromatic aberration">chromatic aberration</a>.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Process_lens&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Process lens (page does not exist)">Process lenses</a> have extreme correction for aberrations of geometry (<a href="/wiki/Pincushion_distortion" class="mw-redirect" title="Pincushion distortion">pincushion distortion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barrel_distortion" class="mw-redirect" title="Barrel distortion">barrel distortion</a>) and are generally intended for use at a specific distance and at small aperture.</li> <li>Enlarger lenses are made to be used with <a href="/wiki/Photographic_enlarger" class="mw-redirect" title="Photographic enlarger">photographic enlargers</a> (specialised projectors), rather than cameras.</li> <li>Lenses for <a href="/wiki/Aerial_photography" title="Aerial photography">aerial photography</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tilt%E2%80%93shift_photography" title="Tilt–shift photography">Shift lens</a> allow the lens to be raised or lowered relative to the film of sensor plane to correct or exaggerate perspective distortion.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheye_lens" title="Fisheye lens">Fisheye lenses</a>: extreme wide-angle lenses with an angle of view of up to 180 degrees or more, with very noticeable (and intended) distortion.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereoscopy" title="Stereoscopy">Stereoscopic lenses</a>, to produce pairs of photographs which give a 3-dimensional effect when viewed with an appropriate viewer.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soft_focus" title="Soft focus">Soft-focus</a> lenses which give a soft, but not out-of-focus, image and have an imperfection-removing effect popular among portrait and fashion photographers.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrared_photography" title="Infrared photography">Infrared lenses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_photography" title="Ultraviolet photography">Ultraviolet lenses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swivel_lens" title="Swivel lens">Swivel lenses</a> rotate while attached to a camera body to give unique perspectives and camera angles.</li> <li>Shift lenses and tilt/shift lenses (collectively <a href="/wiki/Perspective_control_lens" class="mw-redirect" title="Perspective control lens">perspective control lenses</a>) allow special control of <a href="/wiki/Perspective_(visual)" class="mw-redirect" title="Perspective (visual)">perspective</a> on <a href="/wiki/Single-lens_reflex" class="mw-redirect" title="Single-lens reflex">SLR</a> cameras by mimicking <a href="/wiki/View_camera#Movements" title="View camera">view camera movements</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecentric_lens" title="Telecentric lens">telecentric lenses</a> (or orthographic lenses) make any object appear as the same size regardless of their distance from the lens.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_and_technical_development">History and technical development</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Camera_lens&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: History and technical development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_photographic_lens_design" title="History of photographic lens design">History of photographic lens design</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Lens_designs">Lens designs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Camera_lens&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Lens designs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leica_3_lens.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Leica_3_lens.jpg/220px-Leica_3_lens.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Leica_3_lens.jpg/330px-Leica_3_lens.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Leica_3_lens.jpg/440px-Leica_3_lens.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Collapsible <a href="/wiki/Leica_Camera" title="Leica Camera">Leica</a> rangefinder lens</figcaption></figure><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Photographic_lens_design" title="Photographic lens design">Photographic lens design</a></div> <p>Some notable photographic optical lens designs are: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angenieux_retrofocus" class="mw-redirect" title="Angenieux retrofocus">Angenieux retrofocus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooke_triplet" title="Cooke triplet">Cooke triplet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double-Gauss_lens" title="Double-Gauss lens">Double-Gauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goerz_(company)" title="Goerz (company)">Goerz Dagor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leica_Camera#Before_WWII" title="Leica Camera">Leitz Elmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapid_Rectilinear" title="Rapid Rectilinear">Rapid Rectilinear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeiss_Sonnar" title="Zeiss Sonnar">Zeiss Sonnar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeiss_Planar" title="Zeiss Planar">Zeiss Planar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeiss_Tessar" class="mw-redirect" title="Zeiss Tessar">Zeiss Tessar</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Camera_lens&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-fog" title="Anti-fog">Anti-fogging</a> treatment of optical surfaces</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_format_lens" title="Large format lens">Large format lens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lens_(optics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lens (optics)">Lens (optics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lens_hood" title="Lens hood">Lens hood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lens_cover" title="Lens cover">Lens cover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lenses_for_SLR_and_DSLR_cameras" title="Lenses for SLR and DSLR cameras">Lenses for SLR and DSLR cameras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_train" title="Optical train">Optical train</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleconverter" title="Teleconverter">Teleconverter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleside_converter" title="Teleside converter">Teleside converter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Taylor_(inventor)" title="William Taylor (inventor)">William Taylor (inventor)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Camera_lens&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">If the object is at a distance, one can assume the light rays will arrive perpendicular to the plane of the lens, and thus converge at the focal point.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-photonotes-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-photonotes_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140810223927/http://photonotes.org/cgi-bin/entry.pl?id=Floatingelement#">"PhotoNotes.org Dictionary – Floating element"</a>. photonotes.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://photonotes.org/cgi-bin/entry.pl?id=Floatingelement">the original</a> on 2014-08-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-10-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=PhotoNotes.org+Dictionary+%E2%80%93+Floating+element&rft.pub=photonotes.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphotonotes.org%2Fcgi-bin%2Fentry.pl%3Fid%3DFloatingelement&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+lens" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ukaoptics.com/uvquartz.html">"Ultraviolet Quartz Lenses"</a>. Universe Kogaku. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071125155248/http://www.ukaoptics.com/uvquartz.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2007-11-25<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-11-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ultraviolet+Quartz+Lenses&rft.pub=Universe+Kogaku&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ukaoptics.com%2Fuvquartz.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+lens" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090530072058/http://www.canon.com/camera-museum/tech/room/hotaru.html#">"Technical Room – Fluorite / UD / Super UD glass Lenses"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Canon_(company)" class="mw-redirect" title="Canon (company)">Canon</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.canon.com/camera-museum/tech/room/hotaru.html">the original</a> on 2009-05-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-11-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Technical+Room+%E2%80%93+Fluorite+%2F+UD+%2F+Super+UD+glass+Lenses&rft.pub=Canon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.canon.com%2Fcamera-museum%2Ftech%2Froom%2Fhotaru.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+lens" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cpn.canon-europe.com/content/education/infobank/lenses/fluorite_aspherical_and_ud_lenses.do">"Lenses: Fluorite, aspherical and UD lenses"</a>. <i>Canon Professional Network</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110814012805/http://cpn.canon-europe.com/content/education/infobank/lenses/fluorite_aspherical_and_ud_lenses.do">Archived</a> from the original on 2011-08-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-10-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Canon+Professional+Network&rft.atitle=Lenses%3A+Fluorite%2C+aspherical+and+UD+lenses&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcpn.canon-europe.com%2Fcontent%2Feducation%2Finfobank%2Flenses%2Ffluorite_aspherical_and_ud_lenses.do&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+lens" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGottermeier" class="citation web cs1">Gottermeier, Klaus. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.macrolenses.de/objektive_sl.php?lang">"The Macrolens Collection Database"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080117114550/http://www.macrolenses.de/objektive_sl.php?lang">Archived</a> from the original on 2008-01-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-11-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Macrolens+Collection+Database&rft.aulast=Gottermeier&rft.aufirst=Klaus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.macrolenses.de%2Fobjektive_sl.php%3Flang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+lens" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-luminous-landscape-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-luminous-landscape_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141025223233/http://www.luminous-landscape.com/tutorials/understanding-series/u-diffraction.shtml">"Understanding Lens Diffraction"</a>. luminous-landscape.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.luminous-landscape.com/tutorials/understanding-series/u-diffraction.shtml">the original</a> on 2014-10-25<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-10-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Understanding+Lens+Diffraction&rft.pub=luminous-landscape.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.luminous-landscape.com%2Ftutorials%2Funderstanding-series%2Fu-diffraction.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+lens" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-g-number-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-g-number_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDriggers2003" class="citation book cs1">Driggers, Ronald G. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rcrGlrguj1YC"><i>Encyclopedia of Optical Engineering: Pho-Z, pages 2049-3050</i></a>. CRC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8247-4252-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8247-4252-2"><bdi>978-0-8247-4252-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231027111815/https://books.google.com/books?id=rcrGlrguj1YC">Archived</a> from the original on 27 October 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Optical+Engineering%3A+Pho-Z%2C+pages+2049-3050&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8247-4252-2&rft.aulast=Driggers&rft.aufirst=Ronald+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrcrGlrguj1YC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+lens" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mir-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mir_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mir.com.my/rb/photography/hardwares/classics/eos/EF-lenses/EF2035mmf3545USM/index.htm">"Canon EF 20-35mm f/3.5~4.5 USM – Index Page"</a>. mir.com.my. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141025192929/http://mir.com.my/rb/photography/hardwares/classics/eos/EF-lenses/EF2035mmf3545USM/index.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2014-10-25<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-10-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Canon+EF+20-35mm+f%2F3.5~4.5+USM+%E2%80%93+Index+Page&rft.pub=mir.com.my&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mir.com.my%2Frb%2Fphotography%2Fhardwares%2Fclassics%2Feos%2FEF-lenses%2FEF2035mmf3545USM%2Findex.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+lens" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-google2-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-google2_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRay,_S.F.2002" class="citation book cs1">Ray, S.F. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cuzYl4hx-B8C"><i>Applied Photographic Optics: Lenses and Optical Systems for Photography, Film, Video, Electronic and Digital Imaging</i></a>. Focal. p. 294. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780240515403" title="Special:BookSources/9780240515403"><bdi>9780240515403</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-12-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Applied+Photographic+Optics%3A+Lenses+and+Optical+Systems+for+Photography%2C+Film%2C+Video%2C+Electronic+and+Digital+Imaging&rft.pages=294&rft.pub=Focal&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780240515403&rft.au=Ray%2C+S.F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcuzYl4hx-B8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+lens" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-worldfastest-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-worldfastest_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090309005033/http://ogiroux.blogspot.com/2008/06/worlds-fastest-lens-zeiss-50mm-f07.html">"Mutable Conclusions: World's fastest lens: Zeiss 50mm f/0.7"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ogiroux.blogspot.com/2008/06/worlds-fastest-lens-zeiss-50mm-f07.html">the original</a> on March 9, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-12-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Mutable+Conclusions%3A+World%27s+fastest+lens%3A+Zeiss+50mm+f%2F0.7.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fogiroux.blogspot.com%2F2008%2F06%2Fworlds-fastest-lens-zeiss-50mm-f07.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+lens" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Guy, 2012, p 43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-zeiss-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-zeiss_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zeiss.com/C12567A8003B58B9/allBySubject/B5283AEBBB27ADA3C1256A2B0037E175">"Hollywood, NASA, and the chip industry put their trust in Carl Zeiss"</a>. zeiss.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101001210723/http://www.zeiss.com/C12567A8003B58B9/allBySubject/B5283AEBBB27ADA3C1256A2B0037E175">Archived</a> from the original on 2010-10-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-12-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Hollywood%2C+NASA%2C+and+the+chip+industry+put+their+trust+in+Carl+Zeiss&rft.pub=zeiss.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.zeiss.com%2FC12567A8003B58B9%2FallBySubject%2FB5283AEBBB27ADA3C1256A2B0037E175&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+lens" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030624111149/http://www.contaxinfo.com/pdf_files/When_is_it_advisable_Zeiss_1979.pdf#">"Dr. J. Kämmerer «When is it advisable to improve the quality of camera lenses?» Excerpt from a lecture given during the Optics & Photography Symposium, Les Baux, 1979"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.contaxinfo.com/pdf_files/When_is_it_advisable_Zeiss_1979.pdf#">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2003-06-24<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-10-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dr.+J.+K%C3%A4mmerer+%C2%ABWhen+is+it+advisable+to+improve+the+quality+of+camera+lenses%3F%C2%BB+Excerpt+from+a+lecture+given+during+the+Optics+%26+Photography+Symposium%2C+Les+Baux%2C+1979&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.contaxinfo.com%2Fpdf_files%2FWhen_is_it_advisable_Zeiss_1979.pdf%23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+lens" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-google-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-google_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSuess,_B.J.2003" class="citation book cs1">Suess, B.J. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7LaRPNINH_YC"><i>Mastering Black-and-White Photography: From Camera to Darkroom</i></a>. Allworth Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781581153064" title="Special:BookSources/9781581153064"><bdi>9781581153064</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-10-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mastering+Black-and-White+Photography%3A+From+Camera+to+Darkroom&rft.pub=Allworth+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9781581153064&rft.au=Suess%2C+B.J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7LaRPNINH_YC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+lens" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Guy 2012, page 53</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Guy 2012, page 266</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Camera_lens&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKingslake1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Kingslake" title="Rudolf Kingslake">Kingslake, Rudolf</a> (1989). <i>A History of the Photographic Lens</i>. Boston: Academic Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-408640-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-408640-1"><bdi>978-0-12-408640-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Photographic+Lens&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-12-408640-1&rft.aulast=Kingslake&rft.aufirst=Rudolf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+lens" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuy2012" class="citation book cs1">Guy, N. K. (2012). <i>The Lens: A Practical Guide for the Creative Photographer</i>. Rocky Nook. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-933952-97-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-933952-97-0"><bdi>978-1-933952-97-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Lens%3A+A+Practical+Guide+for+the+Creative+Photographer&rft.pub=Rocky+Nook&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-933952-97-0&rft.aulast=Guy&rft.aufirst=N.+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+lens" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Camera_lens&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox 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href="/wiki/Template:Photography" title="Template:Photography"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Photography" title="Template talk:Photography"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Photography" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Photography"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Photography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Photography" title="Photography">Photography</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Camera" title="Camera">Camera</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Light_field_camera" title="Light field camera">light-field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_camera" title="Digital camera">digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_camera" title="Field camera">field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instant_camera" title="Instant camera">instant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camera_phone" title="Camera phone">phone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinhole_camera" title="Pinhole camera">pinhole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Press_camera" title="Press camera">press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rangefinder_camera" title="Rangefinder camera">rangefinder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-lens_reflex_camera" title="Single-lens reflex camera">SLR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camera" title="Camera">still</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twin-lens_reflex_camera" title="Twin-lens reflex camera">TLR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toy_camera" title="Toy camera">toy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/View_camera" title="View camera">view</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darkroom" title="Darkroom">Darkroom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enlarger" title="Enlarger">enlarger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safelight" title="Safelight">safelight</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_film" title="Photographic film">Film</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Film_base" title="Film base">base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film_format" title="Film format">format</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film_holder" title="Film holder">holder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film_stock" title="Film stock">stock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photographic_films" title="List of photographic films">available films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_discontinued_photographic_films" title="List of discontinued photographic films">discontinued films</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_filter" title="Photographic filter">Filter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_(photography)" title="Flash (photography)">Flash</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beauty_dish" title="Beauty dish">beauty dish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cucoloris" title="Cucoloris">cucoloris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gobo_(lighting)" title="Gobo (lighting)">gobo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot_shoe" title="Hot shoe">hot shoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lens_hood" title="Lens hood">lens hood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monolight" title="Monolight">monolight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflector_(photography)" title="Reflector (photography)">reflector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snoot" title="Snoot">snoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Softbox" title="Softbox">softbox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Lens</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Long-focus_lens" title="Long-focus lens">long-focus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_lens" title="Prime lens">prime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoom_lens" title="Zoom lens">zoom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wide-angle_lens" title="Wide-angle lens">wide-angle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheye_lens" title="Fisheye lens">fisheye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swivel_lens" title="Swivel lens">swivel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telephoto_lens" title="Telephoto lens">telephoto</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photographic_equipment_makers" title="List of photographic equipment makers">Manufacturers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopod" title="Monopod">Monopod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movie_projector" title="Movie projector">Movie projector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slide_projector" title="Slide projector">Slide projector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripod_(photography)" title="Tripod (photography)">Tripod</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tripod_head" title="Tripod head">head</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zone_plate" title="Zone plate">Zone plate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terminology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/35_mm_equivalent_focal_length" title="35 mm equivalent focal length">35 mm equivalent focal length</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angle_of_view_(photography)" title="Angle of view (photography)">Angle of view</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aperture" title="Aperture">Aperture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Backscatter_(photography)" title="Backscatter (photography)">Backscatter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black-and-white" title="Black-and-white">Black-and-white</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatic_aberration" title="Chromatic aberration">Chromatic aberration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circle_of_confusion" title="Circle of confusion">Circle of confusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clipping_(photography)" title="Clipping (photography)">Clipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_balance" title="Color balance">Color balance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_temperature" title="Color temperature">Color temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depth_of_field" title="Depth of field">Depth of field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depth_of_focus" title="Depth of focus">Depth of focus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposure_(photography)" title="Exposure (photography)">Exposure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposure_compensation" title="Exposure compensation">Exposure compensation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposure_value" title="Exposure value">Exposure value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zebra_patterning" title="Zebra patterning">Zebra patterning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-number" title="F-number">F-number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film_format" title="Film format">Film format</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Large_format" title="Large format">large</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medium_format" title="Medium format">medium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film_speed" title="Film speed">Film speed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Focal_length" title="Focal length">Focal length</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guide_number" title="Guide number">Guide number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperfocal_distance" title="Hyperfocal distance">Hyperfocal distance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lens_flare" title="Lens flare">Lens flare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metering_mode" title="Metering mode">Metering mode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perspective_distortion" title="Perspective distortion">Perspective distortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photograph" title="Photograph">Photograph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_printing" title="Photographic printing">Photographic printing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albumen_print" title="Albumen print">Albumen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photographic_processes" title="List of photographic processes">Photographic processes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocity_(photography)" title="Reciprocity (photography)">Reciprocity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red-eye_effect" title="Red-eye effect">Red-eye effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_of_photography" title="Science of photography">Science of photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shutter_speed" title="Shutter speed">Shutter speed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_synchronization" title="Flash synchronization">Sync</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zone_System" title="Zone System">Zone System</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Genres</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_photography" title="Abstract photography">Abstract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerial_photography" title="Aerial photography">Aerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_spotting" title="Aircraft spotting">Aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architectural_photography" title="Architectural photography">Architectural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrophotography" title="Astrophotography">Astrophotography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banquet_photography" title="Banquet photography">Banquet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candid_photography" title="Candid photography">Candid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptual_photography" title="Conceptual photography">Conceptual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_photography" title="Conservation photography">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloudscape_photography" title="Cloudscape photography">Cloudscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Documentary_photography" title="Documentary photography">Documentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eclipse_photography" title="Eclipse photography">Eclipse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_anthropology" title="Visual anthropology">Ethnographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erotic_photography" title="Erotic photography">Erotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashion_photography" title="Fashion photography">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fine-art_photography" title="Fine-art photography">Fine-art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_photography" title="Fire photography">Fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_photography" title="Forensic photography">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glamour_photography" title="Glamour photography">Glamour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-speed_photography" title="High-speed photography">High-speed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_photography" title="Landscape photography">Landscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monochrome_photography" title="Monochrome photography">Monochrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_photography" title="Nature photography">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neues_Sehen" title="Neues Sehen">Neues Sehen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nude_photography" title="Nude photography">Nude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photojournalism" title="Photojournalism">Photojournalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pictorialism" title="Pictorialism">Pictorialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pornography" title="Pornography">Pornography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portrait_photography" title="Portrait photography">Portrait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-mortem_photography" title="Post-mortem photography">Post-mortem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruins_photography" title="Ruins photography">Ruins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selfie" title="Selfie">Selfie</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_selfie" title="Space selfie">space selfie</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_documentary_photography" title="Social documentary photography">Social documentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_photography" title="Sports photography">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Still_life_photography" title="Still life photography">Still life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stock_photography" title="Stock photography">Stock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Straight_photography" title="Straight photography">Straight photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Street_photography" title="Street photography">Street</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toy_camera" title="Toy camera">Toy camera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_photography" title="Underwater photography">Underwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernacular_photography" title="Vernacular photography">Vernacular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wedding_photography" title="Wedding photography">Wedding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_photography" title="Wildlife photography">Wildlife</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afocal_photography" title="Afocal photography">Afocal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bokeh" title="Bokeh">Bokeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brenizer_method" title="Brenizer method">Brenizer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burst_mode_(photography)" title="Burst mode (photography)">Burst mode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contre-jour" title="Contre-jour">Contre-jour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposing_to_the_right" title="Exposing to the right">ETTR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fill_flash" title="Fill flash">Fill flash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fireworks_photography" title="Fireworks photography">Fireworks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand-colouring_of_photographs" title="Hand-colouring of photographs">Hand-colouring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harris_shutter" title="Harris shutter">Harris shutter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-speed_photography" title="High-speed photography">High-speed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holography" title="Holography">Holography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrared_photography" title="Infrared photography">Infrared</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intentional_camera_movement" title="Intentional camera movement">Intentional camera movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirlian_photography" title="Kirlian photography">Kirlian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kite_aerial_photography" title="Kite aerial photography">Kite aerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lo-fi_photography" title="Lo-fi photography">Lo-fi photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long-exposure_photography" title="Long-exposure photography">Long-exposure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luminogram" title="Luminogram">Luminogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macro_photography" title="Macro photography">Macro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mordan%C3%A7age" title="Mordançage">Mordançage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_exposure" title="Multiple exposure">Multiple exposure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-exposure_HDR_capture" title="Multi-exposure HDR capture">Multi-exposure HDR capture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night_photography" title="Night photography">Night</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panning_(camera)" title="Panning (camera)">Panning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panoramic_photography" title="Panoramic photography">Panoramic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photogram" title="Photogram">Photogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_print_toning" title="Photographic print toning">Print toning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigeon_photography" title="Pigeon photography">Pigeon photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redscale" title="Redscale">Redscale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rephotography" title="Rephotography">Rephotography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rollout_photography" title="Rollout photography">Rollout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scanography" title="Scanography">Scanography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schlieren_photography" title="Schlieren photography">Schlieren photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabattier_effect" title="Sabattier effect">Sabattier effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slow_motion" title="Slow motion">Slow motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereoscopy" title="Stereoscopy">Stereoscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stopping_down" title="Stopping down">Stopping down</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strip_photography" title="Strip photography">Strip</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slit-scan_photography" title="Slit-scan photography">Slit-scan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_printing" title="Sun printing">Sun printing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tilt%E2%80%93shift_photography" title="Tilt–shift photography">Tilt–shift</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Miniature_faking" title="Miniature faking">Miniature faking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time-lapse_photography" title="Time-lapse photography">Time-lapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_photography" title="Ultraviolet photography">Ultraviolet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vignetting" title="Vignetting">Vignetting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xerox_art" title="Xerox art">Xerography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoom_burst" title="Zoom burst">Zoom burst</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Composition_(visual_arts)" title="Composition (visual arts)">Composition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diagonal_method" title="Diagonal method">Diagonal method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Framing_(visual_arts)" title="Framing (visual arts)">Framing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Headroom_(photographic_framing)" title="Headroom (photographic framing)">Headroom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_room" title="Lead room">Lead room</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_thirds" title="Rule of thirds">Rule of thirds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicity_(photography)" title="Simplicity (photography)">Simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_triangle_(composition)" title="Golden triangle (composition)">Golden triangle (composition)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_photography" title="History of photography">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_photography_technology" title="Timeline of photography technology">Timeline of photography technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambrotype" title="Ambrotype">Ambrotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analog_photography" title="Analog photography">Analog photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autochrome_Lumi%C3%A8re" title="Autochrome Lumière">Autochrome Lumière</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Box_camera" title="Box camera">Box camera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calotype" title="Calotype">Calotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camera_obscura" title="Camera obscura">Camera obscura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daguerreotype" title="Daguerreotype">Daguerreotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dufaycolor" title="Dufaycolor">Dufaycolor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliography" title="Heliography">Heliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lippmann_plate" title="Lippmann plate">Lippmann plate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Painted_photography_backdrops" title="Painted photography backdrops">Painted photography backdrops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_and_the_law" title="Photography and the law">Photography and the law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_plate" title="Photographic plate">Glass plate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tintype" title="Tintype">Tintype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_arts" title="Visual arts">Visual arts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regional</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Albania" title="Photography in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Bangladesh" title="Photography in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Canada" title="Photography in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_China" title="Photography in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Denmark" title="Photography in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Greece" title="Photography in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_India" title="Photography in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Japan" title="Photography in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Korea" title="Photography in Korea">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Luxembourg" title="Photography in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Norway" title="Photography in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_the_Philippines" title="Photography in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Serbia" title="Photography in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Slovenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Photography in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Sudan" title="Photography in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Taiwan" title="Photography in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Turkey" title="Photography in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Ukraine" title="Photography in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_the_United_States" title="Photography in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Uzbekistan" title="Photography in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Vietnam" title="Photography in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Digital_photography" title="Digital photography">Digital photography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_camera" title="Digital camera">Digital camera</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_single-lens_reflex_camera" title="Digital single-lens reflex camera">D-SLR</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_digital_SLRs" title="Comparison of digital SLRs">comparison</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirrorless_camera" title="Mirrorless camera">MILC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_camera_back" title="Digital camera back">camera back</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digiscoping" title="Digiscoping">Digiscoping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_digital_and_film_photography" title="Comparison of digital and film photography">Comparison of digital and film photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film_scanner" title="Film scanner">Film scanner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Image_sensor" title="Image sensor">Image sensor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active-pixel_sensor" title="Active-pixel sensor">CMOS APS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charge-coupled_device" title="Charge-coupled device">CCD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-CCD_camera" title="Three-CCD camera">Three-CCD camera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foveon_X3_sensor" title="Foveon X3 sensor">Foveon X3 sensor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Image_sharing" title="Image sharing">Image sharing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pixel" title="Pixel">Pixel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Color_photography" title="Color photography">Color photography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Color_print_film" title="Color print film">Print film</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromogenic_print" title="Chromogenic print">Chromogenic print</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reversal_film" title="Reversal film">Reversal film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_management" title="Color management">Color management</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Color_space" title="Color space">color space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_color" title="Primary color">primary color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CMYK_color_model" title="CMYK color model">CMYK color model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RGB_color_model" title="RGB color model">RGB color model</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Photographic_processing" title="Photographic processing">Photographic<br />processing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bleach_bypass" title="Bleach bypass">Bleach bypass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C-41_process" title="C-41 process">C-41 process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collodion_process" title="Collodion process">Collodion process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross_processing" title="Cross processing">Cross processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyanotype" title="Cyanotype">Cyanotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_developer" title="Photographic developer">Developer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_image_processing" title="Digital image processing">Digital image processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dye_coupler" title="Dye coupler">Dye coupler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E-6_process" title="E-6 process">E-6 process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_fixer" title="Photographic fixer">Fixer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gelatin_silver_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Gelatin silver process">Gelatin silver process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gum_printing" title="Gum printing">Gum printing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instant_film" title="Instant film">Instant film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-14_process" title="K-14 process">K-14 process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Print_permanence" title="Print permanence">Print permanence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Push_processing" title="Push processing">Push processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stop_bath" title="Stop bath">Stop bath</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_photographs" title="List of largest photographs">Largest photographs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most_expensive_photographs" title="List of most expensive photographs">Most expensive photographs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_devoted_to_one_photographer" title="List of museums devoted to one photographer">Museums devoted to one photographer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photographs_considered_the_most_important" title="List of photographs considered the most important">Photographs considered the most important</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photographers" title="List of photographers">Photographers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Norwegian_photographers" title="List of Norwegian photographers">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Polish_photographers" title="List of Polish photographers">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_street_photographers" title="List of street photographers">street</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_women_photographers" title="List of women photographers">women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photography_periodicals" title="List of photography periodicals">Photography periodicals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_photographs" title="Conservation and restoration of photographs">Conservation and restoration of photographs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_film" title="Conservation and restoration of film">film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_photographic_plates" title="Conservation and restoration of photographic plates">photographic plates</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toy_camera#Lomography" title="Toy camera">Lomography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polaroid_art" title="Polaroid art">Polaroid art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereoscopy" title="Stereoscopy">Stereoscopy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Photography" title="Category:Photography">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_photography" title="Outline of photography">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output 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