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vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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.sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Slavery" title="Category:Slavery">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour" title="Forced labour">Forced labour</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Shackles" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/125px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="68" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/188px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/250px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png 2x" data-file-width="498" data-file-height="272" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_21st_century" title="Slavery in the 21st century">Contemporary</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Child_labour" title="Child labour">Child Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_in_the_military" title="Children in the military">Child soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debt_bondage" title="Debt bondage">Debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_marriage" title="Forced marriage">Forced marriage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bride_buying" title="Bride buying">Bride buying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_marriage" title="Child marriage">Child marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">Wife selling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_prostitution" title="Forced prostitution">Forced prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">Human trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Involuntary_servitude" title="Involuntary servitude">Involuntary servitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peon" title="Peon">Peonage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labour" title="Penal labour">Penal labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_contemporary_Africa" title="Slavery in contemporary Africa">Contemporary Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_21st-century_jihadism" title="Slavery in 21st-century jihadism">21st-century jihadism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_slavery" title="Sexual slavery">Sexual slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">Wage slavery</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery" title="History of slavery">Historical</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_antiquity" title="Slavery in antiquity">Antiquity</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Slavery in ancient Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_law#Three_classes" title="Babylonian law">Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Greece" title="Slavery in ancient Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Rome</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_medieval_Europe" title="Slavery in medieval Europe">Medieval Europe</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancillae" title="Ancillae">Ancillae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Sea_slave_trade" title="Black Sea slave trade">Black Sea slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Slavery in the Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kholop" title="Kholop">Kholop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_slave_trade" title="Prague slave trade">Prague slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">Serfs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_serfdom" title="History of serfdom">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serfdom_in_Russia" title="Serfdom in Russia">In Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861" title="Emancipation reform of 1861">Emancipation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">Thrall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genoese_slave_trade" title="Genoese slave trade">Genoese slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venetian_slave_trade" title="Venetian slave trade">Venetian slave trade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balkan_slave_trade" title="Balkan slave trade">Balkan slave trade</a></li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of slavery in the Muslim world">Muslim world</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate">Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Slavery in al-Andalus</a> ‎</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baqt" title="Baqt">Baqt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mukataba" title="Mukataba">Contract of manumission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukhara_slave_trade" title="Bukhara slave trade">Bukhara slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean slave trade">Crimean slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khazar_slave_trade" title="Khazar slave trade">Khazar slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khivan_slave_trade" title="Khivan slave trade">Khivan slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Slavery in the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avret_Pazarlar%C4%B1" title="Avret Pazarları">Avret Pazarları</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_on_the_Barbary_Coast" title="Slavery on the Barbary Coast">Barbary Coast</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_slave_trade" title="Barbary slave trade">slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirates" title="Barbary pirates">pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Baltimore" title="Sack of Baltimore">Sack of Baltimore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raid_of_Su%C3%B0uroy" title="Slave raid of Suðuroy">Slave raid of Suðuroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Abductions" title="Turkish Abductions">Turkish Abductions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_concubinage" title="Islamic views on concubinage">Concubinage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of concubinage in the Muslim world">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_malakat_aymanukum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma malakat aymanukum">Ma malakat aymanukum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avret_Pazarlar%C4%B1" title="Avret Pazarları">Avret Pazarları</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harem" title="Harem">Harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_harem" title="Abbasid harem">Abbasid harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Imperial_Harem" title="Ottoman Imperial Harem">Ottoman Imperial Harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_imperial_harem" title="Safavid imperial harem">Safavid imperial harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_harem" title="Qajar harem">Qajar harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarya" title="Jarya">Jarya</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cariye" title="Cariye">Cariye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odalisque" title="Odalisque">Odalisque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiyan" title="Qiyan">Qiyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umm_al-walad" title="Umm al-walad">Umm al-walad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassian_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Circassian slave trade">Circassian slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate">Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate">Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate">Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volga_Bulgarian_slave_trade" title="Volga Bulgarian slave trade">Volga Bulgarian slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_21st-century_jihadism" title="Slavery in 21st-century jihadism">21st century</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bristol_slave_trade" title="Bristol slave trade">Bristol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade_to_Brazil" title="Atlantic slave trade to Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voyages:_The_Trans-Atlantic_Slave_Trade_Database" title="Voyages: The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database">Database</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Slave_Coast" title="Dutch Slave Coast">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Passage" title="Middle Passage">Middle Passage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nantes_slave_trade" title="Nantes slave trade">Nantes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_New_France" title="Slavery in New France">New France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panyarring" title="Panyarring">Panyarring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_colonial_Spanish_America" title="Slavery in colonial Spanish America">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Coast_of_West_Africa" title="Slave Coast of West Africa">Slave Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">Thirteen colonies</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Topics and practice</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghilman" title="Ghilman">Ghilman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk" title="Mamluk">Mamluk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devshirme" title="Devshirme">Devshirme</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding" title="Blackbirding">Blackbirding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coolie" title="Coolie">Coolie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corv%C3%A9e" title="Corvée">Corvée labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Field slaves in the United States">Field slaves in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_slave" title="House slave">House slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_market" title="Slave market">Slave market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raiding" title="Slave raiding">Slave raiding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_children_in_the_military" title="History of children in the military">Child soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_slavery" title="White slavery">White slavery</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Naval</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galley_slave" title="Galley slave">Galley slave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impressment" title="Impressment">Impressment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirates" title="Barbary pirates">Pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghaiing" title="Shanghaiing">Shanghaiing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_ship" title="Slave ship">Slave ship</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">By country or region</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Africa" title="Slavery in Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_contemporary_Africa" title="Slavery in contemporary Africa">Contemporary Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_slave_trade" title="Red Sea slave trade">Red Sea slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">Indian Ocean slave trade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zanzibar_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Zanzibar slave trade">Zanzibar slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Angola" title="Slavery in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Chad" title="Human trafficking in Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Comoros" title="Slavery in the Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Ethiopia" title="Slavery in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Mali" title="Slavery in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Mauritania" title="Slavery in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Niger" title="Slavery in Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Nigeria" title="Slavery in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Seychelles" title="Slavery in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Somalia" title="Slavery in Somalia">Somalia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Somali_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Somali slave trade">Somali slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_South_Africa" title="Slavery in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Sudan" title="Slavery in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Zanzibar" title="Slavery in Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Americas">North and South America</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Pre-Columbian_America" title="Slavery in Pre-Columbian America">Pre-Columbian America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztec slavery">Aztec</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_the_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery among the indigenous peoples of the Americas">Americas indigenous</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery among Native Americans in the United States">U.S. Natives</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Field slaves in the United States">Field slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Female slavery in the United States">female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_slavery_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Contemporary slavery in the United States">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_states_and_free_states" title="Slave states and free states">maps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">partus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labor_in_the_United_States" title="Penal labor in the United States">prison labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_codes" title="Slave codes">Slave codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_the_enslaved_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Treatment of the enslaved in the United States">Treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Slave trade in the United States">interregional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_the_United_States" title="Human trafficking in the United States">Human trafficking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Bahamas" title="Slavery in the Bahamas">The Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Canada" title="Slavery in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_British_and_French_Caribbean" title="Slavery in the British and French Caribbean">Caribbean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbados_Slave_Code" title="Barbados Slave Code">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_British_Virgin_Islands" title="Slavery in the British Virgin Islands">British Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Trinidad" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Trinidad">Trinidad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_Noir" title="Code Noir">Code Noir</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Latin_America" title="Slavery in Latin America">Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Brazil" title="Slavery in Brazil">Brazil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lei_%C3%81urea" title="Lei Áurea">Lei Áurea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Colombia" title="Slavery in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Cuba" title="Slavery in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Haiti" title="Slavery in Haiti">Haiti</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restavek" title="Restavek">Restavek</a></li></ul></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/Encomienda" title="Encomienda">Encomienda</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro%E2%80%93Puerto_Ricans" title="Afro–Puerto Ricans">Puerto Rico</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Asia" title="Slavery in Asia">East, Southeast, and South Asia</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Southeast_Asia" title="Human trafficking in Southeast Asia">Human trafficking in Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Bhutan" title="Slavery in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Brunei" title="Slavery in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_China" title="Slavery in China">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Booi_Aha" title="Booi Aha">Booi Aha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laogai" title="Laogai">Laogai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_system_in_China" title="Penal system in China">penal system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_India" title="Slavery in India">India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debt_bondage_in_India" title="Debt bondage in India">Debt bondage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chukri_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Chukri System">Chukri System</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Indonesia" title="Slavery in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Japan" title="Slavery in Japan">Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comfort_women" title="Comfort women">comfort women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Korea" title="Slavery in Korea">Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kwalliso" title="Kwalliso">Kwalliso</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Malaysia" title="Slavery in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Maldives" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Mongol_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Mongol Empire">Slavery in the Mongol Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Thailand" title="Slavery in Thailand">Thailand</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_military_and_prostitution_in_South_Korea" title="United States military and prostitution in South Korea">Yankee princess</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Vietnam" title="Slavery in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Oceania" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Oceania">Australia and Oceania</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Australia" title="Slavery in Australia">Australia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Australia" title="Human trafficking in Australia">Human trafficking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding" title="Blackbirding">Blackbirding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raiding_in_Easter_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave raiding in Easter Island">Slave raiding in Easter Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea">Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding_in_Polynesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackbirding in Polynesia">Blackbirding in Polynesia</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Europe and North Asia</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sex_trafficking_in_Europe" title="Sex trafficking in Europe">Sex trafficking in Europe</a></li> <li>United Kingdom <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labour_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Penal labour in the United Kingdom">Penal Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Britain" title="Slavery in Britain">Slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_slave_trade" title="Danish slave trade">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Slave_Coast" title="Dutch Slave Coast">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour_under_German_rule_during_World_War_II" title="Forced labour under German rule during World War II">Germany in World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Malta" title="Slavery in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Poland" title="Slavery in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Portugal" title="Slavery in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Romania" title="Slavery in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Russia" title="Slavery in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Spain" title="Slavery in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_slave_trade" title="Swedish slave trade">Sweden</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>North Africa and West Asia</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Afghanistan" title="Slavery in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Algeria" title="Slavery in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Bahrain" title="Slavery in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Egypt" title="Slavery in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_the_Middle_East" title="Human trafficking in the Middle East">Human trafficking in the Middle East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Iran" title="Slavery in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Iraq" title="Slavery in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Jordan" title="Slavery in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Kuwait" title="Slavery in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Lebanon" title="Slavery in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Libya" title="Slavery in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Morocco" title="Slavery in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Oman" title="Slavery in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Palestine" title="Slavery in Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Slavery in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Syria" title="Slavery in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Tunisia" title="Slavery in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Qatar" title="Slavery in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Yemen" title="Slavery in Yemen">Yemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_and_religion" title="Slavery and religion">Religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Bible_and_slavery" title="The Bible and slavery">Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_slavery" title="Christian views on slavery">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_slavery" title="Catholic Church and slavery">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mormonism_and_slavery" title="Mormonism and slavery">Mormonism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_slavery" title="Islamic views on slavery">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_slavery" title="Jewish views on slavery">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_and_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Baháʼí Faith and slavery">Baháʼí Faith</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Opposition and resistance</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Abolitionism in the United Kingdom">U.K.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">U.S.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brussels_Anti-Slavery_Conference_1889%E2%80%9390" title="Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90">Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporary_Slavery_Commission" title="Temporary Slavery Commission">Temporary Slavery Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1926_Slavery_Convention" title="1926 Slavery Convention">1926 Slavery Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Committee of Experts on Slavery">Committee of Experts on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advisory_Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery">Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ad_Hoc_Committee_on_Slavery" title="Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery">Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supplementary_Convention_on_the_Abolition_of_Slavery" title="Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery">Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_abolitionists" title="List of abolitionists">Abolitionists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_Slave_Trade_Convention" title="Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention">Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavery_International" title="Anti-Slavery International">Anti-Slavery International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Africa" title="Blockade of Africa">Blockade of Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Africa_Squadron" title="West Africa Squadron">U.K.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Slave_Trade_Patrol" title="African Slave Trade Patrol">U.S.</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Colonization_Society" title="American Colonization Society">Colonization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compensated_emancipation" title="Compensated emancipation">Compensated emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedman" title="Freedman">Freedman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manumission" title="Manumission">Manumission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_suit" title="Freedom suit">Freedom suit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Power" title="Slave Power">Slave Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Songs_of_the_Underground_Railroad" title="Songs of the Underground Railroad">songs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_rebellion" title="Slave rebellion">Slave rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act" title="Slave Trade Act">Slave Trade Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_international_law" title="Slavery in international law">International law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Servile_War" title="Third Servile War">Third Servile War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">13th Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_abolition_of_slavery_and_serfdom" title="Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom">Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abolition_of_slave_trade_in_Persian_gulf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf (page does not exist)">Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%85%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B9%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D8%AA%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%AE%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%AC_%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3" class="extiw" title="fa:ممنوعیت تجارت برده در خلیج فارس">fa</a>]</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_at_common_law" title="Slavery at common law">Common law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude" title="Indentured servitude">Indentured servitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour" title="Forced labour">Forced labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slaves in the United States">Fugitive slaves</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slave_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slave laws in the United States">laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Convention" title="Fugitive Slave Convention">convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slaves" title="List of slaves">List of slaves</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slave_owners" title="List of slave owners">owners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_last_survivors_of_American_slavery" title="List of last survivors of American slavery">last survivors of American slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slavery-related_memorials_and_museums" title="List of slavery-related memorials and museums">List of slavery-related memorials and museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_marriages_in_the_United_States" title="Slave marriages in the United States">Slave marriages in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_narrative" title="Slave narrative">Slave narrative</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_featuring_slavery" title="List of films featuring slavery">films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Songs_of_the_United_States" title="Slave Songs of the United States">songs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_name" title="Slave name">Slave name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_catcher" title="Slave catcher">Slave catcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_patrol" title="Slave patrol">Slave patrol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Slave_Route_Project" title="The Slave Route Project">Slave Route Project</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slave_breeding_in_the_United_States" title="Slave breeding in the United States">breeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_court_cases_in_the_United_States_involving_slavery" title="List of court cases in the United States involving slavery">court cases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_and_slavery" title="George Washington and slavery">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson_and_slavery" title="Thomas Jefferson and slavery">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams_and_abolitionism" title="John Quincy Adams and abolitionism">J.Q. Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_and_slavery" title="Abraham Lincoln and slavery">Lincoln</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forty_acres_and_a_mule" title="Forty acres and a mule">40 acres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_iron_bit" title="Slave iron bit">Iron bit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Day" title="Emancipation Day">Emancipation Day</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Forced_labour" title="Template:Forced labour"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Forced_labour" title="Template talk:Forced labour"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Forced_labour" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Forced labour"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Califato_de_C%C3%B3rdoba_-_1000-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Califato_de_C%C3%B3rdoba_-_1000-en.svg/220px-Califato_de_C%C3%B3rdoba_-_1000-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Califato_de_C%C3%B3rdoba_-_1000-en.svg/330px-Califato_de_C%C3%B3rdoba_-_1000-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Califato_de_C%C3%B3rdoba_-_1000-en.svg/440px-Califato_de_C%C3%B3rdoba_-_1000-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="686" data-file-height="594" /></a><figcaption>Califato de Córdoba - 1000-en</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Radhanite1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Radhanite1.jpg/220px-Radhanite1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="103" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Radhanite1.jpg/330px-Radhanite1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Radhanite1.jpg/440px-Radhanite1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="376" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Radhanite" title="Radhanite">Radhanite</a> trade routes.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Salon_Rico_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Salon_Rico_1.jpg/220px-Salon_Rico_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Salon_Rico_1.jpg/330px-Salon_Rico_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Salon_Rico_1.jpg/440px-Salon_Rico_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="627" data-file-height="470" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Madinat_al-Zahra" title="Madinat al-Zahra">Madinat al-Zahra</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Targ_niewolnikow_w_Kordowie.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Targ_niewolnikow_w_Kordowie.jpg/220px-Targ_niewolnikow_w_Kordowie.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Targ_niewolnikow_w_Kordowie.jpg/330px-Targ_niewolnikow_w_Kordowie.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Targ_niewolnikow_w_Kordowie.jpg/440px-Targ_niewolnikow_w_Kordowie.jpg 2x" data-file-width="887" data-file-height="874" /></a><figcaption>Slavic and Black slaves in Córdoba; illustration from the <i><a href="/wiki/Cantigas_de_Santa_Maria" title="Cantigas de Santa Maria">Cantigas de Santa Maria</a></i></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Slavery in al-Andalus</b> was a practice throughout <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a> (present-day <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> and Portugal) between the 8th-century and the 15th century. This includes the periods of the <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Emirate of Córdoba">Emirate of Córdoba</a> (756–929), the <a href="/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphate of Córdoba">Caliphate of Córdoba</a> (929–1031), the <a href="/wiki/Taifas" class="mw-redirect" title="Taifas">Taifas</a> (11th century), <a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravid</a> rule (1085–1145), <a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad</a> rule (1147–1238), and the <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Granada" title="Emirate of Granada">Emirate of Granada</a> (1232–1492). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">Slavery</a> in al-Andalus was regulated in accordance with Islamic law. Non-Muslims foreigners were viewed as legitimate targets of enslavement. Since al-Andalus was a situated in the religious border zone, it had the conditions necessary to become a center of slave trade between Christian and Pagan Europe and the Muslim Middle East. </p><p>Slaves were trafficked to al-Andalus via a number of different routes. The centuries long <a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">reconquista</a> between Muslim and Christian Iberia resulted in numerous Christian slaves captured during the constant warfare and slave raids across Iberian borders. Christian Europe exported Pagan Europeans as slaves to al-Andalus via the <a href="/wiki/Prague_slave_trade" title="Prague slave trade">Prague slave trade</a> through Christian France. Pagan <a href="/wiki/Vikings" title="Vikings">Vikings</a> exported Christian slaves captured in Christian Europe to the Muslims in al-Andalus. Muslim Saracen pirates captured and sold Christian Europeans captured in slave raids along the shores of the Mediterranean to the slave markets of al-Andalus. African slaves were trafficked to al-Andalus from the South across the Sahara desert via the Trans-Saharan slave trade. </p><p>Slaves in al-Andalus were used in a similar manner as in other Muslim states. Female slaves were used primarily as domestic servants, prostitution and private harem concubines (sex slaves). Male slaves were used for a number of different tasks, but primarily divided in to <a href="/wiki/Eunuch" title="Eunuch">eunuchs</a>, who could be given prestigious tasks; laborers; or as slave soldiers. al-Andalus functioned as both a destination as well as a place of transit of the slave trade of European slaves from the North to the rest of the Muslim world in the South and the East. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_al-Andalus&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Slavery existed in Muslim al-Andalus as well as in the Christian kingdoms, and both sides of the religious border followed the custom of not enslaving people of their own religion. Consequently, Muslims were enslaved in Christian lands, while Christians and other non-Muslims were enslaved in al-Andalus.<sup id="cite_ref-Phillips2014_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Phillips2014-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Moors imported white Christian slaves from the 8th century until the end of the <a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a> in the late 15th century. European slaves were exported from the Christian section of Spain as well as Eastern Europe and referred to as <i><a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a></i>. Saqaliba slavery in al-Andalus was especially prominent in the <a href="/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphate of Córdoba">Caliphate of Córdoba</a>, where white female slaves constituted a big part of the slave concubines of the royal harem, and white male slaves constituted most of the administrative personnel in the courts and palaces.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Slave_trade">Slave trade</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_al-Andalus&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Slave trade"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bukhara_slave_trade" title="Bukhara slave trade">Bukhara slave trade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radhanite" title="Radhanite">Radhanite</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Prague_slave_trade" title="Prague slave trade">Prague slave trade</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a>, the Muslim-ruled area of the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a> (711–1492) imported a large number of slaves to its own domestic market, as well as served as a staging point for Muslim and Jewish merchants to market slaves to the rest of the Islamic world.<sup id="cite_ref-radhanites_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-radhanites-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An early economic pillar of the Islamic empire in Iberia (<a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a>) during the eighth century was the slave trade. Due to <a href="/wiki/Manumission" title="Manumission">manumission</a> being a form of piety under Islamic law, slavery in Muslim Spain couldn't maintain the same level of auto-reproduction as societies with older slave populations. Therefore, Al-Andalus relied on trade systems as an external means of replenishing the supply of enslaved people.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Islamic law prohibited Muslims from enslaving other Muslims, and there was thus a big market for non-Muslim slaves in Islamic territory. The Vikings sold both Christian and Pagan European captives to the Muslims, who referred to them as <a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">saqaliba</a>; these slaves were likely both Pagan Slavic, Finnic and Baltic Eastern Europeans <sup id="cite_ref-jjk35_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jjk35-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as Christian Western Europeans.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Forming relations between the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyads</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kharijites" title="Kharijites">Khārijites</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">'Abbāsids</a>, the flow of trafficked people from the main routes of the Sahara towards <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a><sup id="cite_ref-Gaiser,_A._2014_pp._42_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gaiser,_A._2014_pp._42-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> served as a highly lucrative trade configuration. </p><p>The archaeological evidence of human trafficking and proliferation of early trade in this case follows numismatics and materiality of text.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This monetary structure of consistent gold influx proved to be a tenet in the development of Islamic commerce.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this regard, the slave trade outperformed and was the most commercially successful venture for maximizing capital.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This major change in the form of numismatics serves as a paradigm shift from the previous Visigothic economic arrangement. Additionally, it demonstrates profound change from one regional entity to another, the direct transfer of people and pure coinage from one religiously similar semi-autonomous province to another. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Almohad_conquest">Almohad conquest</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_al-Andalus&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Almohad conquest"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Almohads broke Islamic law by taking Muslim women and children as slaves during the conquest of the Almoravid Emirate in the 12th-century. Islamic law allowed Muslims to take non-Muslims as slaves, but not Muslims. However, the Almohads defined Muslims who were not followers of <a href="/wiki/Almohadism" class="mw-redirect" title="Almohadism">Almohadism</a> as unbelivers (<i><a href="/wiki/Takfir" title="Takfir">takfir</a></i>) and therefore viewed them as legitimate to enslave.<sup id="cite_ref-Courtesans_2017_p153_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Courtesans_2017_p153-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While adult men were killed, women and children were taken captive and sold as slaves and even kept as <a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_concubinage" title="Islamic views on concubinage">concubines</a>, something normally only allowed for non-Muslim women.<sup id="cite_ref-Courtesans_2017_p153_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Courtesans_2017_p153-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Mu%27min" title="Abd al-Mu'min">Abd al-Mu'min</a> took the fortress Dai, two women were taken as captives who became his concubines, one of whom became the mother of his son Abu Said Uthman.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When Tlemcen was taken by the Almohad army, Ibn al-Athir stated that "The children and womenfolk were taken as captives.... Those who were not slain were sold at minimal prices".<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the capital Marrakesh was conquered in 1147, al-Baydhaq described how "Everything that was in he city was taken to the treasury. The women were sold and everything [all the booty of the conquest] went back to the treasury", and Ibn Sahib al-Sala that "[Abd al-Mu'min] distribyted the houses [of the Marrakhsis] to [the Almohads]. The families of Marrakesh were sold and their children were somd into slavery"<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The enslavement of Muslim war captives however soon stopped since during the Almohad conquests, Muslims stated to rapidly adopt the Almohadist version of Islam to avoid enslavement.<sup id="cite_ref-Courtesans_2017_p153_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Courtesans_2017_p153-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prague_slave_trade">Prague slave trade</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_al-Andalus&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Prague slave trade"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Prague_slave_trade" title="Prague slave trade">Prague slave trade</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a></div> <p>The slave market of Prague was one route for saqaliba slaves to al-Andalus. Similarly to al-Andalus, the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Bohemia" title="Duchy of Bohemia">Duchy of Bohemia</a> was a state in a religious border zone, in the case of Bohemia bordering to Pagan Slavic lands to the North, East and South East. </p><p>The Arabic <a href="/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphate of Córdoba">Caliphate of Córdoba</a> referred to the forrests of Central and Eastern Europe, which came to function as a slave source supply, as the <i>Bilad as-Saqaliba</i> ("land of the slaves").<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bohemia were in an ideal position to become a supply source for Pagan saqaliba slaves to al-Andalus. The slaves were acquired through slave raids toward the Pagan Slavic lands North of Prague. </p><p>The Prague slave trade adjusted to the al-Andalus market, with females required for sexual slavery and males required for either military slavery or as <a href="/wiki/Eunuch" title="Eunuch">eunuchs</a>. Male slaves selected to be sold as eunuchs were subjected to castration in <a href="/wiki/Verdun" title="Verdun">Verdun</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Traditionally, the slave traders acquiring the slaves in Prague and transporting them to the slave market of al-Andalus are said to have been dominated by the Jewish <a href="/wiki/Radhanite" title="Radhanite">Radhanite</a> merchants.<sup id="cite_ref-Korpela,_J._2018_p._92_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Korpela,_J._2018_p._92-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> How dominating the Jewish merchants were is unknown, but Jewish slave traders did have an advantage toward their non-Jewish colleagues, because they were able to move across the Christian-Muslim lands, which was not always to case for Christian and Muslim merchants, and act as mediators between Christian and Muslim commercial markets.<sup id="cite_ref-Korpela,_J._2018_p._92_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Korpela,_J._2018_p._92-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While Christians were not allowed to enslave Christians and Muslims not allowed to enslave Muslims, Jews were able to sell Christian slaves to Muslim buyers and Muslim slaves to Christian buyers, as well as Pagan slaves to both.<sup id="cite_ref-Korpela,_J._2018_p._92_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Korpela,_J._2018_p._92-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the same fashion, both Christians and Muslims were prohibited from performing castrations, but there was no such ban for Jews, which made it possible for them to meet the demand for eunuchs in the Muslim world.<sup id="cite_ref-Korpela,_J._2018_p._92_18-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Korpela,_J._2018_p._92-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The slaves were transported to Al-Andalus via France. While the church discouraged the sale of Christian slaves to Muslims, the sale of Pagans to Muslims was not met with such opposition. White European slaves were viewed as luxury goods in Al-Andalus, where they could be sold for as much as 1,000 <i><a href="/wiki/Dinar" title="Dinar">dinars</a></i>, a substantial price.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The slaves were not always destined for the al-Andalus market; similar to Bohemia in Europe, al-Andalus was a religious border state for the Muslim world, and saqaliba slaves were exported from there further to the Muslim world in the Middle East. </p><p>The saqaliba slave trade from Prague to al-Andalus via France became defunct in the 11th-century, when the Pagan Slavs of the North started to gradually adopt <a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Poland" title="Christianization of Poland">Christianity from the late 10th-century</a>, which prohibited Christian Bohemia to enslave and sell to Muslim al-Andalus. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slave_raids_to_Christian_Iberia">Slave raids to Christian Iberia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_al-Andalus&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Slave raids to Christian Iberia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Al-Andalus was described in the Muslim world as the "land of jihad", a religious border land in a state of constant war with the infidels, which by Islamic Law was a legitimate zone for enslavement, and slaves were termed as coming from three different zones in Christian Iberia: Galicians from the North West, Basques or Vascones from the Central North, and Franks from the North East and France.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The medieval <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a> was the scene of episodic <a href="/wiki/Warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Warfare">warfare</a> among Muslims and Christians. Periodic raiding expeditions were sent from <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a> to ravage the Christian Iberian kingdoms, bringing back booty and people. For example, in a raid on <a href="/wiki/Lisbon" title="Lisbon">Lisbon</a> in 1189 the <a href="/wiki/Almohad" class="mw-redirect" title="Almohad">Almohad</a> caliph <a href="/wiki/Yaqub_al-Mansur" title="Yaqub al-Mansur">Yaqub al-Mansur</a> took 3,000 female and child captives, and his governor of <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Spain" title="Córdoba, Spain">Córdoba</a> took 3,000 Christian slaves in a subsequent attack upon <a href="/wiki/Silves_Municipality,_Portugal" class="mw-redirect" title="Silves Municipality, Portugal">Silves</a> in 1191.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the Almohad raid to <a href="/wiki/%C3%89vora" title="Évora">Evora</a> in Portugal in 1181–82, 400 women were taken captives and put for sale in the slave market of Seville. <sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These raiding expeditions also included the Sa’ifa (summer) incursions, a tradition produced during the Amir reign of Cordoba. In addition to acquiring wealth, some of these Sa’ifa raids sought to bring mostly male captives, often eunuchs, back to Al-Andalus. They were generically referred to as <a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a>, the Arab word for Slavs.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Slavs’ status as the most common group in the slave trade by the tenth century led to the development of the word “slave.”<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Barcelona_(985)" title="Sack of Barcelona (985)">Sack of Barcelona (985)</a> by the Córdoban general, <a href="/wiki/Almanzor" title="Almanzor">Almanzor</a>, the entire garrison was slain, and the inhabitants were either killed or enslaved.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Saracen_piracy">Saracen piracy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_al-Andalus&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Saracen piracy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Moorish Saracen pirates from <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">al-Andalus</a> attacked <a href="/wiki/Marseille" title="Marseille">Marseille</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arles" title="Arles">Arles</a> and established a base in <a href="/wiki/Camargue" title="Camargue">Camargue</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fraxinetum" title="Fraxinetum">Fraxinetum</a> or La Garde-Freinet-Les Mautes (888–972), from which they made slave raids in to France;<sup id="cite_ref-Middle_Ages_1986_p._408_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Middle_Ages_1986_p._408-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the population fled in fear of the slave raids, which made it difficult for the Frankish to secure their Southern coast,<sup id="cite_ref-Middle_Ages_1986_p._408_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Middle_Ages_1986_p._408-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the Saracens of Fraxinetum exported the Frankisk prisoners they captured as slaves to the <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate">slave market of the Muslim Middle East</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Saracens captured <a href="/wiki/The_Baleares" class="mw-redirect" title="The Baleares">the Baleares</a> in 903, and made slave raids also from this base toward the coasts of the Christian Mediterranean and Sicily.<sup id="cite_ref-Middle_Ages_1986_p._408_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Middle_Ages_1986_p._408-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the Saracen bases in France was eliminated in 972, this did not prevent the Saracen piracy slave trade of the Mediterranean; both <a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravid dynasty</a> (1040–1147) and the <a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad Caliphate</a> (1121–1269) approved of the slave raiding of Saracen pirates toward non-Muslim ships in Gibraltar and the Mediterranean for the purpose of slave raiding.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trans-Saharan_slave_trade">Trans-Saharan slave trade</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_al-Andalus&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Trans-Saharan slave trade"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Along with Christians and Slavs, Sub-Saharan Africans were also held as slaves, brought back from the caravan trade in the Sahara. The Ancient <a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan slave trade</a> trafficked slaves to Al-Andalus from non-Muslim Pagan Sub-Saharan Africa. </p><p>Forming relations between the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyads</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kharijites" title="Kharijites">Khārijites</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">'Abbāsids</a>, the flow of trafficked people from the main routes of the Sahara towards <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a><sup id="cite_ref-Gaiser,_A._2014_pp._42_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gaiser,_A._2014_pp._42-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> served as a highly lucrative trade configuration. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Viking_slave_trade">Viking slave trade</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_al-Andalus&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Viking slave trade"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to <a href="/wiki/Roger_Collins" title="Roger Collins">Roger Collins</a>, although the role of the <a href="/wiki/Vikings" title="Vikings">Vikings</a> in the slave trade in Iberia remains largely hypothetical, their depredations are clearly recorded. Raids on Al-Andalus by Vikings are reported in the years 844, 859, 966 and 971, conforming to the general pattern of such activity concentrating in the mid ninth and late tenth centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Vikings performed slave raids toward the Christian parts of Iberia as well. It is known that the Vikings sold people they captured in their raids in Christian Europe to the Islamic world via Arab merchants in Russia along the <a href="/wiki/Volga_trade_route" title="Volga trade route">Volga trade route</a>, slaves who were trafficked to the Middle East via Central Asia and was an important slave supply source to the <a href="/wiki/Bukhara_slave_trade" title="Bukhara slave trade">Bukhara slave trade</a>. However, it is not confirmed if the Vikings sold the captives from their raids in Christian Iberia directly to Muslim Iberia. </p><p>The Vikings did provide slaves to al-Andalus via the Norse Kingdom of Dublin. Slaves captured primarily in the British islands and put on sale in Dublin, which was one of the biggest slave markets in Europe in the 9th- and 11th-centuries, are known to have been sold all over Europe; one of the most lucrative trades for Vikings as well as other traders operating from Irish ports <a href="/wiki/Dublin_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Dublin slave trade">such as Dublin</a> were the slave trade to Islamic Iberia.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Slave_market">Slave market</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_al-Andalus&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Slave market"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The slave market in the Muslim world prioritized women for the use of domestic servants and <a href="/wiki/Concubinage_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Concubinage in Islam">concubines (sex slaves)</a> and men as <a href="/wiki/Eunuch" title="Eunuch">eunuchs</a>, laborers and slave soldiers. Children were the preferred category on the slave market because they could be trained and raised to fill the function selected for them from childhood.<sup id="cite_ref-Scales,_P._C._1993_p._134_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scales,_P._C._1993_p._134-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Common <a href="/wiki/Slave_name" title="Slave name">slave names</a> were adjusted to the tasks selected for the slave children, such as <i>Mujahid</i> ('warrior'), <i>Muqatil</i> ('fighter') for slave soldiers; or Anbar ('amber'), Zuhayr ('radiant'), Kharyan ('blessing'), wathiq ('trusthworthy') or jumn ('pearl') for bureaucrats.<sup id="cite_ref-Scales,_P._C._1993_p._134_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scales,_P._C._1993_p._134-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The slaves of the Caliph were often European <a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">saqaliba</a> slaves trafficked from Northern or Eastern Europe. The Saqaliba were mostly assigned to palaces as guards, concubines, and <a href="/wiki/Eunuch" title="Eunuch">eunuchs</a>, although they were sometimes privately owned.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While male saqaliba could be given work in a number of tasks, such as offices in the kitchen, falconry, mint, textile workshops, the administration or the royal guard (in the case of <a href="/wiki/Harem" title="Harem">harem</a> guards, they were castrated), female saqaliba were placed in the harem.<sup id="cite_ref-Scales1993_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scales1993-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Sub-Saharan African Pagans were often given more laborious chores than the saqaliba-slaves. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Female_slaves">Female slaves</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_al-Andalus&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Female slaves"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of concubinage in the Muslim world">History of concubinage in the Muslim world</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_concubinage" title="Islamic views on concubinage">Islamic views on concubinage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ma_malakat_aymanukum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma malakat aymanukum">Ma malakat aymanukum</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Circassian_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Circassian slave trade">Circassian slave trade</a></div> <p>In the Islamic world, female slaves were targeted for either use as domestic house slave maidservants, or for sexual slavery in the form of concubinage. In certain Islamic periods such as Al-Andalus, female slaves could also be selected for training as slave artists, known as <a href="/wiki/Qiyan" title="Qiyan">qiyan</a>. </p><p>Domestic slavery was a common enslavement for women in the Muslim world. Since free Muslim women were expected to live in <a href="/wiki/Sex_segregation" title="Sex segregation">gender segregated</a> seclusion in as high degree as possible, they generally did not work as maidservants, which created a high demand for domestic female slaves in the Muslim world. </p><p>Female slaves in al-Andalus could also be used as slave artists. The Caliphate of Cordoba continued the tradition of the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a> to instruct a category of female slaves to become entertainers; <a href="/wiki/Qiyan" title="Qiyan">qiyan</a>. The female qiyan slave entertainer, often referred to as "singing slave girls", were instructed in a number of accomplishments, such as poetry, music, recitating <i>akhbar</i> (accounts or anecdotes), calligraphy and shadow puppetry.<sup id="cite_ref-Courtesans_2017_p._100_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Courtesans_2017_p._100-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Qiyan-slave-girls were initially imported to al-Andalus from <a href="/wiki/Medina" title="Medina">Medina</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Courtesans_2017_p._102_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Courtesans_2017_p._102-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Qiyan slave-girls are noted to have been first imported to al-Andalus during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Al-Hakam_I" title="Al-Hakam I">al-Hakam I</a> (r. 796–822).<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, qiyan soon started to be trained in Cordoba and from 1013 in Seville; it is however unknown if the tradition was preserved in the <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Granada" title="Emirate of Granada">Emirate of Granada</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Courtesans_2017_p._102_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Courtesans_2017_p._102-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Qiyan-slaves were selected to be trained for this function as children, and underwent a long training to fit the demands.<sup id="cite_ref-Courtesans_2017_p._102_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Courtesans_2017_p._102-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During reign of the <a href="/wiki/Caliph_Al-Amin" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph Al-Amin">Caliph al-Amin</a> (r. 809–813) in Bahgdad, there was a category known as <i>ghulamyyat</i>, slave-girls dressed as boys, who were trained to perform as singers and musicians and who attended the drinking parties of the sovereign and his male guests, and this custom is known in al-Andalus in the reign of Caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Hakam_II" title="Al-Hakam II">al-Hakam II</a> (r. 961–976).<sup id="cite_ref-Medieval_Iberia_2022_p._180-181_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Medieval_Iberia_2022_p._180-181-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Al-Isbahani" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Isbahani">al-Isbahani</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Kitab_al-Aghani" title="Kitab al-Aghani">Kitab al-Aghani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_al-Mawsili" title="Ibrahim al-Mawsili">Ibrahim al-Mawsili</a> noted that originally slave girls with dark complexion had been selected to be trained as qiyan, because they were viewed as unattractive, but that this custom had changed and white slave-girls, who were considered more beautiful and were therefore more expensive, had started to be trained as qiyan to increase their market value even more: </p> <dl><dd>"People did not use to teach beautiful slave-girls to sing, but instead only taught light brown and black [slave girls to sing]. The first person to teach expensive [fair-skinned] slave-girls to sing was my father. He achieved the highest level [of training] of female singers, and thereby raised their value".<sup id="cite_ref-Courtesans_2017_p._102_36-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Courtesans_2017_p._102-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>The qiyan-slaves were not secluded from men in <a href="/wiki/Harem" title="Harem">harem</a> as free women or slave concubines, but in contrast performed for male guests - sometimes from behind a screen and sometimes visible - and are the perhaps most well documented of all female slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-Courtesans_2017_p._100_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Courtesans_2017_p._100-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While trained qiyan-slaves were sexually available to their enslaver, they were not categorized or sold as concubines and, with their training, were the most expensive female slaves. <sup id="cite_ref-Courtesans_2017_p._100_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Courtesans_2017_p._100-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The writer <a href="/wiki/Al-Jahiz" title="Al-Jahiz">Al-Jahiz</a>: "the singing-girl is hardly ever honest in her passion or sincere in her affection, for she, by training and by disposition, sets traps and snares for her admirers in order that they may plung into her toils [lit. "noose"]", and "for the most part singing-girls are insicere and given to employing deciet and treachery in squeezing out the property of the deluded victim and then abandoning him", and that their enslaver used them to assemble gifts from male guests who came to him to see and hear his qiyan slave-girl.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another category was that of <a href="/wiki/Sexual_slavery" title="Sexual slavery">sexual slavery</a>. Islamic law prohibited a man from having sexual intercourse with any woman except his wife or his female slave. Female slaves were used for both prostitution as well as private concubines. Islamic Law formally prohibited prostitution. However, since Islamic Law allowed a man to have sexual intercourse with his female slave, prostitution was practiced by a pimp selling his female slave on the slave market to a client, who returned his ownership of her to her former owner (the pimp) on the pretext of discontent after having had intercourse with her, which was a legal and accepted method for prostitution in the Islamic world.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While slaves could be of different ethnicities, this did not exclude enslavers from categorizing slaves by their ethnic origin in to racial stereotypes. <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Kha%E1%B9%AD%C4%ABb" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn al-Khaṭīb">Ibn al-Khaṭīb</a> classified female sex slaves by racial stereotypes: </p> <dl><dd>"The Arabic women from the desert [are] well experienced, the <a href="/wiki/Houri" title="Houri">houris</a> of paradise with red colors, thin and slim waists, adorned necks, honey-colored lips, big eyes, characteristic perfume suitable for all natures, gentle movements, courteous spirits, kind meanings, dry vulvas, soft kisses, and a straight nose. The Maghribī women, with black hair, a kind face, sweet smile, honey-colored and very red lips with a dark shade, and wrists whose beauty is perfected by mirrors and the indigo drawing of the tattoo. The Christians, of diaphanous whiteness, movable breasts, thin bodies, balanced fat, superb flesh in a narrow build of brocades, bodies and backs embellished with beautiful jewels and gorgeous beads; they stand out for the peculiarity of being foreign and for how they blandish [...]."<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>The slave traders were known to prepare their slave girls in order to acquire the highest price for them at the slave market. A 12th-century document described how slave traders smeared female slaves of dark complexion with ointments and dyed the hair of brunettes "golden" (blonde) in order to appear lighter, and how they instructed slave girls to flirt to attract buyers. al-Saqati noted how slave traders dressed slave-girls in transparent clothing on public display in order to attract customers and adjusted the color of their clothing, and that white slave-girls, for example, where dressed in rose color (pink).<sup id="cite_ref-Medieval_Iberia_2022_p._180-181_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Medieval_Iberia_2022_p._180-181-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Female slaves were visible in public; while free Muslim women were expected to veil in public to signal their modesty and status as free women, slave women were expected to appear unveiled in public to differentiate them from free and modest women.<sup id="cite_ref-Medieval_Iberia_2022_p._180-181_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Medieval_Iberia_2022_p._180-181-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Habib" title="Ibn Habib">Ibn Habib</a> noted how Free Muslim women were prohibited from wearing revealing and transparent clothing, but that such clothing were worn in an intimate context; the <i>Libro de los juegos</i> claimed that Muslim women wore transparent tunics, which has been interpreted as the supposed freedom of Andalusian women, but such clothing was likely worn by slave women rather than Muslim women.<sup id="cite_ref-Medieval_Iberia_2022_p._180-181_38-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Medieval_Iberia_2022_p._180-181-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The use of female sex slaves of foreign ethnicity had unwanted consequences in the racialized society of al-Andalus, where Arab Muslims were considered to be the most high status ethnicity in the racial hierarchy, followed by Berber Muslims, Christians, Jews and slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-Gerber,_J._S._2020_p._27_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gerber,_J._S._2020_p._27-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In order to achieve the status and privileges reserved for ethnic Arabs, such as tax reduction, many Andalusians forged their genealogy to appear pure blood Arab.<sup id="cite_ref-Gerber,_J._S._2020_p._27_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gerber,_J._S._2020_p._27-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fact that the rulers of al-Andalus preferred and could afford to buy white European female sex slaves had the unwanted consequence that many Caliphs, who were sons of European slave concubines, became lighter in color for each generation; many Caliphs had fair complexion and blue eyes, and dyed their hair black in order to appear more stereotypically Arab.<sup id="cite_ref-Gerber,_J._S._2020_p._27_43-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gerber,_J._S._2020_p._27-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Royal_harem">Royal harem</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_al-Andalus&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Royal harem"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_harem" title="Abbasid harem">Abbasid harem</a>, <a href="/wiki/Safavid_harem" class="mw-redirect" title="Safavid harem">Safavid harem</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Harem" title="Mughal Harem">Mughal Harem</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qajar_harem" title="Qajar harem">Qajar harem</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Imperial_Harem" title="Ottoman Imperial Harem">Ottoman Imperial Harem</a></div> <p>The harem system that developed in the Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphate, illustrated by the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_harem" title="Abbasid harem">Abbasid harem</a>, was reproduced by the Islamic realms developing from them, such as in the Emirates and Caliphates in Muslim Spain, <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a>, which attracted a lot of attention in Europe during the Middle Ages until the <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Granada" title="Emirate of Granada">Emirate of Granada</a> was conquered in 1492. </p><p>The most famous of the Andalusian harems was perhaps the harem of the <a href="/wiki/Caliph_of_Cordoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph of Cordoba">Caliph of Cordoba</a>. Except for the female relatives of the Caliph, the harem women consisted of his slave concubines. The slaves of the Caliph were often European <a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">saqaliba</a> slaves trafficked from Northern or Eastern Europe. While male saqaliba could be given work in a number offices such as: in the kitchen, falconry, mint, textile workshops, the administration or the royal guard (in the case of harem guards, they were castrated), but female saqaliba were placed in the harem.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Scales,_P._C._1993_p._134_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scales,_P._C._1993_p._134-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The harem could contain thousands of slave concubines; the harem of <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_I" title="Abd al-Rahman I">Abd al-Rahman I</a> consisted of 6,300 women.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">saqaliba</a> concubines were appreciated for their light skin.<sup id="cite_ref-Reference0_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reference0-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concubines (<a href="/wiki/Jawaris" class="mw-redirect" title="Jawaris">jawaris</a>) were educated in accomplishments to make them attractive and useful for their master, and many became known and respected for their knowledge in a variety of subjects from music to medicine.<sup id="cite_ref-Reference0_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reference0-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Jawaris" class="mw-redirect" title="Jawaris">jawaris</a> concubine who gave birth to a child acknowledge by her enslaver as his attained the status of an <i><a href="/wiki/Umm_walad" class="mw-redirect" title="Umm walad">umm walad</a></i>, and a favorite concubine was given great luxury and honorary titles such as in the case of Marjan, who gave birth to <a href="/wiki/Al-Hakam_II" title="Al-Hakam II">al-Hakam II</a>, the heir of <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_III" title="Abd al-Rahman III">Abd al-Rahman III</a>; he called her <i>al-sayyida al-kubra</i> (great lady).<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, concubines were always slaves subjected the will of their master. Caliph Abd al-Rahman III is known to have executed two concubines for reciting what he saw as inappropriate verses, and tortured another concubine with a burning candle in her face while she was hold be two eunuchs after she refused sexual intercourse.<sup id="cite_ref-Barton,_S._2015_p._38_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barton,_S._2015_p._38-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concubines of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu_Marwan_al-Tubni&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abu Marwan al-Tubni (page does not exist)">Abu Marwan al-Tubni</a> (d. 1065) were reportedly so badly treated that they conspired to murder him; women of the harem were also known to have been subjected to rape when rivaling factions conquered different palaces.<sup id="cite_ref-Barton,_S._2015_p._38_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barton,_S._2015_p._38-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several concubines were known to have had great influence through their masters or their sons, notably <a href="/wiki/Subh_of_Cordoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Subh of Cordoba">Subh</a> during the Caliphate of Cordoba, and <a href="/wiki/Isabel_de_Sol%C3%ADs" title="Isabel de Solís">Isabel de Solís</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Granada" title="Emirate of Granada">Emirate of Granada</a>. </p><p>The Royal Nasrid Harem of the <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Granada" title="Emirate of Granada">Emirate of Granada</a> (1238–1492) was modelled after the former Royal Harem of Cordoba. The rulers of the <a href="/wiki/Nasrid_dynasty" title="Nasrid dynasty">Nasrid dynasty</a> normally married their cousins, (al-hurra), who became their legal wives (zawŷ), but additionally bought enslaved concubines (ŷawārī, mamlūkāt); the concubines were normally Christian girls (rūmiyyas) kidnapped in slave raids to the Christian lands in the North. A concubine who gave birth to a child who was recognized by her enslaver as his, was given the status of ummahāt al-awlād, which meant she could no longer be sold and would be free (<i>hurra</i>) after the death of her enslaver.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mothers of both <a href="/wiki/Yusuf_I_of_Granada" title="Yusuf I of Granada">Yusuf I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_V_of_Granada" title="Muhammad V of Granada">Muhammad V</a> had been captured Christian women,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESarr2020186–188_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESarr2020186–188-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as had <a href="/wiki/R%C4%ABm_(concubine)" title="Rīm (concubine)">Rīm</a>, enslaved by <a href="/wiki/Yusuf_I_of_Granada" title="Yusuf I of Granada">Yusuf I of Granada</a>, and mother of <a href="/wiki/Ismail_II_of_Granada" title="Ismail II of Granada">Ismail II of Granada</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Male_slaves">Male slaves</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_al-Andalus&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Male slaves"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the Islamic world, male slaves could be used for a number of chores, but the main tasks were two. Either they were targeted for military slavery as slave soldiers; or they were subjected to castration and selected to serve in administration in our outside of the harem, tasks for which they were expected to be eunuchs. </p><p>Male slave children were normally taught Arabic and converted to <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, and then selected to be trained in a future function chosen for them.<sup id="cite_ref-Scales,_P._C._1993_p._134_32-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scales,_P._C._1993_p._134-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Non-castrated male children could be selected for military slavery: slave soldiers were an important part of Andalusian military.<sup id="cite_ref-Scales,_P._C._1993_p._134_32-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scales,_P._C._1993_p._134-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Free Arab soldiers were distrusted by the Islamic rulers and the custom of having a slave army is known in al-Andalus from at least Caliph <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_III" title="Abd al-Rahman III">Abd al-Rahman III</a>'s reign; as slaves, they were seen as more trustworthy, being dependent on the protective patronage of the ruler.<sup id="cite_ref-Scales,_P._C._1993_p._134_32-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scales,_P._C._1993_p._134-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Caliph al-Hakam (r. 796–822) are known to have had a personal guard of "mutes" slave soldiers, called mute because they were not taught Arabic and thus unable to communicate.<sup id="cite_ref-Scales,_P._C._1993_p._134_32-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scales,_P._C._1993_p._134-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A ready market, especially for men of fighting age, could be found in <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad Spain">Umayyad Spain</a>, with its need for supplies of new <a href="/wiki/Mamelukes" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamelukes">mamelukes</a>. </p> <blockquote><p><a href="/wiki/Al-Hakam_I" title="Al-Hakam I">Al-Hakam</a> was the first monarch of this family who surrounded his throne with a certain splendour and magnificence. He increased the number of mamelukes (slave soldiers) until they amounted to 5,000 horse and 1,000 foot. ... he increased the number of his slaves, eunuchs and servants; had a bodyguard of cavalry always stationed at the gate of his palace and surrounded his person with a guard of mamelukes .... these mamelukes were called Al-haras (the Guard) owing to their all being Christians or foreigners. They occupied two large barracks, with stables for their horses.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>During the reign of <a href="/wiki/Abd-ar-Rahman_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd-ar-Rahman III">Abd-ar-Rahman III</a> (912–961), there were at first 3,750, then 6,087, and finally 13,750 <a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a>, or Slavic slaves, at <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Andalusia" class="mw-redirect" title="Córdoba, Andalusia">Córdoba</a>, capital of the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hawqal" title="Ibn Hawqal">Ibn Hawqal</a>, Ibrahim al-Qarawi, and Bishop <a href="/wiki/Liutprand_of_Cremona" title="Liutprand of Cremona">Liutprand of Cremona</a> note that the Jewish merchants of Verdun specialized in castrating slaves, to be sold as eunuch saqaliba, which were enormously popular in Muslim Spain.<sup id="cite_ref-dictslave_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dictslave-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-valante_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-valante-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Male children could be trained to fill numerous domestic and other tasks, such as being in charge of offices of the Palace kitchen, the falconry, mint, and textile workshops, and in the libraries; the brother of the slave concubine Subh are known to have been placed in the Royal workshop.<sup id="cite_ref-Scales,_P._C._1993_p._134_32-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scales,_P._C._1993_p._134-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Male children could also be selected to be trained to serve the diwan as administrative state bureaucrat offices.<sup id="cite_ref-Scales,_P._C._1993_p._134_32-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scales,_P._C._1993_p._134-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Castrated children could be selected to serve as guards or other functions inside a <a href="/wiki/Harem" title="Harem">harem</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Scales,_P._C._1993_p._134_32-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scales,_P._C._1993_p._134-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_al-Andalus&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radhanite" title="Radhanite">Radhanite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribute_of_100_virgins" title="Tribute of 100 virgins">Tribute of 100 virgins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate">Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate">Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean slave trade">Crimean slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_slave_trade" title="Barbary slave trade">Barbary slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of slavery in the Muslim world">History of slavery in the Muslim world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of concubinage in the Muslim world">History of concubinage in the Muslim world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Arab_attitudes_to_Black_people" title="Medieval Arab attitudes to Black people">Medieval Arab attitudes to Black people</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_al-Andalus&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Phillips2014-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Phillips2014_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_D._Phillips2014" class="citation book cs1">William D. Phillips (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KbboAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA58"><i>Slavery in Medieval and Early Modern Iberia</i></a>. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 58–59. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-4491-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-4491-5"><bdi>978-0-8122-4491-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+in+Medieval+and+Early+Modern+Iberia&rft.pages=58-59&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-4491-5&rft.au=William+D.+Phillips&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKbboAQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA58&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+al-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fernandez-Morera 2016 pp. 163–164</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-radhanites-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-radhanites_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Olivia Remie Constable (1996). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M-CVlhPb21MC&pg=PA203">Trade and Traders in Muslim Spain: The Commercial Realignment of the Iberian Peninsula, 900–1500</a></i>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 203–204. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521565030" title="Special:BookSources/0521565030">0521565030</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fynn-Paul, p. 26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJankowiak2017" class="citation journal cs1">Jankowiak, Marek (2017-01-20). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0020743816001240">"What Does the Slave Trade in the Saqaliba Tell Us about Early Islamic Slavery?"</a>. <i>International Journal of Middle East Studies</i>. <b>49</b> (1): 171. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0020743816001240">10.1017/s0020743816001240</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0020-7438">0020-7438</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:165127852">165127852</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Middle+East+Studies&rft.atitle=What+Does+the+Slave+Trade+in+the+Saqaliba+Tell+Us+about+Early+Islamic+Slavery%3F&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=171&rft.date=2017-01-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A165127852%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0020-7438&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0020743816001240&rft.aulast=Jankowiak&rft.aufirst=Marek&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252Fs0020743816001240&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+al-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jjk35-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-jjk35_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Korpela, J. (2018). Slaves from the North: Finns and Karelians in the East European Slave Trade, 900–1600. Nederländerna: Brill. p. 33-35</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The slave trade of European women to the Middle East and Asia from antiquity to the ninth century. by Kathryn Ann Hain. Department of History The University of Utah. December 2016. Copyright © Kathryn Ann Hain 2016. All Rights Reserved. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://collections.lib.utah.edu/ark:/87278/s6616pp7">https://collections.lib.utah.edu/ark:/87278/s6616pp7</a>. p. 256-257</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gaiser,_A._2014_pp._42-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gaiser,_A._2014_pp._42_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gaiser,_A._2014_pp._42_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Gaiser, A. (2014) "Slaves and Silver across the Strait of Gibraltar: Politics and Trade between Umayyad Iberia and Khārijite North Africa" in Liang, Y.G. et al. (eds.) Spanning the Strait: Studies in Unity in the Western Mediterranean, Leiden: Brill, pp. 42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gaiser, A. (2014) "Slaves and Silver across the Strait of Gibraltar: Politics and Trade between Umayyad Iberia and Khārijite North Africa" in Liang, Y.G. et al. (eds.) Spanning the Strait: Studies in Unity in the Western Mediterranean, Leiden: Brill, pp. 44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gutierrez, J. and Valor, M. (2014) "Trade, Transport and Travel" in Valor, M. and Gutierrez, A. (eds.) The Archaeology of Medieval Spain 1100–1500, Sheffield: Equinox, pp. 124.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gaiser, A. (2014) "Slaves and Silver across the Strait of Gibraltar: Politics and Trade between Umayyad Iberia and Khārijite North Africa" in Liang, Y.G. et al. (eds.) Spanning the Strait: Studies in Unity in the Western Mediterranean, Leiden: Brill, pp. 45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Courtesans_2017_p153-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Courtesans_2017_p153_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Courtesans_2017_p153_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Courtesans_2017_p153_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Concubines and Courtesans: Women and Slavery in Islamic History. (2017). Storbritannien: Oxford University Press. p153</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Concubines and Courtesans: Women and Slavery in Islamic History. (2017). Storbritannien: Oxford University Press. p146</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Concubines and Courtesans: Women and Slavery in Islamic History. (2017). Storbritannien: Oxford University Press. p150</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Concubines and Courtesans: Women and Slavery in Islamic History. (2017). Storbritannien: Oxford University Press. p150-53</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rollason, D. (2018). Early Medieval Europe 300–1050: A Guide for Studying and Teaching. Storbritannien: Taylor & Francis.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Korpela, J. (2018). Slaves from the North: Finns and Karelians in the East European Slave Trade, 900–1600. Nederländerna: Brill. p. 36</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Korpela,_J._2018_p._92-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Korpela,_J._2018_p._92_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Korpela,_J._2018_p._92_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Korpela,_J._2018_p._92_18-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Korpela,_J._2018_p._92_18-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Korpela, J. (2018). Slaves from the North: Finns and Karelians in the East European Slave Trade, 900–1600. 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Print.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gerber,_J._S._2020_p._27-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gerber,_J._S._2020_p._27_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gerber,_J._S._2020_p._27_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gerber,_J._S._2020_p._27_43-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Gerber, J. S. (2020). Cities of Splendour in the Shaping of Sephardi History. Storbritannien: Liverpool University Press. p. 27</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Concubines and Courtesans: Women and Slavery in Islamic History. (2017). Storbritannien: Oxford University Press. p. 125</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScales1993" class="citation book cs1">Scales, Peter C. 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Brill. p. 66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004098688" title="Special:BookSources/9789004098688"><bdi>9789004098688</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fall+of+the+Caliphate+of+C%C3%B3rdoba%3A+Berbers+and+Andalusis+in+Conflict&rft.pages=66&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=9789004098688&rft.aulast=Scales&rft.aufirst=Peter+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dm-Wvg__iHPAC%26pg%3DPA66&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+al-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMan1999" class="citation book cs1">Man, John (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=j-CgtWP38nsC&pg=PA72"><i>Atlas of the Year 1000</i></a>. Harvard University Press. p. 72. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674541870" title="Special:BookSources/9780674541870"><bdi>9780674541870</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atlas+of+the+Year+1000&rft.pages=72&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=9780674541870&rft.aulast=Man&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dj-CgtWP38nsC%26pg%3DPA72&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+al-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Reference0-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Reference0_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Reference0_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuiz2007" class="citation book cs1">Ruiz, Ana (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qMBlwWbxq3kC&pg=PA35"><i>Vibrant Andalusia: The Spice of Life in Southern Spain</i></a>. Algora Publishing. p. 35. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780875865416" title="Special:BookSources/9780875865416"><bdi>9780875865416</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vibrant+Andalusia%3A+The+Spice+of+Life+in+Southern+Spain&rft.pages=35&rft.pub=Algora+Publishing&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780875865416&rft.aulast=Ruiz&rft.aufirst=Ana&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqMBlwWbxq3kC%26pg%3DPA35&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+al-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceB-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarton2015" class="citation book cs1">Barton, Simon (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kNouBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1"><i>Conquerors, Brides, and Concubines: Interfaith Relations and Social Power in Medieval Iberia</i></a>. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780812292114" title="Special:BookSources/9780812292114"><bdi>9780812292114</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conquerors%2C+Brides%2C+and+Concubines%3A+Interfaith+Relations+and+Social+Power+in+Medieval+Iberia&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780812292114&rft.aulast=Barton&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkNouBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+al-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Barton,_S._2015_p._38-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Barton,_S._2015_p._38_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Barton,_S._2015_p._38_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Barton, S. (2015). Conquerors, Brides, and Concubines: Interfaith Relations and Social Power in Medieval Iberia. USA: University of Pennsylvania Press, Incorporated. p. 38</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.academia.edu/12491903/Beyond_the_Haram_Ibn_al_Khatib_and_his_Privileged_Knowledge_of_Royal_Nasrid_Women">[1]</a> GALLARDO, BARBARA BOLOIX. “Beyond the Haram: Ibn Al-Khatib and His Privileged Knowledge of Royal Nasrid Women .” Praising the ‘Tongue of Religion’: Essays in Honor of the 700th Anniversary of Ibn al-Khaṭīb’s Birth (2014): n. pag. Print.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESarr2020186–188-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESarr2020186–188_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSarr2020">Sarr 2020</a>, pp. 186–188.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFSarr2020 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Boloix Gallardo, Bárbara (2013). Las sultanas de La Alhambra: las grandes desconocidas del reino nazarí de Granada (siglos XIII-XV). Patronato de la Alhambra y del Generalife. ISBN 978-84-9045-045-1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dictslave-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dictslave_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Slavery, Slave Trade.</i> ed. Strayer, Joseph R. Dictionary of the Middle Ages. Volume 11. New York: Scribner, 1982. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0684190730" title="Special:BookSources/978-0684190730">978-0684190730</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-valante-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-valante_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFValante2013" class="citation book cs1">Valante, Mary A. (2013). "Castrating Monks: Vikings, the Slave Trade, and the Value of Eunuchs". In Tracy, Larissa (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7722/j.ctt2tt1pr"><i>Castration and Culture in the Middle Ages</i></a>. Boydell & Brewer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84384-351-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84384-351-1"><bdi>978-1-84384-351-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7722/j.ctt2tt1pr">10.7722/j.ctt2tt1pr</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Castrating+Monks%3A+Vikings%2C+the+Slave+Trade%2C+and+the+Value+of+Eunuchs&rft.btitle=Castration+and+Culture+in+the+Middle+Ages&rft.pub=Boydell+%26+Brewer&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.7722%2Fj.ctt2tt1pr%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-1-84384-351-1&rft.aulast=Valante&rft.aufirst=Mary+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.7722%2Fj.ctt2tt1pr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+al-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://apps.brepolis.net/LTool/Entrance.aspx?w=12&a=%2fllta%2fpages%2fToc.aspx">"BREPOLiS – Login"</a>. <i>apps.brepolis.net</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=apps.brepolis.net&rft.atitle=BREPOLiS+%E2%80%93+Login&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fapps.brepolis.net%2FLTool%2FEntrance.aspx%3Fw%3D12%26a%3D%252fllta%252fpages%252fToc.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+al-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <ul><li>Muhammad Abdullah Enan, The State of Islam in Andalusia, Vol. I: The 'Amarite state.<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://archive.org/details/0053212/01_53212/page/n542/mode/1up">[2]</a></li> <li>Carlos Dominguez, Leader of the Jihad: Almanzor against the Christian Kingdoms.<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/48578474?read-now=1&seq=2#page_scan_tab_contents">[3]</a></li> <li>Simon Barton, Conquerors, Brides, and Concubines, Interfaith Relations and Social Power in Medieval Iberia.<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kNouBgAAQBAJ&dq=barcelona+985+70000+enslaved&pg=PA35">[4]</a></li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_al-Andalus&oldid=1251361893">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_al-Andalus&oldid=1251361893</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Slavery_in_al-Andalus" title="Category:Slavery in al-Andalus">Slavery in al-Andalus</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Slavery_in_Spain" title="Category:Slavery in Spain">Slavery in Spain</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Slavery_in_Portugal" title="Category:Slavery in Portugal">Slavery in Portugal</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Slavery_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Category:Slavery in the medieval Islamic world">Slavery in the medieval Islamic world</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden category: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_no-target_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn no-target errors">Harv and Sfn no-target errors</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 15 October 2024, at 19:37<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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