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id="toc-Birth_of_subculture_and_entering_mainstream:_1960s–1980s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Birth_of_subculture_and_entering_mainstream:_1960s–1980s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Birth of subculture and entering mainstream: 1960s–1980s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Birth_of_subculture_and_entering_mainstream:_1960s–1980s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classifications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classifications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Classifications</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Classifications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Classifications subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Classifications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cracker" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cracker"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Cracker</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cracker-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-White_hat" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#White_hat"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>White hat</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-White_hat-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Black_hat" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Black_hat"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Black hat</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Black_hat-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grey_hat" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grey_hat"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Grey hat</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grey_hat-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Elite_hacker" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Elite_hacker"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Elite hacker</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Elite_hacker-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Script_kiddie" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Script_kiddie"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Script kiddie</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Script_kiddie-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neophyte" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neophyte"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Neophyte</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neophyte-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Blue_hat" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Blue_hat"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Blue hat</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Blue_hat-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hacktivist" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hacktivist"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9</span> <span>Hacktivist</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hacktivist-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nation_state" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nation_state"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.10</span> <span>Nation state</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nation_state-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Organized_criminal_gangs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Organized_criminal_gangs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.11</span> <span>Organized criminal gangs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Organized_criminal_gangs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Attacks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Attacks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Attacks</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Attacks-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Attacks subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Attacks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Security_exploits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Security_exploits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Security exploits</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Security_exploits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Techniques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Techniques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Techniques</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Techniques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_intruders_and_criminal_hackers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_intruders_and_criminal_hackers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Notable intruders and criminal hackers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_intruders_and_criminal_hackers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_security_hackers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_security_hackers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Notable security hackers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_security_hackers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Customs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Customs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Customs</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Customs-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Customs subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Customs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hacker_groups_and_conventions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hacker_groups_and_conventions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Hacker groups and conventions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hacker_groups_and_conventions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consequences_for_malicious_hacking" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consequences_for_malicious_hacking"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Consequences for malicious hacking</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Consequences_for_malicious_hacking-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Consequences for malicious hacking subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Consequences_for_malicious_hacking-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>India</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Netherlands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Netherlands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Netherlands</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Netherlands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hacking_and_the_media" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hacking_and_the_media"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Hacking and the media</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Hacking_and_the_media-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Hacking and the media subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Hacking_and_the_media-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hacker_magazines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hacker_magazines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Hacker magazines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hacker_magazines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hackers_in_fiction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hackers_in_fiction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Hackers in fiction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hackers_in_fiction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2.1</span> <span>Books</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Films" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Films"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2.2</span> <span>Films</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Films-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-TV_series" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#TV_series"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2.3</span> <span>TV series</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-TV_series-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-fiction_books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-fiction_books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Non-fiction books</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-fiction_books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Security hacker</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 29 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-29" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">29 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AE%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%82_%D8%A3%D9%85%D9%86%D9%8A" title="مخترق أمني – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مخترق أمني" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0_(%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE)" title="হ্যাকার (কম্পিউটার নিরাপত্তা) – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="হ্যাকার (কম্পিউটার নিরাপত্তা)" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Хакер – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Хакер" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hacker_(Computersicherheit)" title="Hacker (Computersicherheit) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Hacker (Computersicherheit)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A7%CE%AC%CE%BA%CE%B5%CF%81" title="Χάκερ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Χάκερ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hacker_(seguridad_inform%C3%A1tica)" title="Hacker (seguridad informática) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Hacker (seguridad informática)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hackerra_(segurtasun_informatikoa)" title="Hackerra (segurtasun informatikoa) – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Hackerra (segurtasun informatikoa)" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%DA%A9%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="هکر امنیتی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="هکر امنیتی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hacker_(s%C3%A9curit%C3%A9_informatique)" title="Hacker (sécurité informatique) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Hacker (sécurité informatique)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brada%C3%AD" title="Bradaí – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Bradaí" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0_(%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE)" title="हैकर (कम्प्यूटर सुरक्षा) – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="हैकर (कम्प्यूटर सुरक्षा)" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security_hacker" title="Security hacker – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Security hacker" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%A4%D7%AA_%D7%9E%D7%97%D7%A9%D7%91" title="תקיפת מחשב – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="תקיפת מחשב" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B9%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D_(%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%AA%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B3%82%E0%B2%9F%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B7%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%86)" title="ಹ್ಯಾಕರ್ (ಕಂಪ್ಯೂಟರ್ ಸುರಕ್ಷತೆ) – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಹ್ಯಾಕರ್ (ಕಂಪ್ಯೂಟರ್ ಸುರಕ್ಷತೆ)" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%81%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%8E%D8%B1" title="ہیکَر – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="ہیکَر" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>कॉशुर / کٲشُر</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0_(%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE)" title="ह्याकर (कम्प्युटर सुरक्षा) – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="ह्याकर (कम्प्युटर सुरक्षा)" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मैथिली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Хакер – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Хакер" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penggodam_(keselamatan_komputer)" title="Penggodam (keselamatan komputer) – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Penggodam (keselamatan komputer)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0_(%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE)" title="ह्याकर (कम्प्युटर सुरक्षा) – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="ह्याकर (कम्प्युटर सुरक्षा)" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%B9%E0%AD%8D%E0%AD%9F%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%95%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%82" title="ହ୍ୟାକିଂ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ହ୍ୟାକିଂ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%AA%D9%8A_%D9%87%D9%8A%DA%A9%D8%B1" title="امنيتي هيکر – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="امنيتي هيکر" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haker_(bezpiecze%C5%84stwo_komputerowe)" title="Haker (bezpieczeństwo komputerowe) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Haker (bezpieczeństwo komputerowe)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hacker_de_seguran%C3%A7a" title="Hacker de segurança – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Hacker de segurança" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%BE%D8%A7%DA%A9%DA%A9%DB%95%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%A6%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B4" title="ھاککەری ئاسایش – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ھاککەری ئاسایش" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haker" title="Haker – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Haker" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D" title="கொந்தர் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கொந்தர்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hacker_(an_ninh_m%C3%A1y_t%C3%ADnh)" title="Hacker (an ninh máy tính) – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Hacker (an ninh máy tính)" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%BB%91%E5%AE%A2" title="黑客 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="黑客" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%BB%91%E5%AE%A2_(%E8%AE%A1%E7%AE%97%E6%9C%BA%E5%AE%89%E5%85%A8)" title="黑客 (计算机安全) – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="黑客 (计算机安全)" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q2798820#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Security_hacker" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon 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class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_hackers&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer hackers">Computer hackers</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Computer security term; someone who hacks computer systems</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Hacker" title="Hacker">Hacker</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hacker_culture" title="Hacker culture">Hacker culture</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output 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.sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Computer hacking</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_security_hacking_incidents" title="List of security hacking incidents">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phreaking" title="Phreaking">Phreaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptovirology" title="Cryptovirology">Cryptovirology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hacking_of_consumer_electronics" title="Hacking of consumer electronics">Hacking of consumer electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_hackers" title="List of hackers">List of hackers</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Hacker_culture" title="Hacker culture">Hacker culture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hacker_ethic" title="Hacker ethic">ethic</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hackathon" title="Hackathon">Hackathon</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hacker_Manifesto" title="Hacker Manifesto">Hacker Manifesto</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hackerspace" title="Hackerspace">Hackerspace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hacktivism" title="Hacktivism">Hacktivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maker_culture" title="Maker culture">Maker culture</a></li> <li>Types of <a href="/wiki/Hacker" title="Hacker">hackers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_hat_(computer_security)" title="Black hat (computer security)">Black hat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grey_hat" title="Grey hat">Grey hat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_hat_(computer_security)" title="White hat (computer security)">White hat</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Computer_security_conference" title="Computer security conference">Conferences</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hat_Briefings" title="Black Hat Briefings">Black Hat Briefings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaos_Communication_Congress" title="Chaos Communication Congress">Chaos Communication Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DEF_CON" title="DEF CON">DEF CON</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hackers_on_Planet_Earth" title="Hackers on Planet Earth">Hackers on Planet Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_BSides" title="Security BSides">Security BSides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ShmooCon" title="ShmooCon">ShmooCon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Summercon" title="Summercon">Summercon</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Computer_crime" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer crime">Computer crime</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crimeware" title="Crimeware">Crimeware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_computer_criminals" class="mw-redirect" title="List of computer criminals">List of computer criminals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Script_kiddie" title="Script kiddie">Script kiddie</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Hacking_tool" class="mw-redirect" title="Hacking tool">Hacking tools</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exploit_(computer_security)" title="Exploit (computer security)">Exploit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_digital_forensics_tools#Forensics-focused_operating_systems" title="List of digital forensics tools">forensics-focused operating systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Payload_(computing)" title="Payload (computing)">Payload</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_engineering_(security)" title="Social engineering (security)">Social engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulnerability_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vulnerability (computing)">Vulnerability</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Hacker_culture" title="Hacker culture">Practice sites</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HackThisSite" title="HackThisSite">HackThisSite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zone-H" title="Zone-H">Zone-H</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Malware" title="Malware">Malware</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rootkit" title="Rootkit">Rootkit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Backdoor_(computing)" title="Backdoor (computing)">Backdoor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trojan_horse_(computing)" title="Trojan horse (computing)">Trojan horse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_virus" title="Computer virus">Virus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_worm" title="Computer worm">Worm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spyware" title="Spyware">Spyware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ransomware" title="Ransomware">Ransomware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic_bomb" title="Logic bomb">Logic bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botnet" title="Botnet">Botnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keystroke_logging" title="Keystroke logging">Keystroke logging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Host-based_intrusion_detection_system" title="Host-based intrusion detection system">HIDS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_shell" title="Web shell">Web shell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arbitrary_code_execution" title="Arbitrary code execution">RCE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infostealer" title="Infostealer">Infostealer</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Computer_security" title="Computer security">Computer security</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Application_security" title="Application security">Application security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_computing_security" title="Cloud computing security">Cloud computing security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_security" title="Network security">Network security</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Hacker_group" title="Hacker group">Groups</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anonymous_(group)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anonymous (group)">Anonymous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaos_Computer_Club" title="Chaos Computer Club">Chaos Computer Club</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homebrew_Computer_Club" title="Homebrew Computer Club">Homebrew Computer Club</a> (defunct)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legion_of_Doom_(hacking)" class="mw-redirect" title="Legion of Doom (hacking)">Legion of Doom</a> (defunct)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/LulzSec" title="LulzSec">LulzSec</a> (defunct)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masters_of_Deception" title="Masters of Deception">Masters of Deception</a> (defunct)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_team" title="Red team">Red team</a> / <a href="/wiki/Blue_team_(computer_security)" title="Blue team (computer security)">Blue team</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Publications</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/2600:_The_Hacker_Quarterly" title="2600: The Hacker Quarterly">2600: The Hacker Quarterly</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hacker_News" title="Hacker News">Hacker News</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nuts_and_Volts" title="Nuts and Volts">Nuts and Volts</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Phrack" title="Phrack">Phrack</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Computer_hacking" title="Template:Computer hacking"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Computer_hacking" title="Template talk:Computer hacking"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Computer_hacking" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Computer hacking"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A <b>security hacker</b> or security researcher is someone who explores methods for breaching defenses and <a href="/wiki/Exploit_(computer_security)" title="Exploit (computer security)">exploiting</a> weaknesses in a <a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">computer system</a> or <a href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">network</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hackers may be motivated by a multitude of reasons, such as profit, protest, information gathering,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> challenge, recreation,<sup id="cite_ref-crackdown_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crackdown-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or evaluation of a system weaknesses to assist in formulating defenses against potential hackers. </p><p>Longstanding controversy surrounds the meaning of the term "<a href="/wiki/Hacker" title="Hacker">hacker</a>". In this controversy, <a href="/wiki/Hacker_(programmer_subculture)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hacker (programmer subculture)">computer programmers</a> reclaim the term <i>hacker</i>, arguing that it refers simply to someone with an advanced understanding of computers and computer networks,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that <i><b>cracker</b></i> is the more appropriate term for those who break into computers, whether computer criminals (<a href="#Black_hat">black hats</a>) or computer security experts (<a href="/wiki/White_hat_(computer_security)" title="White hat (computer security)">white hats</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2014 article noted that "the black-hat meaning still prevails among the general public".<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The subculture that has evolved around hackers is often referred to as the "computer underground". </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computer_security_hacker_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of computer security hacker history">Timeline of computer security hacker history</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stering.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Stering.jpg/220px-Stering.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Stering.jpg/330px-Stering.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/Stering.jpg 2x" data-file-width="376" data-file-height="279" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Sterling" title="Bruce Sterling">Bruce Sterling</a>, author of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Hacker_Crackdown" title="The Hacker Crackdown">The Hacker Crackdown</a></i></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Birth_of_subculture_and_entering_mainstream:_1960s–1980s"><span id="Birth_of_subculture_and_entering_mainstream:_1960s.E2.80.931980s"></span>Birth of subculture and entering mainstream: 1960s–1980s</h3></div> <p>The subculture around such hackers is termed network hacker subculture, hacker scene, or computer underground. It initially developed in the context of <a href="/wiki/Phreaking" title="Phreaking">phreaking</a> during the 1960s and the microcomputer <a href="/wiki/Bulletin_board_system" title="Bulletin board system">BBS scene</a> of the 1980s. It is implicated with <i><a href="/wiki/2600:_The_Hacker_Quarterly" title="2600: The Hacker Quarterly">2600: The Hacker Quarterly</a></i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Alt.2600" class="mw-redirect" title="Alt.2600">alt.2600</a></i> newsgroup. </p><p>In 1980, an article in the August issue of <i><a href="/wiki/Psychology_Today" title="Psychology Today">Psychology Today</a></i> (with commentary by <a href="/wiki/Philip_Zimbardo" title="Philip Zimbardo">Philip Zimbardo</a>) used the term "hacker" in its title: "The Hacker Papers." It was an excerpt from a Stanford Bulletin Board discussion on the addictive nature of computer use. In the 1982 film <i><a href="/wiki/Tron" title="Tron">Tron</a></i>, Kevin Flynn (<a href="/wiki/Jeff_Bridges" title="Jeff Bridges">Jeff Bridges</a>) describes his intentions to break into ENCOM's computer system, saying "I've been doing a little hacking here." CLU is the <a href="/wiki/Software" title="Software">software</a> he uses for this. By 1983, hacking in the sense of breaking computer security had already been in use as computer jargon,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but there was no public awareness about such activities.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the release of the film <i><a href="/wiki/WarGames" title="WarGames">WarGames</a></i> that year, featuring a computer intrusion into <a href="/wiki/NORAD" title="NORAD">NORAD</a>, raised the public belief that computer security hackers (especially teenagers) could be a threat to national security. This concern became real when, in the same year, a gang of teenage hackers in <a href="/wiki/Milwaukee" title="Milwaukee">Milwaukee, Wisconsin</a>, known as <a href="/wiki/The_414s" title="The 414s">The 414s</a>, broke into computer systems throughout the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, including those of <a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_National_Laboratory" title="Los Alamos National Laboratory">Los Alamos National Laboratory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Memorial_Sloan-Kettering_Cancer_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center">Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center</a> and <a href="/wiki/Security_Pacific_Bank" title="Security Pacific Bank">Security Pacific Bank</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-drzmzu_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-drzmzu-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The case quickly grew media attention,<sup id="cite_ref-drzmzu_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-drzmzu-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 17-year-old Neal Patrick emerged as the spokesman for the gang, including a cover story in <i><a href="/wiki/Newsweek" title="Newsweek">Newsweek</a></i> entitled "Beware: Hackers at play", with Patrick's photograph on the cover.<sup id="cite_ref-iophas_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iophas-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i><a href="/wiki/Newsweek" title="Newsweek">Newsweek</a></i> article appears to be the first use of the word <i>hacker</i> by the mainstream media in the pejorative sense. </p><p>Pressured by media coverage, congressman <a href="/wiki/Dan_Glickman" title="Dan Glickman">Dan Glickman</a> called for an investigation and began work on new laws against computer hacking.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated180_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated180-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Neal Patrick testified before the <a href="/wiki/U.S._House_of_Representatives" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. House of Representatives">U.S. House of Representatives</a> on September 26, 1983, about the dangers of computer hacking, and six bills concerning computer crime were introduced in the House that year.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated180_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated180-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result of these laws against computer criminality, white hat, <a href="/wiki/Grey_hat" title="Grey hat">grey hat</a> and black hat hackers try to distinguish themselves from each other, depending on the legality of their activities. These moral conflicts are expressed in <a href="/wiki/Loyd_Blankenship" title="Loyd Blankenship">The Mentor</a>'s "<a href="/wiki/The_Hacker_Manifesto" class="mw-redirect" title="The Hacker Manifesto">The Hacker Manifesto</a>", published 1986 in <i><a href="/wiki/Phrack" title="Phrack">Phrack</a></i>. </p><p>Use of the term hacker meaning computer criminal was also advanced by the title "Stalking the Wily Hacker", an article by <a href="/wiki/Clifford_Stoll" title="Clifford Stoll">Clifford Stoll</a> in the May 1988 issue of the <i><a href="/wiki/Communications_of_the_ACM" title="Communications of the ACM">Communications of the ACM</a></i>. Later that year, the release by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Tappan_Morris,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Tappan Morris, Jr.">Robert Tappan Morris, Jr.</a> of the so-called <a href="/wiki/Morris_worm" title="Morris worm">Morris worm</a> provoked the popular media to spread this usage. The popularity of Stoll's book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Cuckoo%27s_Egg" class="mw-redirect" title="The Cuckoo's Egg">The Cuckoo's Egg</a></i>, published one year later, further entrenched the term in the public's consciousness. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classifications">Classifications</h2></div> <p>In computer security, a hacker is someone who focuses on the security mechanisms of computer and network systems. Hackers can include someone who endeavors to strengthen security mechanisms by exploring their weaknesses and also those who seek to access secure, unauthorized information despite security measures. Nevertheless, parts of the subculture see their aim in correcting security problems and use the word in a positive sense. White hat is the name given to ethical computer hackers, who utilize hacking in a helpful way. White hats are becoming a necessary part of the information security field.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They operate under a code, which acknowledges that breaking into other people's computers is bad, but that discovering and exploiting security mechanisms and breaking into computers is still an interesting activity that can be done ethically and legally. Accordingly, the term bears strong connotations that are favorable or pejorative, depending on the context. </p><p>Subgroups of the computer underground with different attitudes and motives use different terms to demarcate themselves from each other. These classifications are also used to exclude specific groups with whom they do not agree. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cracker">Cracker</h3></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Eric_S._Raymond" title="Eric S. Raymond">Eric S. Raymond</a>, author of <i><a href="/wiki/Jargon_File" title="Jargon File">The New Hacker's Dictionary</a></i>, advocates that members of the computer underground should be called crackers. Yet, those people see themselves as hackers and even try to include the views of Raymond in what they see as a wider hacker culture, a view that Raymond has harshly rejected. Instead of a hacker/cracker dichotomy, they emphasize a spectrum of different categories, such as <a href="/wiki/White_hat_(computer_security)" title="White hat (computer security)">white hat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grey_hat" title="Grey hat">grey hat</a>, <a href="#Black_hat">black hat</a> and <a href="/wiki/Script_kiddie" title="Script kiddie">script kiddie</a>. In contrast to Raymond, they usually reserve the term <i>cracker</i> for more malicious activity. </p><p>According to Ralph D. Clifford, a <i>cracker</i> or <i>cracking</i> is to "gain unauthorized access to a computer in order to commit another crime such as destroying information contained in that system."<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These subgroups may also be defined by the legal status of their activities.<sup id="cite_ref-hacker_hats_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hacker_hats-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="White_hat">White hat</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/White_hat_(computer_security)" title="White hat (computer security)">White hat (computer security)</a></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/White_hat_hacker" class="mw-redirect" title="White hat hacker">white hat hacker</a> breaks security for non-malicious reasons, either to test their own security system, perform <a href="/wiki/Penetration_test" title="Penetration test">penetration tests</a> or <a href="/wiki/Vulnerability_assessment" title="Vulnerability assessment">vulnerability assessments</a> for a client, or while working for a security company that makes security software. The term is generally synonymous with <a href="/wiki/Hacker_ethic" title="Hacker ethic">ethical hacker</a>, and certifications, courseware, classes, and online training covering the diverse arena of ethical hacking have been developed.<sup id="cite_ref-hacker_hats_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hacker_hats-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Black_hat">Black hat</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Black_hat_(computer_security)" title="Black hat (computer security)">Black hat (computer security)</a></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Black_hat_hacker" class="mw-redirect" title="Black hat hacker">black hat hacker</a> is a hacker who "violates computer security for little reason beyond maliciousness or for personal gain" (Moore, 2005).<sup id="cite_ref-Moore2005_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moore2005-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term was coined by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Stallman" title="Richard Stallman">Richard Stallman</a>, to contrast the maliciousness of a criminal hacker versus the spirit of playfulness and exploration in <a href="/wiki/Hacker_culture" title="Hacker culture">hacker culture</a>, or the ethos of the <a href="/wiki/White_hat_hacker" class="mw-redirect" title="White hat hacker">white hat hacker</a> who performs hacking duties to identify places to repair or as a means of legitimate employment.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Black hat hackers form the stereotypical, illegal hacking groups often portrayed in popular culture, and are "the epitome of all that the public fears in a computer criminal".<sup id="cite_ref-moore2006_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-moore2006-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Grey_hat">Grey hat</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Grey_hat" title="Grey hat">Grey hat</a></div> <p>A grey hat hacker lies between a black hat and a white hat hacker, hacking for ideological reasons.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A grey hat hacker may surf the Internet and hack into a computer system for the sole purpose of notifying the administrator that their system has a security defect, for example. They may then offer to correct the defect for a fee.<sup id="cite_ref-moore2006_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-moore2006-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Grey hat hackers sometimes find the defect in a system and publish the facts to the world instead of a group of people. Even though grey hat hackers may not necessarily perform hacking for their personal gain, unauthorized access to a system can be considered illegal and unethical. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Elite_hacker">Elite hacker</h3></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Achieved_status" title="Achieved status">social status</a> among hackers, <i>elite</i> is used to describe the most skilled. Newly discovered <a href="/wiki/Exploit_(computer_security)" title="Exploit (computer security)">exploits</a> circulate among these hackers. Elite <a href="/wiki/Hacker_group" title="Hacker group">groups</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Masters_of_Deception" title="Masters of Deception">Masters of Deception</a> conferred a kind of credibility on their members.<sup id="cite_ref-thomas2002_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thomas2002-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Script_kiddie">Script kiddie</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Script_kiddie" title="Script kiddie">Script kiddie</a></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Script_kiddie" title="Script kiddie">script kiddie</a> (also known as a <i>skid</i> or <i>skiddie</i>) is an unskilled hacker who breaks into computer systems by using automated tools written by others (usually by other black hat hackers), hence the term script (i.e. a computer script that automates the hacking) kiddie (i.e. kid, child an individual lacking knowledge and experience, immature),<sup id="cite_ref-Andress_10_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andress_10-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> usually with little understanding of the underlying concept. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neophyte">Neophyte</h3></div> <p>A neophyte ("<a href="/wiki/Newbie" title="Newbie">newbie</a>", or "noob") is someone who is new to hacking or phreaking and has almost no knowledge or experience of the workings of technology and hacking.<sup id="cite_ref-moore2006_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-moore2006-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Blue_hat">Blue hat</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/BlueHat" title="BlueHat">BlueHat</a></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/BlueHat" title="BlueHat">blue hat</a> hacker is someone outside computer security consulting firms who is used to bug-test a system prior to its launch, looking for exploits so they can be closed. <a href="/wiki/Microsoft" title="Microsoft">Microsoft</a> also uses the term <i>BlueHat</i> to represent a series of security briefing events.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hacktivist">Hacktivist</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hacktivist" class="mw-redirect" title="Hacktivist">Hacktivist</a></div> <p>A hacktivist is a hacker who utilizes technology to publicize a social, ideological, religious or political message. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Hacktivism" title="Hacktivism">Hacktivism</a> can be divided into two main groups: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyberterrorism" title="Cyberterrorism">Cyberterrorism</a> – Activities involving <a href="/wiki/Website_defacement" title="Website defacement">website defacement</a> or <a href="/wiki/Denial-of-service_attack" title="Denial-of-service attack">denial-of-service attacks</a>; and,</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_information" title="Freedom of information">Freedom of information</a> – Making information that is not public, or is public in non-machine-readable formats, accessible to the public.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nation_state">Nation state</h3></div> <p>Intelligence agencies and <a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare" title="Cyberwarfare">cyberwarfare</a> operatives of nation states.<sup id="cite_ref-GISEC_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GISEC-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Organized_criminal_gangs">Organized criminal gangs</h3></div> <p>Groups of hackers that carry out organized criminal activities for profit.<sup id="cite_ref-GISEC_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GISEC-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern-day <a href="/wiki/Computer_hackers" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer hackers">computer hackers</a> have been compared to the <a href="/wiki/Privateer" title="Privateer">privateers</a> of by-gone days.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These criminals hold computer systems hostage, demanding large payments from victims to restore access to their own computer systems and data.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, recent <a href="/wiki/Ransomware" title="Ransomware">ransomware</a> attacks on industries, including energy, food, and transportation, have been blamed on <a href="/wiki/Criminal_organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Criminal organization">criminal organizations</a> based in or near a <a href="/wiki/State_actor" class="mw-redirect" title="State actor">state actor</a> – possibly with the country's knowledge and approval.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Data_breach" title="Data breach">Cyber theft</a> and ransomware attacks are now the fastest-growing crimes in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Bitcoin" title="Bitcoin">Bitcoin</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Cryptocurrencies" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryptocurrencies">cryptocurrencies</a> facilitate the <a href="/wiki/Extortion" title="Extortion">extortion</a> of huge ransoms from large companies, hospitals and city governments with little or no chance of being caught.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Attacks">Attacks</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Computer_security" title="Computer security">Computer security</a></div><p>Hackers can usually be sorted into two types of attacks: mass attacks and targeted attacks.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are sorted into the groups in terms of how they choose their victims and how they act on the attacks.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A typical approach in an attack on Internet-connected system is: </p> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Network_enumeration" title="Network enumeration">Network enumeration</a>: Discovering information about the intended target.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulnerability_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vulnerability (computing)">Vulnerability analysis</a>: Identifying potential ways of attack.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploit_(computer_security)" title="Exploit (computer security)">Exploitation</a>: Attempting to compromise the system by employing the vulnerabilities found through the vulnerability analysis.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>In order to do so, there are several recurring tools of the trade and techniques used by computer criminals and security experts. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Security_exploits">Security exploits</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Exploit_(computer_security)" title="Exploit (computer security)">Exploit (computer security)</a></div> <p>A security exploit is a prepared application that takes advantage of a known weakness.<sup id="cite_ref-Rodriguez_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rodriguez-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Common examples of security exploits are <a href="/wiki/SQL_injection" title="SQL injection">SQL injection</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cross-site_scripting" title="Cross-site scripting">cross-site scripting</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cross-site_request_forgery" title="Cross-site request forgery">cross-site request forgery</a> which abuse security holes that may result from substandard programming practice. Other exploits would be able to be used through <a href="/wiki/File_Transfer_Protocol" title="File Transfer Protocol">File Transfer Protocol</a> (FTP), <a href="/wiki/Hypertext_Transfer_Protocol" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypertext Transfer Protocol">Hypertext Transfer Protocol</a> (HTTP), <a href="/wiki/PHP" title="PHP">PHP</a>, <a href="/wiki/Secure_Shell" title="Secure Shell">SSH</a>, <a href="/wiki/Telnet" title="Telnet">Telnet</a> and some Web pages. These are very common in Web site and Web domain hacking. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Techniques">Techniques</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Security_hacker" title="Special:EditPage/Security hacker">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2011</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <dl><dt>Vulnerability scanner</dt> <dd>A <a href="/wiki/Vulnerability_scanner" title="Vulnerability scanner">vulnerability scanner</a> is a tool used to quickly check computers on a network for known weaknesses. Hackers also commonly use <a href="/wiki/Port_scanner" title="Port scanner">port scanners</a>. These check to see which ports on a specified computer are "open" or available to access the computer, and sometimes will detect what program or service is listening on that port, and its version number. (<a href="/wiki/Firewall_(computing)" title="Firewall (computing)">Firewalls</a> defend computers from intruders by limiting access to ports and machines, but they can still be circumvented.)</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Finding vulnerabilities</dt> <dd>Hackers may also attempt to find vulnerabilities manually. A common approach is to search for possible vulnerabilities in the code of the computer system then test them, sometimes <a href="/wiki/Reverse_engineering" title="Reverse engineering">reverse engineering</a> the software if the code is not provided. Experienced hackers can easily find patterns in code to find common vulnerabilities.</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Brute-force attack</dt> <dd>Password guessing. <a href="/wiki/Brute-force_attacks" class="mw-redirect" title="Brute-force attacks">Brute-force attacks</a> are used to quickly check all short password variations. For longer passwords, other methods such as the dictionary attack are used, because of the amount of time a brute-force search takes.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <dl><dt>Password cracking</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Password_cracking" title="Password cracking">Password cracking</a> is the process of recovering passwords from data that has been stored in or transmitted by a computer system. Common approaches include repeatedly trying guesses for the password, trying the most common passwords by hand, and repeatedly trying passwords from a "dictionary", or a text file with many passwords.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <dl><dt>Packet analyzer</dt> <dd>A <a href="/wiki/Packet_analyzer" title="Packet analyzer">packet analyzer</a> ("packet sniffer") is an application that captures data packets, which can be used to capture passwords and other <a href="/wiki/Data_in_transit" title="Data in transit">data in transit</a> over the network.</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Spoofing attack (phishing)</dt> <dd>A <a href="/wiki/Spoofing_attack" title="Spoofing attack">spoofing attack</a> involves one program, system or website that successfully masquerades as another by falsifying data and is thereby treated as a trusted system by a user or another program – usually to fool programs, systems or users into revealing confidential information, such as user names and passwords.</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Rootkit</dt> <dd>A <a href="/wiki/Rootkit" title="Rootkit">rootkit</a> is a program that uses low-level, hard-to-detect methods to subvert control of an operating system from its legitimate operators. Rootkits usually obscure their installation and attempt to prevent their removal through a subversion of standard system security. They may include replacements for system binaries, making it virtually impossible for them to be detected by checking <a href="/wiki/Process_(computing)" title="Process (computing)">process tables</a>.</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Social engineering</dt> <dd>In the second stage of the targeting process, hackers often use <a href="/wiki/Social_engineering_(security)" title="Social engineering (security)">social engineering</a> tactics to get enough information to access the network. They may contact the system administrator and pose as a user who cannot get access to his or her system. This technique is portrayed in the 1995 film <i><a href="/wiki/Hackers_(film)" title="Hackers (film)">Hackers</a></i>, when protagonist Dade "Zero Cool" Murphy calls a somewhat clueless employee in charge of security at a television network. Posing as an accountant working for the same company, Dade tricks the employee into giving him the phone number of a modem so he can gain access to the company's computer system.</dd></dl> <dl><dd>Hackers who use this technique must be familiar with their target's security practices in order to trick the system administrator into giving them information. In some cases, a help-desk employee with limited security experience will answer the phone and be relatively easy to trick. Another approach is for the hacker to pose as an angry supervisor, and when his/her authority is questioned, threaten to fire the help-desk worker. Social engineering is very effective, because users are the most vulnerable part of an organization. No security devices or programs can keep an organization safe if an employee reveals a password to an unauthorized person.</dd></dl> <dl><dd>Social engineering can be broken down into four sub-groups: <ul><li><i><b>Intimidation</b></i> As in the "angry supervisor" technique above, the hacker convinces the person who answers the phone that their job is in danger unless they help them. At this point, many people accept that the hacker is a supervisor and give them the information they seek.</li> <li><i><b>Helpfulness</b></i> The opposite of intimidation, helpfulness exploits many people's natural instinct to help others solve problems. Rather than acting angry, the hacker acts distressed and concerned. The help desk is the most vulnerable to this type of social engineering, as (a.) its general purpose is to help people; and (b.) it usually has the authority to change or reset passwords, which is exactly what the hacker wants.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><b>Name-dropping</b></i> The hacker uses names of authorized users to convince the person who answers the phone that the hacker is a legitimate user him or herself. Some of these names, such as those of webpage owners or company officers, can easily be obtained online. Hackers have also been known to obtain names by examining discarded documents (<a href="/wiki/Garbage_picking" class="mw-redirect" title="Garbage picking">"dumpster diving"</a>).</li> <li><i><b>Technical</b></i> Using technology is also a way to get information. A hacker can send a fax or email to a legitimate user, seeking a response that contains vital information. The hacker may claim that he or she is involved in law enforcement and needs certain data for an investigation, or for record-keeping purposes.</li></ul></dd></dl> <dl><dt>Trojan horses</dt> <dd>A <a href="/wiki/Trojan_horse_(computing)" title="Trojan horse (computing)">Trojan horse</a> is a program that seems to be doing one thing but is actually doing another. It can be used to set up a <a href="/wiki/Backdoor_(computing)" title="Backdoor (computing)">back door</a> in a computer system, enabling the intruder to gain access later. (The name refers to the <a href="/wiki/Trojan_Horse" title="Trojan Horse">horse</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Trojan_War" title="Trojan War">Trojan War</a>, with the conceptually similar function of deceiving defenders into bringing an intruder into a protected area.)</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Computer virus</dt> <dd>A <a href="/wiki/Computer_virus" title="Computer virus">virus</a> is a self-replicating program that spreads by inserting copies of itself into other executable code or documents. By doing this, it behaves similarly to a <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">biological virus</a>, which spreads by inserting itself into living cells. While some viruses are harmless or mere hoaxes, most are considered malicious.</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Computer worm</dt> <dd>Like a virus, a <a href="/wiki/Computer_worm" title="Computer worm">worm</a> is also a self-replicating program. It differs from a virus in that (a.) it propagates through computer networks without user intervention; and (b.) does not need to attach itself to an existing program. Nonetheless, many people use the terms "virus" and "worm" interchangeably to describe any self-propagating program.</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Keystroke logging</dt> <dd>A <a href="/wiki/Keystroke_logging" title="Keystroke logging">keylogger</a> is a tool designed to record ("log") every keystroke on an affected machine for later retrieval, usually to allow the user of this tool to gain access to confidential information typed on the affected machine. Some keyloggers use virus-, trojan-, and rootkit-like methods to conceal themselves. However, some of them are used for legitimate purposes, even to enhance computer security. For example, a business may maintain a keylogger on a computer used at a <a href="/wiki/Point_of_sale" title="Point of sale">point of sale</a> to detect evidence of employee fraud.</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Attack patterns</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Attack_patterns" title="Attack patterns">Attack patterns</a> are defined as series of repeatable steps that can be applied to simulate an attack against the security of a system. They can be used for testing purposes or locating potential vulnerabilities. They also provide, either physically or in reference, a common solution pattern for preventing a given attack.</dd></dl> <p><b>Tools and Procedures</b> </p> <dl><dd>A thorough examination of hacker tools and procedures may be found in Cengage Learning's E|CSA certification workbook.<sup id="cite_ref-E|CSA_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-E|CSA-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_intruders_and_criminal_hackers">Notable intruders and criminal hackers</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_computer_criminals" class="mw-redirect" title="List of computer criminals">List of computer criminals</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_security_hackers">Notable security hackers</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_hackers" title="List of hackers">List of hackers</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Auernheimer" class="mw-redirect" title="Andrew Auernheimer">Andrew Auernheimer</a>, sentenced to three years in prison, is a grey hat hacker whose security group <a href="/wiki/Goatse_Security" title="Goatse Security">Goatse Security</a> exposed a flaw in AT&T's iPad security.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dan_Kaminsky" title="Dan Kaminsky">Dan Kaminsky</a> was a <a href="/wiki/Domain_Name_System" title="Domain Name System">DNS</a> expert who exposed multiple flaws in the protocol and investigated Sony's rootkit security issues in 2005. He spoke in front of the United States Senate on technology issues.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernie_S" title="Bernie S">Ed Cummings</a> (also known as <a href="/wiki/Bernie_S" title="Bernie S">Bernie S</a>) is a longstanding writer for <i>2600: The Hacker Quarterly</i>. In 1995, he was arrested and charged with possession of technology that could be used for fraudulent purposes, and set legal precedents after being denied both a bail hearing and a speedy trial.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Corley" title="Eric Corley">Eric Corley</a> (also known as <a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Goldstein" title="Emmanuel Goldstein">Emmanuel Goldstein</a>) is the longstanding publisher of <i><a href="/wiki/2600:_The_Hacker_Quarterly" title="2600: The Hacker Quarterly">2600: The Hacker Quarterly</a></i>. He is also the founder of the <a href="/wiki/Hackers_on_Planet_Earth" title="Hackers on Planet Earth">Hackers on Planet Earth</a> (HOPE) conferences. He has been part of the hacker community since the late 1970s.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Headley" title="Susan Headley">Susan Headley</a> (also known as Susan Thunder), was an American hacker active during the late 1970s and early 1980s widely respected for her expertise in <a href="/wiki/Social_engineering_(security)" title="Social engineering (security)">social engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pretexting" title="Pretexting">pretexting</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Psychological_subversion" title="Psychological subversion">psychological subversion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She became heavily involved in <a href="/wiki/Phreaking" title="Phreaking">phreaking</a> with <a href="/wiki/Kevin_Mitnick" title="Kevin Mitnick">Kevin Mitnick</a> and Lewis de Payne in <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles" title="Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a>, but later framed them for erasing the system files at US Leasing after a falling out, leading to Mitnick's first conviction.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gary_McKinnon" title="Gary McKinnon">Gary McKinnon</a> is a Scottish hacker who was facing <a href="/wiki/Extradition" title="Extradition">extradition</a> to the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> to face criminal charges. Many people in the UK called on the authorities to be lenient with McKinnon, who has <a href="/wiki/Asperger_syndrome" title="Asperger syndrome">Asperger syndrome</a>. The extradition has now been dropped.<sup id="cite_ref-bbcprofile_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bbcprofile-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Lyon" title="Gordon Lyon">Gordon Lyon</a>, known by the handle Fyodor, authored the <a href="/wiki/Nmap" title="Nmap">Nmap Security Scanner</a> as well as many network security books and web sites. He is a founding member of the <a href="/wiki/Honeynet_Project" title="Honeynet Project">Honeynet Project</a> and Vice President of <a href="/wiki/Computer_Professionals_for_Social_Responsibility" title="Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility">Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guccifer_2.0" title="Guccifer 2.0">Guccifer 2.0</a>, who claimed that he hacked into the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_National_Committee" title="Democratic National Committee">Democratic National Committee</a> (DNC) computer network</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Appelbaum" title="Jacob Appelbaum">Jacob Appelbaum</a> is an advocate, security researcher, and developer for the <a href="/wiki/Tor_(anonymity_network)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tor (anonymity network)">Tor</a> project. He speaks internationally for usage of Tor by human rights groups and others concerned about Internet anonymity and censorship.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joanna_Rutkowska" title="Joanna Rutkowska">Joanna Rutkowska</a> is a Polish computer security researcher who developed the <a href="/wiki/Blue_Pill_(software)" title="Blue Pill (software)">Blue Pill</a> <a href="/wiki/Rootkit" title="Rootkit">rootkit</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qubes_OS" title="Qubes OS">Qubes OS</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jude_Milhon" title="Jude Milhon">Jude Milhon</a> (known as St. Jude) was an American hacker and activist, founding member of the <a href="/wiki/Cypherpunk" title="Cypherpunk">cypherpunk</a> movement, and one of the creators of <a href="/wiki/Community_Memory" title="Community Memory">Community Memory</a>, the first <a href="/wiki/Computer_bulletin_board" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer bulletin board">public computerized bulletin board system</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kevin_Mitnick" title="Kevin Mitnick">Kevin Mitnick</a> was a computer security consultant and author, formerly the most wanted computer criminal in <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> history.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Len_Sassaman" title="Len Sassaman">Len Sassaman</a> was a Belgian computer programmer and technologist who was also a privacy advocate.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meredith_L._Patterson" title="Meredith L. Patterson">Meredith L. Patterson</a> is a well-known technologist and <a href="/wiki/Do-it-yourself_biology" title="Do-it-yourself biology">biohacker</a> who has presented research with <a href="/wiki/Dan_Kaminsky" title="Dan Kaminsky">Dan Kaminsky</a> and <a href="/wiki/Len_Sassaman" title="Len Sassaman">Len Sassaman</a> at many international security and hacker conferences.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kimberley_Vanvaeck" class="mw-redirect" title="Kimberley Vanvaeck">Kimberley Vanvaeck</a> (known as Gigabyte) is a Belgian hacker recognized for writing the first virus in <a href="/wiki/C_Sharp_(programming_language)" title="C Sharp (programming language)">C#</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Holt_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holt-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Zalewski" title="Michał Zalewski">Michał Zalewski</a> (lcamtuf) is a prominent security researcher.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_Designer" title="Solar Designer">Solar Designer</a> is the pseudonym of the founder of the <a href="/wiki/Openwall_Project" title="Openwall Project">Openwall Project</a>.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kane_Gamble&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kane Gamble (page does not exist)">Kane Gamble</a>, sentenced to 2 years in youth detention, who is autistic, gained access to highly sensitive information and "cyber-terrorised" high-profile <a href="/wiki/United_States_Intelligence_Community" title="United States Intelligence Community">U.S. intelligence</a> officials such as then <a href="/wiki/CIA" class="mw-redirect" title="CIA">CIA</a> chief <a href="/wiki/John_O._Brennan" class="mw-redirect" title="John O. Brennan">John Brennan</a> or Director of National Intelligence <a href="/wiki/James_Clapper" title="James Clapper">James Clapper</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Customs">Customs</h2></div> <p>The computer underground<sup id="cite_ref-crackdown_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crackdown-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> has produced its own specialized slang, such as <a href="/wiki/Leet" title="Leet">1337speak</a>. Writing software and performing other activities to support these views is referred to as <a href="/wiki/Hacktivism" title="Hacktivism">hacktivism</a>. Some consider illegal cracking ethically justified for these goals; a common form is <a href="/wiki/Website_defacement" title="Website defacement">website defacement</a>. The computer underground is frequently compared to the Wild West.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is common for hackers to use aliases to conceal their identities. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hacker_groups_and_conventions">Hacker groups and conventions</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Hacker_conference" class="mw-redirect" title="Hacker conference">Hacker conference</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hacker_group" title="Hacker group">Hacker group</a></div> <p>The computer underground is supported by regular real-world gatherings called <a href="/wiki/Hacker_convention" class="mw-redirect" title="Hacker convention">hacker conventions</a> or "hacker cons". These events include <a href="/wiki/SummerCon" class="mw-redirect" title="SummerCon">SummerCon</a> (Summer), <a href="/wiki/DEF_CON" title="DEF CON">DEF CON</a>, <a href="/wiki/HoHoCon" title="HoHoCon">HoHoCon</a> (Christmas), <a href="/wiki/ShmooCon" title="ShmooCon">ShmooCon</a> (February), <a href="/wiki/Black_Hat_Conference" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Hat Conference">Black Hat Conference</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chaos_Communication_Congress" title="Chaos Communication Congress">Chaos Communication Congress</a>, AthCon, Hacker Halted, and <a href="/wiki/H.O.P.E." class="mw-redirect" title="H.O.P.E.">H.O.P.E.</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2008)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Local Hackfest groups organize and compete to develop their skills to send a team to a prominent convention to compete in group pentesting, exploit and forensics on a larger scale. Hacker groups became popular in the early 1980s, providing access to hacking information and resources and a place to learn from other members. Computer <a href="/wiki/Bulletin_board_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Bulletin board systems">bulletin board systems</a> (BBSs), such as the Utopias, provided platforms for information-sharing via dial-up modem. Hackers could also gain credibility by being affiliated with elite groups.<sup id="cite_ref-thomas_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thomas-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Consequences_for_malicious_hacking">Consequences for malicious hacking</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="India">India</h3></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Section</th> <th>Offence</th> <th>Punishment </th></tr> <tr> <td>65</td> <td><i>Tampering with computer source documents</i> – Intentional concealment, destruction or alteration of source code when the computer source code is required to be kept or maintained by law for the time being in force</td> <td>Imprisonment up to three years, or/and with fine up to 20000 rupees </td></tr> <tr> <td>66</td> <td>Hacking</td> <td>Imprisonment up to three years, or/and with fine up to 50000 rupees </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Netherlands">Netherlands</h3></div> <ul><li>Article 138ab of <a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_Netherlands#Criminal_law" title="Law of the Netherlands">Wetboek van Strafrecht</a> prohibits <i>computervredebreuk</i>, which is defined as intruding an automated work or a part thereof with intention and against the law. Intrusion is defined as access by means of: <ul><li>Defeating <a href="/wiki/Computer_security" title="Computer security">security measures</a></li> <li>By technical means</li> <li>By false signals or a false <a href="/wiki/Key_(cryptography)" title="Key (cryptography)">cryptographic key</a></li> <li>By the use of stolen <a href="/wiki/User_(computing)" title="User (computing)">usernames</a> and <a href="/wiki/Password" title="Password">passwords</a>.</li></ul></li></ul> <p>Maximum imprisonment is one year or a fine of the fourth category.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Title_18_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 18 of the United States Code">18 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/1030">§ 1030</a>, more commonly known as the <a href="/wiki/Computer_Fraud_and_Abuse_Act" title="Computer Fraud and Abuse Act">Computer Fraud and Abuse Act</a>, prohibits unauthorized access or damage of "protected computers". "Protected computers" are defined in <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><a href="/wiki/Title_18_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 18 of the United States Code">18 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/1030#e_2">§ 1030(e)(2)</a></span> as: </p> <ul><li>A computer exclusively for the use of a financial institution or the United States Government, or, in the case of a computer not exclusively for such use, used by or for a financial institution or the United States Government and the conduct constituting the offense affects that use by or for the financial institution or the Government.</li> <li>A computer which is used in or affecting interstate or foreign commerce or communication, including a computer located outside the United States that is used in a manner that affects interstate or foreign commerce or communication of the United States;</li></ul> <p>The maximum imprisonment or fine for violations of the <i>Computer Fraud and Abuse Act</i> depends on the severity of the violation and the offender's history of violations under the <i>Act</i>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/FBI" class="mw-redirect" title="FBI">FBI</a> has demonstrated its ability to recover ransoms paid in <a href="/wiki/Cryptocurrency" title="Cryptocurrency">cryptocurrency</a> by victims of cybertheft.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hacking_and_the_media">Hacking and the media</h2></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cliche_Hacker_and_Binary_Code_(26946304530).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Cliche_Hacker_and_Binary_Code_%2826946304530%29.jpg/250px-Cliche_Hacker_and_Binary_Code_%2826946304530%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Cliche_Hacker_and_Binary_Code_%2826946304530%29.jpg/375px-Cliche_Hacker_and_Binary_Code_%2826946304530%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Cliche_Hacker_and_Binary_Code_%2826946304530%29.jpg/500px-Cliche_Hacker_and_Binary_Code_%2826946304530%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>In film and news media, hackers are often depicted as hooded figures typing in the dark.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hacker_magazines">Hacker magazines</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main category: <a href="/wiki/Category:Hacker_magazines" title="Category:Hacker magazines">Hacker magazines</a></div> <p>The most notable hacker-oriented print publications are <i><a href="/wiki/Phrack" title="Phrack">Phrack</a></i>, <i>Hakin9</i> and <i><a href="/wiki/2600:_The_Hacker_Quarterly" title="2600: The Hacker Quarterly">2600: The Hacker Quarterly</a></i>. While the information contained in hacker magazines and <a href="/wiki/Ezine" class="mw-redirect" title="Ezine">ezines</a> was often outdated by the time they were published, they enhanced their contributors' reputations by documenting their successes.<sup id="cite_ref-thomas_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thomas-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hackers_in_fiction">Hackers in fiction</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_fictional_hackers" title="List of fictional hackers">List of fictional hackers</a></div> <p>Hackers often show an interest in fictional <a href="/wiki/Cyberpunk" title="Cyberpunk">cyberpunk</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cyberculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyberculture">cyberculture</a> literature and movies. The adoption of <a href="/wiki/Fictional" class="mw-redirect" title="Fictional">fictional</a> <a href="/wiki/Pseudonym" title="Pseudonym">pseudonyms</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> symbols, values and <a href="/wiki/Metaphor" title="Metaphor">metaphors</a> from these works is very common.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Books">Books</h4></div> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Cyberpunk" title="Cyberpunk">cyberpunk</a> novels of <a href="/wiki/William_Gibson" title="William Gibson">William Gibson</a> – especially the <a href="/wiki/Sprawl_trilogy" title="Sprawl trilogy">Sprawl trilogy</a> – are very popular with hackers.<sup id="cite_ref-ntygibson_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ntygibson-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helba" class="mw-redirect" title="Helba">Helba</a> from the <i><a href="/wiki/.hack" title=".hack">.hack</a></i> manga and anime series</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merlin_of_Amber" class="mw-redirect" title="Merlin of Amber">Merlin of Amber</a>, the protagonist of the second series in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Chronicles_of_Amber" title="The Chronicles of Amber">The Chronicles of Amber</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Roger_Zelazny" title="Roger Zelazny">Roger Zelazny</a>, is a young immortal hacker-mage prince who has the ability to traverse shadow dimensions.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lisbeth_Salander" title="Lisbeth Salander">Lisbeth Salander</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Girl_with_the_Dragon_Tattoo" title="The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo">The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Stieg_Larsson" title="Stieg Larsson">Stieg Larsson</a></li> <li>Alice from <i><a href="/wiki/Heaven%27s_Memo_Pad" title="Heaven's Memo Pad">Heaven's Memo Pad</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ender%27s_Game" title="Ender's Game">Ender's Game</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Orson_Scott_Card" title="Orson Scott Card">Orson Scott Card</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Evil_Genius_(novel)" class="mw-redirect" title="Evil Genius (novel)">Evil Genius</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Catherine_Jinks" title="Catherine Jinks">Catherine Jinks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hackers_(anthology)" title="Hackers (anthology)"><i>Hackers</i> (anthology)</a> by <a href="/wiki/Jack_Dann" title="Jack Dann">Jack Dann</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gardner_Dozois" title="Gardner Dozois">Gardner Dozois</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Little_Brother_(Doctorow_novel)" title="Little Brother (Doctorow novel)">Little Brother</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Cory_Doctorow" title="Cory Doctorow">Cory Doctorow</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Neuromancer" title="Neuromancer">Neuromancer</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/William_Gibson" title="William Gibson">William Gibson</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Snow_Crash" title="Snow Crash">Snow Crash</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Neal_Stephenson" title="Neal Stephenson">Neal Stephenson</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Films">Films</h4></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Antitrust_(film)" title="Antitrust (film)">Antitrust</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Blackhat_(film)" title="Blackhat (film)">Blackhat</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cypher_(film)" title="Cypher (film)">Cypher</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eagle_Eye" title="Eagle Eye">Eagle Eye</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Enemy_of_the_State_(film)" title="Enemy of the State (film)">Enemy of the State</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Firewall_(film)" title="Firewall (film)">Firewall</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Girl_With_The_Dragon_Tattoo" class="mw-redirect" title="Girl With The Dragon Tattoo">Girl With The Dragon Tattoo</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hackers_(film)" title="Hackers (film)">Hackers</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Live_Free_or_Die_Hard" title="Live Free or Die Hard">Live Free or Die Hard</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Matrix_Series" class="mw-redirect" title="The Matrix Series"><i>The Matrix</i> series</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Net_(1995_film)" title="The Net (1995 film)">The Net</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Net_2.0_(film)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Net 2.0 (film)">The Net 2.0</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pirates_of_Silicon_Valley" title="Pirates of Silicon Valley">Pirates of Silicon Valley</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Skyfall" title="Skyfall">Skyfall</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sneakers_(1992_film)" title="Sneakers (1992 film)">Sneakers</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Swordfish_(film)" title="Swordfish (film)">Swordfish</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Terminator_2:_Judgment_Day" title="Terminator 2: Judgment Day">Terminator 2: Judgment Day</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Terminator_Salvation" title="Terminator Salvation">Terminator Salvation</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Track_Down" title="Track Down">Take Down</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tron" title="Tron">Tron</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tron:_Legacy" title="Tron: Legacy">Tron: Legacy</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Untraceable" title="Untraceable">Untraceable</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/WarGames" title="WarGames">WarGames</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Weird_Science_(film)" title="Weird Science (film)">Weird Science</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Fifth_Estate_(film)" title="The Fifth Estate (film)">The Fifth Estate</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Who_Am_I_%E2%80%93_No_System_Is_Safe" class="mw-redirect" title="Who Am I – No System Is Safe">Who Am I – No System Is Safe (film)</a></i></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Johnny_English_Strikes_Again" title="Johnny English Strikes Again">Johnny English Strikes Again</a>"</li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="TV_series">TV series</h4></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Mr._Robot" title="Mr. Robot">Mr. Robot</a></i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-fiction_books">Non-fiction books</h3></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Art_of_Deception" title="The Art of Deception">The Art of Deception</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Kevin_Mitnick" title="Kevin Mitnick">Kevin Mitnick</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Art_of_Intrusion" title="The Art of Intrusion">The Art of Intrusion</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Kevin_Mitnick" title="Kevin Mitnick">Kevin Mitnick</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Cuckoo%27s_Egg" class="mw-redirect" title="The Cuckoo's Egg">The Cuckoo's Egg</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Clifford_Stoll" title="Clifford Stoll">Clifford Stoll</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ghost_in_the_Wires" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghost in the Wires">Ghost in the Wires: My Adventures as the World's Most Wanted Hacker</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Kevin_Mitnick" title="Kevin Mitnick">Kevin Mitnick</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hackers:_Heroes_of_the_Computer_Revolution" title="Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution">Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Steven_Levy" title="Steven Levy">Steven Levy</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Hacker_Crackdown" title="The Hacker Crackdown">The Hacker Crackdown</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Sterling" title="Bruce Sterling">Bruce Sterling</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Hacker%27s_Handbook" title="The Hacker's Handbook">The Hacker's Handbook</a></i> by Hugo Cornwall (Peter Sommer)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hacking:_The_Art_of_Exploitation_Second_Edition" class="mw-redirect" title="Hacking: The Art of Exploitation Second Edition">Hacking: The Art of Exploitation Second Edition</a></i> by Jon Erickson</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Out_of_the_Inner_Circle" title="Out of the Inner Circle">Out of the Inner Circle</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Bill_Landreth" title="Bill Landreth">Bill Landreth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Howard_Rheingold" title="Howard Rheingold">Howard Rheingold</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Underground_(Suelette_Dreyfus_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Underground (Suelette Dreyfus book)">Underground</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Suelette_Dreyfus" title="Suelette Dreyfus">Suelette Dreyfus</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cracking_of_wireless_networks" class="mw-redirect" title="Cracking of wireless networks">Cracking of wireless networks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyber_spying" title="Cyber spying">Cyber spying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyber_Storm_Exercise" title="Cyber Storm Exercise">Cyber Storm Exercise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybercrime" title="Cybercrime">Cybercrime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_hacking" title="Government hacking">Government hacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hacker_culture" title="Hacker culture">Hacker culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hacker_(expert)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hacker (expert)">Hacker (expert)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hacker_Manifesto" title="Hacker Manifesto">Hacker Manifesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IT_risk" title="IT risk">IT risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_beauty" title="Mathematical beauty">Mathematical beauty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metasploit_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Metasploit Project">Metasploit Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penetration_test" title="Penetration test">Penetration test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_assessment" title="Technology assessment">Technology assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulnerability_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vulnerability (computing)">Vulnerability (computing)</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGao2015" class="citation journal cs1">Gao, Xing (2015). "Information security investment for competitive firms with hacker behavior and security requirements". <i>Annals of Operations Research</i>. <b>235</b>: 277–300. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10479-015-1925-2">10.1007/s10479-015-1925-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:207085416">207085416</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Operations+Research&rft.atitle=Information+security+investment+for+competitive+firms+with+hacker+behavior+and+security+requirements&rft.volume=235&rft.pages=277-300&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10479-015-1925-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A207085416%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Gao&rft.aufirst=Xing&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecurity+hacker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Winkler, Ira. <i>Spies Among Us: How to Stop the Spies, Terrorists, Hackers, and Criminals You Don't Even Know You Encounter Every Day.</i> John Wiley & Sons. 2005. pg. 92. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780764589904" title="Special:BookSources/9780764589904">9780764589904</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-crackdown-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-crackdown_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-crackdown_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSterling1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Sterling" title="Bruce Sterling">Sterling, Bruce</a> (1993). "Part 2(d)". <i><a href="/wiki/The_Hacker_Crackdown" title="The Hacker Crackdown">The Hacker Crackdown</a></i>. McLean, Virginia: IndyPublish.com. p. 61. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4043-0641-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-4043-0641-2"><bdi>1-4043-0641-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Part+2%28d%29&rft.btitle=The+Hacker+Crackdown&rft.place=McLean%2C+Virginia&rft.pages=61&rft.pub=IndyPublish.com&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=1-4043-0641-2&rft.aulast=Sterling&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecurity+hacker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jargon-file.org/archive/jargon-1.5.0.dos.txt">"The Hacker's Dictionary"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201108161626/http://jargon-file.org/archive/jargon-1.5.0.dos.txt">Archived</a> from the original on November 8, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 23,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Hacker%27s+Dictionary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjargon-file.org%2Farchive%2Fjargon-1.5.0.dos.txt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecurity+hacker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://stallman.org/archives/2012-sep-dec.html#06_December_2012_%28Ecuadorian_white_hat_cracker_freed%29">Political notes from 2012: September–December</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121209013904/http://www.stallman.org/archives/2012-sep-dec.html#06_December_2012_%28Ecuadorian_white_hat_cracker_freed%29">Archived</a> December 9, 2012, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <i>stallman.org</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaymond" class="citation web cs1">Raymond, Eric S. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catb.org/jargon/html/C/cracker.html">"Jargon File: Cracker"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110629135311/http://catb.org/jargon/html/C/cracker.html">Archived</a> from the original on June 29, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 8,</span> 2010</span>. <q>Coined ca. 1985 by hackers in defense against journalistic misuse of hacker.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jargon+File%3A+Cracker&rft.aulast=Raymond&rft.aufirst=Eric+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcatb.org%2Fjargon%2Fhtml%2FC%2Fcracker.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecurity+hacker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYagoda2014" class="citation magazine cs1">Yagoda, Ben (March 6, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newyorker.com/tech/elements/a-short-history-of-hack">"A Short History of 'Hack'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>The New Yorker</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151110004249/http://www.newyorker.com/tech/elements/a-short-history-of-hack">Archived</a> from the original on November 10, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 21,</span> 2019</span>. <q>Although Lifehacker and other neutral or positive applications of the word [hack] are increasingly prominent, the black-hat meaning still prevails among the general public.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Yorker&rft.atitle=A+Short+History+of+%27Hack%27&rft.date=2014-03-06&rft.aulast=Yagoda&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newyorker.com%2Ftech%2Felements%2Fa-short-history-of-hack&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecurity+hacker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.catb.org/jargon/oldversions/jarg1-81-MM-DD.txt">1981 version of the <i>Jargon File</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180402225836/http://www.catb.org/jargon/oldversions/jarg1-81-MM-DD.txt">Archived</a> April 2, 2018, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, entry "hacker", last meaning.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.windowsecurity.com/whitepapers/Computer_hacking_Where_did_it_begin_and_how_did_it_grow_.html">"Computer hacking: Where did it begin and how did it grow?"</a>. WindowSecurity.com. October 16, 2002. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130116013518/http://www.windowsecurity.com/whitepapers/Computer_hacking_Where_did_it_begin_and_how_did_it_grow_.html">Archived</a> from the original on January 16, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 6,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Computer+hacking%3A+Where+did+it+begin+and+how+did+it+grow%3F&rft.pub=WindowSecurity.com&rft.date=2002-10-16&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.windowsecurity.com%2Fwhitepapers%2FComputer_hacking_Where_did_it_begin_and_how_did_it_grow_.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecurity+hacker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-drzmzu-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-drzmzu_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-drzmzu_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElmer-DeWitt1983" class="citation news cs1">Elmer-DeWitt, Philip (August 29, 1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071202043840/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,949797,00.html">"The 414 Gang Strikes Again"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a></i>. p. 75. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,949797,00.html">the original</a> on December 2, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=The+414+Gang+Strikes+Again&rft.pages=75&rft.date=1983-08-29&rft.aulast=Elmer-DeWitt&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C949797%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecurity+hacker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-iophas-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-iophas_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1">"Beware: Hackers at play". <i>Newsweek</i>. September 5, 1983. pp. 42–46, 48.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Newsweek&rft.atitle=Beware%3A+Hackers+at+play&rft.pages=42-46%2C+48&rft.date=1983-09-05&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecurity+hacker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A50606-2002Jun26.html">"Timeline: The U.S. Government and Cybersecurity"</a>. <i>Washington Post</i>. May 16, 2003. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181116162014/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A50606-2002Jun26.html">Archived</a> from the original on November 16, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 14,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Timeline%3A+The+U.S.+Government+and+Cybersecurity&rft.date=2003-05-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Farticles%2FA50606-2002Jun26.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecurity+hacker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated180-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated180_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated180_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBailey1984" class="citation book cs1">Bailey, David (April 1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/6234796">"Attacks on Computers: Congressional Hearings and Pending Legislation"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc1061207/"><i>1984 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy</i></a>. Oakland, CA, USA: IEEE. pp. 180–186. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FSP.1984.10012">10.1109/SP.1984.10012</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8186-0532-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8186-0532-1"><bdi>978-0-8186-0532-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15187375">15187375</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240624164037/https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc1061207/">Archived</a> from the original on June 24, 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 21,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Attacks+on+Computers%3A+Congressional+Hearings+and+Pending+Legislation&rft.btitle=1984+IEEE+Symposium+on+Security+and+Privacy&rft.place=Oakland%2C+CA%2C+USA&rft.pages=180-186&rft.pub=IEEE&rft.date=1984-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A15187375%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FSP.1984.10012&rft.isbn=978-0-8186-0532-1&rft.aulast=Bailey&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fdocument%2F6234796&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecurity+hacker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaldwell2011" class="citation journal cs1">Caldwell, Tracey (July 22, 2011). "Ethical hackers: putting on the white hat". <i>Network Security</i>. <b>2011</b> (7): 10–13. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs1353-4858%2811%2970075-7">10.1016/s1353-4858(11)70075-7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Network+Security&rft.atitle=Ethical+hackers%3A+putting+on+the+white+hat&rft.volume=2011&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=10-13&rft.date=2011-07-22&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fs1353-4858%2811%2970075-7&rft.aulast=Caldwell&rft.aufirst=Tracey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecurity+hacker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClifford2011" class="citation book cs1">Clifford, D. (2011). <i>Cybercrime: The Investigation, Prosecution and Defense of a Computer-Related Crime</i>. Durham, North Carolina: Carolina Academic Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1594608537" title="Special:BookSources/978-1594608537"><bdi>978-1594608537</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cybercrime%3A+The+Investigation%2C+Prosecution+and+Defense+of+a+Computer-Related+Crime&rft.place=Durham%2C+North+Carolina&rft.pub=Carolina+Academic+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1594608537&rft.aulast=Clifford&rft.aufirst=D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecurity+hacker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hacker_hats-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hacker_hats_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hacker_hats_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilhelm2010" class="citation book cs1">Wilhelm, Douglas (2010). "2". <i>Professional Penetration Testing</i>. Syngress Press. p. 503. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59749-425-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59749-425-0"><bdi>978-1-59749-425-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=2&rft.btitle=Professional+Penetration+Testing&rft.pages=503&rft.pub=Syngress+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-59749-425-0&rft.aulast=Wilhelm&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecurity+hacker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Moore2005-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Moore2005_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoore2005" class="citation book cs1">Moore, Robert (2005). <i>Cybercrime: Investigating High Technology Computer Crime</i>. Matthew Bender & Company. p. 258. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59345-303-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-59345-303-5"><bdi>1-59345-303-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cybercrime%3A+Investigating+High+Technology+Computer+Crime&rft.pages=258&rft.pub=Matthew+Bender+%26+Company&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=1-59345-303-5&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecurity+hacker" class="Z3988"></span>Robert Moore</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Brien,_Marakas2011" class="citation book cs1">O'Brien, Marakas, James, George (2011). <i>Management Information Systems</i>. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill/ Irwin. pp. 536–537. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-752217-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-752217-9"><bdi>978-0-07-752217-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Management+Information+Systems&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=536-537&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill%2F+Irwin&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-07-752217-9&rft.aulast=O%27Brien%2C+Marakas&rft.aufirst=James%2C+George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecurity+hacker" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-moore2006-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-moore2006_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-moore2006_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-moore2006_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoore2006" class="citation book cs1">Moore, Robert (2006). <i>Cybercrime: Investigating High-Technology Computer Crime</i> (1st ed.). Cincinnati, Ohio: Anderson Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59345-303-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59345-303-9"><bdi>978-1-59345-303-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cybercrime%3A+Investigating+High-Technology+Computer+Crime&rft.place=Cincinnati%2C+Ohio&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Anderson+Publishing&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-59345-303-9&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecurity+hacker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOkpaUgwuokeAjahEshioste2022" class="citation journal cs1">Okpa, John Thompson; Ugwuoke, Christopher Uchechukwu; Ajah, Benjamin Okorie; Eshioste, Emmanuel; Igbe, Joseph Egidi; Ajor, Ogar James; Okoi, Ofem, Nnana; Eteng, Mary Juachi; Nnamani, Rebecca Ginikanwa (September 5, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F21582440221122739">"Cyberspace, Black-Hat Hacking and Economic Sustainability of Corporate Organizations in Cross-River State, Nigeria"</a>. <i>SAGE Open</i>. <b>12</b> (3): 215824402211227. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F21582440221122739">10.1177/21582440221122739</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2158-2440">2158-2440</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:252096635">252096635</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=SAGE+Open&rft.atitle=Cyberspace%2C+Black-Hat+Hacking+and+Economic+Sustainability+of+Corporate+Organizations+in+Cross-River+State%2C+Nigeria&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=215824402211227&rft.date=2022-09-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A252096635%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2158-2440&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F21582440221122739&rft.aulast=Okpa&rft.aufirst=John+Thompson&rft.au=Ugwuoke%2C+Christopher+Uchechukwu&rft.au=Ajah%2C+Benjamin+Okorie&rft.au=Eshioste%2C+Emmanuel&rft.au=Igbe%2C+Joseph+Egidi&rft.au=Ajor%2C+Ogar+James&rft.au=Okoi%2C+Ofem%2C+Nnana&rft.au=Eteng%2C+Mary+Juachi&rft.au=Nnamani%2C+Rebecca+Ginikanwa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1177%252F21582440221122739&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecurity+hacker" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-thomas2002-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-thomas2002_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas2002" class="citation book cs1">Thomas, Douglas (2002). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hackerculture00thom_0"><i>Hacker Culture</i></a></span>. University of Minnesota Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8166-3346-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8166-3346-3"><bdi>978-0-8166-3346-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hacker+Culture&rft.pub=University+of+Minnesota+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8166-3346-3&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhackerculture00thom_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecurity+hacker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Andress_10-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Andress_10_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndressCox,_PhilTittel,_Ed_–2001" class="citation book cs1">Andress, Mandy; Cox, Phil; Tittel, Ed – (2001). <i>CIW Security Professional</i>. 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Web. 7 Feb. 2017.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Weir, Matt, Sudhir Aggarwal, Breno de Medeiros, Bill Glodek. 2009. "Password Cracking Using Probabilistic Context-Free Grammars". <i>2009 30th IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy:</i> 391-405<i>.</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thompson, Samuel T. C. "Helping The Hacker? Library Information, Security, And Social Engineering." <i>Information Technology & Libraries</i> 25.4 (2006): 222-225. <i>Academic Search Complete</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 12,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=DEF+CON&rft.atitle=DEF+CON+III+Archives+-+Susan+Thunder+Keynote&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.defcon.org%2Fhtml%2Fdefcon-3%2Fdefcon-3.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecurity+hacker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHafner1995" class="citation journal cs1">Hafner, Katie (August 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tomandmaria.com/ST297/Readings/mitnick%20esquire.htm">"Kevin Mitnick, unplugged"</a>. <i>Esquire</i>. <b>124</b> (2): 80. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190515160214/http://www.tomandmaria.com/ST297/Readings/mitnick%20esquire.htm">Archived</a> from the original on May 15, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 13,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Esquire&rft.atitle=Kevin+Mitnick%2C+unplugged&rft.volume=124&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=80&rft.date=1995-08&rft.aulast=Hafner&rft.aufirst=Katie&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tomandmaria.com%2FST297%2FReadings%2Fmitnick%2520esquire.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecurity+hacker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bbcprofile-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-bbcprofile_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-19506090">"Gary McKinnon extradition ruling due by 16 October"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. September 6, 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190807144756/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-19506090">Archived</a> from the original on August 7, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 25,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Gary+McKinnon+extradition+ruling+due+by+16+October&rft.date=2012-09-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fuk-19506090&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecurity+hacker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.computerhistory.org/atchm/community-memory-precedents-in-social-media-and-movements/">"Community Memory: Precedents in Social Media and Movements"</a>. <i>Computer History Museum</i>. February 23, 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190703085220/https://www.computerhistory.org/atchm/community-memory-precedents-in-social-media-and-movements/">Archived</a> from the original on July 3, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 13,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Computer+History+Museum&rft.atitle=Community+Memory%3A+Precedents+in+Social+Media+and+Movements&rft.date=2016-02-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerhistory.org%2Fatchm%2Fcommunity-memory-precedents-in-social-media-and-movements%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecurity+hacker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation pressrelease cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090926231348/http://www.usdoj.gov/criminal/cybercrime/mitnick.htm">"Kevin Mitnick sentenced to nearly four years in prison; computer hacker ordered to pay restitution ..."</a> (Press release). <a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney%27s_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Attorney's Office">United States Attorney's Office</a>, Central District of California. August 9, 1999. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usdoj.gov/criminal/cybercrime/mitnick.htm">the original</a> on September 26, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 10,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Kevin+Mitnick+sentenced+to+nearly+four+years+in+prison%3B+computer+hacker+ordered+to+pay+restitution+...&rft.pub=United+States+Attorney%27s+Office%2C+Central+District+of+California&rft.date=1999-08-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.usdoj.gov%2Fcriminal%2Fcybercrime%2Fmitnick.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecurity+hacker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Holt-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Holt_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoltSchel2010" class="citation book cs1">Holt, Thomas J.; Schel, Bernadette Hlubik (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LAIjG_OGuIMC&pg=PA146"><i>Corporate Hacking and Technology-Driven Crime: Social Dynamics and Implications</i></a>. IGI Global. p. 146. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781616928056" title="Special:BookSources/9781616928056"><bdi>9781616928056</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Corporate+Hacking+and+Technology-Driven+Crime%3A+Social+Dynamics+and+Implications&rft.pages=146&rft.pub=IGI+Global&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9781616928056&rft.aulast=Holt&rft.aufirst=Thomas+J.&rft.au=Schel%2C+Bernadette+Hlubik&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLAIjG_OGuIMC%26pg%3DPA146&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecurity+hacker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/british-teen-hacker-kane-gamble-us-intelligence-officials-jailed-cia-fbi-a8315126.html">British teenager who 'cyber-terrorised' US intelligence officials gets two years detention</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180614001502/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/british-teen-hacker-kane-gamble-us-intelligence-officials-jailed-cia-fbi-a8315126.html">Archived</a> June 14, 2018, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>". <i>The Independent.</i> 21 April 2018.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dw.com/en/british-teen-kane-gamble-accessed-accounts-of-top-us-intelligence-and-security-officials/a-42230614">British teen Kane Gamble accessed accounts of top US intelligence and security officials</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180621093731/http://www.dw.com/en/british-teen-kane-gamble-accessed-accounts-of-top-us-intelligence-and-security-officials/a-42230614">Archived</a> June 21, 2018, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>". <a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Welle" title="Deutsche Welle">Deutsche Welle</a>. 21 January 2018.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/crime/us-intelligence-cia-fbi-american-government-john-brennan-mark-giuliano-crackas-with-attitude-latest-a8170561.html">Kane Gamble: Teenager with autism on Leicestershire housing estate took classified information by fooling people into thinking he was FBI boss</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190719174655/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/crime/us-intelligence-cia-fbi-american-government-john-brennan-mark-giuliano-crackas-with-attitude-latest-a8170561.html">Archived</a> July 19, 2019, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>". <i>The Independent.</i> 21 January 2018.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJordan,_TimTaylor,_Paul_A.2004" class="citation book cs1">Jordan, Tim; Taylor, Paul A. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hacktivismcyberw0000jord/page/133"><i>Hacktivism and Cyberwars</i></a>. Routledge. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hacktivismcyberw0000jord/page/133">133–134</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-26003-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-26003-9"><bdi>978-0-415-26003-9</bdi></a>. <q>Wild West imagery has permeated discussions of cybercultures.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hacktivism+and+Cyberwars&rft.pages=133-134&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-415-26003-9&rft.au=Jordan%2C+Tim&rft.au=Taylor%2C+Paul+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhacktivismcyberw0000jord%2Fpage%2F133&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecurity+hacker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-thomas-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-thomas_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-thomas_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas2003" class="citation book cs1">Thomas, Douglas (2003). <i>Hacker Culture</i>. University of Minnesota Press. p. 90. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8166-3346-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8166-3346-3"><bdi>978-0-8166-3346-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hacker+Culture&rft.pages=90&rft.pub=University+of+Minnesota+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8166-3346-3&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecurity+hacker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0001854/TweedeBoek/TitelV/Artikel138ab/geldigheidsdatum_27-12-2012">Artikel 138ab</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150202231425/http://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0001854/TweedeBoek/TitelV/Artikel138ab/geldigheidsdatum_27-12-2012">Archived</a> February 2, 2015, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Wetboek van Strafrecht, December 27, 2012</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nakashima, Ellen. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2021/06/07/colonial-pipeline-ransomware-payment-recovered/">Feds recover more than $2 million in ransomware payments from Colonial Pipeline hackers.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210619032648/https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2021/06/07/colonial-pipeline-ransomware-payment-recovered/">Archived</a> June 19, 2021, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Washington Post, June 7, 2021.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwabey2013" class="citation news cs1">Swabey, Pete (February 27, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.information-age.com/it-management/risk-and-compliance/123456840/data-leaked-by-anonymous-appears-to-reveal-bank-of-america-s-hacker-profiling-operation">"Data leaked by Anonymous appears to reveal Bank of America's hacker profiling operation"</a>. <i>Information Age</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160419224819/http://www.information-age.com/it-management/risk-and-compliance/123456840/data-leaked-by-anonymous-appears-to-reveal-bank-of-america-s-hacker-profiling-operation">Archived</a> from the original on April 19, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 21,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Information+Age&rft.atitle=Data+leaked+by+Anonymous+appears+to+reveal+Bank+of+America%27s+hacker+profiling+operation&rft.date=2013-02-27&rft.aulast=Swabey&rft.aufirst=Pete&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.information-age.com%2Fit-management%2Frisk-and-compliance%2F123456840%2Fdata-leaked-by-anonymous-appears-to-reveal-bank-of-america-s-hacker-profiling-operation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecurity+hacker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scienzagiovane.unibo.it/English/hackers/6-faq.html">"Hackers and Viruses: Questions and Answers"</a>. <i>Scienzagiovane</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Bologna" title="University of Bologna">University of Bologna</a>. November 12, 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160610030233/http://www.scienzagiovane.unibo.it/English/hackers/6-faq.html">Archived</a> from the original on June 10, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 21,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Scienzagiovane&rft.atitle=Hackers+and+Viruses%3A+Questions+and+Answers&rft.date=2012-11-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scienzagiovane.unibo.it%2FEnglish%2Fhackers%2F6-faq.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecurity+hacker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ntygibson-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ntygibson_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStaples2003" class="citation news cs1">Staples, Brent (May 11, 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2003/05/11/opinion/editorial-observer-a-prince-of-cyberpunk-fiction-moves-into-the-mainstream.html">"A Prince of Cyberpunk Fiction Moves Into the Mainstream"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161013001328/http://www.nytimes.com/2003/05/11/opinion/editorial-observer-a-prince-of-cyberpunk-fiction-moves-into-the-mainstream.html">Archived</a> from the original on October 13, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 20,</span> 2017</span>. <q>Mr. Gibson's novels and short stories are worshiped by hackers</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=A+Prince+of+Cyberpunk+Fiction+Moves+Into+the+Mainstream&rft.date=2003-05-11&rft.aulast=Staples&rft.aufirst=Brent&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2003%2F05%2F11%2Fopinion%2Feditorial-observer-a-prince-of-cyberpunk-fiction-moves-into-the-mainstream.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecurity+hacker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSamuel_Chng,_Han_Yu_Lu,_Ayush_Kumar,_David_Yau2022" class="citation journal cs1">Samuel Chng, Han Yu Lu, Ayush Kumar, David Yau (March 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S245195882200001X">"Hacker types, motivations and strategies: A comprehensive framework"</a>. <i>Computers in Human Behavior Reports</i>. <b>5</b>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2451-9588">2451-9588</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 27,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Computers+in+Human+Behavior+Reports&rft.atitle=Hacker+types%2C+motivations+and+strategies%3A+A+comprehensive+framework&rft.volume=5&rft.date=2022-03&rft.issn=2451-9588&rft.au=Samuel+Chng%2C+Han+Yu+Lu%2C+Ayush+Kumar%2C+David+Yau&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS245195882200001X&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecurity+hacker" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAproHammond2005" class="citation book cs1">Apro, Bill; Hammond, Graeme (2005). <i>Hackers: The Hunt for Australia's Most Infamous Computer Cracker</i>. Rowville, Vic: Five Mile Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-74124-722-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-74124-722-5"><bdi>1-74124-722-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hackers%3A+The+Hunt+for+Australia%27s+Most+Infamous+Computer+Cracker&rft.place=Rowville%2C+Vic&rft.pub=Five+Mile+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=1-74124-722-5&rft.aulast=Apro&rft.aufirst=Bill&rft.au=Hammond%2C+Graeme&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecurity+hacker" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeaver2010" class="citation book cs1">Beaver, Kevin (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rIOxAmsA6hQC&pg=PP1"><i>Hacking for Dummies</i></a>. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Pub. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7645-5784-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7645-5784-2"><bdi>978-0-7645-5784-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hacking+for+Dummies&rft.place=Hoboken%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Wiley+Pub&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-7645-5784-2&rft.aulast=Beaver&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrIOxAmsA6hQC%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecurity+hacker" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConwayCordingley2004" class="citation book cs1">Conway, Richard; Cordingley, Julian (2004). <i>Code Hacking: A Developer's Guide to Network Security</i>. Hingham, Mass: Charles River Media. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58450-314-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58450-314-9"><bdi>978-1-58450-314-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Code+Hacking%3A+A+Developer%27s+Guide+to+Network+Security&rft.place=Hingham%2C+Mass&rft.pub=Charles+River+Media&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-58450-314-9&rft.aulast=Conway&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.au=Cordingley%2C+Julian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecurity+hacker" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreemanMann1997" class="citation book cs1">Freeman, David H.; Mann, Charles C. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/atlargestrangeca00free"><i>At Large: The Strange Case of the World's Biggest Internet Invasion</i></a>. New York: Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-82464-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-684-82464-7"><bdi>0-684-82464-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=At+Large%3A+The+Strange+Case+of+the+World%27s+Biggest+Internet+Invasion&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-684-82464-7&rft.aulast=Freeman&rft.aufirst=David+H.&rft.au=Mann%2C+Charles+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fatlargestrangeca00free&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecurity+hacker" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGranville2003" class="citation journal cs1">Granville, Johanna (Winter 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scribd.com/doc/14361572/Dotcon-Dangers-of-Cybercrime-by-Johanna-Granville">"Dot.Con: The Dangers of Cyber Crime and a Call for Proactive Solutions"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Australian_Journal_of_Politics_and_History" title="Australian Journal of Politics and History">Australian Journal of Politics and History</a></i>. <b>49</b> (1): 102–109. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1467-8497.00284">10.1111/1467-8497.00284</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 20,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Australian+Journal+of+Politics+and+History&rft.atitle=Dot.Con%3A+The+Dangers+of+Cyber+Crime+and+a+Call+for+Proactive+Solutions&rft.ssn=winter&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=102-109&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1467-8497.00284&rft.aulast=Granville&rft.aufirst=Johanna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scribd.com%2Fdoc%2F14361572%2FDotcon-Dangers-of-Cybercrime-by-Johanna-Granville&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecurity+hacker" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGregg2006" class="citation book cs1">Gregg, Michael (2006). <i>Certified Ethical Hacker</i>. Indianapolis, Ind: Que Certification. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7897-3531-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7897-3531-7"><bdi>978-0-7897-3531-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Certified+Ethical+Hacker&rft.place=Indianapolis%2C+Ind&rft.pub=Que+Certification&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-7897-3531-7&rft.aulast=Gregg&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecurity+hacker" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHafnerMarkoff1991" class="citation book cs1">Hafner, Katie; Markoff, John (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cyberpunk00kati"><i>Cyberpunk: Outlaws and Hackers on the Computer Frontier</i></a>. New York: Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-671-68322-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-671-68322-5"><bdi>0-671-68322-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cyberpunk%3A+Outlaws+and+Hackers+on+the+Computer+Frontier&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0-671-68322-5&rft.aulast=Hafner&rft.aufirst=Katie&rft.au=Markoff%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcyberpunk00kati&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecurity+hacker" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarperHarrisNess2011" class="citation book cs1">Harper, Allen; Harris, Shon; Ness, Jonathan (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jMmpLwe2ezoC"><i>Gray Hat Hacking: The Ethical Hacker's Handbook</i></a> (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-174255-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-174255-9"><bdi>978-0-07-174255-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gray+Hat+Hacking%3A+The+Ethical+Hacker%27s+Handbook&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-07-174255-9&rft.aulast=Harper&rft.aufirst=Allen&rft.au=Harris%2C+Shon&rft.au=Ness%2C+Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjMmpLwe2ezoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecurity+hacker" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcClureScambrayKurtz1999" class="citation book cs1">McClure, Stuart; Scambray, Joel; Kurtz, George (1999). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hackingexposedne00mccl"><i>Hacking Exposed: Network Security Secrets and Solutions</i></a></span>. Berkeley, Calif: Mcgraw-Hill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-212127-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-07-212127-0"><bdi>0-07-212127-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hacking+Exposed%3A+Network+Security+Secrets+and+Solutions&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+Calif&rft.pub=Mcgraw-Hill&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-07-212127-0&rft.aulast=McClure&rft.aufirst=Stuart&rft.au=Scambray%2C+Joel&rft.au=Kurtz%2C+George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhackingexposedne00mccl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecurity+hacker" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell2004" class="citation book cs1">Russell, Ryan (2004). <i>Stealing the Network: How to Own a Continent</i>. Rockland, Mass: Syngress Media. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-931836-05-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-931836-05-0"><bdi>978-1-931836-05-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stealing+the+Network%3A+How+to+Own+a+Continent&rft.place=Rockland%2C+Mass&rft.pub=Syngress+Media&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-931836-05-0&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Ryan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecurity+hacker" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor1999" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, Paul A. (1999). <i>Hackers: Crime in the Digital Sublime</i>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-18072-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-18072-6"><bdi>978-0-415-18072-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hackers%3A+Crime+in+the+Digital+Sublime&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-415-18072-6&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Paul+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecurity+hacker" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/40px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/60px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/80px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: <i><b><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Hacking" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Hacking">Hacking</a></b></i></div></div> </div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Hacking_(computer_security)" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Hacking (computer security)">Hacking (computer security)</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://edition.cnn.com/2001/TECH/internet/11/19/hack.history.idg/index.html">CNN Tech PCWorld Staff (November 2001). Timeline: A 40-year history of hacking from 1960 to 2001</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://video.pbs.org/video/2365039353/">Can Hackers Be Heroes?</a> Video produced by <a href="/wiki/Off_Book_(web_series)" class="mw-redirect" title="Off Book (web series)">Off Book (web series)</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Information_security" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Information_security" title="Template:Information security"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Information_security" title="Template talk:Information security"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Information_security" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Information security"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Information_security" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Information_security" title="Information security">Information security</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related security categories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_security" title="Computer security">Computer security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_security" title="Automotive security">Automotive security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybercrime" title="Cybercrime">Cybercrime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cybersex_trafficking" title="Cybersex trafficking">Cybersex trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_fraud" title="Computer fraud">Computer fraud</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybergeddon" title="Cybergeddon">Cybergeddon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberterrorism" title="Cyberterrorism">Cyberterrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare" title="Cyberwarfare">Cyberwarfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic warfare">Electromagnetic warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_warfare" title="Information warfare">Information warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_security" title="Internet security">Internet security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_security" title="Mobile security">Mobile security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_security" title="Network security">Network security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copy_protection" title="Copy protection">Copy protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_rights_management" title="Digital rights management">Digital rights management</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:CIAJMK1209-en.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="vectorial version"><img alt="vectorial version" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/CIAJMK1209-en.svg/150px-CIAJMK1209-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/CIAJMK1209-en.svg/225px-CIAJMK1209-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/CIAJMK1209-en.svg/300px-CIAJMK1209-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="496" data-file-height="496" /></a><figcaption>vectorial version</figcaption></figure></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Threat_(computer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Threat (computer)">Threats</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adware" title="Adware">Adware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_persistent_threat" title="Advanced persistent threat">Advanced persistent threat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arbitrary_code_execution" title="Arbitrary code execution">Arbitrary code execution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Backdoor_(computing)" title="Backdoor (computing)">Backdoors</a></li> <li>Bombs <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fork_bomb" title="Fork bomb">Fork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic_bomb" title="Logic bomb">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_bomb_(software)" title="Time bomb (software)">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zip_bomb" title="Zip bomb">Zip</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardware_backdoor" title="Hardware backdoor">Hardware backdoors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_injection" title="Code injection">Code injection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimeware" title="Crimeware">Crimeware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-site_scripting" title="Cross-site scripting">Cross-site scripting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-site_leaks" title="Cross-site leaks">Cross-site leaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DOM_clobbering" title="DOM clobbering">DOM clobbering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_sniffing" title="History sniffing">History sniffing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptojacking" title="Cryptojacking">Cryptojacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botnet" title="Botnet">Botnets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_breach" title="Data breach">Data breach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drive-by_download" title="Drive-by download">Drive-by download</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Browser_Helper_Object" title="Browser Helper Object">Browser Helper Objects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_virus" title="Computer virus">Viruses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_scraping" title="Data scraping">Data scraping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denial-of-service_attack" title="Denial-of-service attack">Denial-of-service attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eavesdropping" title="Eavesdropping">Eavesdropping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Email_fraud" title="Email fraud">Email fraud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Email_spoofing" title="Email spoofing">Email spoofing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploit_(computer_security)" title="Exploit (computer security)">Exploits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialer#Fraudulent_dialer" title="Dialer">Fraudulent dialers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hacktivism" title="Hacktivism">Hacktivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infostealer" title="Infostealer">Infostealer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insecure_direct_object_reference" title="Insecure direct object reference">Insecure direct object reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keystroke_logging" title="Keystroke logging">Keystroke loggers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malware" title="Malware">Malware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Payload_(computing)" title="Payload (computing)">Payload</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phishing" title="Phishing">Phishing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Voice_phishing" title="Voice phishing">Voice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymorphic_engine" title="Polymorphic engine">Polymorphic engine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privilege_escalation" title="Privilege escalation">Privilege escalation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ransomware" title="Ransomware">Ransomware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rootkit" title="Rootkit">Rootkits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scareware" title="Scareware">Scareware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shellcode" title="Shellcode">Shellcode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spamming" title="Spamming">Spamming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_engineering_(security)" title="Social engineering (security)">Social engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spyware" title="Spyware">Spyware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_bug" title="Software bug">Software bugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trojan_horse_(computing)" title="Trojan horse (computing)">Trojan horses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardware_Trojan" title="Hardware Trojan">Hardware Trojans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remote_access_trojan" class="mw-redirect" title="Remote access trojan">Remote access trojans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulnerability_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vulnerability (computing)">Vulnerability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_shell" title="Web shell">Web shells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiper_(malware)" title="Wiper (malware)">Wiper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_worm" title="Computer worm">Worms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SQL_injection" title="SQL injection">SQL injection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_security_software" title="Rogue security software">Rogue security software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zombie_(computing)" title="Zombie (computing)">Zombie</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Defenses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Application_security" title="Application security">Application security</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Secure_coding" title="Secure coding">Secure coding</a></li> <li>Secure by default</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secure_by_design" title="Secure by design">Secure by design</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Misuse_case" title="Misuse case">Misuse case</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a 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information and event management</a> (SIEM)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runtime_application_self-protection" title="Runtime application self-protection">Runtime application self-protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Site_isolation" title="Site isolation">Site isolation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Internet_slang" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar 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kiddie">Script kiddie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shitposting" title="Shitposting">Shitposting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadow_banning" title="Shadow banning">Shadow banning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spamming" title="Spamming">Spamming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tankie" title="Tankie">Tankie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_troll" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet troll">Troll</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Internet_map_1024_-_transparent,_inverted.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Map of the Internet"><img alt="Map of the Internet" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Internet_map_1024_-_transparent%2C_inverted.png/80px-Internet_map_1024_-_transparent%2C_inverted.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Internet_map_1024_-_transparent%2C_inverted.png/120px-Internet_map_1024_-_transparent%2C_inverted.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Internet_map_1024_-_transparent%2C_inverted.png/160px-Internet_map_1024_-_transparent%2C_inverted.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1280" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chatspeak" class="mw-redirect" title="Chatspeak">Chatspeak</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emoticon" title="Emoticon">Emoticon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uwu" title="Uwu">uwu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emoji" title="Emoji">Emoji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hodl" class="mw-redirect" title="Hodl">Hodl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leet" title="Leet">Leet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Owned_(slang)" title="Owned (slang)">Owned</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pornography" title="Pornography">Pr0n</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pwn" class="mw-redirect" title="Pwn">Pwn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teh" title="Teh">Teh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W00t" title="W00t">w00t</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masturbation" title="Masturbation">Fap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LOL" title="LOL">LOL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Not_safe_for_work" title="Not safe for work">NSFW</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Padonkaffsky_jargon" title="Padonkaffsky jargon">Padonkaffsky jargon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexting" title="Sexting">Sexting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Imageboard" title="Imageboard">Imageboard</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/4chan" title="4chan">4chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anonymous_(group)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anonymous (group)">Anonymous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imageboard#Imageboards" title="Imageboard">-chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_pornography" title="Child pornography">CP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clop_(erotic_fan_art)" title="Clop (erotic fan art)">Clop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goatse.cx" title="Goatse.cx">goatse.cx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lolcat" title="Lolcat">Lolcat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lurker" title="Lurker">Lurk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newbie" title="Newbie">Newbie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/O_RLY%3F" title="O RLY?">O RLY?</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_post" class="mw-redirect" title="Original post">OP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedobear" title="Pedobear">Pedobear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rickrolling" title="Rickrolling">Rickrolling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_34" title="Rule 34">Rule 34</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_63" title="Rule 63">Rule 63</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripcode" class="mw-redirect" title="Tripcode">Tripcode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanophilia" title="Japanophilia">Weeaboo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiff" title="Yiff">Yiff</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Internet_meme" title="Internet meme">Memes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Internet_phenomena#Advertising_and_products" title="List of Internet phenomena">Advertising and products</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Internet_phenomena#Animation_and_comics" title="List of Internet phenomena">Animation and comics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Internet_phenomena#Challenges" title="List of Internet phenomena">Challenges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Internet_phenomena#Email" title="List of Internet phenomena">Email</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Internet_phenomena#Film" title="List of Internet 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