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id="toc-Approaches_used_for_projections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Approaches_used_for_projections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Approaches used for projections </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Approaches_used_for_projections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Projections_for_the_21st_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Projections_for_the_21st_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Projections for the 21st century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Projections_for_the_21st_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Role_of_instability_processes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_of_instability_processes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.1 Role of instability processes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Role_of_instability_processes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-2100_sea_level_rise" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-2100_sea_level_rise"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Post-2100 sea level rise </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-2100_sea_level_rise-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Measurements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Measurements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Measurements </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Measurements-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Measurements subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Measurements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Satellites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Satellites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Satellites </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Satellites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tide_gauges" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tide_gauges"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Tide gauges </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tide_gauges-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Past_sea_level_rise" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Past_sea_level_rise"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Past sea level rise </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Past_sea_level_rise-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Causes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Causes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Causes </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Causes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Causes subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Causes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Effects_of_climate_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_of_climate_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Effects of climate change </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_of_climate_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ocean_heating" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ocean_heating"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Ocean heating </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ocean_heating-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ice_loss_on_the_Antarctic_continent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ice_loss_on_the_Antarctic_continent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Ice loss on the Antarctic continent </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ice_loss_on_the_Antarctic_continent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-East_Antarctica" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#East_Antarctica"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.1 East Antarctica </div> </a> <ul id="toc-East_Antarctica-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-West_Antarctica" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#West_Antarctica"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.2 West Antarctica </div> </a> <ul id="toc-West_Antarctica-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ice_sheet_loss_in_Greenland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ice_sheet_loss_in_Greenland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Ice sheet loss in Greenland </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ice_sheet_loss_in_Greenland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mountain_glacier_loss" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mountain_glacier_loss"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Mountain glacier loss </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mountain_glacier_loss-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sea_ice_loss" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sea_ice_loss"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Sea ice loss </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sea_ice_loss-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Changes_to_land_water_storage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Changes_to_land_water_storage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7 Changes to land water storage </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Changes_to_land_water_storage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Impacts </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Impacts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Impacts subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Impacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-On_people_and_societies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#On_people_and_societies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 On people and societies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-On_people_and_societies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-On_ecosystems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#On_ecosystems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 On ecosystems </div> </a> <ul id="toc-On_ecosystems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regional_variations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regional_variations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Regional variations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regional_variations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adaptation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adaptation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Adaptation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adaptation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-By_region" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_region"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 By region </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-By_region-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle By region subsection </button> <ul id="toc-By_region-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Africa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Asia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Australasia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Australasia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Australasia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Australasia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Central_and_South_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Central_and_South_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 Central and South America </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Central_and_South_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.5 Europe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-North_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.6 North America </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Island_nations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Island_nations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.7 Island nations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Island_nations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Sea level rise</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 49 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-49" aria-hidden="true" > 49 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seevlakstyging" title="Seevlakstyging – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Seevlakstyging" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B9_%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="ارتفاع منسوب البحار – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ارتفاع منسوب البحار" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C9%99niz_s%C9%99viyy%C9%99sinin_y%C3%BCks%C9%99lm%C9%99si" title="Dəniz səviyyəsinin yüksəlməsi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Dəniz səviyyəsinin yüksəlməsi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%B7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A0%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%BF" title="সমুদ্রপৃষ্ঠের উচ্চতাবৃদ্ধি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সমুদ্রপৃষ্ঠের উচ্চতাবৃদ্ধি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paglangkaw_kan_tubig_dagat" title="Paglangkaw kan tubig dagat – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Paglangkaw kan tubig dagat" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%98%E0%BD%9A%E0%BD%BC%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%84%E0%BD%BC%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A1%E0%BD%A2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A0%E0%BD%95%E0%BD%A2%E0%BC%8D" title="མཚོ་ངོས་ཡར་འཕར། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="མཚོ་ངོས་ཡར་འཕར།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pujada_del_nivell_del_mar" title="Pujada del nivell del mar – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Pujada del nivell del mar" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vzestup_hladiny_oce%C3%A1n%C5%AF" title="Vzestup hladiny oceánů – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Vzestup hladiny oceánů" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codi_lefel_y_m%C3%B4r" title="Codi lefel y môr – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Codi lefel y môr" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Havniveaustigning" title="Havniveaustigning – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Havniveaustigning" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meeresspiegelanstieg_seit_1850" title="Meeresspiegelanstieg seit 1850 – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Meeresspiegelanstieg seit 1850" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%86%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%B4%CE%BF%CF%82_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AC%CE%B8%CE%BC%CE%B7%CF%82_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%B8%CE%AC%CE%BB%CE%B1%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Άνοδος της στάθμης της θάλασσας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Άνοδος της στάθμης της θάλασσας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subida_del_nivel_del_mar" title="Subida del nivel del mar – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Subida del nivel del mar" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marnivela_levi%C4%9Do" title="Marnivela leviĝo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Marnivela leviĝo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itsas_mailaren_igoera" title="Itsas mailaren igoera – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Itsas mailaren igoera" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%B2%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B4_%D8%B3%D8%B7%D8%AD_%D8%A2%D8%A8_%D8%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%87%D8%A7" title="افزایش سطح آب دریاها – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="افزایش سطح آب دریاها" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89l%C3%A9vation_du_niveau_de_la_mer" title="Élévation du niveau de la mer – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Élévation du niveau de la mer" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athr%C3%BA_ar_leibh%C3%A9al_na_mara" title="Athrú ar leibhéal na mara – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Athrú ar leibhéal na mara" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%B4%EC%88%98%EB%A9%B4_%EC%83%81%EC%8A%B9" title="해수면 상승 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="해수면 상승" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tashin_matakin_teku" title="Tashin matakin teku – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Tashin matakin teku" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A8" title="समुद्र तल परिवर्तन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="समुद्र तल परिवर्तन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porast_razine_mora" title="Porast razine mora – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Porast razine mora" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nivelacenso_maraquala" title="Nivelacenso maraquala – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Nivelacenso maraquala" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tashin_matakin_teku" title="Tashin matakin teku – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Tashin matakin teku" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Igbo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenaikan_permukaan_laut" title="Kenaikan permukaan laut – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kenaikan permukaan laut" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aumento_del_livello_del_mare" title="Aumento del livello del mare – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" 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href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%86_%E0%B4%89%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%9A%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9A" title="സമുദ്രനിരപ്പിന്റെ ഉയർച്ച – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സമുദ്രനിരപ്പിന്റെ ഉയർച്ച" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenaikan_aras_laut" title="Kenaikan aras laut – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kenaikan aras laut" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D1%82%D2%AF%D0%B2%D1%88%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D3%A9%D1%81%D3%A9%D0%BB%D1%82" title="Далайн түвшний өсөлт – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Далайн түвшний өсөлт" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeespiegelstijging" title="Zeespiegelstijging – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Zeespiegelstijging" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E9%9D%A2%E4%B8%8A%E6%98%87" title="海面上昇 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="海面上昇" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Havniv%C3%A5endring" title="Havnivåendring – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Havnivåendring" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%B3%D9%85%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%AF_%D8%B3%D8%B7%D8%AD%DB%90_%D9%84%D9%88%DA%93%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C" title="د سمندر د سطحې لوړوالی – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د سمندر د سطحې لوړوالی" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zmienno%C5%9B%C4%87_poziomu_morza" title="Zmienność poziomu morza – Polish" lang="pl" 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class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deniz_seviyesinin_y%C3%BCkselmesi" title="Deniz seviyesinin yükselmesi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Deniz seviyesinin yükselmesi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%89%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D1%80%D1%96%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8F" title="Підвищення рівня моря – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Підвищення рівня моря" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%E1%BB%B1c_n%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Bc_bi%E1%BB%83n_d%C3%A2ng" 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class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Good_articles*" title="This is a good article. Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a good article. Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Rise in sea levels due to climate change</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the current and projected rise in the world's average sea level. For sea level rise in general, see <a href="/wiki/Past_sea_level" title="Past sea level">Past sea level</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Rising seas" redirects here. For the song, see <a href="/wiki/Rising_Seas_(song)" title="Rising Seas (song)">Rising Seas (song)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1880-_Global_average_sea_level_rise_(SLR)_-_annually.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/1880-_Global_average_sea_level_rise_%28SLR%29_-_annually.svg/300px-1880-_Global_average_sea_level_rise_%28SLR%29_-_annually.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/1880-_Global_average_sea_level_rise_%28SLR%29_-_annually.svg/450px-1880-_Global_average_sea_level_rise_%28SLR%29_-_annually.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/1880-_Global_average_sea_level_rise_%28SLR%29_-_annually.svg/600px-1880-_Global_average_sea_level_rise_%28SLR%29_-_annually.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="675" /></a><figcaption>The global average sea level has risen about 25 centimetres (9.8 in) since 1880.<a href="#cite_note-EPA_SLR_202207-1">[1]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Sea_surface_height_change_from_1992_to_2019.webm/300px--Sea_surface_height_change_from_1992_to_2019.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="300" height="169" data-durationhint="25" data-mwtitle="Sea_surface_height_change_from_1992_to_2019.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Sea_surface_height_change_from_1992_to_2019.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/49/Sea_surface_height_change_from_1992_to_2019.webm/Sea_surface_height_change_from_1992_to_2019.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/49/Sea_surface_height_change_from_1992_to_2019.webm/Sea_surface_height_change_from_1992_to_2019.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/49/Sea_surface_height_change_from_1992_to_2019.webm/Sea_surface_height_change_from_1992_to_2019.webm.1080p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Sea_surface_height_change_from_1992_to_2019.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9"" data-width="3840" data-height="2160" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/49/Sea_surface_height_change_from_1992_to_2019.webm/Sea_surface_height_change_from_1992_to_2019.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/49/Sea_surface_height_change_from_1992_to_2019.webm/Sea_surface_height_change_from_1992_to_2019.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/49/Sea_surface_height_change_from_1992_to_2019.webm/Sea_surface_height_change_from_1992_to_2019.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/49/Sea_surface_height_change_from_1992_to_2019.webm/Sea_surface_height_change_from_1992_to_2019.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video><figcaption> Sea surface height change from 1992 to 2019: Blue regions are where sea level has gone down, and orange/red regions are where sea level has risen (the visualization is based on satellite data).<a href="#cite_note-NASA2020-2">[2]</a></figcaption></figure> Between 1901 and 2018, the average <a href="/wiki/Sea_level" title="Sea level">sea level</a> rose by 15–25 cm (6–10 in), with an increase of 2.3 mm (0.091 in) per year since the 1970s.<a href="#cite_note-IPCC_AR6_WG1_Ch.9-3">[3]</a>: 1216  This was faster than the sea level had ever risen over at least the past 3,000 years.<a href="#cite_note-IPCC_AR6_WG1_Ch.9-3">[3]</a>: 1216  The rate accelerated to 4.62 mm (0.182 in)/yr for the decade 2013–2022.<a href="#cite_note-WMO_20230421-4">[4]</a> <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a> due to human activities is the main cause.<a href="#cite_note-IPCC_2021_WGI_SPM-5">[5]</a>: 5, 8  Between 1993 and 2018, melting <a href="/wiki/Ice_sheets" class="mw-redirect" title="Ice sheets">ice sheets</a> and <a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">glaciers</a> accounted for 44% of sea level rise, with another 42% resulting from <a href="/wiki/Thermal_expansion" title="Thermal expansion">thermal expansion</a> of <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WCRP2018-6">[6]</a>: 1576  Sea level rise lags behind changes in the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>'s temperature by decades, and sea level rise will therefore continue to accelerate between now and 2050 in response to warming that has already happened.<a href="#cite_note-us_nrc_2011_long_term_slr-7">[7]</a> What happens after that depends on future human <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">greenhouse gas emissions</a>. If there are very deep cuts in emissions, sea level rise would slow between 2050 and 2100. It could then reach by 2100 between 30 cm (1 ft) and <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style>1.0 m (3+1⁄3 ft) from now and approximately 60 cm (2 ft) to <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">130 cm (4+1⁄2 ft) from the 19th century. With high emissions it would instead accelerate further, and could rise by 50cm (1.6 ft) or even by 1.9 m (6.2 ft) by 2100.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-IPCC_2021_WGI_SPM-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-IPCC_AR6_WG1_Ch.9-3">[3]</a>: 1302  In the long run, sea level rise would amount to 2–3 m (7–10 ft) over the next 2000 years if warming stays to its current 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) over the pre-industrial past. It would be 19–22 metres (62–72 ft) if warming peaks at 5 °C (9.0 °F).<a href="#cite_note-IPCC_2021_WGI_SPM-5">[5]</a>: 21  Rising seas affect every coastal population on Earth.<a href="#cite_note-wg1-5-5-1-9">[9]</a> This can be through flooding, higher <a href="/wiki/Storm_surge" title="Storm surge">storm surges</a>, <a href="/wiki/King_tide" title="King tide">king tides</a>, and increased vulnerability to <a href="/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami">tsunamis</a>. There are many knock-on effects. They lead to loss of coastal <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystems</a> like <a href="/wiki/Mangroves" class="mw-redirect" title="Mangroves">mangroves</a>. <a href="/wiki/Crop_yield" title="Crop yield">Crop yields</a> may reduce because of <a href="/wiki/Freshwater_salinization" title="Freshwater salinization">increasing salt levels</a> in <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a> water. Damage to ports disrupts sea trade.<a href="#cite_note-IPCC-2001-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-Holder-2017-11">[11]</a> The sea level rise projected by 2050 will expose places currently inhabited by tens of millions of people to annual flooding. Without a sharp reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, this may increase to hundreds of millions in the latter decades of the century.<a href="#cite_note-Kulp2019-12">[12]</a> Local factors like <a href="/wiki/Tidal_range" title="Tidal range">tidal range</a> or land <a href="/wiki/Subsidence" title="Subsidence">subsidence</a> will greatly affect the severity of impacts. For instance, <a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea level rise in the United States">sea level rise in the United States</a> is likely to be two to three times greater than the global average by the end of the century.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-NOAA-2022-14">[14]</a> Yet, of the 20 countries with the greatest exposure to sea level rise, twelve are in <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a> and the Philippines.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter10-15">[15]</a> The resilience and <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">adaptive capacity</a> of ecosystems and countries also varies, which will result in more or less pronounced impacts.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> The greatest <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Effects of climate change on humans">impact on human populations</a> in the near term will occur in low-lying <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pacific_islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific islands">Pacific islands</a> including <a href="/wiki/Atolls" class="mw-redirect" title="Atolls">atolls</a>. Sea level rise will make many of them uninhabitable later this century.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter15-17">[17]</a> Societies can adapt to sea level rise in multiple ways. <a href="/wiki/Managed_retreat" title="Managed retreat">Managed retreat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coastal_management" title="Coastal management">accommodating coastal change</a>, or protecting against sea level rise through hard-construction practices like <a href="/wiki/Seawall" title="Seawall">seawalls</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> are hard approaches. There are also soft approaches such as <a href="/wiki/Sand_dune_stabilization" title="Sand dune stabilization">dune rehabilitation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Beach_nourishment" title="Beach nourishment">beach nourishment</a>. Sometimes these adaptation strategies go hand in hand. At other times choices must be made among different strategies.<a href="#cite_note-Thomsen-2012-19">[19]</a> Poorer nations may also struggle to implement the same approaches to adapt to sea level rise as richer states. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Observations">Observations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sea_level_rise&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Observations">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:20210125_The_Cryosphere_-_Floating_and_grounded_ice_-_imbalance_-_climate_change.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A graph showing ice loss sea ice, ice shelves and land ice. Land ice loss contributes to SLR" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/20210125_The_Cryosphere_-_Floating_and_grounded_ice_-_imbalance_-_climate_change.png/330px-20210125_The_Cryosphere_-_Floating_and_grounded_ice_-_imbalance_-_climate_change.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/20210125_The_Cryosphere_-_Floating_and_grounded_ice_-_imbalance_-_climate_change.png/495px-20210125_The_Cryosphere_-_Floating_and_grounded_ice_-_imbalance_-_climate_change.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/20210125_The_Cryosphere_-_Floating_and_grounded_ice_-_imbalance_-_climate_change.png/660px-20210125_The_Cryosphere_-_Floating_and_grounded_ice_-_imbalance_-_climate_change.png 2x" data-file-width="1889" data-file-height="1288" /></a><figcaption>Earth lost 28 trillion tonnes of ice between 1994 and 2017: ice sheets and glaciers raised the global sea level by 34.6 ± 3.1 mm. The rate of ice loss has risen by 57% since the 1990s − from 0.8 to 1.2 trillion tonnes per year.<a href="#cite_note-Cryosphere20210125-20">[20]</a></figcaption></figure>Between 1901 and 2018, the global mean sea level rose by about 20 cm (7.9 in).<a href="#cite_note-IPCC_2021_WGI_SPM-5">[5]</a> More precise data gathered from satellite <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a> measurements found an increase of 7.5 cm (3.0 in) from 1993 to 2017 (average of 2.9 mm (0.11 in)/yr).<a href="#cite_note-WCRP2018-6">[6]</a> This accelerated to 4.62 mm (0.182 in)/yr for 2013–2022.<a href="#cite_note-WMO_20230421-4">[4]</a> <a href="/wiki/Paleoclimate" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleoclimate">Paleoclimate</a> data shows that this rate of sea level rise is the fastest it had been over at least the past 3,000 years.<a href="#cite_note-IPCC_AR6_WG1_Ch.9-3">[3]</a>: 1216  While sea level rise is uniform around the globe, some land masses are moving up or down as a consequence of <a href="/wiki/Subsidence" title="Subsidence">subsidence</a> (land sinking or settling) or <a href="/wiki/Post-glacial_rebound" title="Post-glacial rebound">post-glacial rebound</a> (land rising as melting ice reduces weight). Therefore, local <a href="/wiki/Relative_sea_level" title="Relative sea level">relative sea level</a> rise may be higher or lower than the global average. Changing ice masses also affect the distribution of sea water around the globe through gravity.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-ipcc13-22">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Projections">Projections</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sea_level_rise&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Projections">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Approaches_used_for_projections">Approaches used for projections</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sea_level_rise&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Approaches used for projections">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slangen_2022_8_SLRs.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Slangen_2022_8_SLRs.jpg/330px-Slangen_2022_8_SLRs.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Slangen_2022_8_SLRs.jpg/495px-Slangen_2022_8_SLRs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Slangen_2022_8_SLRs.jpg/660px-Slangen_2022_8_SLRs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2128" data-file-height="1614" /></a><figcaption>Sea level rise for the low-emission, high-emission (RCP 8.5, lower left) and in-between scenarios according to the different approaches. Projections are very similar for low warming, but disagreement increases alongside the temperature<a href="#cite_note-Slangen2022-23">[23]</a></figcaption></figure> Several complementary approaches are used for sea level rise (SLR) projections.<a href="#cite_note-Slangen2022-23">[23]</a> One is process-based modeling, where ice melting is computed through an <a href="/wiki/Ice-sheet_model" title="Ice-sheet model">ice-sheet model</a> and rising sea temperature and expansion through a <a href="/wiki/General_circulation_model" title="General circulation model">general circulation model</a>, and then these contributions are added up.<a href="#cite_note-Moore2013-24">[24]</a> The so-called semi-empirical approach instead applies statistical techniques and basic physical modeling to the observed recent sea level rise and reconstructions from the older historical geological data (known as <a href="/wiki/Paleoclimate" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleoclimate">paleoclimate</a> modeling).<a href="#cite_note-Mengel2016-25">[25]</a> It was developed because process-based model projections in the past IPCC reports (such as the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Assessment_Report" class="mw-redirect" title="Fourth Assessment Report">Fourth Assessment Report</a> from 2007) were found to underestimate the already observed sea level rise.<a href="#cite_note-Moore2013-24">[24]</a> By 2013, improvements in modeling had addressed this issue, and model and semi-empirical projections for the year 2100 are now very similar.<a href="#cite_note-Moore2013-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-Slangen2022-23">[23]</a> Yet, semi-empirical estimates are reliant on the quality of available observations and struggle to represent non-linearities, while processes without enough available information about them cannot be modeled.<a href="#cite_note-Moore2013-24">[24]</a> Thus, another approach is to combine the opinions of a large number of scientists in what is known as a structured expert judgement (SEJ).<a href="#cite_note-Slangen2022-23">[23]</a> Variations of these primary approaches exist.<a href="#cite_note-Slangen2022-23">[23]</a> For instance, large climate models are computationally expensive, so less complex models are often used in their place for simpler tasks like projecting flood risk in the specific regions. A structured expert judgement may be used in combination with modeling to determine which outcomes are more or less likely, which is known as "shifted SEJ". Semi-empirical techniques can be combined with the so-called "intermediate-complexity" models.<a href="#cite_note-Slangen2022-23">[23]</a> After 2016, some ice sheet modeling exhibited the so-called ice cliff instability in Antarctica, which results in substantially faster disintegration and retreat than otherwise simulated.<a href="#cite_note-DeConto2016-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> The differences are limited with low warming, but at higher warming levels, ice cliff instability predicts far greater sea level rise than any other approach.<a href="#cite_note-Slangen2022-23">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Projections_for_the_21st_century">Projections for the 21st century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sea_level_rise&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Projections for the 21st century">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sea_level_history_and_projections.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Sea_level_history_and_projections.svg/300px-Sea_level_history_and_projections.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Sea_level_history_and_projections.svg/450px-Sea_level_history_and_projections.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Sea_level_history_and_projections.svg/600px-Sea_level_history_and_projections.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>Historical sea level reconstruction and projections up to 2100 published in 2017 by the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Global_Change_Research_Program" title="U.S. Global Change Research Program">U.S. Global Change Research Program</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NOAA-2017-28">[28]</a> RCPs are different scenarios for future concentrations of greenhouse gases.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a> is the largest and most influential scientific organization on climate change, and since 1990, it provides several plausible scenarios of 21st century sea level rise in each of its major reports. The differences between scenarios are mainly due to uncertainty about future <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gas</a> emissions. These depend on future economic developments, and also future political action which is hard to predict. Each scenario provides an estimate for sea level rise as a range with a lower and upper limit to reflect the unknowns. The scenarios in the 2013–2014 <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Assessment_Report" class="mw-redirect" title="Fifth Assessment Report">Fifth Assessment Report</a> (AR5) were called <a href="/wiki/Representative_Concentration_Pathway" title="Representative Concentration Pathway">Representative Concentration Pathways</a>, or RCPs and the scenarios in the <a href="/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">IPCC Sixth Assessment Report</a> (AR6) are known as <a href="/wiki/Shared_Socioeconomic_Pathways" title="Shared Socioeconomic Pathways">Shared Socioeconomic Pathways</a>, or SSPs. A large difference between the two was the addition of SSP1-1.9 to AR6, which represents meeting the best <a href="/wiki/Paris_climate_agreement" class="mw-redirect" title="Paris climate agreement">Paris climate agreement</a> goal of 1.5 °C (2.7 °F). In that case, the likely range of sea level rise by 2100 is <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">28–55 cm (11–21+1⁄2 in).<a href="#cite_note-IPCC_AR6_WG1_Ch.9-3">[3]</a>: 1302  <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kopp_2023_4_flows.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Kopp_2023_4_flows.png/300px-Kopp_2023_4_flows.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Kopp_2023_4_flows.png/450px-Kopp_2023_4_flows.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Kopp_2023_4_flows.png/600px-Kopp_2023_4_flows.png 2x" data-file-width="4077" data-file-height="1153" /></a><figcaption>For the 2021 IPCC report, three steps were taken to present a wider picture than the previous report (top left): state-of-the-art <a href="/wiki/Ice_sheet_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Ice sheet model">ice sheet model</a> projections from 2020 (lower left), research modeling the possibility of ice cliff instability (upper right) and combined expert projections of sea level rise from Greenland and Antarctica (lower right) were all considered before settling on the projections. Note that projections on the right use a larger scale, which ends at <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">2.5 m (8+1⁄3 ft) instead of 1.5 m (5 ft)<a href="#cite_note-Kopp2023-29">[29]</a> </figcaption></figure> The lowest scenario in AR5, RCP2.6, would see greenhouse gas emissions low enough to meet the goal of limiting warming by 2100 to 2 °C (3.6 °F). It shows sea level rise in 2100 of about 44 cm (17 in) with a range of 28–61 cm (11–24 in). The "moderate" scenario, where CO2 emissions take a decade or two to peak and its atmospheric concentration does not plateau until the 2070s is called RCP 4.5. Its likely range of sea level rise is 36–71 cm (14–28 in). The highest scenario in RCP8.5 pathway sea level would rise between <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">52 and 98 cm (20+1⁄2 and 38+1⁄2 in).<a href="#cite_note-ipcc13-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-CAT-30">[30]</a> AR6 had equivalents for both scenarios, but it estimated larger sea level rise under both. In AR6, the SSP1-2.6 pathway results in a range of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">32–62 cm (12+1⁄2–24+1⁄2 in) by 2100. The "moderate" SSP2-4.5 results in a <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">44–76 cm (17+1⁄2–30 in) range by 2100 and SSP5-8.5 led to <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">65–101 cm (25+1⁄2–40 in).<a href="#cite_note-IPCC_AR6_WG1_Ch.9-3">[3]</a>: 1302  This general increase of projections in AR6 came after the improvements in ice-sheet modeling and the incorporation of structured expert judgements.<a href="#cite_note-Kopp2023-29">[29]</a> These decisions came as the observed ice-sheet erosion <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Arctic" title="Climate change in the Arctic">in Greenland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Antarctica" title="Climate change in Antarctica">Antarctica</a> had matched the upper-end range of the AR5 projections by 2020,<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-Slater-2020-32">[32]</a> and the finding that AR5 projections were likely too slow next to an extrapolation of observed sea level rise trends, while the subsequent reports had improved in this regard.<a href="#cite_note-Grinsted-2021-33">[33]</a> Further, AR5 was criticized by multiple researchers for excluding detailed estimates the impact of "low-confidence" processes like marine ice sheet and marine ice cliff instability,<a href="#cite_note-pmid30013142-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pollard2015-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hansen2016-36">[36]</a> which can substantially accelerate ice loss to potentially add "tens of centimeters" to sea level rise within this century.<a href="#cite_note-ipcc13-22">[22]</a> AR6 includes a version of SSP5-8.5 where these processes take place, and in that case, sea level rise of up to <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">1.6 m (5+1⁄3 ft) by 2100 could not be ruled out.<a href="#cite_note-IPCC_AR6_WG1_Ch.9-3">[3]</a>: 1302  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Role_of_instability_processes">Role of instability processes</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sea_level_rise&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Role of instability processes">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zhang_2022_MISI_and_MICI.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Zhang_2022_MISI_and_MICI.png/310px-Zhang_2022_MISI_and_MICI.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Zhang_2022_MISI_and_MICI.png/465px-Zhang_2022_MISI_and_MICI.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Zhang_2022_MISI_and_MICI.png/620px-Zhang_2022_MISI_and_MICI.png 2x" data-file-width="1533" data-file-height="968" /></a><figcaption>The stages of marine ice sheet (top) and marine ice cliff (bottom) instabilities. Dashed lines show that the retreat would be much more rapid if ice cliff instability were applicable <a href="#cite_note-Zhang2022-37">[37]</a></figcaption></figure> The greatest uncertainty with sea level rise projections is associated with the so-called <a href="/wiki/Marine_ice_sheet_instability" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine ice sheet instability">marine ice sheet instability</a> (MISI), and, even more so, Marine Ice Cliff Instability (MICI).<a href="#cite_note-Robel2019-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-IPCC_AR6_WG1_Ch.9-3">[3]</a>: 1302  These processes are mainly associated with West Antarctic Ice Sheet, but may also apply to some of Greenland's glaciers.<a href="#cite_note-Zhang2022-37">[37]</a> The former suggests that when glaciers are mostly underwater on retrograde (backwards-sloping) bedrock, the water melts more and more of their height as their retreat continues, thus accelerating their breakdown on its own. This is widely accepted, but is difficult to model.<a href="#cite_note-Robel2019-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zhang2022-37">[37]</a> The latter posits that coastal ice cliffs which exceed ~<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">90 m (295+1⁄2 ft) in above-ground height and are ~<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">800 m (2,624+1⁄2 ft) in basal (underground) height are likely to rapidly collapse under their own weight once the <a href="/wiki/Ice_shelf" title="Ice shelf">ice shelves</a> propping them up are gone.<a href="#cite_note-Zhang2022-37">[37]</a> The collapse then exposes the ice masses following them to the same instability, potentially resulting in a self-sustaining cycle of cliff collapse and rapid ice sheet retreat.<a href="#cite_note-Pollard2015-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pattyn_2018-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> This theory had been highly influential – in a 2020 survey of 106 experts, the 2016 paper which suggested <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">1 m (3+1⁄2 ft) or more of sea level rise by 2100 from Antarctica alone,<a href="#cite_note-DeConto2016-26">[26]</a> was considered even more important than the 2014 <a href="/wiki/IPCC_Fifth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Fifth Assessment Report">IPCC Fifth Assessment Report</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Horton2020-41">[41]</a> Even more rapid sea level rise was proposed in a 2016 study led by <a href="/wiki/Jim_Hansen" class="mw-redirect" title="Jim Hansen">Jim Hansen</a>, which hypothesized multi-meter sea level rise in 50–100 years as a plausible outcome of high emissions,<a href="#cite_note-Hansen2016-36">[36]</a> but it remains a minority view amongst the scientific community.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Schlemm_2022_MICI_embayment.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Schlemm_2022_MICI_embayment.png/310px-Schlemm_2022_MICI_embayment.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Schlemm_2022_MICI_embayment.png/465px-Schlemm_2022_MICI_embayment.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Schlemm_2022_MICI_embayment.png/620px-Schlemm_2022_MICI_embayment.png 2x" data-file-width="760" data-file-height="473" /></a><figcaption>If MICI can occur, the structure of the glacier <a href="/wiki/Embayment" class="mw-redirect" title="Embayment">embayment</a> (viewed from the top) would do a lot to determine how quickly it may proceed<a href="#cite_note-Schlemm2022-43">[43]</a></figcaption></figure> Marine ice cliff instability had also been very controversial, since it was proposed as a modelling exercise,<a href="#cite_note-Zhang2022-37">[37]</a> and the observational evidence from both the past and the present is very limited and ambiguous.<a href="#cite_note-Gilford2020-44">[44]</a> So far, only one episode of <a href="/wiki/Seabed_gouging_by_ice" title="Seabed gouging by ice">seabed gouging by ice</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Younger_Dryas" title="Younger Dryas">Younger Dryas</a> period appears truly consistent with this theory,<a href="#cite_note-Wise2017-45">[45]</a> but it had lasted for an estimated 900 years,<a href="#cite_note-Wise2017-45">[45]</a> so it is unclear if it supports rapid sea level rise in the present.<a href="#cite_note-Gilford2020-44">[44]</a> Modelling which investigated the hypothesis after 2016 often suggested that the ice shelves in the real world may collapse too slowly to make this scenario relevant,<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> or that <a href="/wiki/Ice_m%C3%A9lange" title="Ice mélange">ice mélange</a> – debris produced as the glacier breaks down – would quickly build up in front of the glacier and significantly slow or even outright stop the instability soon after it began.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-Schlemm2022-43">[43]</a> Due to these uncertainties, some scientists – including the originators of the hypothesis, Robert DeConto and David Pollard – have suggested that the best way to resolve the question would be to precisely determine sea level rise during the <a href="/wiki/Last_Interglacial" title="Last Interglacial">Last Interglacial</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gilford2020-44">[44]</a> MICI can be effectively ruled out if SLR at the time was lower than 4 m (13 ft), while it is very likely if the SLR was greater than <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">6 m (19+1⁄2 ft).<a href="#cite_note-Gilford2020-44">[44]</a> As of 2023, the most recent analysis indicates that the Last Interglacial SLR is unlikely to have been higher than 2.7 m (9 ft),<a href="#cite_note-Dumitru2023-50">[50]</a> as higher values in other research, such as <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">5.7 m (18+1⁄2 ft),<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> appear inconsistent with the new <a href="/wiki/Paleoclimate" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleoclimate">paleoclimate</a> data from <a href="/wiki/The_Bahamas" title="The Bahamas">The Bahamas</a> and the known history of the Greenland Ice Sheet.<a href="#cite_note-Dumitru2023-50">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-2100_sea_level_rise">Post-2100 sea level rise</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sea_level_rise&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Post-2100 sea level rise">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1900-2300_Long-term_projections_of_sea_level_rise.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/1900-2300_Long-term_projections_of_sea_level_rise.svg/300px-1900-2300_Long-term_projections_of_sea_level_rise.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/1900-2300_Long-term_projections_of_sea_level_rise.svg/450px-1900-2300_Long-term_projections_of_sea_level_rise.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/1900-2300_Long-term_projections_of_sea_level_rise.svg/600px-1900-2300_Long-term_projections_of_sea_level_rise.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="675" /></a><figcaption>If countries cut greenhouse gas emissions significantly (lowest trace), sea level rise by 2100 will be limited to 0.3 to 0.6 meters (1–2 feet).<a href="#cite_note-NASA_SLR_2021-52">[52]</a> However, in a worst-case scenario (top trace), sea levels could rise 5 meters (16 feet) by the year 2300.<a href="#cite_note-NASA_SLR_2021-52">[52]</a></figcaption></figure> Even if the temperature stabilizes, significant sea-level rise (SLR) will continue for centuries,<a href="#cite_note-nrccon-53">[53]</a> consistent with <a href="/wiki/Proxy_(climate)" title="Proxy (climate)">paleo records</a> of sea level rise.<a href="#cite_note-ipcc13-22">[22]</a>: 1189  This is due to the high level of inertia in the carbon cycle and the climate system, owing to factors such as the slow diffusion of heat into the <a href="/wiki/Ocean_temperature#Deep_ocean_temperature" title="Ocean temperature">deep ocean</a>, leading to a longer climate response time.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> A 2018 paper estimated that sea level rise in 2300 would increase by a median of 20 cm (8 in) for every five years CO2 emissions increase before peaking. It shows a 5% likelihood of a <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">1 m (3+1⁄2 ft) increase due to the same. The same estimate found that if the temperature stabilized below 2 °C (3.6 °F), 2300 sea level rise would still exceed 1.5 m (5 ft). Early <a href="/wiki/Net_zero" class="mw-redirect" title="Net zero">net zero</a> and slowly falling temperatures could limit it to <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">70–120 cm (27+1⁄2–47 in).<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> By 2021, the <a href="/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">IPCC Sixth Assessment Report</a> was able to provide estimates for sea level rise in 2150. Keeping warming to 1.5 °C under the SSP1-1.9 scenario would result in sea level rise in the 17–83% range of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">37–86 cm (14+1⁄2–34 in). In the SSP1-2.6 pathway the range would be 46–99 cm (18–39 in), for SSP2-4.5 a <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">66–133 cm (26–52+1⁄2 in) range by 2100 and for SSP5-8.5 a rise of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">98–188 cm (38+1⁄2–74 in). It stated that the "low-confidence, high impact" projected 0.63–1.60 m (2–5 ft) mean sea level rise by 2100, and that by 2150, the total sea level rise in his scenario would be in the range of 0.98–4.82 m (3–16 ft) by 2150.<a href="#cite_note-IPCC_AR6_WG1_Ch.9-3">[3]</a>: 1302  AR6 also provided lower-confidence estimates for year 2300 sea level rise under SSP1-2.6 and SSP5-8.5 with various impact assumptions. In the best case scenario, under SSP1-2.6 with no ice sheet acceleration after 2100, the estimate was only 0.8–2.0 metres (2.6–6.6 ft). In the worst estimated scenario, SSP-8.5 with ice cliff instability, the projected range for total sea level rise was 9.5–16.2 metres (31–53 ft) by the year 2300.<a href="#cite_note-IPCC_AR6_WG1_Ch.9-3">[3]</a>: 1306  Projections for subsequent years are more difficult. In 2019, when 22 experts on ice sheets were asked to estimate 2200 and 2300 SLR under the 5 °C warming scenario, there were 90% <a href="/wiki/Confidence_interval" title="Confidence interval">confidence intervals</a> of −10 cm (4 in) to <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">740 cm (24+1⁄2 ft) and −<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">9 cm (3+1⁄2 in) to 970 cm (32 ft), respectively. (Negative values represent the extremely low probability of large climate change-induced increases in <a href="/wiki/Precipitation" title="Precipitation">precipitation</a> greatly elevating ice sheet <a href="/wiki/Surface_mass_balance" class="mw-redirect" title="Surface mass balance">surface mass balance</a>.)<a href="#cite_note-PNAS22-56">[56]</a> In 2020, 106 experts who contributed to 6 or more papers on sea level estimated median <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">118 cm (46+1⁄2 in) SLR in the year 2300 for the low-warming RCP2.6 scenario and the median of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">329 cm (129+1⁄2 in) for the high-warming RCP8.5. The former scenario had the 5%–95% confidence range of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">24–311 cm (9+1⁄2–122+1⁄2 in), and the latter of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">88–783 cm (34+1⁄2–308+1⁄2 in).<a href="#cite_note-Horton2020-41">[41]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:6m_Sea_Level_Rise.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A map showing major SLR impact in south-east Asia, Northern Europe and the East Coast of the US" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/6m_Sea_Level_Rise.jpg/300px-6m_Sea_Level_Rise.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/6m_Sea_Level_Rise.jpg/450px-6m_Sea_Level_Rise.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/6m_Sea_Level_Rise.jpg/600px-6m_Sea_Level_Rise.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Map of the Earth with a long-term 6-metre (20 ft) sea level rise represented in red (uniform distribution, actual sea level rise will vary regionally and <a href="#Adaptation">local adaptation measures</a> will also have an effect on local sea levels).</figcaption></figure> After 500 years, sea level rise from thermal expansion alone may have reached only half of its eventual level - likely within ranges of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">0.5–2 m (1+1⁄2–6+1⁄2 ft).<a href="#cite_note-solomon-57">[57]</a> Additionally, <a href="/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">tipping points</a> of Greenland and Antarctica ice sheets are likely to play a larger role over such timescales.<a href="#cite_note-Pattyn-2018-58">[58]</a> Ice loss from <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a> is likely to dominate very long-term SLR, especially if the warming exceeds 2 °C (3.6 °F). Continued carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel sources could cause additional tens of metres of sea level rise, over the next millennia.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Burning of all fossil fuels on Earth is sufficient to melt the entire Antarctic ice sheet, causing about 58 m (190 ft) of sea level rise.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> Year 2021 IPCC estimates for the amount of sea level rise over the next 2,000 years project that: <ul><li>At a warming peak of 1.5 °C (2.7 °F), global sea levels would rise <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">2–3 m (6+1⁄2–10 ft)</li> <li>At a warming peak of 2 °C (3.6 °F), sea levels would rise <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">2–6 m (6+1⁄2–19+1⁄2 ft)</li> <li>At a warming peak of 5 °C (9.0 °F), sea levels would rise <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">19–22 m (62+1⁄2–72 ft)<a href="#cite_note-IPCC_2021_WGI_SPM-5">[5]</a>: SPM-21 </li></ul> Sea levels would continue to rise for several thousand years after the ceasing of emissions, due to the slow nature of climate response to heat. The same estimates on a timescale of 10,000 years project that: <ul><li>At a warming peak of 1.5 °C (2.7 °F), global sea levels would rise <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">6–7 m (19+1⁄2–23 ft)</li> <li>At a warming peak of 2 °C (3.6 °F), sea levels would rise <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">8–13 m (26–42+1⁄2 ft)</li> <li>At a warming peak of 5 °C (9.0 °F), sea levels would rise <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">28–37 m (92–121+1⁄2 ft)<a href="#cite_note-IPCC_AR6_WG1_Ch.9-3">[3]</a>: 1306 </li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Measurements">Measurements</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sea_level_rise&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Measurements">edit</a>]</div> Variations in the amount of water in the oceans, changes in its volume, or varying land elevation compared to the sea surface can drive sea level changes. Over a consistent time period, assessments can attribute contributions to sea level rise and provide early indications of change in trajectory. This helps to inform adaptation plans.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> The different techniques used to measure changes in sea level do not measure exactly the same level. Tide gauges can only measure relative sea level. <a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">Satellites</a> can also measure absolute sea level changes.<a href="#cite_note-Rovere-2016-2-62">[62]</a> To get precise measurements for sea level, researchers studying the ice and oceans factor in ongoing <a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">deformations of the solid Earth</a>. They look in particular at <a href="/wiki/Glacial_isostatic_adjustment" class="mw-redirect" title="Glacial isostatic adjustment">landmasses still rising from past ice masses retreating</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Gravity_of_Earth" title="Gravity of Earth">Earth's gravity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_rotation" title="Earth's rotation">rotation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WCRP2018-6">[6]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Satellites">Satellites</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sea_level_rise&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Satellites">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TOPEX-JasonSeries2008.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/TOPEX-JasonSeries2008.jpg/310px-TOPEX-JasonSeries2008.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/TOPEX-JasonSeries2008.jpg/465px-TOPEX-JasonSeries2008.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/TOPEX-JasonSeries2008.jpg/620px-TOPEX-JasonSeries2008.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jason-1" title="Jason-1">Jason-1</a> continued the sea surface measurements started by TOPEX/Poseidon. It was followed by the <a href="/wiki/Ocean_Surface_Topography_Mission" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean Surface Topography Mission">Ocean Surface Topography Mission</a> on <a href="/wiki/Jason-2" class="mw-redirect" title="Jason-2">Jason-2</a>, and by <a href="/wiki/Jason-3" title="Jason-3">Jason-3</a>.</figcaption></figure> Since the launch of <a href="/wiki/TOPEX/Poseidon" title="TOPEX/Poseidon">TOPEX/Poseidon</a> in 1992, an overlapping series of <a href="/wiki/Satellite_geodesy#Altimetry" title="Satellite geodesy">altimetric satellites</a> has been continuously recording the sea level and its changes.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> These satellites can measure the hills and valleys in the sea caused by currents and detect trends in their height. To measure the distance to the sea surface, the satellites send a microwave pulse towards Earth and record the time it takes to return after reflecting off the ocean's surface. <a href="/wiki/Microwave_radiometer" title="Microwave radiometer">Microwave radiometers</a> correct the additional delay caused by <a href="/wiki/Water_vapor" title="Water vapor">water vapor</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a>. Combining these data with the location of the spacecraft determines the sea-surface height to within a few centimetres.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> These satellite measurements have estimated rates of sea level rise for 1993–2017 at <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">3.0 ± 0.4 millimetres (1⁄8 ± 1⁄64 in) per year.<a href="#cite_note-Nerem-2018-65">[65]</a> Satellites are useful for measuring regional variations in sea level. An example is the substantial rise between 1993 and 2012 in the western tropical Pacific. This sharp rise has been linked to increasing <a href="/wiki/Trade_winds" title="Trade winds">trade winds</a>. These occur when the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Decadal_Oscillation" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific Decadal Oscillation">Pacific Decadal Oscillation</a> (PDO) and the <a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation" title="El Niño–Southern Oscillation">El Niño–Southern Oscillation</a> (ENSO) change from one state to the other.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> The PDO is a basin-wide climate pattern consisting of two phases, each commonly lasting 10 to 30 years. The ENSO has a shorter period of 2 to 7 years.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tide_gauges">Tide gauges</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sea_level_rise&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Tide gauges">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sea_level_change_1993_to_2018.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Sea_level_change_1993_to_2018.jpg/310px-Sea_level_change_1993_to_2018.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Sea_level_change_1993_to_2018.jpg/465px-Sea_level_change_1993_to_2018.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Sea_level_change_1993_to_2018.jpg/620px-Sea_level_change_1993_to_2018.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1258" /></a><figcaption>Between 1993 and 2018, the mean sea level has risen across most of the world ocean (blue colors).<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a></figcaption></figure> The global network of <a href="/wiki/Tide_gauge" title="Tide gauge">tide gauges</a> is the other important source of sea-level observations. Compared to the satellite record, this record has major spatial gaps but covers a much longer period.<a href="#cite_note-Rhein-2013-69">[69]</a> Coverage of tide gauges started mainly in the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Hemisphere" title="Northern Hemisphere">Northern Hemisphere</a>. Data for the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Hemisphere" title="Southern Hemisphere">Southern Hemisphere</a> remained scarce up to the 1970s.<a href="#cite_note-Rhein-2013-69">[69]</a> The longest running sea-level measurements, NAP or <a href="/wiki/Amsterdam_Ordnance_Datum" title="Amsterdam Ordnance Datum">Amsterdam Ordnance Datum</a> were established in 1675, in <a href="/wiki/Amsterdam" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> Record collection is also extensive in <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>. They include measurements by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Lempriere" title="Thomas Lempriere">Thomas Lempriere</a>, an amateur meteorologist, beginning in 1837. Lempriere established a sea-level benchmark on a small cliff on the <a href="/wiki/Isle_of_the_Dead_(Tasmania)" title="Isle of the Dead (Tasmania)">Isle of the Dead</a> near the <a href="/wiki/Port_Arthur,_Tasmania" title="Port Arthur, Tasmania">Port Arthur</a> convict settlement in 1841.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> Together with satellite data for the period after 1992, this network established that global mean sea level rose 19.5 cm (7.7 in) between 1870 and 2004 at an average rate of about 1.44 mm/yr. (For the 20th century the average is 1.7 mm/yr.)<a href="#cite_note-church2-72">[72]</a> By 2018, data collected by Australia's <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Scientific_and_Industrial_Research_Organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation">Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation</a> (CSIRO) had shown that the global mean sea level was rising by <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">3.2 mm (1⁄8 in) per year. This was double the average 20th century rate.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> The 2023 <a href="/wiki/World_Meteorological_Organization" title="World Meteorological Organization">World Meteorological Organization</a> report found further acceleration to 4.62 mm/yr over the 2013–2022 period.<a href="#cite_note-WMO_20230421-4">[4]</a> These observations help to check and verify predictions from climate change simulations. Regional differences are also visible in the tide gauge data. Some are caused by local sea level differences. Others are due to vertical land movements. In <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>, only some land areas are rising while the others are sinking. Since 1970, most tidal stations have measured higher seas. However sea levels along the northern <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a> have dropped due to <a href="/wiki/Post-glacial_rebound" title="Post-glacial rebound">post-glacial rebound</a>.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Past_sea_level_rise">Past sea level rise</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sea_level_rise&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Past sea level rise">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Past_sea_level" title="Past sea level">Past sea level</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sea_level#Change" title="Sea level">Sea level § Change</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Marine_transgression" title="Marine transgression">Marine transgression</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Post-Glacial_Sea_Level.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Post-Glacial_Sea_Level.png/330px-Post-Glacial_Sea_Level.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Post-Glacial_Sea_Level.png/495px-Post-Glacial_Sea_Level.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Post-Glacial_Sea_Level.png/660px-Post-Glacial_Sea_Level.png 2x" data-file-width="1813" data-file-height="1088" /></a><figcaption> Changes in sea levels since the end of the <a href="/wiki/Last_glacial_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Last glacial period">last glacial episode</a></figcaption></figure>An understanding of <a href="/wiki/Past_sea_level" title="Past sea level">past sea level</a> is an important guide to where current changes in sea level will end up. In the recent geological past, thermal expansion from increased temperatures and changes in land ice are the dominant reasons of sea level rise. The last time that the Earth was 2 °C (3.6 °F) warmer than pre-industrial temperatures was 120,000 years ago. This was when warming due to <a href="/wiki/Milankovitch_cycles" title="Milankovitch cycles">Milankovitch cycles</a> (changes in the amount of sunlight due to slow changes in the Earth's orbit) caused the <a href="/wiki/Eemian" class="mw-redirect" title="Eemian">Eemian</a> <a href="/wiki/Interglacial" title="Interglacial">interglacial</a>. Sea levels during that warmer interglacial were at least 5 m (16 ft) higher than now.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> The Eemian warming was sustained over a period of thousands of years. The size of the rise in sea level implies a large contribution from the Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets.<a href="#cite_note-ipcc13-22">[22]</a>: 1139  Levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide of around 400 <a href="/wiki/Parts_per_million" class="mw-redirect" title="Parts per million">parts per million</a> (similar to 2000s) had increased temperature by over 2–3 °C (3.6–5.4 °F) around three million years ago. This temperature increase eventually melted one third of Antarctica's ice sheet, causing sea levels to rise 20 meters above the preindustrial levels.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Since the <a href="/wiki/Last_Glacial_Maximum" title="Last Glacial Maximum">Last Glacial Maximum</a>, about 20,000 years ago, sea level has risen by more than 125 metres (410 ft). Rates vary from less than 1 mm/year during the pre-industrial era to 40+ mm/year when major ice sheets over Canada and Eurasia melted. <a href="/wiki/Meltwater_pulse_1A" title="Meltwater pulse 1A">Meltwater pulses</a> are periods of fast sea level rise caused by the rapid disintegration of these ice sheets. The rate of sea level rise started to slow down about 8,200 years before today. Sea level was almost constant for the last 2,500 years. The recent trend of rising sea level started at the end of the 19th or beginning of the 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes">Causes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sea_level_rise&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Causes">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kopp_2023_4_contributions.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Kopp_2023_4_contributions.png/300px-Kopp_2023_4_contributions.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Kopp_2023_4_contributions.png/450px-Kopp_2023_4_contributions.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Kopp_2023_4_contributions.png/600px-Kopp_2023_4_contributions.png 2x" data-file-width="2067" data-file-height="1624" /></a><figcaption>The main contributors to sea level rise, and how much they are expected to add by the end of the century under the low-emission scenario ("SSP1-2.6") and the high-emission scenario ("SSP5-8.5"). The Antarctic ice sheet is the least certain contributor <a href="#cite_note-Kopp2023-29">[29]</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects_of_climate_change">Effects of climate change</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sea_level_rise&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Effects of climate change">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects of climate change</a></div> The three main reasons why global warming causes sea levels to rise are <a href="/wiki/Thermal_expansion#Expansion_in_liquids" title="Thermal expansion">the expansion of oceans due to heating</a>, water inflow from melting ice sheets and water inflow from glaciers. Other factors affecting sea level rise include changes in snow mass, and flow from terrestrial water storage, though the contribution from these is thought to be small.<a href="#cite_note-WCRP2018-6">[6]</a> Glacier retreat and ocean expansion have dominated sea level rise since the start of the 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-Mengel2016-25">[25]</a> Some of the losses from glaciers are offset when <a href="/wiki/Precipitation" title="Precipitation">precipitation</a> falls as snow, accumulates and over time forms glacial ice. If precipitation, surface processes and ice loss at the edge <a href="/wiki/Glacier_mass_balance" title="Glacier mass balance">balance</a> each other, sea level remains the same. Because of this precipitation began as water vapor evaporated from the ocean surface, <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_the_water_cycle" title="Effects of climate change on the water cycle">effects of climate change on the water cycle</a> can even increase ice build-up. However, this effect is not enough to fully offset ice losses, and sea level rise continues to accelerate.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter9-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-IMBIE2018-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rignot2019-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zwally2021-82">[82]</a> The contributions of the two large ice sheets, in <a href="/wiki/Greenland_ice_sheet" title="Greenland ice sheet">Greenland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_ice_sheet" title="Antarctic ice sheet">Antarctica</a>, are likely to increase in the 21st century.<a href="#cite_note-Mengel2016-25">[25]</a> They store most of the land ice (~99.5%) and have a sea-level equivalent (SLE) of 7.4 m (24 ft 3 in) for Greenland and 58.3 m (191 ft 3 in) for Antarctica.<a href="#cite_note-WCRP2018-6">[6]</a> Thus, melting of all the ice on Earth would result in about 70 m (229 ft 8 in) of sea level rise,<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> although this would require at least 10,000 years and up to 10 °C (18 °F) of global warming.<a href="#cite_note-ArmstrongMcKay2022-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-ArmstrongMcKayExplainer-85">[85]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ocean_heating">Ocean heating</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sea_level_rise&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Ocean heating">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ocean_heat_content" title="Ocean heat content">Ocean heat content</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1955-_Ocean_heat_content_-_NOAA.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/1955-_Ocean_heat_content_-_NOAA.svg/260px-1955-_Ocean_heat_content_-_NOAA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/1955-_Ocean_heat_content_-_NOAA.svg/390px-1955-_Ocean_heat_content_-_NOAA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/1955-_Ocean_heat_content_-_NOAA.svg/520px-1955-_Ocean_heat_content_-_NOAA.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="675" /></a><figcaption>There has been an increase in ocean heat content during recent decades as the oceans absorb most of the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_budget" title="Earth's energy budget">excess heat</a> created by human-induced <a href="/wiki/Global_Warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global Warming">global warming</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NOAA_NASA_OHC_1957_-86">[86]</a></figcaption></figure> The oceans store more than 90% of the extra heat added to the climate system by <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_imbalance" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's energy imbalance">Earth's energy imbalance</a> and act as a buffer against its effects.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> This means that the same amount of heat that would increase the average world ocean temperature by 0.01 °C (0.018 °F) would increase atmospheric temperature by approximately 10 °C (18 °F).<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> So a small change in the mean temperature of the ocean represents a very large change in the total heat content of the climate system. Winds and currents move heat into deeper parts of the ocean. Some of it reaches depths of more than 2,000 m (6,600 ft).<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> When the ocean gains heat, <a href="/wiki/Thermal_expansion" title="Thermal expansion">the water expands</a> and sea level rises. Warmer water and water under great pressure (due to depth) expand more than cooler water and water under less pressure.<a href="#cite_note-ipcc13-22">[22]</a>: 1161  Consequently, cold <a href="/wiki/Arctic_Ocean" title="Arctic Ocean">Arctic Ocean</a> water will expand less than warm tropical water. Different climate models present slightly different patterns of ocean heating. So their projections do not agree fully on how much ocean heating contributes to sea level rise.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ice_loss_on_the_Antarctic_continent">Ice loss on the Antarctic continent</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sea_level_rise&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Ice loss on the Antarctic continent">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Antarctic_shelf_ice_hg.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Antarctic_shelf_ice_hg.png/350px-Antarctic_shelf_ice_hg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Antarctic_shelf_ice_hg.png/525px-Antarctic_shelf_ice_hg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Antarctic_shelf_ice_hg.png/700px-Antarctic_shelf_ice_hg.png 2x" data-file-width="2834" data-file-height="1749" /></a><figcaption>Processes around an Antarctic ice shelf</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Corp2400_-_Flickr_-_NOAA_Photo_Library.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Corp2400_-_Flickr_-_NOAA_Photo_Library.jpg/170px-Corp2400_-_Flickr_-_NOAA_Photo_Library.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Corp2400_-_Flickr_-_NOAA_Photo_Library.jpg/255px-Corp2400_-_Flickr_-_NOAA_Photo_Library.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Corp2400_-_Flickr_-_NOAA_Photo_Library.jpg/340px-Corp2400_-_Flickr_-_NOAA_Photo_Library.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1196" data-file-height="1764" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Ross_Ice_Shelf" title="Ross Ice Shelf">Ross Ice Shelf</a> is Antarctica's largest. It is about the size of <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> and up to several hundred metres thick.</figcaption></figure> The large volume of ice on the Antarctic continent stores around 60% of the world's fresh water. Excluding <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> this is 90%.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> Antarctica is experiencing ice loss from coastal glaciers in the <a href="/wiki/West_Antarctica" title="West Antarctica">West Antarctica</a> and some glaciers of <a href="/wiki/East_Antarctica" title="East Antarctica">East Antarctica</a>. However it is gaining mass from the increased snow build-up inland, particularly in the East. This leads to contradicting trends.<a href="#cite_note-Zwally2021-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-NASA2023-92">[92]</a> There are different satellite methods for measuring ice mass and change. Combining them helps to reconcile the differences.<a href="#cite_note-IMBIE2012-93">[93]</a> However, there can still be variations between the studies. In 2018, a <a href="/wiki/Systematic_review" title="Systematic review">systematic review</a> estimated average annual ice loss of 43 billion tons (Gt) across the entire continent between 1992 and 2002. This tripled to an annual average of 220 Gt from 2012 to 2017.<a href="#cite_note-IMBIE2018-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> However, a 2021 analysis of data from four different research satellite systems (<a href="/wiki/Envisat" title="Envisat">Envisat</a>, <a href="/wiki/European_Remote-Sensing_Satellite" title="European Remote-Sensing Satellite">European Remote-Sensing Satellite</a>, <a href="/wiki/GRACE_and_GRACE-FO" title="GRACE and GRACE-FO">GRACE and GRACE-FO</a> and <a href="/wiki/ICESat" title="ICESat">ICESat</a>) indicated annual mass loss of only about 12 Gt from 2012 to 2016. This was due to greater ice gain in East Antarctica than estimated earlier.<a href="#cite_note-Zwally2021-82">[82]</a> In the future, it is known that West Antarctica at least will continue to lose mass, and the likely future losses of sea ice and <a href="/wiki/Ice_shelf" title="Ice shelf">ice shelves</a>, which block warmer currents from direct contact with the ice sheet, can accelerate declines even in East Antarctica.<a href="#cite_note-Greene2018-95">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-CNN_Jan2019-96">[96]</a> Altogether, Antarctica is the source of the largest uncertainty for future sea level projections.<a href="#cite_note-Nature_20210505A-97">[97]</a> In 2019, the <a href="/wiki/Special_Report_on_the_Ocean_and_Cryosphere_in_a_Changing_Climate" title="Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate">SROCC</a> assessed several studies attempting to estimate 2300 sea level rise caused by ice loss in Antarctica alone, arriving at projected estimates of 0.07–0.37 metres (0.23–1.21 ft) for the low emission RCP2.6 scenario, and 0.60–2.89 metres (2.0–9.5 ft) in the high emission RCP8.5 scenario.<a href="#cite_note-IPCC_AR6_WG1_Ch.9-3">[3]</a>: 1272  This wide range of estimates is mainly due to the uncertainties regarding marine ice sheet and marine ice cliff instabilities.<a href="#cite_note-Robel2019-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-Horton2020-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-Slangen2022-23">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="East_Antarctica">East Antarctica</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sea_level_rise&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: East Antarctica">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/East_Antarctic_Ice_Sheet" title="East Antarctic Ice Sheet">East Antarctic Ice Sheet</a></div> The world's largest potential source of sea level rise is the <a href="/wiki/East_Antarctic_Ice_Sheet" title="East Antarctic Ice Sheet">East Antarctic Ice Sheet</a> (EAIS). It is 2.2 km thick on average and holds enough ice to raise global sea levels by 53.3 m (174 ft 10 in)<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> Its great thickness and high elevation make it more stable than the other ice sheets.<a href="#cite_note-Singh2020-99">[99]</a> As of the early 2020s, most studies show that it is still gaining mass.<a href="#cite_note-King2012-100">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-IMBIE2018-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zwally2021-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-NASA2023-92">[92]</a> Some analyses have suggested it began to lose mass in the 2000s.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rignot2019-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-CNN_Jan2019-96">[96]</a> However they over-extrapolated some observed losses on to the poorly observed areas. A more complete observational record shows continued mass gain.<a href="#cite_note-Zwally2021-82">[82]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Denman_oli_2020-057-059_lrg-labeled.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Denman_oli_2020-057-059_lrg-labeled.svg/310px-Denman_oli_2020-057-059_lrg-labeled.svg.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Denman_oli_2020-057-059_lrg-labeled.svg/465px-Denman_oli_2020-057-059_lrg-labeled.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Denman_oli_2020-057-059_lrg-labeled.svg/620px-Denman_oli_2020-057-059_lrg-labeled.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="5120" data-file-height="3414" /></a><figcaption>Aerial view of ice flows at Denman Glacier, one of the less stable glaciers in the East Antarctica</figcaption></figure> In spite of the net mass gain, some East Antarctica glaciers have lost ice in recent decades due to <a href="/wiki/Ocean_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean warming">ocean warming</a> and declining structural support from the local <a href="/wiki/Sea_ice" title="Sea ice">sea ice</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Greene2018-95">[95]</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Denman_Glacier" title="Denman Glacier">Denman Glacier</a>,<a href="#cite_note-BrancatoRignot2020-102">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Totten_Glacier" title="Totten Glacier">Totten Glacier</a>.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> Totten Glacier is particularly important because it stabilizes the <a href="/wiki/Aurora_Subglacial_Basin" title="Aurora Subglacial Basin">Aurora Subglacial Basin</a>. Subglacial basins like Aurora and <a href="/wiki/Wilkes_Basin" title="Wilkes Basin">Wilkes Basin</a> are major ice reservoirs together holding as much ice as all of West Antarctica.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> They are more vulnerable than the rest of East Antarctica.<a href="#cite_note-Pollard2015-35">[35]</a> Their collective <a href="/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">tipping point</a> probably lies at around 3 °C (5.4 °F) of global warming. It may be as high as 6 °C (11 °F) or as low as 2 °C (3.6 °F). Once this tipping point is crossed, the collapse of these subglacial basins could take place over as little as 500 or as much as 10,000 years. The median timeline is 2000 years.<a href="#cite_note-ArmstrongMcKay2022-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-ArmstrongMcKayExplainer-85">[85]</a> Depending on how many subglacial basins are vulnerable, this causes sea level rise of between 1.4 m (4 ft 7 in) and 6.4 m (21 ft 0 in).<a href="#cite_note-Pan2021-107">[107]</a> On the other hand, the whole EAIS would not definitely collapse until global warming reaches 7.5 °C (13.5 °F), with a range between 5 °C (9.0 °F) and 10 °C (18 °F). It would take at least 10,000 years to disappear.<a href="#cite_note-ArmstrongMcKay2022-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-ArmstrongMcKayExplainer-85">[85]</a> Some scientists have estimated that warming would have to reach at least 6 °C (11 °F) to melt two thirds of its volume.<a href="#cite_note-Garbe2020-108">[108]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="West_Antarctica">West Antarctica</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sea_level_rise&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: West Antarctica">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/West_Antarctic_Ice_Sheet" title="West Antarctic Ice Sheet">West Antarctic Ice Sheet</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thwaites_Glacier.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Thwaites_Glacier.jpg/260px-Thwaites_Glacier.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Thwaites_Glacier.jpg/390px-Thwaites_Glacier.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Thwaites_Glacier.jpg/520px-Thwaites_Glacier.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>Thwaites Glacier, with its vulnerable bedrock topography visible.</figcaption></figure> East Antarctica contains the largest potential source of sea level rise. However the <a href="/wiki/West_Antarctic_Ice_Sheet" title="West Antarctic Ice Sheet">West Antarctic ice sheet</a> (WAIS) is substantially more vulnerable. Temperatures on West Antarctica have increased significantly, unlike East Antarctica and the <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Peninsula" title="Antarctic Peninsula">Antarctic Peninsula</a>. The trend is between 0.08 °C (0.14 °F) and 0.96 °C (1.73 °F) per decade between 1976 and 2012.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> Satellite observations recorded a substantial increase in WAIS melting from 1992 to 2017. This resulted in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">7.6 ± 3.9 mm (19⁄64 ± 5⁄32 in) of Antarctica sea level rise. Outflow glaciers in the <a href="/wiki/Amundsen_Sea_Embayment" class="mw-redirect" title="Amundsen Sea Embayment">Amundsen Sea Embayment</a> played a disproportionate role.<a href="#cite_note-RignotBamber2008-110">[110]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_1" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/West_Antarctic_Collapse.ogv/300px--West_Antarctic_Collapse.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="300" height="169" data-durationhint="137" data-mwtitle="West_Antarctic_Collapse.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:West_Antarctic_Collapse.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e9/West_Antarctic_Collapse.ogv/West_Antarctic_Collapse.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e9/West_Antarctic_Collapse.ogv/West_Antarctic_Collapse.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/West_Antarctic_Collapse.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e9/West_Antarctic_Collapse.ogv/West_Antarctic_Collapse.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /></video><figcaption>A graphical representation of how warm waters, and the Marine Ice Sheet Instability and Marine Ice Cliff Instability processes are affecting the West Antarctic Ice Sheet</figcaption></figure> The median estimated increase in sea level rise from Antarctica by 2100 is ~11 cm (5 in). There is no difference between scenarios, because the increased warming would <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_the_water_cycle" title="Effects of climate change on the water cycle">intensify the water cycle</a> and increase <a href="/wiki/Snowfall" class="mw-redirect" title="Snowfall">snowfall</a> accumulation over the EAIS at about the same rate as it would increase ice loss from WAIS.<a href="#cite_note-IPCC_AR6_WG1_Ch.9-3">[3]</a> However, most of the <a href="/wiki/Bedrock" title="Bedrock">bedrock</a> underlying the WAIS lies well below sea level, and it has to be buttressed by the <a href="/wiki/Thwaites_glacier" class="mw-redirect" title="Thwaites glacier">Thwaites</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pine_Island_glacier" class="mw-redirect" title="Pine Island glacier">Pine Island</a> glaciers. If these glaciers were to collapse, the entire ice sheet would as well.<a href="#cite_note-Pollard2015-35">[35]</a> Their disappearance would take at least several centuries, but is considered almost inevitable, as their bedrock <a href="/wiki/Topography" title="Topography">topography</a> deepens inland and becomes more vulnerable to meltwater, in what is known as marine ice sheet instability.<a href="#cite_note-Robel2019-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pettit2021-111">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-BBC1-112">[112]</a> The contribution of these glaciers to global sea levels has already accelerated since the year 2000. The Thwaites Glacier now accounts for 4% of global sea level rise.<a href="#cite_note-Pettit2021-111">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> It could start to lose even more ice if the <a href="/wiki/Thwaites_Ice_Shelf" title="Thwaites Ice Shelf">Thwaites Ice Shelf</a> fails and would no longer stabilize it, which could potentially occur in mid-2020s.<a href="#cite_note-Kaplan1-115">[115]</a> A combination of ice sheet instability with other important but hard-to-model processes like hydrofracturing (meltwater collects atop the ice sheet, pools into fractures and forces them open)<a href="#cite_note-pmid30013142-34">[34]</a> or smaller-scale changes in ocean circulation<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-Naughten2023-118">[118]</a> could cause the WAIS to contribute up to 41 cm (16 in) by 2100 under the low-emission scenario and up to 57 cm (22 in) under the highest-emission one.<a href="#cite_note-IPCC_AR6_WG1_Ch.9-3">[3]</a> Ice cliff instability would cause a contribution of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">1 m (3+1⁄2 ft) or more if it were applicable.<a href="#cite_note-DeConto2016-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kopp2023-29">[29]</a> The melting of all the <a href="/wiki/Ice" title="Ice">ice</a> in West Antarctica would increase the total sea level rise to 4.3 m (14 ft 1 in).<a href="#cite_note-BEDMAP2-2013-119">[119]</a> However, mountain <a href="/wiki/Ice_cap" title="Ice cap">ice caps</a> not in contact with water are less vulnerable than the majority of the ice sheet, which is located below the sea level.<a href="#cite_note-Hein2016-120">[120]</a> Its collapse would cause ~3.3 m (10 ft 10 in) of sea level rise.<a href="#cite_note-Bamber2009-121">[121]</a> This disappearance would take an estimated 2000 years. The absolute minimum for the loss of West Antarctica ice is 500 years, and the potential maximum is 13,000 years.<a href="#cite_note-ArmstrongMcKay2022-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-ArmstrongMcKayExplainer-85">[85]</a> Once ice loss from the West Antarctica is triggered, the only way to restore it to near-present values is by lowering the global temperature to 1 °C (1.8 °F) below the preindustrial level. This would be 2 °C (3.6 °F) below the temperature of 2020.<a href="#cite_note-Garbe2020-108">[108]</a> Other researchers suggested that a <a href="/wiki/Climate_engineering" title="Climate engineering">climate engineering</a> intervention to stabilize the ice sheet's glaciers may delay its loss by centuries and give more time to adapt. However this is an uncertain proposal, and would end up as one of the most expensive projects ever attempted.<a href="#cite_note-Wolovick2023a-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wolovick2023b-123">[123]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mass_changes_of_the_Greenland_Ice_Sheet_between_2002_and_2019.webp" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Mass_changes_of_the_Greenland_Ice_Sheet_between_2002_and_2019.webp/220px-Mass_changes_of_the_Greenland_Ice_Sheet_between_2002_and_2019.webp.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Mass_changes_of_the_Greenland_Ice_Sheet_between_2002_and_2019.webp/330px-Mass_changes_of_the_Greenland_Ice_Sheet_between_2002_and_2019.webp.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Mass_changes_of_the_Greenland_Ice_Sheet_between_2002_and_2019.webp/440px-Mass_changes_of_the_Greenland_Ice_Sheet_between_2002_and_2019.webp.png 2x" data-file-width="1296" data-file-height="1094" /></a><figcaption>Trends of Greenland ice loss between 2002 and 2019<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ice_sheet_loss_in_Greenland">Ice sheet loss in Greenland</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sea_level_rise&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Ice sheet loss in Greenland">edit</a>]</div> Most ice on Greenland is in the <a href="/wiki/Greenland_ice_sheet" title="Greenland ice sheet">Greenland ice sheet</a> which is 3 km (10,000 ft) at its thickest. The rest of Greenland ice forms isolated glaciers and ice caps. The average annual ice loss in Greenland more than doubled in the early 21st century compared to the 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> Its contribution to sea level rise correspondingly increased from 0.07 mm per year between 1992 and 1997 to 0.68 mm per year between 2012 and 2017. Total ice loss from the Greenland ice sheet between 1992 and 2018 amounted to 3,902 gigatons (Gt) of ice. This is equivalent to a SLR contribution of 10.8 mm.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> The contribution for the 2012–2016 period was equivalent to 37% of sea level rise from land ice sources (excluding thermal expansion).<a href="#cite_note-Bamber2018-127">[127]</a> This observed rate of ice sheet melting is at the higher end of predictions from past <a href="/wiki/IPCC" class="mw-redirect" title="IPCC">IPCC</a> assessment reports.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-Slater-2020-32">[32]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beckmann_2023_Greenland_2300_RCP85_extent.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Beckmann_2023_Greenland_2300_RCP85_extent.png/220px-Beckmann_2023_Greenland_2300_RCP85_extent.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="296" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Beckmann_2023_Greenland_2300_RCP85_extent.png/330px-Beckmann_2023_Greenland_2300_RCP85_extent.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Beckmann_2023_Greenland_2300_RCP85_extent.png/440px-Beckmann_2023_Greenland_2300_RCP85_extent.png 2x" data-file-width="1371" data-file-height="1846" /></a><figcaption>2023 projections of how much the Greenland ice sheet may shrink from its present extent by the year 2300 under the worst possible climate change scenario (upper half) and of how much faster its remaining ice will be flowing in that case (lower half)<a href="#cite_note-Beckmann2023-129">[129]</a></figcaption></figure> In 2021, <a href="/wiki/AR6" class="mw-redirect" title="AR6">AR6</a> estimated that by 2100, the melting of Greenland ice sheet would most likely add around <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">6 cm (2+1⁄2 in) to sea levels under the low-emission scenario, and 13 cm (5 in) under the high-emission scenario. The first scenario, <a href="/wiki/Shared_Socioeconomic_Pathways" title="Shared Socioeconomic Pathways">SSP1-2.6</a>, largely fulfils the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Agreement" title="Paris Agreement">Paris Agreement</a> goals, while the other, SSP5-8.5, has the emissions accelerate throughout the century. The uncertainty about <a href="/wiki/Ice_sheet_dynamics" class="mw-redirect" title="Ice sheet dynamics">ice sheet dynamics</a> can affect both pathways. In the best-case scenario, ice sheet under SSP1-2.6 gains enough mass by 2100 through <a href="/wiki/Surface_mass_balance" class="mw-redirect" title="Surface mass balance">surface mass balance</a> feedbacks to reduce the sea levels by 2 cm (1 in). In the worst case, it adds 15 cm (6 in). For SSP5-8.5, the best-case scenario is adding 5 cm (2 in) to sea levels, and the worst-case is adding 23 cm (9 in).<a href="#cite_note-IPCC_AR6_WG1_Ch.9-3">[3]</a>: 1260  Greenland's peripheral glaciers and ice caps crossed an irreversible tipping point around 1997. Sea level rise from their loss is now unstoppable.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> However the temperature changes in future, the warming of 2000–2019 had already damaged the ice sheet enough for it to eventually lose ~3.3% of its volume. This is leading to <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">27 cm (10+1⁄2 in) of future sea level rise.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> At a certain level of global warming, the Greenland ice sheet will almost completely melt. Ice cores show this happened at least once over the last million years, during which the temperatures have at most been 2.5 °C (4.5 °F) warmer than the preindustrial average or 1 °C (1.8 °F) warmer than the 2025 temperature.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-Christ2021-135">[135]</a> 2012 modelling suggested that the tipping point of the ice sheet was between 0.8 °C (1.4 °F) and 3.2 °C (5.8 °F).<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> 2023 modelling has narrowed the tipping threshold to a 1.7 °C (3.1 °F)-2.3 °C (4.1 °F) range, which is consistent with the empirical 2.5 °C (4.5 °F) upper limit from ice cores. If temperatures reach or exceed that level, reducing the global temperature to 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) above pre-industrial levels or lower would prevent the loss of the entire ice sheet. One way to do this in theory would be large-scale <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">carbon dioxide removal</a>, but there would still be cause of greater ice losses and sea level rise from Greenland than if the threshold was not breached in the first place.<a href="#cite_note-Bochow2023-137">[137]</a> If the tipping point instead is durably but mildly crossed, the ice sheet would take between 10,000 and 15,000 years to disintegrate entirely, with a most likely estimate of 10,000 years.<a href="#cite_note-ArmstrongMcKay2022-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-ArmstrongMcKayExplainer-85">[85]</a> If climate change continues along its worst trajectory and temperatures continue to rise quickly over multiple centuries, the ice sheet would only take 1,000 years to melt.<a href="#cite_note-Aschwanden2019-138">[138]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mountain_glacier_loss">Mountain glacier loss</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sea_level_rise&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Mountain glacier loss">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2015-2100_Impacts_of_global_warming_on_glaciers_and_sea_level_rise.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/2015-2100_Impacts_of_global_warming_on_glaciers_and_sea_level_rise.svg/260px-2015-2100_Impacts_of_global_warming_on_glaciers_and_sea_level_rise.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/2015-2100_Impacts_of_global_warming_on_glaciers_and_sea_level_rise.svg/390px-2015-2100_Impacts_of_global_warming_on_glaciers_and_sea_level_rise.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/2015-2100_Impacts_of_global_warming_on_glaciers_and_sea_level_rise.svg/520px-2015-2100_Impacts_of_global_warming_on_glaciers_and_sea_level_rise.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Based on national pledges to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, global mean temperature is projected to increase by 2.7 °C (4.9 °F), which would cause loss of about half of Earth's glaciers by 2100—causing a sea level rise of 115±40 millimeters.<a href="#cite_note-Science_20230105-139">[139]</a></figcaption></figure> There are roughly 200,000 glaciers on Earth, which are spread out across all continents.<a href="#cite_note-Huss-2015-140">[140]</a> Less than 1% of glacier ice is in mountain glaciers, compared to 99% in Greenland and <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a>. However, this small size also makes mountain glaciers more vulnerable to melting than the larger ice sheets. This means they have had a disproportionate contribution to historical sea level rise and are set to contribute a smaller, but still significant fraction of sea level rise in the 21st century.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> Observational and modelling studies of <a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850" title="Retreat of glaciers since 1850">mass loss from glaciers and ice caps</a> show they contribute 0.2–0.4 mm per year to sea level rise, averaged over the 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> The contribution for the 2012–2016 period was nearly as large as that of Greenland. It was 0.63 mm of sea level rise per year, equivalent to 34% of sea level rise from land ice sources.<a href="#cite_note-Bamber2018-127">[127]</a> Glaciers contributed around 40% to sea level rise during the 20th century, with estimates for the 21st century of around 30%.<a href="#cite_note-WCRP2018-6">[6]</a> In 2023, a <a href="/wiki/Science_(magazine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Science (magazine)">Science</a> paper estimated that at 1.5 °C (2.7 °F), one quarter of mountain glacier mass would be lost by 2100 and nearly half would be lost at 4 °C (7.2 °F), contributing ~<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">9 cm (3+1⁄2 in) and ~15 cm (6 in) to sea level rise, respectively. Glacier mass is disproportionately concentrated in the most resilient glaciers. So in practice this would remove 49–83% of glacier formations. It further estimated that the current likely trajectory of 2.7 °C (4.9 °F) would result in the SLR contribution of ~<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">11 cm (4+1⁄2 in) by 2100.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> Mountain glaciers are even more vulnerable over the longer term. In 2022, another Science paper estimated that almost no mountain glaciers could survive once warming crosses 2 °C (3.6 °F). Their complete loss is largely inevitable around 3 °C (5.4 °F). There is even a possibility of complete loss after 2100 at just 1.5 °C (2.7 °F). This could happen as early as 50 years after the tipping point is crossed, although 200 years is the most likely value, and the maximum is around 1000 years.<a href="#cite_note-ArmstrongMcKay2022-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-ArmstrongMcKayExplainer-85">[85]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sea_ice_loss">Sea ice loss</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sea_level_rise&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Sea ice loss">edit</a>]</div> Sea ice loss directly contributes only very slightly to global sea level rise. If the melt water from ice floating in the sea was exactly the same as sea water then, according to <a href="/wiki/Archimedes%27_principle" title="Archimedes' principle">Archimedes' principle</a>, no rise would occur. However melted sea ice contains less <a href="/wiki/Salinity" title="Salinity">dissolved salt</a> than sea water and is therefore less <a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">dense</a>, with a slightly greater volume per unit of mass. If all floating <a href="/wiki/Ice_shelf" title="Ice shelf">ice shelves</a> and <a href="/wiki/Icebergs" class="mw-redirect" title="Icebergs">icebergs</a> were to melt sea level would only rise by about <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">4 cm (1+1⁄2 in).<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trends-in-land-water-storage-from-GRACE-observations,-April-2002-to-November-2014.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Trends-in-land-water-storage-from-GRACE-observations%2C-April-2002-to-November-2014.jpg/350px-Trends-in-land-water-storage-from-GRACE-observations%2C-April-2002-to-November-2014.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Trends-in-land-water-storage-from-GRACE-observations%2C-April-2002-to-November-2014.jpg/525px-Trends-in-land-water-storage-from-GRACE-observations%2C-April-2002-to-November-2014.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/Trends-in-land-water-storage-from-GRACE-observations%2C-April-2002-to-November-2014.jpg 2x" data-file-width="599" data-file-height="307" /></a><figcaption>Trends in land water storage from <a href="/wiki/Gravity_Recovery_and_Climate_Experiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment">GRACE</a> observations in gigatons per year, April 2002 to November 2014 (glaciers and ice sheets are excluded).</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Changes_to_land_water_storage">Changes to land water storage</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sea_level_rise&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Changes to land water storage">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Groundwater-related_subsidence" title="Groundwater-related subsidence">Groundwater-related subsidence</a></div> Human activity impacts how much water is stored on land. <a href="/wiki/Dam" title="Dam">Dams</a> retain large quantities of water, which is stored on land rather than flowing into the sea, though the total quantity stored will vary from time to time. On the other hand, humans extract water from lakes, <a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">wetlands</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">underground reservoirs</a> for drinking and <a href="/wiki/Food_industry" title="Food industry">food production</a>. This often causes <a href="/wiki/Subsidence" title="Subsidence">subsidence</a>. Furthermore, the <a href="/wiki/Water_cycle" title="Water cycle">hydrological cycle</a> is influenced by climate change and <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a>. In the 20th century, these processes had approximately cancelled out each other's impact on sea level rise, but dam building has slowed down and is expected to stay low for the 21st century.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-ipcc13-22">[22]</a>: 1155  Water redistribution caused by <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a> from 1993 to 2010 caused a drift of Earth's <a href="/wiki/Geographical_pole" title="Geographical pole">rotational pole</a> by 78.48 centimetres (30.90 in). This caused groundwater depletion equivalent to a global sea level rise of 6.24 millimetres (0.246 in).<a href="#cite_note-GeophysRschLtrs_20230615-146">[146]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Impacts">Impacts</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sea_level_rise&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Impacts">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Coast#Human_impacts" title="Coast">Human impacts on coasts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coastal_development_hazards" title="Coastal development hazards">Coastal development hazards</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Coastal_erosion" title="Coastal erosion">Coastal erosion</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="On_people_and_societies">On people and societies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sea_level_rise&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: On people and societies">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:442px;max-width:442px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:219px;max-width:219px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:162px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:1950-_High_tide_flooding,_by_year_-_NOAA_tide_gauges_(U.S.).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/1950-_High_tide_flooding%2C_by_year_-_NOAA_tide_gauges_%28U.S.%29.svg/217px-1950-_High_tide_flooding%2C_by_year_-_NOAA_tide_gauges_%28U.S.%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="217" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/1950-_High_tide_flooding%2C_by_year_-_NOAA_tide_gauges_%28U.S.%29.svg/326px-1950-_High_tide_flooding%2C_by_year_-_NOAA_tide_gauges_%28U.S.%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/1950-_High_tide_flooding%2C_by_year_-_NOAA_tide_gauges_%28U.S.%29.svg/434px-1950-_High_tide_flooding%2C_by_year_-_NOAA_tide_gauges_%28U.S.%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="675" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">High tide flooding, also called tidal flooding, has become much more common in the past seven decades.<a href="#cite_note-N0AAHighTideFlooding201802-147">[147]</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:219px;max-width:219px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:162px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:2000-_Declared_flood_disasters_-_US.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/2000-_Declared_flood_disasters_-_US.svg/217px-2000-_Declared_flood_disasters_-_US.svg.png" decoding="async" width="217" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/2000-_Declared_flood_disasters_-_US.svg/326px-2000-_Declared_flood_disasters_-_US.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/2000-_Declared_flood_disasters_-_US.svg/434px-2000-_Declared_flood_disasters_-_US.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="675" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">The number of floods declared to be disasters by the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Emergency_Management_Agency" title="Federal Emergency Management Agency">Federal Emergency Management Agency</a> (FEMA) has increased, especially since 2010.<a href="#cite_note-NYTimes_20241022-148">[148]</a></div></div></div></div></div> Sea-level rise has many impacts. They include higher and more frequent high-tide and <a href="/wiki/Storm_surge" title="Storm surge">storm-surge</a> flooding and increased <a href="/wiki/Coastal_erosion" title="Coastal erosion">coastal erosion</a>. Other impacts are inhibition of <a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">primary production</a> processes, more extensive coastal inundation, and changes in surface <a href="/wiki/Water_quality" title="Water quality">water quality</a> and <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a>. These can lead to a greater loss of property and coastal habitats, loss of life during floods and loss of cultural resources. There are also impacts on agriculture and <a href="/wiki/Aquaculture" title="Aquaculture">aquaculture</a>. There can also be loss of tourism, recreation, and transport-related functions.<a href="#cite_note-IPCC-2001-10">[10]</a>: 356  <a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">Land use</a> changes such as <a href="/wiki/Urbanisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Urbanisation">urbanisation</a> or <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a> of low-lying coastal zones exacerbate coastal flooding impacts. Regions already vulnerable to rising sea level also struggle with coastal flooding. This washes away land and alters the landscape.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> Changes in emissions are likely to have only a small effect on the extent of sea level rise by 2050.<a href="#cite_note-us_nrc_2011_long_term_slr-7">[7]</a> So projected sea level rise could put tens of millions of people at risk by then. Scientists estimate that 2050 levels of sea level rise would result in about 150 million people under the water line during high tide. About 300 million would be in places flooded every year. This projection is based on the distribution of population in 2010. It does not take into account the effects of <a href="/wiki/Population_growth" title="Population growth">population growth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Human_migration" title="Human migration">human migration</a>. These figures are 40 million and 50 million more respectively than the numbers at risk in 2010.<a href="#cite_note-Kulp2019-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> By 2100, there would be another 40 million people under the water line during high tide if sea level rise remains low. This figure would be 80 million for a high estimate of median sea level rise.<a href="#cite_note-Kulp2019-12">[12]</a> Ice sheet processes under the highest <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_scenario" title="Climate change scenario">emission scenario</a> would result in sea level rise of well over <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">one metre (3+1⁄4 ft) by 2100. This could be as much as over <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">two metres (6+1⁄2 ft),<a href="#cite_note-NOAA-2022-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-IPCC_2021_WGI_SPM-5">[5]</a>: TS-45  This could result in as many as 520 million additional people ending up under the water line during high tide and 640 million in places flooded every year, compared to the 2010 population distribution.<a href="#cite_note-Kulp2019-12">[12]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Major_cities_threatened_by_sea_level_rise.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Major_cities_threatened_by_sea_level_rise.png/300px-Major_cities_threatened_by_sea_level_rise.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Major_cities_threatened_by_sea_level_rise.png/450px-Major_cities_threatened_by_sea_level_rise.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Major_cities_threatened_by_sea_level_rise.png/600px-Major_cities_threatened_by_sea_level_rise.png 2x" data-file-width="1425" data-file-height="625" /></a><figcaption>Major cities threatened by sea level rise of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">49 cm (1+1⁄2 ft) compared to the level in 2010.</figcaption></figure> Over the longer term, coastal areas are particularly vulnerable to rising sea levels. They are also vulnerable to changes in the frequency and intensity of storms, increased precipitation, and rising <a href="/wiki/Ocean_temperature" title="Ocean temperature">ocean temperatures</a>. Ten percent of the world's population live in coastal areas that are less than 10 metres (33 ft) above sea level. Two thirds of the world's cities with over five million people are located in these low-lying coastal areas.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> About 600 million people live directly on the coast around the world.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> Cities such as <a href="/wiki/Miami" title="Miami">Miami</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro" title="Rio de Janeiro">Rio de Janeiro</a>, <a href="/wiki/Osaka" title="Osaka">Osaka</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a> will be especially vulnerable later in the century under warming of 3 °C (5.4 °F). This is close to the current trajectory.<a href="#cite_note-Holder-2017-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-CAT-30">[30]</a> <a href="/wiki/Lidar" title="Lidar">LiDAR</a>-based research had established in 2021 that 267 million people worldwide lived on land less than <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">2 m (6+1⁄2 ft) above sea level. With a <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">1 m (3+1⁄2 ft) sea level rise and zero population growth, that could increase to 410 million people.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> Potential disruption of sea trade and migrations could impact people living further inland. United Nations Secretary-General <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Guterres" title="António Guterres">António Guterres</a> warned in 2023 that sea level rise risks causing <a href="/wiki/Climate_migrant" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate migrant">human migrations</a> on a "biblical scale".<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> Sea level rise will inevitably affect <a href="/wiki/Port" title="Port">ports</a>, but there is limited research on this. There is insufficient knowledge about the investments necessary to protect ports currently in use. This includes protecting current facilities before it becomes more reasonable to build new ports elsewhere.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> Some coastal regions are rich agricultural lands. Their loss to the sea could cause <a href="/wiki/Food_insecurity" class="mw-redirect" title="Food insecurity">food shortages</a>. This is a particularly acute issue for <a href="/wiki/River_delta" title="River delta">river deltas</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Nile_Delta" title="Nile Delta">Nile Delta</a> in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Red_River_Delta" title="Red River Delta">Red River</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mekong_Delta" title="Mekong Delta">Mekong Deltas</a> in Vietnam. Saltwater intrusion into the soil and <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a> water has a disproportionate effect on them.<a href="#cite_note-Michaelson-2018-158">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nagothu-2017-159">[159]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="On_ecosystems">On ecosystems</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sea_level_rise&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: On ecosystems">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change" title="Extinction risk from climate change">Extinction risk from climate change</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bramble-cay-melomys.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Bramble-cay-melomys.jpg/220px-Bramble-cay-melomys.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Bramble-cay-melomys.jpg/330px-Bramble-cay-melomys.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Bramble-cay-melomys.jpg/440px-Bramble-cay-melomys.jpg 2x" data-file-width="770" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bramble_Cay_melomys" title="Bramble Cay melomys">Bramble Cay melomys</a>, the first known mammal species to go extinct due to sea level rise.</figcaption></figure> Flooding and soil/water salinization threaten the habitats of <a href="/wiki/Coast" title="Coast">coastal</a> plants, birds, and freshwater/<a href="/wiki/Estuarine" class="mw-redirect" title="Estuarine">estuarine</a> fish when seawater reaches inland.<a href="#cite_note-National_Geographic-2017-160">[160]</a> When coastal <a href="/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">forest</a> areas become inundated with saltwater to the point no trees can survive the resulting habitats are called <a href="/wiki/Ghost_forest" title="Ghost forest">ghost forests</a>.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> Starting around 2050, some nesting sites in <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ecuador" title="Ecuador">Ecuador</a> and the island of <a href="/wiki/Sint_Eustatius" title="Sint Eustatius">Sint Eustatius</a> for <a href="/wiki/Leatherback_turtle" class="mw-redirect" title="Leatherback turtle">leatherback</a>, <a href="/wiki/Loggerhead_turtle" class="mw-redirect" title="Loggerhead turtle">loggerhead</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hawksbill_turtle" class="mw-redirect" title="Hawksbill turtle">hawksbill</a>, <a href="/wiki/Green_turtle" class="mw-redirect" title="Green turtle">green</a> and <a href="/wiki/Olive_ridley_turtle" class="mw-redirect" title="Olive ridley turtle">olive ridley turtles</a> are expected to be flooded. The proportion will increase over time.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> In 2016, <a href="/wiki/Bramble_Cay" title="Bramble Cay">Bramble Cay</a> islet in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Barrier_Reef" title="Great Barrier Reef">Great Barrier Reef</a> was inundated. This flooded the habitat of a rodent named <a href="/wiki/Bramble_Cay_melomys" title="Bramble Cay melomys">Bramble Cay melomys</a>.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> It was officially declared extinct in 2019.<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mangroves.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Mangroves.jpg/220px-Mangroves.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Mangroves.jpg/330px-Mangroves.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Mangroves.jpg/440px-Mangroves.jpg 2x" data-file-width="689" data-file-height="442" /></a><figcaption>An example of mangrove pneumatophores</figcaption></figure> Some ecosystems can move inland with the high-water mark. But natural or artificial barriers prevent many from migrating. This coastal narrowing is sometimes called 'coastal squeeze' when it involves human-made barriers. It could result in the loss of habitats such as <a href="/wiki/Mudflat" title="Mudflat">mudflats</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tidal_marsh" title="Tidal marsh">tidal marshes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-birdlife-2015-166">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">Mangrove</a> ecosystems on the mudflats of tropical coasts nurture high <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>. They are particularly vulnerable due to mangrove plants' reliance on breathing roots or <a href="/wiki/Pneumatophores" class="mw-redirect" title="Pneumatophores">pneumatophores</a>. These will be submerged if the rate is too rapid for them to migrate upward. This would result in the loss of an ecosystem.<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-High_mangrove_density_enhances_surf-169">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a><a href="#cite_note-A_Conceptual_Model_for_the_Response-171">[171]</a> Both mangroves and <a href="/wiki/Tidal_marsh" title="Tidal marsh">tidal marshes</a> protect against storm surges, waves and tsunamis, so their loss makes the effects of sea level rise worse.<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> Human activities such as dam building may restrict sediment supplies to wetlands. This would prevent natural adaptation processes. The loss of some tidal marshes is unavoidable as a consequence.<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">Corals</a> are important for bird and fish life. They need to grow vertically to remain close to the sea surface in order to get enough energy from sunlight. The corals have so far been able to keep up the vertical growth with the rising seas, but might not be able to do so in the future.<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Regional_variations">Regional variations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sea_level_rise&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Regional variations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Relative_sea_level" title="Relative sea level">Relative sea level</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sinking_cities" title="Sinking cities">Sinking cities</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ohenhen_2023_EC_subsidence.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Ohenhen_2023_EC_subsidence.png/220px-Ohenhen_2023_EC_subsidence.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="340" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Ohenhen_2023_EC_subsidence.png/330px-Ohenhen_2023_EC_subsidence.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Ohenhen_2023_EC_subsidence.png/440px-Ohenhen_2023_EC_subsidence.png 2x" data-file-width="1010" data-file-height="1563" /></a><figcaption>Sea level rise in many locations across the world is worsened due to land subsidence. The <a href="/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="East Coast of the United States">East Coast of the United States</a> is one example.<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a></figcaption></figure> When a glacier or ice sheet melts, it loses mass. This reduces its gravitational pull. In some places near current and former glaciers and ice sheets, this has caused water levels to drop. At the same time water levels will increase more than average further away from the ice sheet. Thus ice loss in <a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a> affects regional sea level differently than the equivalent loss in <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Rovere-2016-177">[177]</a> On the other hand, the Atlantic is warming at a faster pace than the Pacific. This has consequences for Europe and the <a href="/wiki/U.S._East_Coast" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. East Coast">U.S. East Coast</a>. The East Coast sea level is rising at 3–4 times the global average.<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> Scientists have linked extreme regional sea level rise on the US Northeast Coast to the downturn of the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation" title="Atlantic meridional overturning circulation">Atlantic meridional overturning circulation</a> (AMOC).<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a> Many <a href="/wiki/Port" title="Port">ports</a>, urban conglomerations, and agricultural regions stand on <a href="/wiki/River_delta" title="River delta">river deltas</a>. Here land subsidence contributes to much higher <a href="/wiki/Relative_sea_level" title="Relative sea level">relative sea level</a> rise. Unsustainable extraction of <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> and oil and gas is one cause. <a href="/wiki/Levee" title="Levee">Levees</a> and other flood management practices are another. They prevent sediments from accumulating. These would otherwise compensate for the natural settling of deltaic soils.<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a>: 638 <a href="#cite_note-Bucx_2010-181">[181]</a>: 88  Estimates for total human-caused subsidence in the <a href="/wiki/Rhine-Meuse-Scheldt_delta" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhine-Meuse-Scheldt delta">Rhine-Meuse-Scheldt delta</a> (Netherlands) are 3–4 m (10–13 ft), over 3 m (10 ft) in urban areas of the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River_Delta" title="Mississippi River Delta">Mississippi River Delta</a> (<a href="/wiki/New_Orleans" title="New Orleans">New Orleans</a>), and over 9 m (30 ft) in the <a href="/wiki/Sacramento%E2%80%93San_Joaquin_River_Delta" title="Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta">Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Bucx_2010-181">[181]</a>: 81–90  On the other hand, relative sea level around the <a href="/wiki/Hudson_Bay" title="Hudson Bay">Hudson Bay</a> in <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> and the northern <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a> is falling due to post-glacial isostatic rebound.<a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Adaptation">Adaptation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sea_level_rise&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Adaptation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">Climate change adaptation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coastal_management" title="Coastal management">coastal management</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oosterscheldekering-pohled.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Oosterscheldekering-pohled.jpg/220px-Oosterscheldekering-pohled.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Oosterscheldekering-pohled.jpg/330px-Oosterscheldekering-pohled.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Oosterscheldekering-pohled.jpg/440px-Oosterscheldekering-pohled.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Oosterscheldekering" title="Oosterscheldekering">Oosterscheldekering</a>, the largest barrier of the Dutch <a href="/wiki/Delta_Works" title="Delta Works">Delta Works</a>.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Cutting greenhouse gas emissions</a> can slow and stabilize the rate of sea level rise after 2050. This would greatly reduce its costs and damages, but cannot stop it outright. So <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">climate change adaptation</a> to sea level rise is inevitable.<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a>: 3–127  The simplest approach is to stop development in vulnerable areas and ultimately move people and <a href="/wiki/Infrastructure" title="Infrastructure">infrastructure</a> away from them. Such retreat from sea level rise often results in the loss of livelihoods. The displacement of newly impoverished people could burden their new homes and accelerate social tensions.<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> It is possible to avoid or at least delay the retreat from sea level rise with enhanced protections. These include <a href="/wiki/Dam" title="Dam">dams</a>, <a href="/wiki/Levee" title="Levee">levees</a> or improved natural defenses.<a href="#cite_note-Thomsen-2012-19">[19]</a> Other options include updating <a href="/wiki/Building_code" title="Building code">building standards</a> to reduce damage from floods, addition of storm water valves to address more frequent and severe flooding at high tide,<a href="#cite_note-US_EPA-185">[185]</a> or cultivating crops more tolerant of saltwater in the soil, even at an increased cost.<a href="#cite_note-Nagothu-2017-159">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-Thomsen-2012-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fletcher-2013-186">[186]</a> These options divide into hard and soft adaptation. Hard adaptation generally involves large-scale changes to human societies and ecological systems. It often includes the construction of capital-intensive infrastructure. Soft adaptation involves strengthening <a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">natural defenses</a> and local community adaptation. This usually involves simple, modular and locally owned technology. The two types of adaptation may be complementary or mutually exclusive.<a href="#cite_note-Fletcher-2013-186">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a> Adaptation options often require significant investment. But the costs of doing nothing are far greater. One example would involve adaptation against flooding. Effective adaptation measures could reduce future annual costs of flooding in 136 of the world's largest coastal cities from $1 trillion by 2050 without adaptation to a little over $60 billion annually. The cost would be $50 billion per year.<a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a> Some experts argue that retreat from the coast would have a lower impact on the <a href="/wiki/GDP" class="mw-redirect" title="GDP">GDP</a> of <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a> then attempting to protect every coastline, in the case of very high sea level rise.<a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hurk_2022_UK_SLR_adaptation.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Hurk_2022_UK_SLR_adaptation.jpg/310px-Hurk_2022_UK_SLR_adaptation.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Hurk_2022_UK_SLR_adaptation.jpg/465px-Hurk_2022_UK_SLR_adaptation.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Hurk_2022_UK_SLR_adaptation.jpg/620px-Hurk_2022_UK_SLR_adaptation.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3150" data-file-height="2125" /></a><figcaption>Planning for the future sea level rise used in the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hurk2022-191">[191]</a></figcaption></figure> To be successful, adaptation must anticipate sea level rise well ahead of time. As of 2023, the global state of adaptation planning is mixed. A survey of 253 planners from 49 countries found that 98% are aware of sea level rise projections, but 26% have not yet formally integrated them into their policy documents. Only around a third of respondents from Asian and South American countries have done so. This compares with 50% in Africa, and over 75% in Europe, Australasia and North America. Some 56% of all surveyed planners have plans which account for 2050 and 2100 sea level rise. But 53% use only a single projection rather than a range of two or three projections. Just 14% use four projections, including the one for "extreme" or "high-end" sea level rise.<a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a> Another study found that over 75% of regional sea level rise assessments from the <a href="/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="West Coast of the United States">West</a> and <a href="/wiki/Northeastern_United_States" title="Northeastern United States">Northeastern United States</a> included at least three estimates. These are usually <a href="/wiki/Representative_Concentration_Pathway" title="Representative Concentration Pathway">RCP2.6</a>, RCP4.5 and RCP8.5, and sometimes include extreme scenarios. But 88% of projections from the <a href="/wiki/American_South" class="mw-redirect" title="American South">American South</a> had only a single estimate. Similarly, no assessment from the South went beyond 2100. By contrast 14 assessments from the West went up to 2150, and three from the Northeast went to 2200. 56% of all localities were also found to underestimate the upper end of sea level rise relative to <a href="/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">IPCC Sixth Assessment Report</a>.<a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="By_region">By region</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sea_level_rise&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: By region">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Africa">Africa</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sea_level_rise&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Africa">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Middle_East_and_North_Africa#Sea_level_rise" title="Climate change in the Middle East and North Africa">Climate change in the Middle East and North Africa § Sea level rise</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ANKOMAH_20221122-009.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/ANKOMAH_20221122-009.jpg/220px-ANKOMAH_20221122-009.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/ANKOMAH_20221122-009.jpg/330px-ANKOMAH_20221122-009.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/ANKOMAH_20221122-009.jpg/440px-ANKOMAH_20221122-009.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4670" data-file-height="3116" /></a><figcaption>A man looking out over the beach from a building destroyed by high tides in <a href="/wiki/Chorkor" title="Chorkor">Chorkor</a>, a suburb of <a href="/wiki/Accra" title="Accra">Accra</a>. Sunny day flooding caused by sea level rise, increases <a href="/wiki/Coastal_erosion" title="Coastal erosion">coastal erosion</a> that destroys housing, infrastructure and natural ecosystems. A number of communities in Coastal Ghana are already experiencing the changing tides.</figcaption></figure> In <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>, future <a href="/wiki/Population_growth" title="Population growth">population growth</a> amplifies risks from sea level rise. Some 54.2 million people lived in the highly exposed low elevation coastal zones (LECZ) around 2000. This number will effectively double to around 110 million people by 2030, and then reach 185 to 230 million people by 2060. By then, the average regional sea level rise will be around 21 cm, with little difference from climate change scenarios.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter9-79">[79]</a> By 2100, <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mozambique" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a> are likely to have the largest number of people affected by annual flooding amongst all African countries. And under RCP8.5, 10 important cultural sites would be at risk of flooding and erosion by the end of the century.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter9-79">[79]</a> In the near term, some of the largest displacement is projected to occur in the <a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">East Africa</a> region. At least 750,000 people there are likely to be displaced from the coasts between 2020 and 2050. By 2050, 12 major African cities would collectively sustain cumulative damages of US$65 billion for the "moderate" climate change scenario RCP4.5 and between US$86.5 billion to US$137.5 billion on average: in the worst case, these damages could effectively triple.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter9-79">[79]</a> In all of these estimates, around half of the damages would occur in the Egyptian city of Alexandria.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter9-79">[79]</a> Hundreds of thousands of people in its low-lying areas may already need relocation in the coming decade.<a href="#cite_note-Michaelson-2018-158">[158]</a> Across <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">sub-Saharan Africa</a> as a whole, damage from sea level rise could reach 2–4% of <a href="/wiki/GDP" class="mw-redirect" title="GDP">GDP</a> by 2050, although this depends on the extent of future <a href="/wiki/Economic_growth" title="Economic growth">economic growth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">climate change adaptation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter9-79">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Asia">Asia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sea_level_rise&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Asia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Asia#Sea_level_rise" title="Climate change in Asia">Climate change in Asia § Sea level rise</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:20091011%E6%9D%BE%E5%B7%9D%E6%B5%A6.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/20091011%E6%9D%BE%E5%B7%9D%E6%B5%A6.jpg/240px-20091011%E6%9D%BE%E5%B7%9D%E6%B5%A6.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/20091011%E6%9D%BE%E5%B7%9D%E6%B5%A6.jpg/360px-20091011%E6%9D%BE%E5%B7%9D%E6%B5%A6.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/20091011%E6%9D%BE%E5%B7%9D%E6%B5%A6.jpg/480px-20091011%E6%9D%BE%E5%B7%9D%E6%B5%A6.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Matsukawaura <a href="/wiki/Lagoon" title="Lagoon">Lagoon</a>, located in <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_Prefecture" title="Fukushima Prefecture">Fukushima Prefecture</a> of Honshu Island</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Urban-Rural_Population_and_Land_Area_Estimates,_v2,_2010_Bangladesh_(13873798283).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Urban-Rural_Population_and_Land_Area_Estimates%2C_v2%2C_2010_Bangladesh_%2813873798283%29.jpg/330px-Urban-Rural_Population_and_Land_Area_Estimates%2C_v2%2C_2010_Bangladesh_%2813873798283%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Urban-Rural_Population_and_Land_Area_Estimates%2C_v2%2C_2010_Bangladesh_%2813873798283%29.jpg/495px-Urban-Rural_Population_and_Land_Area_Estimates%2C_v2%2C_2010_Bangladesh_%2813873798283%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Urban-Rural_Population_and_Land_Area_Estimates%2C_v2%2C_2010_Bangladesh_%2813873798283%29.jpg/660px-Urban-Rural_Population_and_Land_Area_Estimates%2C_v2%2C_2010_Bangladesh_%2813873798283%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3181" data-file-height="2418" /></a><figcaption>2010 estimates of population exposure to sea level rise in Bangladesh</figcaption></figure> Asia has the largest population at risk from sea level due to its dense coastal populations. As of 2022, some 63 million people in <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a> were already at risk from a <a href="/wiki/100-year_flood" title="100-year flood">100-year flood</a>. This is largely due to inadequate coastal protection in many countries. <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a>, <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a> alone account for 70% of people exposed to sea level rise during the 21st century.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter10-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a> <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Bangladesh" title="Climate change in Bangladesh">Sea level rise in Bangladesh</a> is likely to displace 0.9–2.1 million people by 2050. It may also force the relocation of up to one third of power plants as early as 2030, and many of the remaining plants would have to deal with the increased salinity of their cooling water.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter10-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-DeLellis2021-195">[195]</a> Nations like Bangladesh, Vietnam and China with extensive rice production on the coast are already seeing adverse impacts from saltwater intrusion.<a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a> Modelling results predict that Asia will suffer direct economic damages of US$167.6 billion at 0.47 meters of sea level rise. This rises to US$272.3 billion at 1.12 meters and US$338.1 billion at 1.75 meters. There is an additional indirect impact of US$8.5, 24 or 15 billion from population displacement at those levels. China, India, the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Korea">Republic of Korea</a>, Japan, Indonesia and <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> experience the largest economic losses.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter10-15">[15]</a> Out of the 20 coastal cities expected to see the highest flood losses by 2050, 13 are in Asia. Nine of these are the so-called <a href="/wiki/Sinking_cities" title="Sinking cities">sinking cities</a>, where <a href="/wiki/Subsidence" title="Subsidence">subsidence</a> (typically caused by unsustainable <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> extraction in the past) would compound sea level rise. These are <a href="/wiki/Bangkok" title="Bangkok">Bangkok</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh_City" title="Ho Chi Minh City">Ho Chi Minh City</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jakarta" title="Jakarta">Jakarta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kolkata" title="Kolkata">Kolkata</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nagoya" title="Nagoya">Nagoya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tianjin" title="Tianjin">Tianjin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xiamen" title="Xiamen">Xiamen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zhanjiang" title="Zhanjiang">Zhanjiang</a>.<a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a> By 2050, Guangzhou would see 0.2 meters of sea level rise and estimated annual economic losses of US$254 million – the highest in the world.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter10-15">[15]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a>, coastal inundation amounts to about 0.03% of local <a href="/wiki/GDP" class="mw-redirect" title="GDP">GDP</a>, yet would increase to 0.8% by 2100 even under the "moderate" <a href="/wiki/Representative_Concentration_Pathway" title="Representative Concentration Pathway">RCP4.5</a> scenario in the absence of adaptation.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter10-15">[15]</a> The city of <a href="/wiki/Jakarta" title="Jakarta">Jakarta</a> is <a href="/wiki/Flooding_in_Jakarta" class="mw-redirect" title="Flooding in Jakarta">sinking</a> so much (up to 28 cm (11 in) per year between 1982 and 2010 in some areas<a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a>) that in 2019, the government had committed to relocate the <a href="/wiki/Capital_of_Indonesia" title="Capital of Indonesia">capital of Indonesia</a> to another city.<a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Australasia">Australasia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sea_level_rise&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Australasia">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:King%27s_Beach_since_Friday_14th_April,_2006_-_panoramio.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/King%27s_Beach_since_Friday_14th_April%2C_2006_-_panoramio.jpg/220px-King%27s_Beach_since_Friday_14th_April%2C_2006_-_panoramio.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/King%27s_Beach_since_Friday_14th_April%2C_2006_-_panoramio.jpg/330px-King%27s_Beach_since_Friday_14th_April%2C_2006_-_panoramio.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/King%27s_Beach_since_Friday_14th_April%2C_2006_-_panoramio.jpg/440px-King%27s_Beach_since_Friday_14th_April%2C_2006_-_panoramio.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption>King's Beach at <a href="/wiki/Caloundra" title="Caloundra">Caloundra</a></figcaption></figure> In <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, erosion and flooding of <a href="/wiki/Queensland" title="Queensland">Queensland</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Sunshine_Coast,_Queensland" title="Sunshine Coast, Queensland">Sunshine Coast</a> beaches is likely to intensify by 60% by 2030. Without adaptation there would be a big impact on tourism. Adaptation costs for sea level rise would be three times higher under the high-emission <a href="/wiki/Representative_Concentration_Pathway" title="Representative Concentration Pathway">RCP</a>8.5 scenario than in the low-emission RCP2.6 scenario. Sea level rise of 0.2–0.3 meters is likely by 2050. In these conditions what is currently a <a href="/wiki/100-year_flood" title="100-year flood">100-year flood</a> would occur every year in the <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> cities of <a href="/wiki/Wellington" title="Wellington">Wellington</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christchurch" title="Christchurch">Christchurch</a>. With 0.5 m sea level rise, a current 100-year flood in Australia would occur several times a year. In New Zealand this would expose buildings with a collective worth of NZ$12.75 billion to new 100-year floods. A meter or so of sea level rise would threaten assets in New Zealand with a worth of NZD$25.5 billion. There would be a disproportionate impact on <a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_people" title="Māori people">Maori</a>-owned holdings and cultural heritage objects. Australian assets worth AUS$164–226 billion including many <a href="/wiki/Unsealed_road" class="mw-redirect" title="Unsealed road">unsealed roads</a> and <a href="/wiki/Railway_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Railway line">railway lines</a> would also be at risk. This amounts to a 111% rise in Australia's inundation costs between 2020 and 2100.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter11-200">[200]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Central_and_South_America">Central and South America</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sea_level_rise&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Central and South America">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Santos_A%C3%A9rea_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Santos_A%C3%A9rea_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Santos_A%C3%A9rea_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Santos_A%C3%A9rea_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Santos_A%C3%A9rea_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Santos_A%C3%A9rea_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Santos_A%C3%A9rea_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="673" data-file-height="468" /></a><figcaption>An aerial view of <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo" title="São Paulo">São Paulo</a>'s Port of Santos</figcaption></figure> By 2100, coastal flooding and erosion will affect at least 3–4 million people in <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a>. Many people live in low-lying areas exposed to sea level rise. This includes 6% of the population of <a href="/wiki/Venezuela" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a>, 56% of the population of <a href="/wiki/Guyana" title="Guyana">Guyana</a> and 68% of the population of <a href="/wiki/Suriname" title="Suriname">Suriname</a>. In Guyana much of the capital <a href="/wiki/Georgetown,_Guyana" title="Georgetown, Guyana">Georgetown</a> is already below sea level. In <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>, the coastal ecoregion of <a href="/wiki/Caatinga" title="Caatinga">Caatinga</a> is responsible for 99% of its <a href="/wiki/Shrimp" title="Shrimp">shrimp</a> production. A combination of sea level rise, ocean warming and <a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">ocean acidification</a> threaten its unique ecosystem. Extreme wave or wind behavior disrupted the port complex of <a href="/wiki/Santa_Catarina_(island)" class="mw-redirect" title="Santa Catarina (island)">Santa Catarina</a> 76 times in one 6-year period in the 2010s. There was a US$25,000–50,000 loss for each idle day. In <a href="/wiki/Port_of_Santos" title="Port of Santos">Port of Santos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Storm_surge" title="Storm surge">storm surges</a> were three times more frequent between 2000 and 2016 than between 1928 and 1999.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter12-201">[201]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe">Europe</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sea_level_rise&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Europe">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beach_restoration_device.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Beach_restoration_device.jpg/220px-Beach_restoration_device.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Beach_restoration_device.jpg/330px-Beach_restoration_device.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Beach_restoration_device.jpg/440px-Beach_restoration_device.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2016" data-file-height="1512" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Beach_nourishment" title="Beach nourishment">Beach nourishment</a> in progress in <a href="/wiki/Barcelona" title="Barcelona">Barcelona</a>.</figcaption></figure> Many sandy coastlines in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> are vulnerable to erosion due to sea level rise. In <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Costa_del_Maresme" title="Costa del Maresme">Costa del Maresme</a> is likely to retreat by 16 meters by 2050 relative to 2010. This could amount to 52 meters by 2100 under RCP8.5<a href="#cite_note-202">[202]</a> Other vulnerable coastlines include the <a href="/wiki/Tyrrhenian_Sea" title="Tyrrhenian Sea">Tyrrhenian Sea</a> coast of <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Calabria" title="Calabria">Calabria</a> region,<a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a> the Barra-Vagueira coast in <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a><a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a> and Nørlev Strand in <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a>.<a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a> In France, it was estimated that 8,000–10,000 people would be forced to migrate away from the coasts by 2080.<a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a> The Italian city of <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a> is located on islands. It is highly <a href="/wiki/Flooding_in_Venice" class="mw-redirect" title="Flooding in Venice">vulnerable to flooding</a> and has already spent $6 billion on a barrier system.<a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a><a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a> A quarter of the German state of <a href="/wiki/Schleswig-Holstein" title="Schleswig-Holstein">Schleswig-Holstein</a>, inhabited by over 350,000 people, is at low elevation and has been vulnerable to flooding since preindustrial times. Many <a href="/wiki/Levee" title="Levee">levees</a> already exist. Because of its complex geography, the authorities chose a flexible mix of hard and soft measures to cope with sea level rise of over 1 meter per century.<a href="#cite_note-Hurk2022-191">[191]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, sea level at the end of the century would increase by 53 to 115 centimeters at the mouth of the River <a href="/wiki/Thames" class="mw-redirect" title="Thames">Thames</a> and 30 to 90 centimeters at <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a>.<a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a> The UK has divided its coast into 22 areas, each covered by a Shoreline Management Plan. Those are sub-divided into 2000 management units, working across three periods of 0–20, 20–50 and 50–100 years.<a href="#cite_note-Hurk2022-191">[191]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> is a country that sits partially below sea level and is subsiding. It has responded by extending its <a href="/wiki/Delta_Works" title="Delta Works">Delta Works</a> program.<a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a> Drafted in 2008, the Delta Commission report said that the country must plan for a rise in the <a href="/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea">North Sea</a> up to 1.3 m (4 ft 3 in) by 2100 and plan for a 2–4 m (7–13 ft) rise by 2200.<a href="#cite_note-211">[211]</a> It advised annual spending between €1.0 and €1.5 billion. This would support measures such as broadening coastal <a href="/wiki/Dunes" class="mw-redirect" title="Dunes">dunes</a> and strengthening sea and river <a href="/wiki/Dyke_(construction)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dyke (construction)">dikes</a>. Worst-case evacuation plans were also drawn up.<a href="#cite_note-212">[212]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="North_America">North America</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sea_level_rise&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: North America">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:October_17_2016_sunny_day_tidal_flooding_at_Brickell_Bay_Drive_and_12_Street_downtown_Miami,_4.34_MLLW_high_tide_am.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/October_17_2016_sunny_day_tidal_flooding_at_Brickell_Bay_Drive_and_12_Street_downtown_Miami%2C_4.34_MLLW_high_tide_am.jpg/220px-October_17_2016_sunny_day_tidal_flooding_at_Brickell_Bay_Drive_and_12_Street_downtown_Miami%2C_4.34_MLLW_high_tide_am.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/October_17_2016_sunny_day_tidal_flooding_at_Brickell_Bay_Drive_and_12_Street_downtown_Miami%2C_4.34_MLLW_high_tide_am.jpg/330px-October_17_2016_sunny_day_tidal_flooding_at_Brickell_Bay_Drive_and_12_Street_downtown_Miami%2C_4.34_MLLW_high_tide_am.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/October_17_2016_sunny_day_tidal_flooding_at_Brickell_Bay_Drive_and_12_Street_downtown_Miami%2C_4.34_MLLW_high_tide_am.jpg/440px-October_17_2016_sunny_day_tidal_flooding_at_Brickell_Bay_Drive_and_12_Street_downtown_Miami%2C_4.34_MLLW_high_tide_am.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4928" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Tidal_flooding" title="Tidal flooding">Tidal flooding</a> in <a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Miami" title="Climate of Miami">Miami</a> during a <a href="/wiki/King_tide" title="King tide">king tide</a> (October 17, 2016). The risk of tidal flooding increases with sea level rise.</figcaption></figure> As of 2017, around 95 million Americans lived on the coast. The figures for <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> were 6.5 million and 19 million. Increased chronic <a href="/wiki/Nuisance_flooding" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuisance flooding">nuisance flooding</a> and <a href="/wiki/King_tide" title="King tide">king tide</a> flooding is already a problem in the highly <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_vulnerability" title="Climate change vulnerability">vulnerable</a> state of <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a>.<a href="#cite_note-213">[213]</a> The <a href="/wiki/US_East_Coast" class="mw-redirect" title="US East Coast">US East Coast</a> is also vulnerable.<a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a> On average, the number of days with <a href="/wiki/Tidal_flooding" title="Tidal flooding">tidal flooding</a> in the US increased 2 times in the years 2000–2020, reaching 3–7 days per year. In some areas the increase was much stronger: 4 times in the Southeast Atlantic and 11 times in the Western Gulf. By the year 2030 the average number is expected to be 7–15 days, reaching 25–75 days by 2050.<a href="#cite_note-215">[215]</a> U.S. coastal cities have responded with <a href="/wiki/Beach_nourishment" title="Beach nourishment">beach nourishment</a> or beach replenishment. This trucks in mined sand in addition to other adaptation measures such as zoning, restrictions on state funding, and building code standards.<a href="#cite_note-ClimateCentral2012-216">[216]</a><a href="#cite_note-217">[217]</a> Along an estimated ~15% of the US coastline, the majority of local <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> levels are already below sea level. This places those groundwater reservoirs at risk of sea water intrusion. That would render fresh water unusable once its concentration exceeds 2-3%.<a href="#cite_note-218">[218]</a> Damage is also widespread in Canada. It will affect major cities like <a href="/wiki/Halifax,_Nova_Scotia" title="Halifax, Nova Scotia">Halifax</a> and more remote locations like <a href="/wiki/Lennox_Island_(Prince_Edward_Island)" title="Lennox Island (Prince Edward Island)">Lennox Island</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Mi%27kmaq" title="Mi'kmaq">Mi'kmaq</a> <a href="/wiki/Lennox_Island_First_Nation" title="Lennox Island First Nation">community</a> there is already considering relocation due to widespread coastal erosion. In Mexico, damage from SLR to <a href="/wiki/Tourism" title="Tourism">tourism</a> hotspots like <a href="/wiki/Cancun" class="mw-redirect" title="Cancun">Cancun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isla_Mujeres" title="Isla Mujeres">Isla Mujeres</a>, <a href="/wiki/Playa_del_Carmen" title="Playa del Carmen">Playa del Carmen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Morelos" title="Puerto Morelos">Puerto Morelos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cozumel" title="Cozumel">Cozumel</a> could amount to US$1.4–2.3 billion.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter14-219">[219]</a> The increase in <a href="/wiki/Storm_surge" title="Storm surge">storm surge</a> due to sea level rise is also a problem. Due to this effect <a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Sandy" title="Hurricane Sandy">Hurricane Sandy</a> caused an additional US$8 billion in damage, impacted 36,000 more houses and 71,000 more people.<a href="#cite_note-220">[220]</a><a href="#cite_note-221">[221]</a> In the future, the northern <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf of Mexico</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Canada" title="Atlantic Canada">Atlantic Canada</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_coast_of_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific coast of Mexico">Pacific coast of Mexico</a> would experience the greatest sea level rise. By 2030, flooding along the US <a href="/wiki/Gulf_Coast" class="mw-redirect" title="Gulf Coast">Gulf Coast</a> could cause economic losses of up to US$176 billion. Using <a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">nature-based solutions</a> like <a href="/wiki/Wetland_restoration" class="mw-redirect" title="Wetland restoration">wetland restoration</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oyster_reef" title="Oyster reef">oyster reef</a> restoration could avoid around US$50 billion of this.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter14-219">[219]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2050_Projected_sea_level_rise_-_United_States_coasts_-_NOAA.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A comparison of SLR in six parts of the US. The Gulf Coast and East Coast see the most SLR, whereas the West Coast the least" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/2050_Projected_sea_level_rise_-_United_States_coasts_-_NOAA.svg/310px-2050_Projected_sea_level_rise_-_United_States_coasts_-_NOAA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/2050_Projected_sea_level_rise_-_United_States_coasts_-_NOAA.svg/465px-2050_Projected_sea_level_rise_-_United_States_coasts_-_NOAA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/2050_Projected_sea_level_rise_-_United_States_coasts_-_NOAA.svg/620px-2050_Projected_sea_level_rise_-_United_States_coasts_-_NOAA.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/NOAA" class="mw-redirect" title="NOAA">NOAA</a> predicts different levels of sea level rise through 2050 for several US coastlines.<a href="#cite_note-NOAA-2022-14">[14]</a></figcaption></figure> By 2050, coastal flooding in the US is likely to rise tenfold to four "moderate" flooding events per year. That forecast is even without storms or heavy rainfall.<a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a><a href="#cite_note-223">[223]</a> In <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>, current <a href="/wiki/100-year_flood" title="100-year flood">100-year flood</a> would occur once in 19–68 years by 2050 and 4–60 years by 2080.<a href="#cite_note-224">[224]</a> By 2050, 20 million people in the greater <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a> area would be at risk. This is because 40% of existing <a href="/wiki/Water_treatment" title="Water treatment">water treatment</a> facilities would be compromised and 60% of <a href="/wiki/Power_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Power plant">power plants</a> will need relocation. By 2100, sea level rise of 0.9 m (3 ft) and 1.8 m (6 ft) would threaten 4.2 and 13.1 million people in the US, respectively. In <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a> alone, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">2 m (6+1⁄2 ft) of SLR could affect 600,000 people and threaten over US$150 billion in property with inundation. This potentially represents over 6% of the state's <a href="/wiki/GDP" class="mw-redirect" title="GDP">GDP</a>. In <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina" title="North Carolina">North Carolina</a>, a meter of SLR inundates 42% of the <a href="/wiki/Albemarle-Pamlico_Peninsula" title="Albemarle-Pamlico Peninsula">Albemarle-Pamlico Peninsula</a>, costing up to US$14 billion. In nine southeast US states, the same level of sea level rise would claim up to 13,000 historical and archaeological sites, including over 1000 sites eligible for inclusion in the <a href="/wiki/National_Register_for_Historic_Places" class="mw-redirect" title="National Register for Historic Places">National Register for Historic Places</a>.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter14-219">[219]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Island_nations">Island nations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sea_level_rise&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Island nations">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mal%C3%A9.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Mal%C3%A9.jpg/310px-Mal%C3%A9.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Mal%C3%A9.jpg/465px-Mal%C3%A9.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Mal%C3%A9.jpg/620px-Mal%C3%A9.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5451" data-file-height="2790" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mal%C3%A9" title="Malé">Malé</a>, the capital island of <a href="/wiki/Maldives" title="Maldives">Maldives</a>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_island_nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Effects of climate change on island nations">Effects of climate change on island nations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Small_Island_Developing_States" title="Small Island Developing States">Small Island Developing States</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alliance_of_Small_Island_States" title="Alliance of Small Island States">Alliance of Small Island States</a></div> Small island states are nations with populations on <a href="/wiki/Atoll" title="Atoll">atolls</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Low_island" class="mw-redirect" title="Low island">low islands</a>. Atolls on average reach 0.9–1.8 m (3–6 ft) above sea level.<a href="#cite_note-225">[225]</a> These are the most vulnerable places to <a href="/wiki/Coastal_erosion" title="Coastal erosion">coastal erosion</a>, flooding and salt intrusion <a href="/wiki/Soil_salinization" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil salinization">into soils</a> and freshwater caused by sea level rise. Sea level rise may make an island uninhabitable before it is completely flooded.<a href="#cite_note-226">[226]</a> Already, children in small island states encounter hampered access to food and water. They suffer an increased rate of mental and social disorders due to these stresses.<a href="#cite_note-227">[227]</a> At current rates, sea level rise would be high enough to make the Maldives uninhabitable by 2100.<a href="#cite_note-228">[228]</a><a href="#cite_note-229">[229]</a> Five of the <a href="/wiki/Solomon_Islands" title="Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a> have already disappeared due to the effects of sea level rise and stronger trade winds pushing water into the <a href="/wiki/Western_Pacific_Ocean" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Pacific Ocean">Western Pacific</a>.<a href="#cite_note-230">[230]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Island_area_change_in_the_Central_Pacific_and_Solomon_Islands_-_erlaa21eff7_hr.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Island_area_change_in_the_Central_Pacific_and_Solomon_Islands_-_erlaa21eff7_hr.jpg/330px-Island_area_change_in_the_Central_Pacific_and_Solomon_Islands_-_erlaa21eff7_hr.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="303" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Island_area_change_in_the_Central_Pacific_and_Solomon_Islands_-_erlaa21eff7_hr.jpg/495px-Island_area_change_in_the_Central_Pacific_and_Solomon_Islands_-_erlaa21eff7_hr.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Island_area_change_in_the_Central_Pacific_and_Solomon_Islands_-_erlaa21eff7_hr.jpg/660px-Island_area_change_in_the_Central_Pacific_and_Solomon_Islands_-_erlaa21eff7_hr.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1270" data-file-height="1168" /></a><figcaption>Surface area change of islands in the <a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_Pacific_Ocean" title="List of islands in the Pacific Ocean">Central Pacific</a> and <a href="/wiki/Solomon_Islands" title="Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a><a href="#cite_note-Albeert2016-231">[231]</a></figcaption></figure> Adaptation to sea level rise is costly for small island nations as a large portion of their population lives in areas that are at risk.<a href="#cite_note-232">[232]</a> Nations like <a href="/wiki/Maldives" title="Maldives">Maldives</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kiribati" title="Kiribati">Kiribati</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tuvalu" title="Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a> already have to consider controlled international migration of their population in response to rising seas.<a href="#cite_note-Grecequet2017-233">[233]</a> The alternative of uncontrolled migration threatens to worsen the humanitarian crisis of <a href="/wiki/Climate_migrant" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate migrant">climate refugees</a>.<a href="#cite_note-234">[234]</a> In 2014, Kiribati purchased 20 square kilometers of land (about 2.5% of Kiribati's current area) on the <a href="/wiki/Fiji" title="Fiji">Fijian</a> island of <a href="/wiki/Vanua_Levu" title="Vanua Levu">Vanua Levu</a> to relocate its population once their own islands are lost to the sea.<a href="#cite_note-235">[235]</a> <a href="/wiki/Fiji" title="Fiji">Fiji</a> also suffers from sea level rise.<a href="#cite_note-236">[236]</a> It is in a comparatively safer position. Its residents continue to rely on local adaptation like moving further inland and increasing <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sediment</a> supply to combat erosion instead of relocating entirely.<a href="#cite_note-Grecequet2017-233">[233]</a> Fiji has also issued a green bond of $50 million to invest in green initiatives and fund adaptation efforts. It is restoring <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">coral reefs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">mangroves</a> to protect against flooding and erosion. It sees this as a more cost-efficient alternative to building <a href="/wiki/Sea_wall" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea wall">sea walls</a>. The nations of <a href="/wiki/Palau" title="Palau">Palau</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tonga" title="Tonga">Tonga</a> are taking similar steps.<a href="#cite_note-Grecequet2017-233">[233]</a><a href="#cite_note-237">[237]</a> Even when an island is not threatened with complete disappearance from flooding, tourism and local economies may end up devastated. For instance, sea level rise of 1.0 m (3 ft 3 in) would cause partial or complete inundation of 29% of coastal resorts in the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a>. A further 49–60% of coastal resorts would be at risk from resulting coastal erosion.<a href="#cite_note-238">[238]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sea_level_rise&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_emergency_declaration" title="Climate emergency declaration">Climate emergency declaration</a> – Emergency proclaimed due to climate change</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_development_hazards" title="Coastal development hazards">Coastal development hazards</a> – Type of anthropogenic effect on the environment</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_oceans" title="Effects of climate change on oceans">Effects of climate change on oceans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_average_elevation" title="List of countries by average elevation">List of countries by average elevation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoclimate" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleoclimate">Paleoclimate</a> – Study of changes in ancient climatePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sea_level_rise&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 24em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-EPA_SLR_202207-1"><a href="#cite_ref-EPA_SLR_202207_1-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.epa.gov/climate-indicators/climate-change-indicators-sea-level">"Climate Change Indicators: Sea Level / Figure 1. 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Retrieved 18 December 2023. <q>Press Release Number: 21042023.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=WMO+annual+report+highlights+continuous+advance+of+climate+change&rft.pub=World+Meteorological+Organization&rft.date=2023-04-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwmo.int%2Fnews%2Fmedia-centre%2Fwmo-annual-report-highlights-continuous-advance-of-climate-change&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASea+level+rise" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-IPCC_2021_WGI_SPM-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-IPCC_2021_WGI_SPM_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-IPCC_2021_WGI_SPM_5-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-IPCC_2021_WGI_SPM_5-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-IPCC_2021_WGI_SPM_5-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-IPCC_2021_WGI_SPM_5-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-IPCC_2021_WGI_SPM_5-5">f</a> IPCC, 2021: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_SPM.pdf">Summary for Policymakers</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210811205522/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_SPM.pdf">Archived</a> 2021-08-11 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. 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The Washington Post. 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191126005216/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/energy-environment/wp/2015/07/23/controversial-sea-level-rise-paper-is-now-published-online/">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-11-26. Retrieved 2017-09-11. <q>There is no doubt that the sea level rise, within the IPCC, is a very conservative number," says <a href="/wiki/Greg_Holland" title="Greg Holland">Greg Holland</a>, a climate and hurricane researcher at the <a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Atmospheric_Research" title="National Center for Atmospheric Research">National Center for Atmospheric Research</a>, who has also reviewed the Hansen study. 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/></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Environment" title="Portal:Environment">Environment portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://climate.nasa.gov/vital-signs/sea-level/">Vital signs / Sea level (NASA) </a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sealevel.nasa.gov/">Sea level change / Observations from space</a> (NASA; links to multiple measurements)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://science2017.globalchange.gov/chapter/12/">Fourth National Climate Assessment (2017) Sea Level Rise Key Message (US government agencies)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nca2023.globalchange.gov/chapter/9/">Fifth National Climate Assessment (2023) Coastal Effects Chapter</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gloss-sealevel.org/">The Global Sea Level Observing System (GLOSS)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://coast.noaa.gov/slr/">USA Sea Level Rise Viewer (NOAA)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://coast.noaa.gov/sealevelcalculator">USA Sea Level Calculator (NOAA)</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.un.org/sites/un2.un.org/files/slr_technical_brief_26_aug_2024.pdf">"Surging Seas in a Warming World: The latest science on present-day impacts and future projections of sea-level rise"</a> (PDF). 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in China">China</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise_in_Fiji" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea level rise in Fiji">Fiji</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise_in_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea level rise in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea level rise in the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise_in_Malaysia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea level rise in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise_in_Maldives" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea level rise in Maldives">Maldives</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise_in_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea level rise in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise_in_New_Zealand" title="Sea level rise in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise_in_Thailand" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea level rise in Thailand">Thailand</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise_in_Turkey" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea level rise in Turkey">Turkey</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise_in_Tuvalu" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea level rise in Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea level rise in the United States">United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise_in_Vietnam" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea level rise in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Physical_oceanography593" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th 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class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave" title="Wind wave">Waves</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airy_wave_theory" title="Airy wave theory">Airy wave theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballantine_scale" title="Ballantine scale">Ballantine scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modulational_instability" title="Modulational instability">Benjamin–Feir instability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boussinesq_approximation_(water_waves)" title="Boussinesq approximation (water waves)">Boussinesq approximation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breaking_wave" title="Breaking wave">Breaking wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clapotis" title="Clapotis">Clapotis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cnoidal_wave" title="Cnoidal wave">Cnoidal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross_sea" title="Cross sea">Cross sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dispersion_(water_waves)" title="Dispersion (water waves)">Dispersion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_wave" title="Edge wave">Edge wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equatorial_wave" title="Equatorial wave">Equatorial waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_wave" title="Gravity wave">Gravity wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green%27s_law" title="Green's law">Green's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infragravity_wave" title="Infragravity wave">Infragravity wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_wave" title="Internal wave">Internal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iribarren_number" title="Iribarren number">Iribarren number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_wave" title="Kelvin wave">Kelvin wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinematic_wave" title="Kinematic wave">Kinematic wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">Longshore drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luke%27s_variational_principle" title="Luke's variational principle">Luke's variational principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mild-slope_equation" title="Mild-slope equation">Mild-slope equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_stress" title="Radiation stress">Radiation stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_wave" title="Rogue wave">Rogue wave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Draupner_wave" title="Draupner wave">Draupner wave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rossby_wave" title="Rossby wave">Rossby wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rossby-gravity_waves" title="Rossby-gravity waves">Rossby-gravity waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_state" title="Sea state">Sea state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seiche" title="Seiche">Seiche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Significant_wave_height" title="Significant wave height">Significant wave height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soliton" title="Soliton">Soliton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_drift" title="Stokes drift">Stokes drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_problem" title="Stokes problem">Stokes problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_wave" title="Stokes wave">Stokes wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swell_(ocean)" title="Swell (ocean)">Swell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trochoidal_wave" title="Trochoidal wave">Trochoidal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami">Tsunami</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megatsunami" title="Megatsunami">megatsunami</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Undertow_(water_waves)" title="Undertow (water waves)">Undertow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ursell_number" title="Ursell number">Ursell number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_action_(continuum_mechanics)" title="Wave action (continuum mechanics)">Wave action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_base" title="Wave base">Wave base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_height" title="Wave height">Wave height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_nonlinearity" title="Wave nonlinearity">Wave nonlinearity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_power" title="Wave power">Wave power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_radar" title="Wave radar">Wave radar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_setup" title="Wave setup">Wave setup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_shoaling" title="Wave shoaling">Wave shoaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_turbulence" title="Wave turbulence">Wave turbulence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave%E2%80%93current_interaction" title="Wave–current interaction">Wave–current interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waves_and_shallow_water" title="Waves and shallow water">Waves and shallow water</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/One-dimensional_Saint-Venant_equations" class="mw-redirect" title="One-dimensional Saint-Venant equations">one-dimensional Saint-Venant equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shallow_water_equations" title="Shallow water equations">shallow water equations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_fetch" title="Wind fetch">Wind fetch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_setup" title="Wind setup">Wind setup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave" title="Wind wave">Wind wave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave_model" title="Wind wave model">model</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="10" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Upwelling.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Upwelling"><img alt="Upwelling" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/120px-Upwelling.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/180px-Upwelling.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/240px-Upwelling.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="365" data-file-height="242" /></a> <a href="/wiki/File:Antarctic_bottom_water.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Antarctic bottom water"><img alt="Antarctic bottom water" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/120px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="76" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/180px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/240px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="745" data-file-height="470" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">Circulation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_circulation" title="Atmospheric circulation">Atmospheric circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroclinity" title="Baroclinity">Baroclinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boundary_current" title="Boundary current">Boundary current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coriolis_force" title="Coriolis force">Coriolis force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coriolis%E2%80%93Stokes_force" title="Coriolis–Stokes force">Coriolis–Stokes force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craik%E2%80%93Leibovich_vortex_force" title="Craik–Leibovich vortex force">Craik–Leibovich vortex force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downwelling" title="Downwelling">Downwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eddy_(fluid_dynamics)" title="Eddy (fluid dynamics)">Eddy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_layer" title="Ekman layer">Ekman layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_spiral" title="Ekman spiral">Ekman spiral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_transport" title="Ekman transport">Ekman transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation" title="El Niño–Southern Oscillation">El Niño–Southern Oscillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_circulation_model" title="General circulation model">General circulation model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemical_Ocean_Sections_Study" title="Geochemical Ocean Sections Study">Geochemical Ocean Sections Study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geostrophic_current" title="Geostrophic current">Geostrophic current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Ocean_Data_Analysis_Project" title="Global Ocean Data Analysis Project">Global Ocean Data Analysis Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Stream" title="Gulf Stream">Gulf Stream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humboldt_Current" title="Humboldt Current">Humboldt Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_circulation" title="Hydrothermal circulation">Hydrothermal circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langmuir_circulation" title="Langmuir circulation">Langmuir circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">Longshore drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loop_Current" title="Loop Current">Loop Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modular_Ocean_Model" title="Modular Ocean Model">Modular Ocean Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">Ocean current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_dynamical_thermostat" title="Ocean dynamical thermostat">Ocean dynamical thermostat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_dynamics" title="Ocean dynamics">Ocean dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_gyre" title="Ocean gyre">Ocean gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overflow_(oceanography)" title="Overflow (oceanography)">Overflow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeton_Ocean_Model" title="Princeton Ocean Model">Princeton Ocean Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rip_current" title="Rip current">Rip current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsurface_ocean_current" title="Subsurface ocean current">Subsurface ocean current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sverdrup_balance" title="Sverdrup balance">Sverdrup balance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermohaline_circulation" title="Thermohaline circulation">Thermohaline circulation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shutdown_of_thermohaline_circulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Shutdown of thermohaline circulation">shutdown</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">Upwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whirlpool" title="Whirlpool">Whirlpool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_generated_current" title="Wind generated current">Wind generated current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Ocean_Circulation_Experiment" title="World Ocean Circulation Experiment">World Ocean Circulation Experiment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">Tides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amphidromic_point" title="Amphidromic point">Amphidromic point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_tide" title="Earth tide">Earth tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head_of_tide" title="Head of tide">Head of tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_tide" title="Internal tide">Internal tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunitidal_interval" title="Lunitidal interval">Lunitidal interval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perigean_spring_tide" title="Perigean spring tide">Perigean spring tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rip_tide" title="Rip tide">Rip tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_twelfths" title="Rule of twelfths">Rule of twelfths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slack_tide" title="Slack tide">Slack tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_tides" title="Theory of tides">Theory of tides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_bore" title="Tidal bore">Tidal bore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_force" title="Tidal force">Tidal force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">Tidal power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_race" title="Tidal race">Tidal race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_range" title="Tidal range">Tidal range</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_resonance" title="Tidal resonance">Tidal resonance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_gauge" title="Tide gauge">Tide gauge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tideline" title="Tideline">Tideline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Landform" title="Landform">Landforms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abyssal_fan" title="Abyssal fan">Abyssal fan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abyssal_plain" title="Abyssal plain">Abyssal plain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atoll" title="Atoll">Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathymetric_chart" title="Bathymetric chart">Bathymetric chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonate_platform" title="Carbonate platform">Carbonate platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_geography" title="Coastal geography">Coastal geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">Cold seep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_margin" title="Continental margin">Continental margin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_rise" title="Continental rise">Continental rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">Continental shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contourite" title="Contourite">Contourite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guyot" title="Guyot">Guyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">Hydrography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knoll_(oceanography)" title="Knoll (oceanography)">Knoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_bank" title="Ocean bank">Ocean bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_basin" title="Oceanic basin">Oceanic basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_plateau" title="Oceanic plateau">Oceanic plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_trench" title="Oceanic trench">Oceanic trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_margin" title="Passive margin">Passive margin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabed" title="Seabed">Seabed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seamount" title="Seamount">Seamount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_canyon" title="Submarine canyon">Submarine canyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_volcano" title="Submarine volcano">Submarine volcano</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate tectonics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convergent_boundary" title="Convergent boundary">Convergent boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divergent_boundary" title="Divergent boundary">Divergent boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fracture_zone" title="Fracture zone">Fracture zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_geology" title="Marine geology">Marine geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">Mid-ocean ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohorovi%C4%8Di%C4%87_discontinuity" title="Mohorovičić discontinuity">Mohorovičić discontinuity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_crust" title="Oceanic crust">Oceanic crust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outer_trench_swell" title="Outer trench swell">Outer trench swell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ridge_push" title="Ridge push">Ridge push</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seafloor_spreading" title="Seafloor spreading">Seafloor spreading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_pull" title="Slab pull">Slab pull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_suction" title="Slab suction">Slab suction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_window" title="Slab window">Slab window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">Subduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transform_fault" title="Transform fault">Transform fault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vine%E2%80%93Matthews%E2%80%93Morley_hypothesis" title="Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis">Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_arc" title="Volcanic arc">Volcanic arc</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ocean zones</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_zone" title="Benthic zone">Benthic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_ocean_water" title="Deep ocean water">Deep ocean water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_sea" title="Deep sea">Deep sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_zone" title="Littoral zone">Littoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopelagic_zone" title="Mesopelagic zone">Mesopelagic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_zone" title="Oceanic zone">Oceanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">Pelagic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photic_zone" title="Photic zone">Photic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surf_zone" title="Surf zone">Surf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swash" title="Swash">Swash</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sea_level" title="Sea level">Sea level</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep-ocean_Assessment_and_Reporting_of_Tsunamis" title="Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis">Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Sea_Level_Observing_System" title="Global Sea Level Observing System">Global Sea Level Observing System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_West_Shelf_Operational_Oceanographic_System" title="North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System">North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea-level_curve" title="Sea-level curve">Sea-level curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_drop" title="Sea level drop">Sea level drop</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sea level rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Geodetic_System" title="World Geodetic System">World Geodetic System</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Acoustical_oceanography" class="mw-redirect" title="Acoustical oceanography">Acoustics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep_scattering_layer" title="Deep scattering layer">Deep scattering layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acoustic_tomography" title="Ocean acoustic tomography">Ocean acoustic tomography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sofar_bomb" title="Sofar bomb">Sofar bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SOFAR_channel" title="SOFAR channel">SOFAR channel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_acoustics" title="Underwater acoustics">Underwater acoustics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Satellites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jason-1" title="Jason-1">Jason-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OSTM/Jason-2" title="OSTM/Jason-2">OSTM/Jason-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jason-3" title="Jason-3">Jason-3</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argo_(oceanography)" title="Argo (oceanography)">Argo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_lander" title="Benthic lander">Benthic lander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_of_water" title="Color of water">Color of water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV_Alvin" title="DSV Alvin">DSV Alvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_sea" class="mw-redirect" title="Marginal sea">Marginal sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_energy" title="Marine energy">Marine energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mooring_(oceanography)" title="Mooring (oceanography)">Mooring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Oceanographic_Data_Center" title="National Oceanographic Data Center">National Oceanographic Data Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_exploration" title="Ocean exploration">Explorations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_observations" title="Ocean observations">Observations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_reanalysis" title="Ocean reanalysis">Reanalysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_surface_topography" title="Ocean surface topography">Ocean surface topography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_temperature" title="Ocean temperature">Ocean temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion" title="Ocean thermal energy conversion">Ocean thermal energy conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">Oceanography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_oceanography" title="Outline of oceanography">Outline of oceanography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_sediment" title="Pelagic sediment">Pelagic sediment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_microlayer" title="Sea surface microlayer">Sea surface microlayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">Sea surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seawater" title="Seawater">Seawater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_On_a_Sphere" title="Science On a Sphere">Science On a Sphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_stratification" title="Ocean stratification">Stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermocline" title="Thermocline">Thermocline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_glider" title="Underwater glider">Underwater glider</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_column" title="Water column">Water column</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Ocean_Atlas" title="World Ocean Atlas">World Ocean Atlas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Physical_oceanography" title="Category:Physical oceanography">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Physical_oceanography" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Physical oceanography">Commons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/16px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/24px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/32px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1358" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Oceans" title="Portal:Oceans">Oceans portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link 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change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">Climate change adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Climate_change_regions" title="Template:Climate change regions">By country and region</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Causes567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_climate_change" title="Causes of climate change">Causes</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_system" title="Climate system">Climate system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_effect" title="Greenhouse effect">Greenhouse effect</a> (<a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth%27s_atmosphere" title="Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere">Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change" title="Scientific consensus on climate change">Scientific consensus on climate change</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Sources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_and_climate_change" title="Deforestation and climate change">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">Fossil fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">Greenhouse gases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_accounting" title="Carbon accounting">Carbon accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">Carbon footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_leakage" title="Carbon leakage">Carbon leakage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_agriculture" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture">from agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_wetlands" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from wetlands">from wetlands</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_energy_supply_and_consumption" title="World energy supply and consumption">World energy supply and consumption</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">History</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_climate_change_policy_and_politics" title="History of climate change policy and politics">History of climate change policy and politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_climate_change_science" title="History of climate change science">History of climate change science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svante_Arrhenius" title="Svante Arrhenius">Svante Arrhenius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hansen" title="James Hansen">James Hansen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_David_Keeling" title="Charles David Keeling">Charles David Keeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Climate_Change_conference" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Climate Change conference">United Nations Climate Change conferences</a></li> <li>Years in climate change <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2019_in_climate_change" title="2019 in climate change">2019</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_in_climate_change" title="2020 in climate change">2020</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_in_climate_change" title="2021 in climate change">2021</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_in_climate_change" title="2022 in climate change">2022</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_in_climate_change" title="2023 in climate change">2023</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_in_climate_change" title="2024 in climate change">2024</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Effects_and_issues567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects and issues</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Physical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrupt_climate_change" title="Abrupt climate change">Abrupt climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anoxic_event" title="Anoxic event">Anoxic event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_methane_emissions" title="Arctic methane emissions">Arctic methane emissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_sea_ice_decline" title="Arctic sea ice decline">Arctic sea ice decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation" title="Atlantic meridional overturning circulation">Atlantic meridional overturning circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">Drought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_weather" title="Extreme weather">Extreme weather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">Flood</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_flooding" title="Coastal flooding">Coastal flooding</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_wave" title="Heat wave">Heat wave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_heatwave" title="Marine heatwave">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">Urban heat island</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_oceans" title="Effects of climate change on oceans">Oceans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_deoxygenation" title="Ocean deoxygenation">deoxygenation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_heat_content" title="Ocean heat content">heat content</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">sea surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_stratification" title="Ocean stratification">stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_temperature" title="Ocean temperature">temperature</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permafrost#Impacts_of_climate_change" title="Permafrost">Permafrost thaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850" title="Retreat of glaciers since 1850">Retreat of glaciers since 1850</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sea level rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Season_creep" title="Season creep">Season creep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">Tipping points in the climate system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclones_and_climate_change" title="Tropical cyclones and climate change">Tropical cyclones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_the_water_cycle" title="Effects of climate change on the water cycle">Water cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_wildfires" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change and wildfires">Wildfires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Flora and fauna</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_biomes" title="Effects of climate change on biomes">Biomes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mass_mortality_event" title="Mass mortality event">Mass mortality event</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_birds" title="Climate change and birds">Birds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change" title="Extinction risk from climate change">Extinction risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_dieback" title="Forest dieback">Forest dieback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_invasive_species" title="Climate change and invasive species">Invasive species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life#Climate_change" title="Human impact on marine life">Marine life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_plant_biodiversity" title="Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity">Plant biodiversity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Social and economic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_agriculture" title="Effects of climate change on agriculture">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock" title="Effects of climate change on livestock">Livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_breadbasket_failure" title="Multiple breadbasket failure">Multi-breadbasket failure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and agriculture in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_children" title="Climate change and children">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_cities" title="Climate change and cities">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_civilizational_collapse" title="Climate change and civilizational collapse">Civilizational collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_crime" title="Climate change and crime">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_areas_depopulated_due_to_climate_change" title="List of areas depopulated due to climate change">Depopulation of settlements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_landmarks_destroyed_or_damaged_by_climate_change" title="List of landmarks destroyed or damaged by climate change">Destruction of cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_and_climate_change" title="Disability and climate change">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_analysis_of_climate_change" title="Economic analysis of climate change">Economic impacts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and insurance in the United States">U.S. insurance industry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_fisheries" title="Climate change and fisheries">Fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_gender" title="Climate change and gender">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health" title="Effects of climate change on human health">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_mental_health" title="Effects of climate change on mental health">Mental health</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_and_climate_change" title="Human rights and climate change">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_Indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change and Indigenous peoples">Indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases" title="Climate change and infectious diseases">Infectious diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_migration" title="Climate migration">Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_poverty" title="Climate change and poverty">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_impact_of_climate_change" title="Psychological impact of climate change">Psychological impacts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_security" title="Climate security">Security and conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_flooding" title="Urban flooding">Urban flooding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_security" title="Water security">Water security</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Template:Climate_change_regions" title="Template:Climate change regions">By country and region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Africa" title="Climate change in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Americas" title="Climate change in the Americas">Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Antarctica" title="Climate change in Antarctica">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Arctic" title="Climate change in the Arctic">Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Asia" title="Climate change in Asia">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Australia" title="Climate change in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Caribbean" title="Climate change in the Caribbean">Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Europe" title="Climate change in Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Middle_East_and_North_Africa" title="Climate change in the Middle East and North Africa">Middle East and North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_small_island_countries" title="Effects of climate change on small island countries">Small island countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Climate_change_by_country" title="Category:Climate change by country">by individual country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Mitigation567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Mitigation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Economic_analysis_of_climate_change" title="Economic analysis of climate change">Economics and finance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_budget" title="Carbon budget">Carbon budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_emission_trading" title="Carbon emission trading">Carbon emission trading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_offsets_and_credits" title="Carbon offsets and credits">Carbon offsets and credits</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gold_Standard_(carbon_offset_standard)" title="Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)">Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_price" title="Carbon price">Carbon price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_tax" title="Carbon tax">Carbon tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_debt" title="Climate debt">Climate debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_finance" title="Climate finance">Climate finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_risk_insurance" title="Climate risk insurance">Climate risk insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Co-benefits_of_climate_change_mitigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-benefits of climate change mitigation">Co-benefits of climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_climate_change_mitigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Economics of climate change mitigation">Economics of climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_divestment" title="Fossil fuel divestment">Fossil fuel divestment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Climate_Fund" title="Green Climate Fund">Green Climate Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-carbon_economy" title="Low-carbon economy">Low-carbon economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_zero_emissions" class="mw-redirect" title="Net zero emissions">Net zero emissions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Energy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">Carbon capture and storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_transition" title="Energy transition">Energy transition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_phase-out" title="Fossil fuel phase-out">Fossil fuel phase-out</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">Sustainable energy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Preserving and enhancing <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sinks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_carbon" title="Blue carbon">Blue carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">Carbon dioxide removal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">Carbon sequestration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_air_capture" title="Direct air capture">Direct air capture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_farming" title="Carbon farming">Carbon farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate-smart_agriculture" title="Climate-smart agriculture">Climate-smart agriculture</a></li> <li>Forest management <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">afforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration#Forestry" title="Carbon sequestration">forestry for carbon sequestration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/REDD_and_REDD%2B" title="REDD and REDD+">REDD and REDD+</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use,_land-use_change,_and_forestry" title="Land use, land-use change, and forestry">Land use, land-use change, and forestry</a> (LULUCF and AFOLU)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Personal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Individual_action_on_climate_change" title="Individual action on climate change">Individual action on climate change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant-based_diet" title="Plant-based diet">Plant-based diet</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Society_and_adaptation567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Society and <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">adaptation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_action_on_climate_change" title="Business action on climate change">Business action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_action" title="Climate action">Climate action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_emergency_declaration" title="Climate emergency declaration">Climate emergency declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_movement" title="Climate movement">Climate movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/School_Strike_for_Climate" class="mw-redirect" title="School Strike for Climate">School Strike for Climate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_denial" title="Climate change denial">Denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_grief" title="Ecological grief">Ecological grief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_governance" title="Climate governance">Governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_justice" title="Climate justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_litigation" title="Climate change litigation">Litigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change" title="Politics of climate change">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_opinion_on_climate_change" title="Public opinion on climate change">Public opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_climate_change" title="Women in climate change">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">Adaptation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation_strategies_on_the_German_coast" title="Climate change adaptation strategies on the German coast">Adaptation strategies on the German coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_capacity" title="Adaptive capacity">Adaptive capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster_risk_reduction" title="Disaster risk reduction">Disaster risk reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem-based_adaptation" title="Ecosystem-based adaptation">Ecosystem-based adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Flood control">Flood control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss_and_damage_(climate_change)" title="Loss and damage (climate change)">Loss and damage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managed_retreat" title="Managed retreat">Managed retreat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_resilience" title="Climate resilience">Resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_risk" title="Climate risk">Risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_vulnerability" title="Climate change vulnerability">Vulnerability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Adaptation_Fund" title="The Adaptation Fund">The Adaptation Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Adaptation_Programme_of_Action" title="National Adaptation Programme of Action">National Adaptation Programme of Action</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_communication" title="Climate communication">Communication</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_Change_Performance_Index" title="Climate Change Performance Index">Climate Change Performance Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_crisis" title="Climate crisis">Climate crisis (term)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_spiral" title="Climate spiral">Climate spiral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_education" title="Climate change education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_coverage_of_climate_change" title="Media coverage of climate change">Media coverage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_popular_culture" title="Climate change in popular culture">Popular culture depictions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_art" title="Climate change art">art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_fiction" title="Climate fiction">fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_climate_change_video_games" class="mw-redirect" title="List of climate change video games">video games</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warming_stripes" title="Warming stripes">Warming stripes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">International agreements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glasgow_Climate_Pact" title="Glasgow Climate Pact">Glasgow Climate Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol" title="Kyoto Protocol">Kyoto Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Agreement" title="Paris Agreement">Paris Agreement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative_Mechanisms_under_Article_6_of_the_Paris_Agreement" title="Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement">Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationally_determined_contribution" title="Nationally determined contribution">Nationally determined contributions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goal_13" title="Sustainable Development Goal 13">Sustainable Development Goal 13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change" title="United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change">United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Background_and_theory567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Background and theory</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Measurements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_surface_temperature" title="Global surface temperature">Global surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_temperature_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Instrumental temperature record">Instrumental temperature record</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proxy_(climate)" title="Proxy (climate)">Proxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_temperature_measurement" title="Satellite temperature measurement">Satellite temperature measurement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo">Albedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">Carbon cycle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_carbon_cycle" title="Atmospheric carbon cycle">atmospheric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_pump" title="Biological pump">biologic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_carbon_cycle" title="Oceanic carbon cycle">oceanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permafrost_carbon_cycle" title="Permafrost carbon cycle">permafrost</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">Carbon sink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_sensitivity" title="Climate sensitivity">Climate sensitivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_variability_and_change" title="Climate variability and change">Climate variability and change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_feedback" title="Cloud feedback">Cloud feedback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_forcing" class="mw-redirect" title="Cloud forcing">Cloud forcing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fixed_anvil_temperature_hypothesis" title="Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis">Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryosphere" title="Cryosphere">Cryosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_budget" title="Earth's energy budget">Earth's energy budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_event_attribution" title="Extreme event attribution">Extreme event attribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_feedbacks" title="Climate change feedbacks">Feedbacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_warming_potential" title="Global warming potential">Global warming potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illustrative_model_of_greenhouse_effect_on_climate_change" title="Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change">Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_forcing" title="Orbital forcing">Orbital forcing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiative_forcing" title="Radiative forcing">Radiative forcing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Research and modelling</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_scenario" title="Climate change scenario">Climate change scenario</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_model" title="Climate model">Climate model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coupled_Model_Intercomparison_Project" title="Coupled Model Intercomparison Project">Coupled Model Intercomparison Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">IPCC Sixth Assessment Report</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Representative_Concentration_Pathway" title="Representative Concentration Pathway">Representative Concentration Pathway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shared_Socioeconomic_Pathways" title="Shared Socioeconomic Pathways">Shared Socioeconomic Pathways</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/16px-Climate_change_icon.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/24px-Climate_change_icon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/32px-Climate_change_icon.png 2x" data-file-width="1112" data-file-height="1056" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Climate_change" title="Portal:Climate change">Climate change portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Climate_change" title="Category:Climate change">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change" title="Glossary of climate change">Glossary</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_climate_change_articles" title="Index of climate change articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Global_catastrophic_risks750" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Global_catastrophic_risks" title="Template:Global catastrophic risks"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Global_catastrophic_risks" title="Template talk:Global catastrophic risks"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Global_catastrophic_risks" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Global catastrophic risks"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Global_catastrophic_risks750" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Global_catastrophic_risk" title="Global catastrophic risk">Global catastrophic risks</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_Earth" title="Future of Earth">Future of the Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_an_expanding_universe" title="Future of an expanding universe">Future of an expanding universe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ultimate_fate_of_the_universe" title="Ultimate fate of the universe">Ultimate fate of the universe</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">Chemical warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberattack" title="Cyberattack">Cyberattack</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare" title="Cyberwarfare">Cyberwarfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberterrorism" title="Cyberterrorism">Cyberterrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybergeddon" title="Cybergeddon">Cybergeddon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gray_goo" title="Gray goo">Gray goo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_applications_of_nanotechnology#Weapons" title="Industrial applications of nanotechnology">Nanoweapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinetic_bombardment" title="Kinetic bombardment">Kinetic bombardment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy_weapon" title="Kinetic energy weapon">Kinetic energy weapon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare">Nuclear warfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mutual_assured_destruction" title="Mutual assured destruction">Mutual assured destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dead_Hand" title="Dead Hand">Dead Hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doomsday_Clock" title="Doomsday Clock">Doomsday Clock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doomsday_device" title="Doomsday device">Doomsday device</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimatter_weapon" title="Antimatter weapon">Antimatter weapon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_pulse" title="Electromagnetic pulse">Electromagnetic pulse</a> (EMP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_of_high-energy_particle_collision_experiments" title="Safety of high-energy particle collision experiments">Safety of high-energy particle collision experiments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Micro_black_hole" title="Micro black hole">Micro black hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strangelet" title="Strangelet">Strangelet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_intelligence" title="Synthetic intelligence">Synthetic intelligence</a> / <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AI_takeover" title="AI takeover">AI takeover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existential_risk_from_artificial_general_intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Existential risk from artificial general intelligence">Existential risk from artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_singularity" title="Technological singularity">Technological singularity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transhumanism" title="Transhumanism">Transhumanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sociological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropogenic_hazard" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropogenic hazard">Anthropogenic hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collapsology" title="Collapsology">Collapsology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doomsday_argument" title="Doomsday argument">Doomsday argument</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Self-indication_assumption_doomsday_argument_rebuttal" title="Self-indication assumption doomsday argument rebuttal">Self-indication assumption doomsday argument rebuttal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-referencing_doomsday_argument_rebuttal" title="Self-referencing doomsday argument rebuttal">Self-referencing doomsday argument rebuttal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_collapse" title="Economic collapse">Economic collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malthusianism" title="Malthusianism">Malthusian catastrophe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_World_Order_(conspiracy_theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="New World Order (conspiracy theory)">New World Order (conspiracy theory)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_holocaust" title="Nuclear holocaust">Nuclear holocaust</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cobalt_bomb" title="Cobalt bomb">cobalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_famine" title="Nuclear famine">famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_winter" title="Nuclear winter">winter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Societal_collapse" title="Societal collapse">Societal collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_collapse" title="State collapse">State collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_III" title="World War III">World War III</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Climate_apocalypse" title="Climate apocalypse">Ecological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Climate_variability_and_change" title="Climate variability and change">Climate change</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anoxic_event" title="Anoxic event">Anoxic event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">Biodiversity loss</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mass_mortality_event" title="Mass mortality event">Mass mortality event</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_effect_(ecology)" title="Cascade effect (ecology)">Cascade effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cataclysmic_pole_shift_hypothesis" title="Cataclysmic pole shift hypothesis">Cataclysmic pole shift hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_civilizational_collapse" title="Climate change and civilizational collapse">Climate change and civilizational collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">Desertification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change" title="Extinction risk from climate change">Extinction risk from climate change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">Tipping points in the climate system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_basalt" title="Flood basalt">Flood basalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_dimming" title="Global dimming">Global dimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_terrestrial_stilling" title="Global terrestrial stilling">Global terrestrial stilling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Global warming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypercane" title="Hypercane">Hypercane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_age" title="Ice age">Ice age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecocide" title="Ecocide">Ecocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological collapse">Ecological collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">Environmental degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_destruction" title="Habitat destruction">Habitat destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs" title="Environmental issues with coral reefs">coral reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">on marine life</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Land degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_consumption" title="Land consumption">Land consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_surface_effects_on_climate" title="Land surface effects on climate">Land surface effects on climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_depletion" title="Resource depletion">Resource depletion</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sea level rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supervolcano" title="Supervolcano">Supervolcano</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_winter" title="Volcanic winter">winter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verneshot" title="Verneshot">Verneshot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Earth_Overshoot_Day" title="Earth Overshoot Day">Earth Overshoot Day</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overpopulation" title="Overpopulation">Overpopulation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_overpopulation" title="Human overpopulation">Human overpopulation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">Extinction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">Extinction event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction">Holocene extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_extinction" title="Human extinction">Human extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extinction_events" title="List of extinction events">List of extinction events</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_erosion" title="Genetic erosion">Genetic erosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_pollution" title="Genetic pollution">Genetic pollution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">Biodiversity loss</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_in_amphibian_populations" title="Decline in amphibian populations">Decline in amphibian populations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_in_insect_populations" title="Decline in insect populations">Decline in insect populations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology_risk" title="Biotechnology risk">Biotechnology risk</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_agent" title="Biological agent">Biological agent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_warfare" title="Biological warfare">Biological warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioterrorism" title="Bioterrorism">Bioterrorism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_collapse_disorder" title="Colony collapse disorder">Colony collapse disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defaunation" title="Defaunation">Defaunation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysgenics" title="Dysgenics">Dysgenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_contamination" title="Interplanetary contamination">Interplanetary contamination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">Pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollinator_decline" title="Pollinator decline">Pollinator decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">Overfishing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Astronomical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_Crunch" title="Big Crunch">Big Crunch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Rip" title="Big Rip">Big Rip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection" title="Coronal mass ejection">Coronal mass ejection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_phase_transition" title="Cosmological phase transition">Cosmological phase transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomagnetic_storm" title="Geomagnetic storm">Geomagnetic storm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_vacuum_decay" class="mw-redirect" title="False vacuum decay">False vacuum decay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma-ray_burst" title="Gamma-ray burst">Gamma-ray burst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_death_of_the_universe" title="Heat death of the universe">Heat death of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton_decay" title="Proton decay">Proton decay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_black_hole" title="Virtual black hole">Virtual black hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_event" title="Impact event">Impact event</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid_impact_avoidance" title="Asteroid impact avoidance">Asteroid impact avoidance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid_impact_prediction" title="Asteroid impact prediction">Asteroid impact prediction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potentially_hazardous_object" title="Potentially hazardous object">Potentially hazardous object</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Near-Earth_object" title="Near-Earth object">Near-Earth object</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_winter" title="Impact winter">winter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_planet" title="Rogue planet">Rogue planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intergalactic_star" title="Intergalactic star">Rogue star</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near-Earth_supernova" title="Near-Earth supernova">Near-Earth supernova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypernova" title="Hypernova">Hypernova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronova" title="Micronova">Micronova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_flare" title="Solar flare">Solar flare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_collision" title="Stellar collision">Stellar collision</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eschatology" title="Eschatology">Eschatological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_eschatology" title="Buddhist eschatology">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maitreya" title="Maitreya">Maitreya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Ages_of_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Ages of Buddhism">Three Ages</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_eschatology" title="Hindu eschatology">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kalki" title="Kalki">Kalki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kali_Yuga" title="Kali Yuga">Kali Yuga</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Last_Judgment" title="Last Judgment">Last Judgement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Coming" title="Second Coming">Second Coming</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Enoch" title="Book of Enoch">1 Enoch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Daniel" title="Book of Daniel">Daniel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abomination_of_desolation" title="Abomination of desolation">Abomination of desolation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophecy_of_Seventy_Weeks" title="Prophecy of Seventy Weeks">Prophecy of Seventy Weeks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messiah" title="Messiah">Messiah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_eschatology" title="Christian eschatology">Christian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Futurism_(Christianity)" title="Futurism (Christianity)">Futurism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism_(Christianity)" title="Historicism (Christianity)">Historicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historicist_interpretations_of_the_Book_of_Revelation" title="Historicist interpretations of the Book of Revelation">Interpretations of Revelation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism_(Christian_eschatology)" title="Idealism (Christian eschatology)"> Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preterism" title="Preterism">Preterism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2_Esdras" title="2 Esdras">2 Esdras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Epistle_to_the_Thessalonians" title="Second Epistle to the Thessalonians">2 Thessalonians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Man_of_sin" title="Man of sin">Man of sin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katechon" title="Katechon">Katechon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antichrist" title="Antichrist">Antichrist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Book of Revelation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Events_of_Revelation" title="Events of Revelation">Events</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Horsemen_of_the_Apocalypse" title="Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse">Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_of_fire" title="Lake of fire">Lake of fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Number_of_the_beast" title="Number of the beast">Number of the Beast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_bowls" title="Seven bowls">Seven bowls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_seals" title="Seven seals">Seven seals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Beast_(Revelation)" title="The Beast (Revelation)">The Beast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_witnesses" title="Two witnesses">Two witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Heaven" title="War in Heaven">War in Heaven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whore_of_Babylon" title="Whore of Babylon">Whore of Babylon</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Apostasy" title="Great Apostasy">Great Apostasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Earth_(Christianity)" title="New Earth (Christianity)">New Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Jerusalem" title="New Jerusalem">New Jerusalem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olivet_Discourse" title="Olivet Discourse">Olivet Discourse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Tribulation" title="Great Tribulation">Great Tribulation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Son_of_perdition" title="Son of perdition">Son of perdition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Sheep_and_the_Goats" title="The Sheep and the Goats">Sheep and Goats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_eschatology" title="Islamic eschatology">Islamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qa%27im_Al_Muhammad" title="Qa'im Al Muhammad">Al-Qa'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beast_of_the_Earth" title="Beast of the Earth">Beast of the Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhu_al-Qarnayn" title="Dhu al-Qarnayn">Dhu al-Qarnayn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhul-Suwayqatayn" title="Dhul-Suwayqatayn">Dhul-Suwayqatayn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Masih_ad-Dajjal" title="Al-Masih ad-Dajjal">Dajjal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israfil" title="Israfil">Israfil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahdi" title="Mahdi">Mahdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufyani" title="Sufyani">Sufyani</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_eschatology" title="Jewish eschatology">Jewish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Messiah_in_Judaism" title="Messiah in Judaism">Messiah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gog_and_Magog" title="Gog and Magog">War of Gog and Magog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Temple" title="Third Temple">Third Temple</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ragnar%C3%B6k" title="Ragnarök">Norse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frashokereti" title="Frashokereti">Zoroastrian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saoshyant" title="Saoshyant">Saoshyant</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2011_end_times_prediction" title="2011 end times prediction">2011 end times prediction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_phenomenon" title="2012 phenomenon">2012 phenomenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apocalypse" title="Apocalypse">Apocalypse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apocalyptic_literature" title="Apocalyptic literature">Apocalyptic literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apocalypticism" title="Apocalypticism">Apocalypticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armageddon" title="Armageddon">Armageddon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_moon_prophecy" title="Blood moon prophecy">Blood moon prophecy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_Changes" title="Earth Changes">Earth Changes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_catastrophic_risk" title="Global catastrophic risk">End time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gog_and_Magog" title="Gog and Magog">Gog and Magog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_dates_predicted_for_apocalyptic_events" title="List of dates predicted for apocalyptic events">List of dates predicted for apocalyptic events</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messianism" title="Messianism">Messianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Messianic_Age" title="Messianic Age">Messianic Age</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millenarianism" title="Millenarianism">Millenarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millennialism" title="Millennialism">Millennialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Premillennialism" title="Premillennialism">Premillennialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amillennialism" title="Amillennialism">Amillennialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmillennialism" title="Postmillennialism">Postmillennialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemesis_(hypothetical_star)" title="Nemesis (hypothetical star)">Nemesis (hypothetical star)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nibiru_cataclysm" title="Nibiru cataclysm">Nibiru cataclysm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapture" title="Rapture">Rapture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rapture#Prewrath_premillennialism" title="Rapture">Prewrath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posttribulation_rapture" title="Posttribulation rapture">Posttribulation rapture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_resurrection" title="Universal resurrection">Resurrection of the dead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_to_come" title="World to come">World to come</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fictional</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alien_invasion" title="Alien invasion">Alien invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apocalyptic_and_post-apocalyptic_fiction" title="Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction">Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_apocalyptic_and_post-apocalyptic_fiction" title="List of apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction">List of apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_apocalyptic_films" title="List of apocalyptic films">List of apocalyptic films</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_fiction" title="Climate fiction">Climate fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster_film" title="Disaster film">Disaster films</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_disaster_films" title="List of disaster films">List of disaster films</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zombie_apocalypse" title="Zombie apocalypse">Zombie apocalypse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zombie" title="Zombie">Zombie</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centre_for_the_Study_of_Existential_Risk" title="Centre for the Study of Existential Risk">Centre for the Study of Existential Risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_Humanity_Institute" title="Future of Humanity Institute">Future of Humanity Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_Life_Institute" title="Future of Life Institute">Future of Life Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Threat_Initiative" title="Nuclear Threat Initiative">Nuclear Threat Initiative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ransomware" title="Ransomware">Ransomware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare" title="Cyberwarfare">Cyberwarfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster" title="Disaster">Disaster</a></li> <li><a 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