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Al-Andalus - Wikipedia

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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Establishment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Establishment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Establishment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Establishment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rule" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rule"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Rule</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rule-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Umayyad_Caliphate_of_Córdoba" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Umayyad_Caliphate_of_Córdoba"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Umayyad Caliphate of Córdoba</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Umayyad_Caliphate_of_Córdoba-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taifas_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taifas_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span><i>Taifas</i> period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Taifas_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Almoravids_and_Almohads" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Almoravids_and_Almohads"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Almoravids and Almohads</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Almoravids_and_Almohads-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emirate_of_Granada,_its_fall,_and_aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emirate_of_Granada,_its_fall,_and_aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Emirate of Granada, its fall, and aftermath</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emirate_of_Granada,_its_fall,_and_aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Science</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Science-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Science subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Medicine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medicine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Medicine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medicine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Astronomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Astronomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Astronomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Astronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Agronomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agronomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Agronomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Culture</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Culture subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Society</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature_and_poetry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature_and_poetry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Literature and poetry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature_and_poetry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Music</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Al-Andalus_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Al-Andalus_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5.1</span> <span>Al-Andalus philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Al-Andalus_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jewish_philosophy_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jewish_philosophy_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5.2</span> <span>Jewish philosophy and culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jewish_philosophy_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Art_and_architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Art_and_architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Art and architecture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Art_and_architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Food_and_agriculture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Food_and_agriculture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7</span> <span>Food and agriculture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Food_and_agriculture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Homosexuality_and_pederasty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Homosexuality_and_pederasty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8</span> <span>Homosexuality and pederasty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Homosexuality_and_pederasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slavery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slavery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.9</span> <span>Slavery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slavery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Legacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle See also subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-History_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Al-Andalus</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 88 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-88" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">88 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ace mw-list-item"><a href="https://ace.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus – Acehnese" lang="ace" hreflang="ace" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Acèh" data-language-local-name="Acehnese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Acèh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%84%D8%B3" title="الأندلس – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الأندلس" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-%C3%81ndalus" title="Al-Ándalus – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Al-Ándalus" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C6%8Fnd%C9%99l%C3%BCs_tarixi" title="Əndəlüs tarixi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Əndəlüs tarixi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B8" title="আন্দালুস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="আন্দালুস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%98%D0%BB-%D3%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D3%99%D0%BB%D2%AF%D1%81" title="Әл-Әндәлүс – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Әл-Әндәлүс" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8C-%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%81" title="Аль-Андалус – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Аль-Андалус" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%81" title="Андалус – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Андалус" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/El-Endelus" title="El-Endelus – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="El-Endelus" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-%C3%80ndalus" title="Al-Àndalus – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Al-Àndalus" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B3" title="أندلوس – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="أندلوس" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-%C3%81ndalus" title="Al-Ándalus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Al-Ándalus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BB-%CE%86%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%82" title="Αλ-Άνταλους – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αλ-Άνταλους" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-%C3%81ndalus" title="Al-Ándalus – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Al-Ándalus" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%84%D8%B3_(%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C)" title="اندلس (اسلامی) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اندلس (اسلامی)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-%C3%81ndalus" title="Al-Ándalus – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Al-Ándalus" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%8C%EC%95%88%EB%8B%AC%EB%A3%A8%EC%8A%A4" title="알안달루스 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="알안달루스" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%AC-%D4%B1%D5%B6%D5%A4%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%BD" title="Ալ-Անդալուս – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ալ-Անդալուս" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8" title="अल अन्दलुस – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अल अन्दलुस" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%9C-%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%93%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A1" title="אל-אנדלוס – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אל-אנדלוס" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A-%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ალ-ანდალუსია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ალ-ანდალუსია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%98%D0%BB-%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%81%D0%B8" title="Әл-Андалуси – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Әл-Андалуси" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endulus_(dewlet)" title="Endulus (dewlet) – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Endulus (dewlet)" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladino</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andalusia" title="Andalusia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Andalusia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andalusa" title="Andalusa – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Andalusa" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalusija" title="Al-Andalusija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Al-Andalusija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andalusz" title="Andalusz – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Andalusz" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BB-%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%81" title="Ел-Андалус – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Ел-Андалус" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B5%BD_%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D" title="അൽ അന്തലൂസ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അൽ അന്തലൂസ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%84%D8%B3" title="الاندلس – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="الاندلس" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%B3%E3%83%80%E3%83%AB%E3%82%B9" title="アンダルス – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アンダルス" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Andal%C3%B3s" title="Al Andalós – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Al Andalós" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%84%D8%B3" title="اندلس – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="اندلس" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8C-%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%81" title="Аль-Андалус – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Аль-Андалус" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/El-Endelus" title="El-Endelus – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="El-Endelus" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B3%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%BE%D9%8A%D9%86" title="مسلم اسپين – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="مسلم اسپين" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Andaluz" title="Al Andaluz – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Al Andaluz" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andalus" title="Andalus – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Andalus" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%95%D9%86%D8%AF%DB%95%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B3" title="ئەندەلوس – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئەندەلوس" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB_%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%B7" title="Ал Андалуз – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Ал Андалуз" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B8%E0%AF%8D" title="அல்-அந்தலுஸ் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அல்-அந்தலுஸ்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indlas" title="Indlas – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Indlas" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taclḥit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%AA" title="อัลอันดะลุส – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="อัลอันดะลุส" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%81" title="Андалус – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Андалус" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/End%C3%BCl%C3%BCs" title="Endülüs – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Endülüs" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8C-%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%81" title="Аль-Андалус – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Аль-Андалус" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%84%D8%B3" title="اندلس – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="اندلس" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%95%D9%86%D8%AF%DB%95%D9%84%DB%87%D8%B3" title="ئەندەلۇس – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="ئەندەلۇس" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Al-Andalus" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AE%89%E8%BE%BE%E5%8D%A2%E6%96%AF" title="安达卢斯 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="安达卢斯" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AE%89%E9%81%94%E7%9B%A7%E6%96%AF" title="安達盧斯 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="安達盧斯" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Endulus" title="El Endulus – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="El Endulus" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AE%89%E8%BE%BE%E5%8D%A2%E6%96%AF" title="安达卢斯 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="安达卢斯" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zgh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zgh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%B5%89%E2%B5%8F%E2%B4%B7%E2%B5%8D%E2%B4%B0%E2%B5%99" title="ⵉⵏⴷⵍⴰⵙ – Standard Moroccan Tamazight" lang="zgh" hreflang="zgh" data-title="ⵉⵏⴷⵍⴰⵙ" data-language-autonym="ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ" data-language-local-name="Standard Moroccan Tamazight" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q123559#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a 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href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Al-Andalus&amp;params=37_N_4_W_region:ES_type:country_scale:5000000"><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">37°N</span> <span class="longitude">4°W</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct">&#xfeff; / &#xfeff;</span><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">37°N 4°W</span><span style="display:none">&#xfeff; / <span class="geo">37; -4</span></span></span></a></span></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Territories of the Iberian Peninsula under Muslim rule (711–1492)</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus_(disambiguation)" title="Al-Andalus (disambiguation)">Al-Andalus (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output 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class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad">Umayyad</a> Hispania at its greatest extent in 719 AD</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:175px;max-width:175px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:150px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Califato_de_C%C3%B3rdoba_-_1000-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Califato_de_C%C3%B3rdoba_-_1000-en.svg/173px-Califato_de_C%C3%B3rdoba_-_1000-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="173" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Califato_de_C%C3%B3rdoba_-_1000-en.svg/260px-Califato_de_C%C3%B3rdoba_-_1000-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Califato_de_C%C3%B3rdoba_-_1000-en.svg/346px-Califato_de_C%C3%B3rdoba_-_1000-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="686" data-file-height="594" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphate of Córdoba">Caliphate of Córdoba</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1000 AD, at the apogee of <a href="/wiki/Almanzor" title="Almanzor">Almanzor</a></div></div></div></div></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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nowraplinks plainlist" style="width:18em;width:auto;"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of Al-Andalus</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.3em;line-height:1.15em;font-size:110%;"> <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_conquest_of_Hispania" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad conquest of Hispania">Muslim conquest</a><br /><span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;">(711–732)</span></span></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.8em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guadalete" title="Battle of Guadalete">Battle of Guadalete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_C%C3%B3rdoba_(711)" title="Siege of Córdoba (711)">Siege of Córdoba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Toulouse_(721)" title="Battle of Toulouse (721)">Battle of Toulouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tours" title="Battle of Tours">Battle of Tours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fihrids" title="Fihrids">Fihrids</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.3em;line-height:1.15em;font-size:110%;"> <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_state_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" title="Umayyad state of Córdoba">Umayyad state of Córdoba</a><br /><span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;">(756–1031)</span></span></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.8em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_I" title="Abd al-Rahman I">Abd al-Rahman I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_III" title="Abd al-Rahman III">Abd al-Rahman III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mansur_Ibn_Abi_Aamir" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Mansur Ibn Abi Aamir">Al-Mansur Ibn Abi Aamir</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.3em;line-height:1.15em;font-size:110%;;border-bottom:none;"> <a href="/wiki/Taifa#First_period_(11th_century)" title="Taifa">First Taifa period</a><br /><span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;">(1009–1110)</span></span></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.3em;line-height:1.15em;font-size:110%;"> <a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravid rule</a><br /><span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;">(1085–1145)</span></span></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.8em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty#Iberian_Peninsula" title="Almoravid dynasty">Conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sagrajas" title="Battle of Sagrajas">Battle of Sagrajas</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.3em;line-height:1.15em;font-size:110%;;border-bottom:none;"> <a href="/wiki/Taifa#Second_period_(12th_century)" title="Taifa">Second Taifa period</a><br /><span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;">(1140–1203)</span></span></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.3em;line-height:1.15em;font-size:110%;"> <a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad rule</a><br /><span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;">(1147–1238)</span></span></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.8em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Las_Navas_de_Tolosa" title="Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa">Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.3em;line-height:1.15em;font-size:110%;;border-bottom:none;"> <a href="/wiki/Taifa#Third_period_(13th_century)" title="Taifa">Third Taifa period</a><br /><span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;">(1232–1287)</span></span></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.3em;line-height:1.15em;font-size:110%;"> <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Granada" title="Emirate of Granada">Emirate of Granada</a><br /><span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;">(1232–1492)</span></span></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.8em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nasrid_dynasty" title="Nasrid dynasty">Nasrid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Strait" title="Battle of the Strait">Battle of the Strait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granada_War" title="Granada War">Granada War</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.3em;line-height:1.15em;font-size:110%;"> Related articles</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.8em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a><br /><small>(<a href="/wiki/Portugal_in_the_Reconquista" title="Portugal in the Reconquista">Portugal</a>)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convivencia" title="Convivencia">Convivencia</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_al-Andalus" title="Template:History of al-Andalus"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_al-Andalus" title="Template talk:History of al-Andalus"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_al-Andalus" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of al-Andalus"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Al-Andalus</b><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <span lang="ar" dir="rtl">الأَنْدَلُس</span>) was the <a href="/wiki/Muslims" title="Muslims">Muslim</a>-ruled area of the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a>. The name describes the different Muslim<sup id="cite_ref-árabesmedievales_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-árabesmedievales-2"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ruano(Spain)2002_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruano(Spain)2002-3"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> states that controlled these territories at various times between 711 and 1492. At its greatest geographical extent, it occupied most of the peninsula<sup id="cite_ref-IrvinSunquist2002_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IrvinSunquist2002-4"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FrydeReitz2009_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FrydeReitz2009-5"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-García-Fitz2010_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-García-Fitz2010-6"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> as well as <a href="/wiki/Septimania" title="Septimania">Septimania</a> under <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_dynasty" title="Umayyad dynasty">Umayyad</a> rule. These boundaries changed constantly through a series of conquests Western <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiography</a> has traditionally characterized as the <i><a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-árabesmedievales_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-árabesmedievales-2"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ruano(Spain)2002_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruano(Spain)2002-3"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford-9"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> eventually shrinking to the south and finally to the <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Granada" title="Emirate of Granada">Emirate of Granada</a>. </p><p>As a political domain, it successively constituted a province of the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a>, initiated by the Caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Walid_I" title="Al-Walid I">al-Walid I</a> (711–750); the <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Emirate of Córdoba">Emirate of Córdoba</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;">&#8201;750</span>–929); the <a href="/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphate of Córdoba">Caliphate of Córdoba</a> (929–1031); the first <i><a href="/wiki/Taifa" title="Taifa">taifa</a></i> kingdoms (1009–1110); the <a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravid Empire</a> (1085–1145); the second <i>taifa</i> period (1140–1203); the <a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad Caliphate</a> (1147–1238); the third taifa period (1232–1287); and ultimately the <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Granada" title="Emirate of Granada">Nasrid Emirate of Granada</a> (1238–1492). Under the Caliphate of Córdoba, the city of <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Spain" title="Córdoba, Spain">Córdoba</a> became one of the leading cultural and economic centres throughout the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean Basin">Mediterranean Basin</a>, Europe, and the Islamic world. Achievements that advanced Islamic and Western science came from al-Andalus, including major advances in trigonometry (<a href="/wiki/Jabir_ibn_Aflah" title="Jabir ibn Aflah">Jabir ibn Aflah</a>), astronomy (<a href="/wiki/Al-Zarqali" title="Al-Zarqali">Al-Zarqali</a>), surgery (<a href="/wiki/Al-Zahrawi" title="Al-Zahrawi">Al-Zahrawi</a>), pharmacology (<a href="/wiki/Ibn_Zuhr" title="Ibn Zuhr">Ibn Zuhr</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-rediscScience_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rediscScience-10"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Arab_Agricultural_Revolution" title="Arab Agricultural Revolution">agronomy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ibn_Bassal" title="Ibn Bassal">Ibn Bassal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ab%C5%AB_l-Khayr_al-Ishb%C4%ABl%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abū l-Khayr al-Ishbīlī">Abū l-Khayr al-Ishbīlī</a>). Al-Andalus became a conduit for cultural and scientific exchange between the Islamic and Christian worlds.<sup id="cite_ref-rediscScience_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rediscScience-10"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>For much of its history, al-Andalus existed in conflict with Christian kingdoms to the north. After the fall of the Umayyad caliphate, al-Andalus was fragmented into <i>taifa</i> states and principalities, some of which (such as the <a href="/wiki/Taifa_of_Toledo" title="Taifa of Toledo">Taifa of Toledo</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Taifa_of_Zaragoza" title="Taifa of Zaragoza">Taifa of Zaragoza</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Taifa_of_Seville" title="Taifa of Seville">Taifa of Seville</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Taifa_of_Badajoz" title="Taifa of Badajoz">Taifa of Badajoz</a>) reached considerable territorial extent. After the Christian capture of <a href="/wiki/Toledo,_Spain" title="Toledo, Spain">Toledo</a> in 1085, the Almoravid empire intervened and repelled attacks on the region, then brought al-Andalus under direct Almoravid rule. For the next century and a half, al-Andalus became a province of the Muslim empires of the Almoravids and their successors, the <a href="/wiki/Almohads" class="mw-redirect" title="Almohads">Almohads</a>, both based in <a href="/wiki/Marrakesh" title="Marrakesh">Marrakesh</a>. </p><p>Ultimately, the northern Christian kingdoms overpowered the Muslim states to the south. In the 13th century, most of the south quickly fell under Christian rule, with <a href="/wiki/Gharb_al-Andalus" title="Gharb al-Andalus">Gharb al-Andalus</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Baetic_Depression" title="Baetic Depression">Guadalquivir Valley</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sharq_al-Andalus&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Sharq al-Andalus (page does not exist)">Eastern al-Andalus</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;">&#160;&#91;<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xarq_al-%C3%81ndalus" class="extiw" title="es:Xarq al-Ándalus">es</a>&#93;</span> falling to Portuguese, Castilian, and Aragonese conquests. This left the Emirate of Granada, that was to become a tributary state of the Crown of Castile, as the remaining Muslim state on the Iberian Peninsula, and was surrendered in 1492 to the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Monarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Monarchs">Catholic Monarchs</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Andalus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Name_of_Andalusia" class="mw-redirect" title="Name of Andalusia">Name of Andalusia</a></div> <p>The toponym <i>al-Andalus</i> is first attested by inscriptions on coins minted in 716 by the new Muslim government of Iberia.<sup id="cite_ref-PanzramCallegarin2018_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PanzramCallegarin2018-11"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> These coins, called <i><a href="/wiki/Dinars" class="mw-redirect" title="Dinars">dinars</a></i>, were inscribed in both <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-MMOA_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MMOA-12"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Glick2005_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Glick2005-13"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The etymology of the name <i>al-Andalus</i> has traditionally been derived from the name of the <a href="/wiki/Vandals" title="Vandals">Vandals</a> (<i>vándalos</i> in Spanish, <i>vândalos</i> in Portuguese). </p><p>Since the 1980s, several alternative etymologies have challenged this tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> In 1986, Joaquín Vallvé proposed that <i>al-Andalus</i> was a corruption of the name <i><a href="/wiki/Atlantis" title="Atlantis">Atlantis</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Vallvé1986_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vallvé1986-15"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Heinz Halm in 1989 derived the name from a Gothic term, <i>*landahlauts</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Halm1989_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Halm1989-16"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> and in 2002, Georg Bossong suggested its derivation from a pre-Roman substrate.<sup id="cite_ref-Bossong2002_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bossong2002-17"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Andalus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Muslim_presence_in_the_Iberian_Peninsula" title="Timeline of the Muslim presence in the Iberian Peninsula">Timeline of the Muslim presence in the Iberian Peninsula</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Province_of_the_Umayyad_Caliphate">Province of the Umayyad Caliphate</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Andalus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Edit section: Province of the Umayyad Caliphate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Iberian_Peninsula" title="Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula">Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg/220px-Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg/330px-Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg/440px-Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="413" /></a><figcaption>Expansion of the Caliphate <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#a1584e; color:white;">&#160;</span>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>, 622–632</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ef9070; color:black;">&#160;</span>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a>, 632–661</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#fad07d; color:black;">&#160;</span>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a>, 661–750</div></figcaption></figure> <p>During the caliphate of the Umayyad Caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Walid_I" title="Al-Walid I">Al-Walid I</a>, the commander <a href="/wiki/Tariq_ibn-Ziyad" class="mw-redirect" title="Tariq ibn-Ziyad">Tariq ibn-Ziyad</a> led an army of 7,000 that landed at <a href="/wiki/Gibraltar" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a> on April 30, 711, ostensibly to intervene in a <a href="/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigothic</a> civil war. After a decisive victory over King <a href="/wiki/Roderic" title="Roderic">Roderic</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guadalete" title="Battle of Guadalete">Battle of Guadalete</a> on July 19, 711, Tariq, accompanied by his <i><a href="/wiki/Mawla" title="Mawla">mawla</a></i>, governor <a href="/wiki/Musa_ibn_Nusayr" title="Musa ibn Nusayr">Musa ibn Nusayr</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ifriqiya" title="Ifriqiya">Ifriqiya</a>, brought most of the <a href="/wiki/Visigothic_Kingdom" title="Visigothic Kingdom">Visigothic Kingdom</a> under Muslim rule in a seven-year campaign. They crossed the <a href="/wiki/Pyrenees" title="Pyrenees">Pyrenees</a> and occupied Visigothic <a href="/wiki/Septimania" title="Septimania">Septimania</a> in southern France.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>&#93;</sup> </p><p>Most of the Iberian peninsula became part of the expanding <a href="/wiki/Umayyad" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad">Umayyad Empire</a>, under the name of <i>al-Andalus</i>. It was organized as a province subordinate to <a href="/wiki/Ifriqiya" title="Ifriqiya">Ifriqiya</a>, so, for the first few decades, the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Umayyad_Governors_of_Al-Andalus" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Umayyad Governors of Al-Andalus">governors of al-Andalus</a> were appointed by the emir of <a href="/wiki/Kairouan" title="Kairouan">Kairouan</a>, rather than the Caliph in <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>. The regional capital was set at <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Spain" title="Córdoba, Spain">Córdoba</a>, and the first influx of Muslim settlers was widely distributed.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>&#93;</sup> </p><p>Following the Muslim conquest of Spain, al-Andalus, then at its greatest extent, was divided into five administrative units, corresponding roughly to: modern <a href="/wiki/Andalusia" title="Andalusia">Andalusia</a>; <a href="/wiki/Castile_(historical_region)" title="Castile (historical region)">Castile</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Le%C3%B3n" title="Kingdom of León">León</a>; <a href="/wiki/Navarre" title="Navarre">Navarre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aragon" title="Aragon">Aragon</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Catalonia" title="Catalonia">Catalonia</a>; <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Galicia_(Spain)" title="Galicia (Spain)">Galicia</a>; and the <a href="/wiki/Languedoc-Roussillon" title="Languedoc-Roussillon">Languedoc-Roussillon</a> area of <a href="/wiki/Occitania_(administrative_region)" title="Occitania (administrative region)">Occitania</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>The small army Tariq led in the initial conquest consisted mostly of Berbers, while Musa's largely Arab force of over 12,000 soldiers was accompanied by a group of <i>mawālī</i> (Arabic, موالي), that is, non-Arab Muslims, who were clients of the Arabs. The Berber soldiers accompanying Tariq were garrisoned in the centre and the north of the peninsula, as well as in the Pyrenees,<sup id="cite_ref-Collins2012_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Collins2012-19"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> while the <a href="/wiki/Berber_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Berber people">Berber</a> colonists who followed settled in all parts of the country&#160;&#8211;&#32; north, east, south and west.<sup id="cite_ref-Ṭāha2016_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ṭāha2016-20"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Visigothic lords who agreed to recognize Muslim suzerainty were allowed to retain their fiefs (notably, in Murcia, Galicia, and the Ebro valley). Resistant Visigoths took refuge in the <a href="/wiki/Cantabrian_Mountains" title="Cantabrian Mountains">Cantabrian</a> highlands, where they carved out a rump state, the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Asturias" title="Kingdom of Asturias">Kingdom of Asturias</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_Iberian_Peninsula_750-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Map_Iberian_Peninsula_750-en.svg/220px-Map_Iberian_Peninsula_750-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Map_Iberian_Peninsula_750-en.svg/330px-Map_Iberian_Peninsula_750-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Map_Iberian_Peninsula_750-en.svg/440px-Map_Iberian_Peninsula_750-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="827" data-file-height="574" /></a><figcaption>The province of al-Andalus in 750</figcaption></figure> <p>In the 720s, the al-Andalus governors launched several <i>sa'ifa</i> raids into <a href="/wiki/Aquitaine" title="Aquitaine">Aquitaine</a> but were decisively defeated by Duke <a href="/wiki/Odo_the_Great" title="Odo the Great">Odo the Great</a> of Aquitaine at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Toulouse_(721)" title="Battle of Toulouse (721)">Battle of Toulouse (721)</a>. However, after crushing Odo's Berber ally <a href="/wiki/Uthman_ibn_Naissa" class="mw-redirect" title="Uthman ibn Naissa">Uthman ibn Naissa</a> on the eastern Pyrenees, <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rahman_Al_Ghafiqi" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi">Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi</a> led an expedition north across the western Pyrenees and defeated the Aquitanian duke, who in turn appealed to the <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Frankish</a> leader <a href="/wiki/Charles_Martel" title="Charles Martel">Charles Martel</a> for assistance, offering to place himself under Carolingian sovereignty. At the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tours" title="Battle of Tours">Battle of Poitiers</a> in 732, the al-Andalus raiding army was defeated by Charles Martel and Al Ghafiqi was killed.<sup id="cite_ref-Pérès2007_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pérès2007-21"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> In 734, the Andalusi launched raids to the east, capturing <a href="/wiki/Avignon" title="Avignon">Avignon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arles" title="Arles">Arles</a> and overran much of <a href="/wiki/Provence" title="Provence">Provence</a>. In 737, they traveled up the <a href="/wiki/Rh%C3%B4ne" title="Rhône">Rhône</a> valley, reaching as far north as <a href="/wiki/Burgundy_(region)" class="mw-redirect" title="Burgundy (region)">Burgundy</a>. Charles Martel of the Franks, with the assistance of <a href="/wiki/Liutprand,_King_of_the_Lombards" title="Liutprand, King of the Lombards">Liutprand</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Lombards" title="Lombards">Lombards</a>, invaded Burgundy and Provence and expelled the raiders by 739. </p><p>In 740, a <a href="/wiki/Berber_Revolt" title="Berber Revolt">Berber Revolt</a> erupted in the <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a> (North Africa). To put down the rebellion, the Umayyad Caliph <a href="/wiki/Hisham_ibn_Abd_al-Malik" title="Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik">Hisham</a> dispatched a large Arab army, composed of regiments (<i><a href="/wiki/Jund" title="Jund">Junds</a></i>) of <a href="/wiki/Bilad_Ash-Sham" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilad Ash-Sham">Bilad Ash-Sham</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> to North Africa. But the great Umayyad army was crushed by the Berber rebels at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bagdoura" title="Battle of Bagdoura">Battle of Bagdoura</a> (in Morocco). Heartened by the victories of their North African brethren, the Berbers of al-Andalus quickly raised their own revolt. Berber garrisons in the north of the Iberian Peninsula mutinied, deposed their Arab commanders, and organized a large rebel army to march against the strongholds of Toledo, Córdoba, and Algeciras. </p><p>In 741, Balj b. Bishr led a detachment of some 10,000 Arab troops across the <a href="/wiki/Strait_of_Gibraltar" title="Strait of Gibraltar">straits</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Collins201212_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Collins201212-23"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The Arab governor of al-Andalus, joined by this force, crushed the Berber rebels in a series of ferocious battles in 742. However, a quarrel immediately erupted between the Syrian commanders and the Andalusi, the so-called "original Arabs" of the earlier contingents. The Syrians defeated them at the hard-fought Battle of Aqua Portora in August 742 but were too few to impose themselves on the province. </p><p>The quarrel was settled in 743 when <a href="/wiki/Abu_l-Hattar_al_Husam_ibn_Darar_al-Kalbi" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu l-Hattar al Husam ibn Darar al-Kalbi">Abū l-Khaṭṭār al-Ḥusām</a>, the new governor of al-Andalus, assigned the Syrians to regimental fiefs across al-Andalus<sup id="cite_ref-Makki1992_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Makki1992-24"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>&#160;&#8211;&#32; the Damascus jund was established in Elvira (<a href="/wiki/Granada" title="Granada">Granada</a>), the Jordan jund in Rayyu (<a href="/wiki/M%C3%A1laga" title="Málaga">Málaga</a> and <a href="/wiki/Archidona" title="Archidona">Archidona</a>), the Jund Filastin in <a href="/wiki/Medina-Sidonia" title="Medina-Sidonia">Medina-Sidonia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jerez" class="mw-redirect" title="Jerez">Jerez</a>, the Emesa (Hims) jund in <a href="/wiki/Seville" title="Seville">Seville</a> and <a href="/wiki/Niebla,_Spain" title="Niebla, Spain">Niebla</a>, and the Qinnasrin jund in <a href="/wiki/Ja%C3%A9n,_Spain" title="Jaén, Spain">Jaén</a>. The Egypt jund was divided between <a href="/wiki/Beja_(Portugal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Beja (Portugal)">Beja</a> (<a href="/wiki/Alentejo" title="Alentejo">Alentejo</a>) in the west and Tudmir (<a href="/wiki/Murcia" title="Murcia">Murcia</a>) in the east.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The arrival of the Syrians substantially increased the Arab element in the Iberian peninsula and helped strengthen the Muslim hold on the south. However, at the same time, unwilling to be governed, the Syrian <i>junds</i> carried on an existence of autonomous feudal anarchy, severely destabilizing the authority of the governor of al-Andalus. </p><p>A second significant consequence of the revolt was the expansion of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Asturias" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of the Asturias">Kingdom of the Asturias</a>, hitherto confined to enclaves in the Cantabrian highlands. After the rebellious Berber garrisons evacuated the northern frontier fortresses, the Christian king <a href="/wiki/Alfonso_I_of_Asturias" title="Alfonso I of Asturias">Alfonso I of Asturias</a> set about immediately seizing the empty forts for himself, quickly adding the northwestern provinces of <a href="/wiki/Galicia_(Spain)" title="Galicia (Spain)">Galicia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Le%C3%B3n_(province)" class="mw-redirect" title="León (province)">León</a> to his fledgling kingdom. The Asturians evacuated the Christian populations from the towns and villages of the Galician-Leonese lowlands, creating an empty buffer zone in the <a href="/wiki/Douro_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Douro River">Douro River</a> valley (the "<a href="/wiki/Desert_of_the_Duero" class="mw-redirect" title="Desert of the Duero">Desert of the Duero</a>"). This newly emptied frontier remained roughly in place for the next few centuries as the boundary between the Christian north and the Islamic south. Between this frontier and its heartland in the south, the al-Andalus state had three large <a href="/wiki/March_(territory)" title="March (territory)">march territories</a> (<i>thughur</i>): the <a href="/wiki/Lower_March" title="Lower March">Lower March</a> (capital initially at <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9rida,_Spain" title="Mérida, Spain">Mérida</a>, later <a href="/wiki/Badajoz" title="Badajoz">Badajoz</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Central_March" title="Central March">Middle March</a> (centred at Toledo), and the <a href="/wiki/Upper_March" title="Upper March">Upper March</a> (centred at <a href="/wiki/Zaragoza" title="Zaragoza">Zaragoza</a>). </p><p>These disturbances and disorder also allowed the Franks, now under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Pepin_the_Short" title="Pepin the Short">Pepin the Short</a>, to invade the strategic strip of <a href="/wiki/Septimania" title="Septimania">Septimania</a> in 752, hoping to deprive al-Andalus of an easy launching pad for raids into <a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a>. After a lengthy siege, the last Arab stronghold, the citadel of <a href="/wiki/Narbonne" title="Narbonne">Narbonne</a>, finally <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Narbonne_(752%E2%80%93759)" title="Siege of Narbonne (752–759)">fell to the Franks in 759</a>. Al-Andalus was sealed off at the Pyrenees.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>The third consequence of the Berber revolt was the collapse of the authority of the <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> Caliphate over the western provinces. With the Umayyad Caliphs distracted by the challenge of the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid">Abbasids</a> in the east, the western provinces of the Maghreb and al-Andalus spun out of their control. From around 745, the <a href="/wiki/Fihrids" title="Fihrids">Fihrids</a>, an illustrious local Arab clan descended from <a href="/wiki/Uqba_ibn_Nafi" title="Uqba ibn Nafi">Oqba ibn Nafi al-Fihri</a>, seized power in the western provinces and ruled them almost as a private family empire of their own&#160;&#8211;&#32; <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_ibn_Habib_al-Fihri" title="Abd al-Rahman ibn Habib al-Fihri">Abd al-Rahman ibn Habib al-Fihri</a> in Ifriqiya and <a href="/wiki/Yusuf_ibn_%27Abd_al-Rahman_al-Fihri" class="mw-redirect" title="Yusuf ibn &#39;Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri">Yūsuf al-Fihri</a> in al-Andalus. The Fihrids welcomed the fall of the Umayyads in the east, in 750, and sought to reach an understanding with the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasids</a>, hoping they might be allowed to continue their autonomous existence. But when the Abbasids rejected the offer and demanded submission, the Fihrids declared independence and, probably out of spite, invited the deposed remnants of the Umayyad clan to take refuge in their dominions. It was a fateful decision that they soon regretted, for the Umayyads, the sons and grandsons of caliphs, had a more legitimate claim to rule than the Fihrids themselves. Rebellious-minded local lords, disenchanted with the autocratic rule of the Fihrids, conspired with the arriving Umayyad exiles. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Umayyad_Emirate_of_Córdoba"><span id="Umayyad_Emirate_of_C.C3.B3rdoba"></span>Umayyad Emirate of Córdoba</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Andalus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Edit section: Umayyad Emirate of Córdoba"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Emirate of Córdoba">Emirate of Córdoba</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Establishment">Establishment</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Andalus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="Edit section: Establishment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Abd_al-Rahman_I,_Cr%C3%B3nica_general_de_Espa%C3%B1a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Abd_al-Rahman_I%2C_Cr%C3%B3nica_general_de_Espa%C3%B1a.jpg/220px-Abd_al-Rahman_I%2C_Cr%C3%B3nica_general_de_Espa%C3%B1a.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Abd_al-Rahman_I%2C_Cr%C3%B3nica_general_de_Espa%C3%B1a.jpg/330px-Abd_al-Rahman_I%2C_Cr%C3%B3nica_general_de_Espa%C3%B1a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Abd_al-Rahman_I%2C_Cr%C3%B3nica_general_de_Espa%C3%B1a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="558" /></a><figcaption>19th-century portrait of <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_I" title="Abd al-Rahman I">Abd al-Rahman I</a>, from <i><a href="/wiki/Estoria_de_Espa%C3%B1a" title="Estoria de España">Estoria de España</a></i>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 755, the exiled Umayyad prince <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_I" title="Abd al-Rahman I">Abd al-Rahman I</a> (also called <i>al-Dākhil</i>, the 'Immigrant') arrived on the coast of Spain.<sup id="cite_ref-Safran2013_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Safran2013-27"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> He had fled the Abbasids, who had overthrown the Umayyads in Damascus and were slaughtering members of that family, and then he spent four years in exile in North Africa, assessing the political situation in al-Andalus across the Straits of Gibraltar, before he landed at <a href="/wiki/Almu%C3%B1%C3%A9car" title="Almuñécar">Almuñécar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Flood2018_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Flood2018-28"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>News of his arrival spread across al-Andalus, and when word reached its governor, <a href="/wiki/Yusuf_ibn_%27Abd_al-Rahman_al-Fihri" class="mw-redirect" title="Yusuf ibn &#39;Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri">Yūsuf al-Fihri</a>, he was not pleased. During this time, Abd al-Rahman and his supporters quickly conquered <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A1laga" title="Málaga">Málaga</a> and then <a href="/wiki/Seville" title="Seville">Seville</a>, finally besieging the capital of al-Andalus, <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Spain" title="Córdoba, Spain">Córdoba</a>. Abd al-Rahman's army was exhausted after their conquest, meanwhile Governor Yūsuf al-Fihri had returned from quashing another rebellion with his army. The siege of Córdoba began, and noticing the starving state of Abd al-Rahman's army, al-Fihri began throwing lavish feasts every day as the siege went on, to tempt Abd al Rahman's supporters to defect to his side. However, Abd al-Rahman persisted, even rejecting a truce that would have allowed Abd al-Rahman to marry al-Fihri's daughter. After decisively defeating Yūsuf al-Fihri's army, Abd al-Rahman was able to conquer Córdoba, where he proclaimed himself emir in 756.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy201431_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy201431-29"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The rest of Iberia was easily conquered, and Abd al-Rahman soon had control of all of Iberia.<sup id="cite_ref-WHistEnc2020_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHistEnc2020-30"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rule">Rule</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Andalus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="Edit section: Rule"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Abd al Rahman's rule was stable in the years after his conquest – he built major public works, most famously the <a href="/wiki/Mosque%E2%80%93Cathedral_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" title="Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba">Mosque of Córdoba</a>, and helped urbanize the emirate while defending it from invaders, including the quashing of numerous rebellions, and decisively repelling the invasion by <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> (which would later inspire the epic, <a href="/wiki/Chanson_de_Roland" class="mw-redirect" title="Chanson de Roland">Chanson de Roland</a>). By far the most important of these invasions was the attempted reconquest by the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a>. In 763 Caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Mansur" title="Al-Mansur">Al-Mansur</a> of the Abbasids installed <a href="/wiki/Al-Ala_ibn_Mughith_al-Judhami" title="Al-Ala ibn Mughith al-Judhami">al-Ala ibn-Mugith</a> as governor of Africa (whose title gave him dominion over the province of al-Andalus). He planned to invade and destroy the Emirate of Córdoba, so in response Abd al Rahman fortified himself within the fortress of <a href="/wiki/Carmona,_Spain" title="Carmona, Spain">Carmona</a> with a tenth as many soldiers as al-Ala ibn-Mugith. After a long siege, it appeared that Abd al Rahman would be defeated, but in a last stand Abd al Rahman with his outnumbered forces opened the gates of the fortress and charged at the resting Abbasid army, and decisively defeated them. After being sent the embalmed head of al-Ala ibn-Mugith, it is said Al Mansur exclaimed "Praise be to God who has put the sea between me and this devil!".<sup id="cite_ref-WHistEnc2020_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHistEnc2020-30"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy2014_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy2014-31"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Colonnes_de_la_Mezquita_(8281472877).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Colonnes_de_la_Mezquita_%288281472877%29.jpg/220px-Colonnes_de_la_Mezquita_%288281472877%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Colonnes_de_la_Mezquita_%288281472877%29.jpg/330px-Colonnes_de_la_Mezquita_%288281472877%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Colonnes_de_la_Mezquita_%288281472877%29.jpg/440px-Colonnes_de_la_Mezquita_%288281472877%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4070" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption>Interior of the <a href="/wiki/Mosque%E2%80%93Cathedral_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" title="Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba">Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba</a>, the former Great Mosque built by Abd ar-Rahman I in 785, later expanded by his successors<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Abd al Rahman I died in 788 after a lengthy and prosperous reign. He was succeeded by his son, <a href="/wiki/Hisham_I_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" title="Hisham I of Córdoba">Hisham I</a>, who secured power by exiling his brother who had tried to rebel against him. Hisham enjoyed a stable reign of eight years and was succeeded by his son <a href="/wiki/Al-Hakam_I" title="Al-Hakam I">Al-Hakam I</a>. The next few decades were relatively uneventful, with only occasional minor rebellions, and saw the rise of the emirate. In 822 Al Hakam died and was succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd al-Rahman II">Abd al-Rahman II</a>, the first great emir of Córdoba. He rose to power with no opposition and sought to reform the emirate. He quickly reorganized the bureaucracy to be more efficient and built many mosques across the emirate. During his reign science and art flourished, as many scholars fled the Abbasid caliphate due to the disastrous <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Fitna" title="Fourth Fitna">Fourth Fitna</a>. The scholar <a href="/wiki/Abbas_ibn_Firnas" title="Abbas ibn Firnas">Abbas ibn Firnas</a> made an attempt to fly, though accounts vary on his success. In 852 Abd al Rahman II died, leaving behind him a powerful and well-established state that had become one of the most powerful in the Mediterranean.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy201459_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy201459-33"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Abd al Rahman was succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_I_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" title="Muhammad I of Córdoba">Muhammad I of Córdoba</a>, who according to legend had to wear women's clothing to sneak into the imperial palace and be crowned, since he was not the heir apparent. His reign marked a decline in the emirate, which was ended by <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_III" title="Abd al-Rahman III">Abd al-Rahman III</a>. His reign was marked by multiple rebellions, which were dealt with poorly and weakened the emirate, most disastrously following the rebellion of <a href="/wiki/Umar_ibn_Hafsun" title="Umar ibn Hafsun">Umar ibn Hafsun</a>. When Muhammad died, he was succeeded by emir <a href="/wiki/Abdullah_ibn_Muhammad_al-Umawi" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdullah ibn Muhammad al-Umawi">Abdullah ibn Muhammad al-Umawi</a> whose power barely reached outside of the city of Córdoba. As Ibn Hafsun ravaged the south, Abdullah did almost nothing, and slowly became more and more isolated, barely speaking to anyone. Abdullah purged his administration of his brothers, which lessened the bureaucracy's loyalty towards him. Around this time several local Arab lords began to revolt, including one Kurayb ibn Khaldun, who was able to conquer Seville. Some loyalists tried to quell the rebellion, but without proper material support, their efforts were in vain.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>He declared that the next emir would be his grandson <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_III" title="Abd al-Rahman III">Abd al-Rahman III</a>, ignoring the claims of his four living children. Abdullah died in 912, and the throne passed to Abd al Rahman III. Through force of arms and diplomacy, he put down the rebellions that had disrupted his grandfather's reign, obliterating Ibn Hafsun and hunting down his sons. After this he led several sieges against the Christians, sacking the city of <a href="/wiki/Pamplona" title="Pamplona">Pamplona</a>, and restoring some prestige to the emirate. Meanwhile, across the sea the <a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimids</a> had risen up in force, ousted the Abbasid government in North Africa, and declared themselves a caliphate. Inspired by this action, Abd al Rahman joined the rebellion and declared himself caliph in 929.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>For nearly 100 years under the Córdoban Umayyad period, from the 9th century to the 10th, al-Andalus also extended its presence from <a href="/wiki/Fraxinetum" title="Fraxinetum">Fraxinetum</a> into the Alps with a series of organized raids.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Umayyad_Caliphate_of_Córdoba"><span id="Umayyad_Caliphate_of_C.C3.B3rdoba"></span>Umayyad Caliphate of Córdoba</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Andalus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="Edit section: Umayyad Caliphate of Córdoba"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphate of Córdoba">Caliphate of Córdoba</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:La_civilitzaci%C3%B3_del_califat_de_C%C3%B2rdova_en_temps_d%27Abd-al-Rahman_III.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/La_civilitzaci%C3%B3_del_califat_de_C%C3%B2rdova_en_temps_d%27Abd-al-Rahman_III.jpg/220px-La_civilitzaci%C3%B3_del_califat_de_C%C3%B2rdova_en_temps_d%27Abd-al-Rahman_III.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/La_civilitzaci%C3%B3_del_califat_de_C%C3%B2rdova_en_temps_d%27Abd-al-Rahman_III.jpg/330px-La_civilitzaci%C3%B3_del_califat_de_C%C3%B2rdova_en_temps_d%27Abd-al-Rahman_III.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/La_civilitzaci%C3%B3_del_califat_de_C%C3%B2rdova_en_temps_d%27Abd-al-Rahman_III.jpg/440px-La_civilitzaci%C3%B3_del_califat_de_C%C3%B2rdova_en_temps_d%27Abd-al-Rahman_III.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3052" data-file-height="1960" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_III" title="Abd al-Rahman III">Abd al-Rahman III</a> receiving ambassador <a href="/wiki/John_of_Gorze" title="John of Gorze">John of Gorze</a> of <a href="/wiki/Otto_the_Great" title="Otto the Great">Otto I the Great</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Medina_Azahara" class="mw-redirect" title="Medina Azahara">Medina Azahara</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Dionisio_Baixeras_Verdaguer" title="Dionisio Baixeras Verdaguer">Dionisio Baixeras Verdaguer</a>, 1885.</figcaption></figure><p> The period of the <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a> is seen as the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">golden age</a> of al-Andalus. Córdoba under the Caliphate, with a population of more than half a million, eventually overtook <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> as the largest and most prosperous city in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-Chandler1987_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chandler1987-42"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Al-Andalus became a centre for the arts, medicine, science, music, literature and philosophy. The work of its most important philosophers and scientists, such as <a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Qasim_al-Zahrawi" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi">Abulcasis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a>, had a major influence on the intellectual life of medieval Europe. Muslims and non-Muslims often came from abroad to study at the libraries and universities of al-Andalus, and after the reconquest of Toledo, several translation institutions such as the <a href="/wiki/Toledo_School_of_Translators" title="Toledo School of Translators">Toledo School of Translators</a> were established for translating books and texts from Arabic into Latin. The most noted figures in this being <a href="/wiki/Gerard_of_Cremona" title="Gerard of Cremona">Gerard of Cremona</a> and <a href="/wiki/Michael_Scot" title="Michael Scot">Michael Scot</a>, who took these works to Italy. The transmission of ideas significantly affected the formation of the European <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-MP_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MP-43"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Caliphate of Córdoba also had extensive trade with other parts of the Mediterranean, including Christian parts. Trade goods included luxury items (silk, ceramics, gold), essential foodstuffs (grain, olive oil, wine), and containers (such as ceramics for storing perishables). In the tenth century, <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Amalfi" title="Duchy of Amalfi">Amalfitans</a> were already trading <a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> silks in Córdoba.<sup id="cite_ref-Metcalfe2013_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Metcalfe2013-44"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Later references to Amalfitan merchants were sometimes used to emphasize the previous golden age of Córdoba.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Fatimid Egypt was a supplier of many luxury goods, including elephant tusks, and raw or carved crystals. The Fatimids were traditionally thought to be the only supplier of such goods, and control over these trade routes would be a cause for conflict between the Umayyads and Fatimids.<sup id="cite_ref-Metcalfe2013_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Metcalfe2013-44"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Taifas_period"><i>Taifas</i> period</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Andalus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8" title="Edit section: Taifas period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Taifa" title="Taifa">Taifa</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Taifas2.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Taifas2.gif/220px-Taifas2.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Taifas2.gif/330px-Taifas2.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Taifas2.gif/440px-Taifas2.gif 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="779" /></a><figcaption>The taifas (green) in 1031 AD</figcaption></figure><p>The <a href="/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphate of Córdoba">Caliphate of Córdoba</a> effectively collapsed during a <a href="/wiki/Fitna_of_al-Andalus" title="Fitna of al-Andalus">ruinous civil war</a> between 1009 and 1013, although it was not finally abolished until 1031 when <i>al-Andalus</i> broke up into a number of mostly independent mini-states and principalities called <i><a href="/wiki/Taifa" title="Taifa">taifas</a></i>. In 1013, <a href="/wiki/Sacks_of_C%C3%B3rdoba_(1009%E2%80%9313)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacks of Córdoba (1009–13)">invading Berbers sacked Córdoba</a>, massacring its inhabitants, pillaging the city, and burning the palace complex to the ground.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The largest of the taifas to emerge were <a href="/wiki/Taifa_of_Badajoz" title="Taifa of Badajoz">Badajoz</a> (<i>Batalyaws</i>), <a href="/wiki/Taifa_of_Toledo" title="Taifa of Toledo">Toledo</a> (<i>Ṭulayṭulah</i>), <a href="/wiki/Taifa_of_Zaragoza" title="Taifa of Zaragoza">Zaragoza</a> (<i>Saraqusta</i>), and <a href="/wiki/Taifa_of_Granada" title="Taifa of Granada">Granada</a> (<i>Ġarnāṭah</i>). After 1031, the <i>taifas</i> were generally too weak to defend themselves against repeated raids and demands for tribute from the Christian states to the north and west, which were known to the Muslims as "the Galician nations",<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> and which had spread from their initial strongholds in <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Galicia" title="Kingdom of Galicia">Galicia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Asturias" title="Kingdom of Asturias">Asturias</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cantabria" title="Cantabria">Cantabria</a>, the Basque country, and the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Marca_Hispanica" class="mw-redirect" title="Marca Hispanica">Marca Hispanica</a></i> to become the Kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Navarre" title="Kingdom of Navarre">Navarre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Le%C3%B3n" title="Kingdom of León">León</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Portugal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Castile" title="Kingdom of Castile">Castile</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragon" title="Kingdom of Aragon">Aragon</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/County_of_Barcelona" title="County of Barcelona">County of Barcelona</a>. During the eleventh century several centres of power existed among the taifas, and the political situation shifted rapidly. Before the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Almoravids" class="mw-redirect" title="Almoravids">Almoravids</a> from Africa or the Christians from the north, the <a href="/wiki/Abbadid_dynasty" title="Abbadid dynasty">Abbadid</a>-ruled <a href="/wiki/Taifa_of_Seville" title="Taifa of Seville">Taifa of Seville</a> succeeded in conquering a dozen lesser kingdoms, becoming the most powerful and renowned of the taifas, such that it could have laid claim to be the true heir to the Caliphate of Córdoba. The taifas were vulnerable and divided but had immense wealth.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> During its prominence the Taifa of Seville produced technically complex <a href="/wiki/Lusterware" class="mw-redirect" title="Lusterware">lusterware</a> and exerted significant influence on ceramic production across al-Andalus.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1080s, the <i>taifa</i> kingdoms began to face an existential threat from the Christian kingdoms to the north, as <a href="/wiki/Alfonso_VI_of_Le%C3%B3n_and_Castile" title="Alfonso VI of León and Castile">Alfonso VI</a> of Castile escalated attacks against them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996152–153_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996152–153-50"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> In 1083, he led a punitive expedition against Seville that reached all the way to <a href="/wiki/Tarifa" title="Tarifa">Tarifa</a> at the southern tip of al-Andalus.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996161_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996161-51"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> In 1085, he <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Toledo_(1085)" title="Siege of Toledo (1085)">annexed Toledo</a>, a turning point which galvanized the remaining <i>taifa</i> leaders into seeking outside help.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996153_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996153-52"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Almoravids_and_Almohads">Almoravids and Almohads</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Andalus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9" title="Edit section: Almoravids and Almohads"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravid dynasty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad Caliphate</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Empire_almoravide.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Empire_almoravide.PNG/170px-Empire_almoravide.PNG" decoding="async" width="170" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Empire_almoravide.PNG/255px-Empire_almoravide.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Empire_almoravide.PNG/340px-Empire_almoravide.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1220" /></a><figcaption>Map showing the extent of the <a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravid empire</a></figcaption></figure><p>After the fall of Toledo, most of the major <i>taifa</i> rulers agreed to request the intervention of the Almoravids, a Berber empire based in <a href="/wiki/Marrakesh" title="Marrakesh">Marrakesh</a> that had conquered much of northwest Africa. The Almoravid leader, <a href="/wiki/Yusuf_ibn_Tashfin" title="Yusuf ibn Tashfin">Yusuf Ibn Tashfin</a>, led several campaigns into al-Andalus, initially in defense of the <i>taifa</i> kingdoms. At the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sagrajas" title="Battle of Sagrajas">Battle of Sagrajas</a> (or Battle of Zallaqa in Arabic), a Muslim army led by the Almoravids soundly defeated Alfonso VI.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996159–162_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996159–162-53"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> By 1090, however, Yusuf ibn Tashfin was disillusioned with the disunity of the <i>taifa</i> leaders and he returned on a campaign to conquer al-Andalus instead. Most of the <i>taifas</i>, except for Zaragoza, were annexed by 1094.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996164–166_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996164–166-54"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Valencia, which had come under the control of <a href="/wiki/El_Cid" title="El Cid">El Cid</a> at the end of <a href="/wiki/Taifa_of_Valencia" title="Taifa of Valencia">its taifa period</a>, was eventually occupied in 1102, after El Cid's death.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996166_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996166-55"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Zaragoza was annexed in 1110.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996173–174_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996173–174-56"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Modern scholarship has sometimes admitted originality in North African architecture, but according to Yasser Tabbaa, historian of Islamic art and architecture, the Iberocentric viewpoint is anachronistic when considering the political and cultural environment during the rule of the Almoravid dynasty.<sup id="cite_ref-Neci̇poğluBailey2008_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neci̇poğluBailey2008-57"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles#Stay_on_topic" title="Wikipedia:Writing better articles"><span title="The material near this tag may contain information that is not relevant to the article&#39;s main topic. This statement seems out of place for a summary of historical events, it probably belongs in another section or another article. (September 2023)">relevant?</span></a></i>&#93;</sup> The rise and fall of the Almoravids is sometimes seen as an expression of <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Asabiyyah" title="Asabiyyah">asabiyyah</a> paradigm.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles#Stay_on_topic" title="Wikipedia:Writing better articles"><span title="The material near this tag may contain information that is not relevant to the article&#39;s main topic. This statement seems out of place for a summary of historical events, it probably belongs in another section or another article. (September 2023)">relevant?</span></a></i>&#93;</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Almohad_Expansion.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Almohad_Expansion.png/170px-Almohad_Expansion.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Almohad_Expansion.png/255px-Almohad_Expansion.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Almohad_Expansion.png/340px-Almohad_Expansion.png 2x" data-file-width="678" data-file-height="407" /></a><figcaption>Expansion of the Almohad state in the 12th century</figcaption></figure><p>By 1147, the Almoravids were overthrown in North Africa by the <a href="/wiki/Almohad" class="mw-redirect" title="Almohad">Almohads</a>, another Berber dynasty, under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Mu%27min" title="Abd al-Mu&#39;min">Abd al-Mu'min</a>. As Almoravid rule collapsed, another brief period of <i>taifa</i> kingdoms followed in al-Andalus, during which the Christian kingdoms expanded southward again.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBennison201674–75_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennison201674–75-59"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996202_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996202-60"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> From 1146 onward, the Almohads intervened and took control of al-Andalus.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBennison201674–78,_341_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennison201674–78,_341-61"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> One of Abd al-Mu'min's successors, <a href="/wiki/Ya%E2%80%99qub_al-Mansur" class="mw-redirect" title="Ya’qub al-Mansur">Ya'qub al-Mansur</a>, won a major victory over the Castilian <a href="/wiki/Alfonso_VIII_of_Castile" title="Alfonso VIII of Castile">Alfonso VIII</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Alarcos" title="Battle of Alarcos">Battle of Alarcos</a> in 1195.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBennison2016108_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennison2016108-62"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1212, a coalition of Christian kings under the leadership of Alfonso VIII defeated the Almohads at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Las_Navas_de_Tolosa" title="Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa">Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa</a>. Almohad rule was diminished in prestige and in 1228 the Almohad caliph <a href="/wiki/Idris_al-Ma%27mun" title="Idris al-Ma&#39;mun">al-Ma'mun</a> withdrew from al-Andalus altogether.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoloix-Gallardo2021122_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoloix-Gallardo2021122-63"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> In this political vacuum, a new wave of <i>taifa</i> kingdoms emerged, which were progressively conquered by Portugal, Castile, and Aragon. Córdoba was <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_C%C3%B3rdoba_(1236)" title="Siege of Córdoba (1236)">conquered in 1236</a> and Seville was <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Seville" title="Siege of Seville">conquered in 1248</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996266–272_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996266–272-64"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Some Muslim city-states, such as <a href="/wiki/Taifa_of_Murcia" title="Taifa of Murcia">Murcia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taifa_of_Niebla" title="Taifa of Niebla">Niebla</a>, survived as vassal kingdoms of Castile until the 1260s.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996271_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996271-65"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Only the region of Granada remained unconquered. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emirate_of_Granada,_its_fall,_and_aftermath"><span id="Emirate_of_Granada.2C_its_fall.2C_and_aftermath"></span>Emirate of Granada, its fall, and aftermath</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Andalus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10" title="Edit section: Emirate of Granada, its fall, and aftermath"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Granada" title="Emirate of Granada">Emirate of Granada</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nasrid_Dynasty_Textile_Fragment.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Nasrid_Dynasty_Textile_Fragment.jpg/220px-Nasrid_Dynasty_Textile_Fragment.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Nasrid_Dynasty_Textile_Fragment.jpg/330px-Nasrid_Dynasty_Textile_Fragment.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Nasrid_Dynasty_Textile_Fragment.jpg/440px-Nasrid_Dynasty_Textile_Fragment.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="642" /></a><figcaption>A silk textile fragment from the last Muslim dynasty of Al-Andalus, the <a href="/wiki/Nasrid_dynasty" title="Nasrid dynasty">Nasrid Dynasty</a> (1232–1492), with the epigraphic inscription "glory to our lord the Sultan".<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>From the mid 13th to the late 15th century, the only remaining domain of al-Andalus was the <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Granada" title="Emirate of Granada">Emirate of Granada</a>, the last Muslim stronghold in the Iberian Peninsula. The emirate was established by <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_I_of_Granada" title="Muhammad I of Granada">Muhammad ibn al-Ahmar</a> in 1230 and was ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Nasrid_dynasty" title="Nasrid dynasty">Nasrid dynasty</a>, the longest reigning dynasty in the history of al-Andalus. Although surrounded by Castilian lands, the emirate was wealthy through being tightly integrated in Mediterranean trade networks and enjoyed a period of considerable cultural and economic prosperity.<sup id="cite_ref-Page_120_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Page_120-68"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alhambra_L%C3%B6wenhof_mit_L%C3%B6wenbrunnen_2014.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Alhambra_L%C3%B6wenhof_mit_L%C3%B6wenbrunnen_2014.jpg/220px-Alhambra_L%C3%B6wenhof_mit_L%C3%B6wenbrunnen_2014.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Alhambra_L%C3%B6wenhof_mit_L%C3%B6wenbrunnen_2014.jpg/330px-Alhambra_L%C3%B6wenhof_mit_L%C3%B6wenbrunnen_2014.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Alhambra_L%C3%B6wenhof_mit_L%C3%B6wenbrunnen_2014.jpg/440px-Alhambra_L%C3%B6wenhof_mit_L%C3%B6wenbrunnen_2014.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3931" data-file-height="2595" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Court_of_the_Lions" title="Court of the Lions">Court of the Lions</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Alhambra" title="Alhambra">Alhambra</a>, the palace of <a href="/wiki/Nasrid_dynasty" title="Nasrid dynasty">Nasrid</a> Granada</figcaption></figure> <p>Despite internal conflicts, the Nasrids of Granada were able to survive in part by playing the Christian kingdoms of the north against each other, while at other times soliciting aid from the <a href="/wiki/Marinids" class="mw-redirect" title="Marinids">Marinids</a>, a new Berber dynasty ruling in North Africa from their capital in <a href="/wiki/Fez,_Morocco" title="Fez, Morocco">Fez</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996280–300_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996280–300-69"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> For much of its existence, Granada paid tribute to the Castilian kings. Along with this political status, its favorable geographic location, with the <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Nevada_(Spain)" title="Sierra Nevada (Spain)">Sierra Nevada</a> as a natural barrier, helped to prolong Nasrid rule.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECatlos2018337_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECatlos2018337-70"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996277–278_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996277–278-71"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Granada also accommodated a large number of Muslim refugees fleeing the <i><a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a></i> or expelled from Christian-controlled territories, which grew the city and the emirate's population.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996277_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996277-72"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey199014–15_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey199014–15-73"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The city even became one of the largest in Europe throughout the 15th century in terms of population.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-google152_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-google152-75"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The most visible legacy of the Nasrids is the <a href="/wiki/Alhambra" title="Alhambra">Alhambra</a>, their fortified palace complex, partly preserved today.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECatlos2018354_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECatlos2018354-76"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The independent Nasrid kingdom was also a trade hub between the Atlantic and Mediterranean, and was frequented especially by <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoese</a> merchants.<sup id="cite_ref-Metcalfe2013_44-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Metcalfe2013-44"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Marinids intervened in the south of the Iberian Peninsula multiple times up until their defeat at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_R%C3%ADo_Salado" title="Battle of Río Salado">Battle of Río Salado</a> in 1340. After this, they ceased to play a major role.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996278–289_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996278–289-77"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The subsequent internal turmoil within Castile, however, helped Nasrid Granada to enjoy a period of relative external peace and internal prosperity until the end of the 14th century, under the reigns of <a href="/wiki/Yusuf_I_of_Granada" title="Yusuf I of Granada">Yusuf I</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr>&#8201;1333–1354</span>) and <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_V_of_Granada" title="Muhammad V of Granada">Muhammad V</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr>&#8201;1354–1359,&#160;1362–1391</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996288–292_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996288–292-78"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Important cultural figures, such as <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Khatib" title="Ibn al-Khatib">Ibn al-Khatib</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Zamrak" title="Ibn Zamrak">Ibn Zamrak</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a> all served in the Nasrid court during this period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996291_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996291-79"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECatlos2018357–359_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECatlos2018357–359-80"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1468, <a href="/wiki/Isabella_I_of_Castile" title="Isabella I of Castile">Isabella</a>, the only child of <a href="/wiki/Henry_IV_of_Castile" title="Henry IV of Castile">Henry IV of Castile</a>, married <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_II_of_Aragon" title="Ferdinand II of Aragon">Ferdinand</a>, the son of <a href="/wiki/John_II_of_Aragon" title="John II of Aragon">John II of Aragon</a>, and by 1479 they were rulers of a united Castile and Aragon.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECatlos2018377_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECatlos2018377-81"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> This development meant that Granada could no longer exploit divisions between the two kingdoms and the new royal couple, also known as the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Monarchs_of_Spain" title="Catholic Monarchs of Spain">Catholic Monarchs</a>, were united in their intention to conquer it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey1990268_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey1990268-82"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The final <a href="/wiki/Granada_War" title="Granada War">war to conquer Granada</a> began in earnest in 1482.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996300_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996300-83"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Year by year, the Christian advance captured new cities and fortresses<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996300–303_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996300–303-84"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> until the last Nasrid ruler, <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_XII_of_Granada" title="Muhammad XII of Granada">Muhammad XII</a> (known as Boabdil to the Christians), formally <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Granada_(1491)" title="Treaty of Granada (1491)">surrendered Granada</a> to the Catholic Monarchs on 2 January 1492.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey1990308–323_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey1990308–323-85"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Salida_de_la_familia_de_Boabdil_de_la_Alhambra.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Salida_de_la_familia_de_Boabdil_de_la_Alhambra.jpg/220px-Salida_de_la_familia_de_Boabdil_de_la_Alhambra.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Salida_de_la_familia_de_Boabdil_de_la_Alhambra.jpg/330px-Salida_de_la_familia_de_Boabdil_de_la_Alhambra.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Salida_de_la_familia_de_Boabdil_de_la_Alhambra.jpg/440px-Salida_de_la_familia_de_Boabdil_de_la_Alhambra.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="830" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Manuel_G%C3%B3mez-Moreno_Gonz%C3%A1lez" title="Manuel Gómez-Moreno González">Manuel Gómez-Moreno González's</a> 19th-century depiction of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_XII_of_Granada" title="Muhammad XII of Granada">Muhammad XII's</a> family in the Alhambra moments after the <a href="/wiki/Granada_War" title="Granada War">fall of Granada</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>By this time Muslims in Castile numbered half a million. After the fall, "100,000 had died or been enslaved, 200,000 emigrated, and 200,000 remained as the residual population. Many of the Muslim elite, including Muhammad XII, who had been given the area of the <a href="/wiki/Alpujarras" title="Alpujarras">Alpujarras</a> mountains as a principality, found life under Christian rule intolerable and passed over into North Africa."<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Under the conditions of the Capitulations of 1492, the Muslims in Granada were to be allowed to continue to practice their religion. </p><p>Mass <a href="/wiki/Forced_conversions_of_Muslims_in_Spain" title="Forced conversions of Muslims in Spain">forced conversions</a> of Muslims in 1499 led to a <a href="/wiki/Rebellion_of_the_Alpujarras_(1499%E2%80%931501)" title="Rebellion of the Alpujarras (1499–1501)">revolt</a> that spread to Alpujarras and the mountains of <a href="/wiki/Ronda" title="Ronda">Ronda</a>; after this uprising the capitulations were revoked.<sup id="cite_ref-Mediano2013_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mediano2013-87"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> In 1502 the Catholic Monarchs decreed the forced conversion of all Muslims living under the rule of the Crown of Castile,<sup id="cite_ref-Majid2004_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Majid2004-88"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> although in the kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Aragon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Valencia" title="Valencia">Valencia</a> (both now part of Spain) the open practice of Islam was allowed until 1526.<sup id="cite_ref-Grieve2009_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grieve2009-89"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Descendants of the Muslims were subject to expulsions from Spain between 1609 and 1614 (see <a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_the_Moriscos" title="Expulsion of the Moriscos">Expulsion of the Moriscos</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The last mass prosecution against <a href="/wiki/Morisco" title="Morisco">Moriscos</a> for <a href="/wiki/Crypto-Islam" title="Crypto-Islam">crypto-Islamic</a> practices occurred in Granada in 1727, with most of those convicted receiving relatively light sentences. The Morisco community including these final convicts kept their identity alive at least through the late eighteenth century.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Science">Science</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Andalus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11" title="Edit section: Science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There was much scientific activity in Al-Andalus, especially in the fields of <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">agronomy</a>. At the same time, Andalusi scholars were also highly active in <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> (see below), especially in the field of <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0522_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0522-92"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The earliest evidence of such activities in al-Andalus dates to the reign of <a href="/wiki/Abd_ar-Rahman_II" title="Abd ar-Rahman II">Abd ar-Rahman II</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr>&#8201;822–852</span>), when developments were spurred by exposure to older works translated from, Greek, Persian and other languages.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Scientific studies continued to be pursued in the following centuries, though certain fields and subjects thrived more depending on the period.<sup id="cite_ref-:0522_92-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0522-92"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Scholars often worked in many different and overlapping subjects, so it is difficult to place those discussed here into a single scientific field each.<sup id="cite_ref-Bakar2006_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bakar2006-94"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medicine">Medicine</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Andalus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12" title="Edit section: Medicine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Albucasis_blistering_a_patient_in_the_hospital_at_Cordova._Wellcome_L0015000.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Albucasis_blistering_a_patient_in_the_hospital_at_Cordova._Wellcome_L0015000.jpg/220px-Albucasis_blistering_a_patient_in_the_hospital_at_Cordova._Wellcome_L0015000.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Albucasis_blistering_a_patient_in_the_hospital_at_Cordova._Wellcome_L0015000.jpg/330px-Albucasis_blistering_a_patient_in_the_hospital_at_Cordova._Wellcome_L0015000.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Albucasis_blistering_a_patient_in_the_hospital_at_Cordova._Wellcome_L0015000.jpg/440px-Albucasis_blistering_a_patient_in_the_hospital_at_Cordova._Wellcome_L0015000.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5416" data-file-height="3632" /></a><figcaption>The Andalusian physician <a href="/wiki/Al-Zahrawi" title="Al-Zahrawi">Abu'l Qasim Al-Zahrawi</a>, who performed the first modern surgery, determined how to remove kidney stones, was known as the father of surgery, and developed many inventions and instruments. </figcaption></figure> <p>There were many notable surgeons, physicians, and medical scholars from al-Andalus including <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Baitar" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn al-Baitar">Ibn al-Baytar</a> (d. 1248), <a href="/wiki/Al-Zahrawi" title="Al-Zahrawi">Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi</a> (Albucasis; d. 1013), Muhammad al-Shafrah (d. 1360), Abu Marwan 'Abd al-Malik ibn Habib (d. 853), and <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Zuhr" title="Ibn Zuhr">Abu Marwan ibn Zuhr</a> (Avenzoar; d. 1162).<sup id="cite_ref-Pormann2007a_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pormann2007a-95"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> And of particular note is al-Zahrawi, who is considered by many to be "probably the greatest physician in the entire history of Western Islam."<sup id="cite_ref-Ashgate1998b_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ashgate1998b-96"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Around the year 1000 C.E, he wrote a book with a title that roughly translates to <i>The Arrangement of Medical Knowledge for One Who is Not Able to Compile a Book for Himself</i> (<i>Kitab al-tasrif li-man 'ajiza 'an al-ta'alif</i>)—a comprehensive medical encyclopedia with the goal of summarizing all existing medical knowledge and eliminating the need for students and practitioners to rely on multiple medical texts.<sup id="cite_ref-Ashgate1998b_96-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ashgate1998b-96"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The book is renowned for its chapter on surgery which included important illustrations of surgical instruments, as well as sections "on <a href="/wiki/Cauterization" title="Cauterization">cauterization</a>, on incisions, <a href="/wiki/Venipuncture" title="Venipuncture">venesection</a> and wounds, and on bone-setting."<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> For hundreds of years after its publication it was one of the most widely used medical texts for students and medical practitioners and was translated into Hebrew, Latin, and Castilian.<sup id="cite_ref-Bakar2006_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bakar2006-94"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pormann2007b_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pormann2007b-98"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> This encyclopedia is also significant for its inclusion of al-Zahrawi's personal experiences as a surgeon, which provided important case studies for aspiring surgeons. This distinguishes it from other strictly factual medical works of the time, most notably Ibn Sina's <i><a href="/wiki/The_Canon_of_Medicine" title="The Canon of Medicine">Canon of Medicine</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Pormann2007b_98-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pormann2007b-98"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other important medical texts include al-Baytar's <i>Comprehensive Book on Simple Drugs and Foodstuffs</i>—an encyclopedia with descriptions of the medical uses of over 1400 plants and other types of medicine—and ibn Habib's <i>Book of the Medicine of the Arabs</i> (<i>Kitab tibb al-'arab</i>)—a historical summary of Arabic medicine until the 9th century.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Ibn Habib's work is significant because it is one of the oldest known writings in the field of <a href="/wiki/Prophetic_medicine" title="Prophetic medicine">prophetic medicine</a>, which uses <a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">hadiths</a> to create Islamic-based medicinal guidelines. His book is also significant because it uses principles of <a href="/wiki/Galenic_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Galenic medicine">Galenic medicine</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Humorism" title="Humorism">humorism</a> and the theory of <a href="/wiki/Four_temperaments" title="Four temperaments">four temperaments</a>, as the basis of its medical recommendations.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ibn Zuhr family played a very important role in the production of Andalusi medical knowledge, as they produced five generations of medical experts, particularly in the fields of dietary sciences and <a href="/wiki/Medication" title="Medication">medicaments</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Abu Marwan ibn Zuhr (d. 1162) is particularly notable, as he wrote the <i>Book of Moderation</i> (<i>Kitab al-Iqtisad</i>)—a treatise on general therapy; the <i>Book of Foods</i> (<i>Kitab al-Aghdhiya</i>)—a manual on foods and regimen which contains guidelines for a healthy life; and the <i>Kitab al-Taysir</i>—a book written to act as a compendium to <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Ibn Rushd's</a> <a href="/wiki/Colliget" title="Colliget">Colliget</a>. In <i>Kitab al-Taysir</i> he provides one of the earliest clinical descriptions of the <a href="/wiki/Scabies" title="Scabies">scabies</a> mite. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Astronomy">Astronomy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Andalus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13" title="Edit section: Astronomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Three of the most notable Andalusi astronomers were <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufail" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Tufail">Ibn Tufail</a> (d. 1185), <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Ibn Rushd</a> (Averroes; d. 1198), and <a href="/wiki/Nur_ad-Din_al-Bitruji" title="Nur ad-Din al-Bitruji">Nur ad-Din al-Bitruji</a> (Alpetragius; d. 1204). All lived around the same time and focused their astronomical works on critiquing and revising <a href="/wiki/Geocentric_model" title="Geocentric model">Ptolemaic astronomy</a> and the problem of the <a href="/wiki/Equant" title="Equant">equant</a> in his astronomical model.<sup id="cite_ref-Saliba1994_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saliba1994-102"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Instead, they accepted <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>'s model and promoted the theory of homocentric spheres.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Al-Bitruji is believed to have studied under Ibn Tufail and Bitruji's <i>Book on Cosmology</i> (<i>Kitab fi al-hay'a</i>) built on Ibn Tufail's work, as well as that of Ibn Rushd, Ibn Bajja, and Maimonides. The book's goal was "to overcome the physical difficulties inherent in the geometrical models of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest">Almagest</a></i> and to describe the cosmos in agreement with Aristotelian or Neoplatonic physics," which it succeeded in doing to an extent.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Bitruji's book set a precedent of criticizing the <i>Almagest</i> in future works in the field of astronomy.<sup id="cite_ref-Saliba1994_102-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saliba1994-102"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although Ibn Rushd originally trained and practiced as a jurist, he was exposed to astronomy—possibly through Ibn Tufail—and became a renowned scientist in the field.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> His most popular work was his <i>Summary of the Almagest</i>, but he also published shorter works discussing Aristotle's planetary theories<i>.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Ibn Rushd published writings on philosophy, theology, and medicine throughout his life too, including commentaries on the works of Ibn Sina.<sup id="cite_ref-Bakar2006_94-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bakar2006-94"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></i> </p><p>In addition to writing the important <i>Book of the Medicine of the Arabs</i>, Ibn Habib also wrote the <i>Book on Stars</i> (<i>Kirab fi l-nujim</i>). This book included important "teachings on the lunar mansions, the signs of the zodiac, [and] the division of the seasons."<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> In these teachings, Ibn-Habib calculated the phases of the moon and dates of the annual solstices and equinoxes with relative accuracy.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another important astronomer from al-Andalus was <a href="/wiki/Maslama_al-Majriti" title="Maslama al-Majriti">Maslama al-Majriti</a> (d. 1007), who played a role in translating and writing about Ptolemy's <i><a href="/wiki/Planisphaerium" title="Planisphaerium">Planisphaerium</a></i> and <i>Almagest</i>. He built on the work of older astronomers, like <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Musa_al-Khwarizmi" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi">Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi</a>, whose astronomical tables he wrote a discussion on and subsequently improved. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ab%C5%AB_Ish%C4%81q_Ibr%C4%81h%C4%ABm_al-Zarq%C4%81l%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī">Abu Ishaq Ibrahim al-Zarqali</a> (d. 1087) had many influential astronomical successes, as shown by <a href="/wiki/Copernicus" class="mw-redirect" title="Copernicus">Copernicus</a>'s recognition of him in his <i><a href="/wiki/De_revolutionibus_orbium_coelestium" title="De revolutionibus orbium coelestium">On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres</a></i> five centuries later. Along with other astronomers, he undertook extensive work to edit the <a href="/wiki/Toledan_Tables" title="Toledan Tables">Toledan Zij</a> astronomical tables. He also accurately calculated the motion of the solar apogee to be 12.04 seconds per year, which is relatively close to today's calculation of 11.8 seconds per year.<sup id="cite_ref-Bakar2006_94-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bakar2006-94"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Agronomy">Agronomy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Andalus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=14" title="Edit section: Agronomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Other important scientific advances in al-Andalus occurred in the field of <a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">agronomy</a>. These advances were in part facilitated by technological innovations in irrigation systems. State organized, large-scale irrigation projects provided water to city baths, mosques, gardens, residential homes, and governing palaces, such as the <a href="/wiki/Alhambra" title="Alhambra">al-Hambra</a> and its gardens in Granada. Collective, peasant-built irrigation infrastructure also played an important role, especially in agriculture. Many of these irrigation techniques, especially those utilized by peasants, were brought to al-Andalus by migrating <a href="/wiki/Berbers" title="Berbers">Berber</a> and Arab tribes. Although some irrigation projects built on existing <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> infrastructure, most of al-Andalus's irrigation systems were new projects built separate from old Roman aqueducts. However, there is some debate about this among scholars.<sup id="cite_ref-Abate2018_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abate2018-110"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>One notable <a href="/wiki/Agriculturist" title="Agriculturist">agriculturalist</a> was <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-%27Awwam" title="Ibn al-&#39;Awwam">Ibn al-'Awwam</a>, who wrote the <i>Book of Agriculture</i>. This book contains 34 chapters about various aspects of agriculture and animal husbandry, including discussions of over 580 different types of plants and how to treat plant diseases.<sup id="cite_ref-Bakar2006_94-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bakar2006-94"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other agronomic innovations in al-Andalus include the cultivation of the pomegranate from Syria, which has since become the namesake and ubiquitous symbol of the city of Granada, as well as the first attempt to create a botanical garden near Córdoba by '<a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_I" title="Abd al-Rahman I">Abd al-Rahman I</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Andalus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=15" title="Edit section: Culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Society">Society</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Andalus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=16" title="Edit section: Society"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Geschichte_des_Kost%C3%BCms_(1905)_(14784104832).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Geschichte_des_Kost%C3%BCms_%281905%29_%2814784104832%29.jpg/220px-Geschichte_des_Kost%C3%BCms_%281905%29_%2814784104832%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Geschichte_des_Kost%C3%BCms_%281905%29_%2814784104832%29.jpg/330px-Geschichte_des_Kost%C3%BCms_%281905%29_%2814784104832%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Geschichte_des_Kost%C3%BCms_%281905%29_%2814784104832%29.jpg/440px-Geschichte_des_Kost%C3%BCms_%281905%29_%2814784104832%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2096" data-file-height="2384" /></a><figcaption>Clothing of al-Andalus in the 15th century, during the <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Granada" title="Emirate of Granada">Emirate of Granada</a>.</figcaption></figure><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Social_and_cultural_exchange_in_al-Andalus" title="Social and cultural exchange in al-Andalus">Social and cultural exchange in al-Andalus</a>, <a href="/wiki/La_Convivencia" class="mw-redirect" title="La Convivencia">La Convivencia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Golden_age_of_Jewish_culture_in_the_Iberian_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Golden age of Jewish culture in the Iberian Peninsula">Golden age of Jewish culture in the Iberian Peninsula</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mozarabs" title="Mozarabs">Mozarabs</a></div> <div class="PieChartTemplate thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px"> <div class="mw-no-invert" style="background-color:white;margin:auto;position:relative;width:200px;height:200px;overflow:hidden;border-radius:100px;border:1px solid black;transform:scaleX(-1)rotate(-90deg)"> <div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:0; top:0; border-width:0 200px 200px 0; border-color:Lightblue; z-index:-1"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:100px; top:100px; border-width:100px 0 0 307.76835371753px; border-left-color:Darkblue"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:Darkblue"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 200px 0;border-color:Darkblue"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:100px; top:100px; border-width:100px 0 0 32.491969623291px; border-left-color:Darkgreen"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:Darkgreen"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 200px 0;border-color:Darkgreen"></div> </div> <div class="thumbcaption"> <p>Religion in Al-Andalus in the 11th century<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:Darkgreen; color:white;">&#160;</span>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> (80%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:Darkblue; color:white;">&#160;</span>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> (15%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:Lightblue; color:black;">&#160;</span>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> (5%)</div> </div> </div></div><p>The society of al-Andalus was made up of three main religious groups: Muslims, Christians, and Jews. The Muslims, although united on the religious level, had several ethnic divisions, the main being the distinction between the Arabs and the <a href="/wiki/Berbers" title="Berbers">Berbers</a>. The Arab elite regarded non-Arab Muslims as second-class citizens; and they were particularly scornful of the Berbers.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ethnic structure of al-Andalus consisted of Arabs at the top of the social scale followed by, in descending order, Berbers, <a href="/wiki/Mulad%C3%AD" title="Muladí">Muladies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mozarabes" class="mw-redirect" title="Mozarabes">Mozarabes</a>, and Jews.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Each of these communities inhabited distinct neighborhoods in the cities. In the 10th century a massive conversion of Christians took place, and <i>muladies</i> (Muslims of native <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian</a> origin), formed the majority of Muslims.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>&#93;</sup> The Muwalladun had spoken in the local <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance</a> dialects of Latin collectively called <a href="/wiki/Andalusi_Romance" title="Andalusi Romance">Andalusi Romance</a> or <a href="/wiki/Mozarabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Mozarabic language"><i>Mozarabic</i></a> while increasingly adopting the Arabic language, which eventually evolved into the <a href="/wiki/Andalusi_Arabic" title="Andalusi Arabic">Andalusi Arabic</a> in which Muslims, Jews, and Christians became monolingual in the last surviving Muslim state in the Iberian Peninsula, the Emirate of Granada (1230–1492). Eventually, the Muladies, and later the Berber tribes, adopted an Arabic identity like the majority of subject people in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>&#93;</sup> Muladies, together with other Muslims, comprised eighty per cent of the population of al-Andalus by 1100.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGlick1999Chapter_5:_Ethnic_Relations_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlick1999Chapter_5:_Ethnic_Relations-115"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mozarab" class="mw-redirect" title="Mozarab">Mozarabs</a> were Christians who had long lived under Muslim and Arab rule, adopting many Arab customs, <a href="/wiki/Mozarabic_art_and_architecture" title="Mozarabic art and architecture">art and architecture</a>, and words, while still maintaining their Christian and <a href="/wiki/Mozarabic_Rite" title="Mozarabic Rite">Latin rituals</a> and their own <a href="/wiki/Mozarab_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Mozarab language">Romance languages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBennison2016166_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennison2016166-117"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p> The Jewish population worked mainly as tax collectors, in <a href="/wiki/Trade" title="Trade">trade</a>, or as doctors or ambassadors. At the end of the 15th century there were about 50,000 <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a> in Granada and roughly 100,000 in the whole of Islamic Iberia.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></p><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ChristianAndMuslimPlayingChess-cropped2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/ChristianAndMuslimPlayingChess-cropped2.jpg/220px-ChristianAndMuslimPlayingChess-cropped2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/ChristianAndMuslimPlayingChess-cropped2.jpg/330px-ChristianAndMuslimPlayingChess-cropped2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/ChristianAndMuslimPlayingChess-cropped2.jpg/440px-ChristianAndMuslimPlayingChess-cropped2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="361" /></a><figcaption>A Christian and a Muslim play chess in 13th-century al-Andalus.</figcaption></figure> <p>Non-Muslims were given the status of <i><a href="/wiki/Dhimmi" title="Dhimmi">ahl al-dhimma</a></i> (people under protection), with adult men paying a "<a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">Jizya</a>" tax equal to one dinar per year with exemptions for the elderly and the disabled. Those who were neither Christians nor Jews, such as pagans, were given the status of <i><a href="/wiki/Majus" title="Majus">Majus</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The treatment of non-Muslims in the Caliphate has been a subject of considerable debate among scholars and commentators, especially those interested in drawing parallels to the co-existence of Muslims and non-Muslims in the modern world.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Andalus_cantor.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Andalus_cantor.JPG/220px-Andalus_cantor.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Andalus_cantor.JPG/330px-Andalus_cantor.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Andalus_cantor.JPG/440px-Andalus_cantor.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1944" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Image of a Jewish <a href="/wiki/Hazzan" title="Hazzan">cantor</a> reading the <a href="/wiki/Passover" title="Passover">Passover</a> story in al-Andalus, from a 14th-century Spanish <a href="/wiki/Haggadah" title="Haggadah">Haggadah</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Spain" title="History of the Jews in Spain">Jews</a> constituted more than five per cent of the population.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Al-Andalus was a key centre of Jewish life during the early <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, produced important scholars and was one of the most stable and wealthy Jewish communities. </p><p>The longest period of relative tolerance began after 912, with the reign of <a href="/wiki/Abd-ar-Rahman_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd-ar-Rahman III">Abd-ar-Rahman III</a> and his son, <a href="/wiki/Al-Hakam_II" title="Al-Hakam II">Al-Hakam II</a>, and the Jews of al-Andalus prospered by devoting themselves to the service of the <a href="/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphate of Córdoba">Caliphate of Córdoba</a>, the study of the sciences, and to commerce and industry, especially by trading in <a href="/wiki/Silk" title="Silk">silk</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slaves</a>, which thus promoted the prosperity of the country. Southern Iberia became an asylum for the oppressed Jews of other countries.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under the <a href="/wiki/Almoravids" class="mw-redirect" title="Almoravids">Almoravids</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Almohads" class="mw-redirect" title="Almohads">Almohads</a>, there may have been intermittent persecution of Jews,<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> but sources are extremely scarce and do not give a clear picture though the situation appears to have deteriorated after 1160.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Muslim <a href="/wiki/Pogroms" class="mw-redirect" title="Pogroms">pogroms</a> against Jews in al-Andalus occurred in Córdoba (1011) and <a href="/wiki/1066_Granada_massacre" title="1066 Granada massacre">in Granada</a> (1066).<sup id="cite_ref-Schweitzer267-268_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schweitzer267-268-126"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> However, massacres of <i><a href="/wiki/Dhimmis" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhimmis">dhimmis</a></i> are believed to be rare in <a href="/wiki/Islamic_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic history">Islamic history</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-BL45_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BL45-129"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Almohads, who had taken control of the Almoravids' Maghribi and Andalusi territories by 1147,<sup id="cite_ref-islamicworldeb_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-islamicworldeb-130"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> far surpassed the <a href="/wiki/Almoravides" class="mw-redirect" title="Almoravides">Almoravides</a> in fundamentalist outlook, and treated the non-Muslims harshly. Faced with the choice of either death or conversion, many Jews and Christians emigrated.<sup id="cite_ref-frank_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-frank-131"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Some, such as the family of <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a>, fled east to more tolerant Muslim lands.<sup id="cite_ref-frank_131-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-frank-131"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many ethnicities and religions co-existed in al-Andalus, each of which contributed to its intellectual prosperity. Literacy in Islamic Iberia was far more widespread than in many other nations in the West of the time.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 11th century, the <a href="/wiki/Arabic_numeral_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic numeral system">Hindu-Arabic numeral system</a> (base 10) had reached Europe via Al-Andalus through Spanish Muslims, together with knowledge of astronomy and instruments like the <a href="/wiki/Astrolabe" title="Astrolabe">astrolabe</a>, which was first imported by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Sylvester_II" title="Pope Sylvester II">Gerbert of Aurillac</a>. For that reason, the numerals came to be known in Europe as <a href="/wiki/Arabic_numerals" title="Arabic numerals">Arabic numerals</a> despite their origins in India. </p><p>From the earliest days, the Umayyads wanted to be seen as intellectual rivals to the Abbasids and for Córdoba to have libraries and educational institutions to that of their rival, <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>. Although there was a clear rivalry between the two powers, there was freedom to travel between the two caliphates,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>&#93;</sup> which helped spread new ideas and innovations over time. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Language">Language</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Andalus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=17" title="Edit section: Language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Initially, most of the population spoke <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance dialects</a>. That led to the formation of <a href="/wiki/Western_Romance_languages" title="Western Romance languages">Iberian Romance dialects</a> that were collectively known as <a href="/wiki/Mozarabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Mozarabic language">Mozarabic</a> or Andalusi Romance. The few writings in those dialects that have been found use an Arabic script and seem to retain many archaic features of <a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar Latin</a>. They are usually assumed to have been increasingly subject to <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> influence. However, as the use of Arabic by Muwalladûn, urban Christians and <a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardi Jews">Sephardi Jews</a> spread in the south, and Mozarab Christians were linguistically assimilated by the Christian Kingdoms in the north, the Mozarabic dialects eventually disappeared. Because of that assimilation, however, Mozarabic became the main source and vehicle of transmission of Arabic loanwords to Spanish and Portuguese.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical Arabic</a> became the language of administration and of literature, while in everyday life a vernacular <a href="/wiki/Andalusi_Arabic" title="Andalusi Arabic">Andalusi Arabic</a> developed.<sup id="cite_ref-:052222_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:052222-135"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The latter consisted of many local dialects, but a standard <a href="/wiki/Koin%C3%A9_language" title="Koiné language">koiné</a> probably emerged by the 9th or 10th century.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Arabic spread progressively across the whole population through a process of <a href="/wiki/Arabization" title="Arabization">Arabization</a>, which became an important component of Andalusi identity.<sup id="cite_ref-:052222_135-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:052222-135"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> By the end of the 9th century, Arabic was widely adopted even among Andalusi Christians.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECatlos2018104_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECatlos2018104-137"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Romance vernaculars (Mozarabic) ceased to be spoken in the 13th century, on the one hand following a gradual decline initiated in the 10th century in Al-Andalus,<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> and on the other hand because of the shrinking of the Muslim-ruled lands and the expansion of Romance varieties from further north. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature_and_poetry">Literature and poetry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Andalus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=18" title="Edit section: Literature and poetry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Literature_of_al-Andalus" title="Literature of al-Andalus">Literature of al-Andalus</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hadith_Bayad_wa_Riyad.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Hadith_Bayad_wa_Riyad.jpg/220px-Hadith_Bayad_wa_Riyad.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Hadith_Bayad_wa_Riyad.jpg/330px-Hadith_Bayad_wa_Riyad.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Hadith_Bayad_wa_Riyad.jpg/440px-Hadith_Bayad_wa_Riyad.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1490" data-file-height="967" /></a><figcaption>Lute song in a garden for a noble lady. 13th century manuscript from Andalusi <i><a href="/wiki/Hadith_Bayad_wa_Riyad" title="Hadith Bayad wa Riyad">Hadith Bayad wa Riyad</a></i>.</figcaption></figure> <p>According to Isaak Moiseevich Filʹshtinskiĭ, "in the 10th century, a favourable influence on the development of Andalusi literature was exerted by the literary circles organised by rich and noble Cordovan patrons."<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Jaakko_H%C3%A4meen-Anttila" title="Jaakko Hämeen-Anttila">Jaakko Hämeen-Anttila</a>: "Andalusian literature was still very much dominated by the Eastern tradition around the year 1000, and the Arabs of Spain probably felt somewhat isolated."<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Arabic-Andalusi poetry was marked by the rise of <i><a href="/wiki/Muwashshah" title="Muwashshah">muwashshah</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> As worded by <a href="/wiki/James_T._Monroe" title="James T. Monroe">James T. Monroe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Quzman" title="Ibn Quzman">Ibn Quzman</a> also "raised the native, popular, and colloquial <i><a href="/wiki/Zajal" title="Zajal">zajal</a></i> form to a higher literary level than it had previously enjoyed in his homeland," although "his work found greater acceptance in Baghdad than it did in the far West of the Islamic world."<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Rith%C4%81%27_al-Andalus" class="mw-redirect" title="Rithā&#39; al-Andalus">Rithā' al-Andalus</a></i> is considered the most significant of a series of poems that were written in the classical tradition of <i><a href="/wiki/Rith%C4%81%27" title="Rithā&#39;">rithā'</a></i> (which denotes both lamentation and a literary genre in itself<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>) by Andalusi poets who had taken inspiration from the fall of Andalusi cities and territories.<sup id="cite_ref-EI_606_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EI_606-144"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_poetry_from_Al-Andalus" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish poetry from Al-Andalus">Jewish poetry from Al-Andalus</a> also developed, mostly but not exclusively in <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>, with significant consonance with Arabic poetry in both theme and form.<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>One specialist of Al-Andalus' intellectual history, Maria Luisa Avila, says that "<a href="/wiki/Biographical_dictionary" title="Biographical dictionary">biographical dictionaries</a> have recorded information about thousands of distinguished people in every period from al-Andalus, who were “cultivators of knowledge”<i>,</i> particularly in the legal-religious sciences as well as authors", and that "the exact number of scholars which appears in the biographical sources has not been established yet, but it surely exceeds six thousand."<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> It has been estimated that in the 10th century between 70,000 and 80,000 manuscripts were copied on a yearly basis in Córdoba alone.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Music">Music</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Andalus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=19" title="Edit section: Music"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Andalusi_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Andalusi music">Andalusi music</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Andalusi_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Andalusi music">music of al-Andalus</a> is part of an influential musical tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ziryab" title="Ziryab">Ziryab</a>, a poet and musician, who came from the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a> Caliphate and arrived in Córdoba in 822, played a rule in Andalusi music as well as other aspects of Andalusi culture.<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Poetic forms such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Muwashshah" title="Muwashshah">muwashshah</a></i>, the <i><a href="/wiki/Kharja" title="Kharja">kharja</a></i>, the <a href="/wiki/Andalusi_nubah" title="Andalusi nubah"><i>nawba</i></a>, and the <i><a href="/wiki/Zajal" title="Zajal">zajal</a></i> are prominent in Andalusi music.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophy">Philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Andalus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=20" title="Edit section: Philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-No_footnotes plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-No_footnotes" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/40px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/60px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/80px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section includes a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">list of references</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Further_reading" title="Wikipedia:Further reading">related reading</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:External_links" title="Wikipedia:External links">external links</a>, <b>but its sources remain unclear because it lacks <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Fact_and_Reference_Check" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Fact and Reference Check">improve</a> this section by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:When_to_cite" title="Wikipedia:When to cite">introducing</a> more precise citations.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Al-Andalus_philosophy">Al-Andalus philosophy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Andalus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=21" title="Edit section: Al-Andalus philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Early Islamic philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sufism_in_al-Andalus" title="Sufism in al-Andalus">Sufism in al-Andalus</a></div> <p>The historian <a href="/wiki/Said_al-Andalusi" title="Said al-Andalusi">Said al-Andalus</a> wrote that Caliph <a href="/wiki/Abd-ar-Rahman_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd-ar-Rahman III">Abd-ar-Rahman III</a> had collected libraries of books and granted patronage to scholars of <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a> and "ancient sciences". Later, <i>al-Mustansir</i> (<a href="/wiki/Al-Hakam_II" title="Al-Hakam II">Al-Hakam II</a>) went yet further, building a university and libraries in Córdoba.<sup id="cite_ref-Hamerly2017_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hamerly2017-152"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Córdoba became one of the world's leading centres of medicine and philosophical debate. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AverroesColor.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/AverroesColor.jpg/220px-AverroesColor.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/AverroesColor.jpg/330px-AverroesColor.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/AverroesColor.jpg 2x" data-file-width="352" data-file-height="276" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a>, founder of the <a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a> school of philosophy, was influential in the rise of <a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">secular thought</a> in <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a>. Detail from <i>Triunfo de Santo Tomás</i> by <a href="/wiki/Andrea_Bonaiuto" class="mw-redirect" title="Andrea Bonaiuto">Andrea Bonaiuto</a>, 14th century</figcaption></figure> <p>When Al-Hakam's son <a href="/wiki/Hisham_II" title="Hisham II">Hisham II</a> took over, real power was ceded to the <i>hajib</i>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Mansur_Ibn_Abi_Aamir" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Mansur Ibn Abi Aamir">al-Mansur Ibn Abi Aamir</a>. Al-Mansur was a distinctly religious man and disapproved of the sciences of astronomy, <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, and especially of <a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">astrology</a>, so much so that many books on these subjects, which had been preserved and collected at great expense by <a href="/wiki/Al-Hakam_II" title="Al-Hakam II">Al-Hakam II</a>, were <a href="/wiki/Book_burning" title="Book burning">burned publicly</a>. With Al-Mansur's death in 1002, interest in philosophy revived. Numerous scholars emerged, including Abu Uthman Ibn Fathun, whose masterwork was the philosophical treatise "Tree of Wisdom". <a href="/wiki/Maslamah_Ibn_Ahmad_al-Majriti" class="mw-redirect" title="Maslamah Ibn Ahmad al-Majriti">Maslamah Ibn Ahmad al-Majriti</a> (died 1008) was an outstanding scholar in astronomy and astrology; he was an intrepid traveller who journeyed all over the Islamic world and beyond and kept in touch with the <a href="/wiki/Brethren_of_Purity" title="Brethren of Purity">Brethren of Purity</a>. He is said to have brought the 51 "<a href="/wiki/Epistles_of_the_Brethren_of_Purity" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistles of the Brethren of Purity">Epistles of the Brethren of Purity</a>" to <i>al-Andalus</i> and added the compendium to this work, although it is quite possible that it was added later by another scholar with the name al-Majriti. Another book attributed to al-Majriti is the <i><a href="/wiki/Picatrix" title="Picatrix">Ghayat al-Hakim</a></i>, "The Aim of the Sage", which explored a synthesis of <a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a> with <a href="/wiki/Hermes_Trismegistus" title="Hermes Trismegistus">Hermetic philosophy</a>. Its use of incantations led the book to be widely dismissed in later years, although the <a href="/wiki/Sufi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sufi">Sufi</a> communities continued to study it. </p><p>A prominent follower of al-Majriti was the philosopher and geometer <a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Hakam_al-Kirmani" title="Abu al-Hakam al-Kirmani">Abu al-Hakam al-Kirmani</a> who was followed, in turn, by Abu Bakr Ibn al-Sayigh, usually known in the Arab world as <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Bajjah" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Bajjah">Ibn Bajjah</a>, "<a href="/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Avempace</a>". </p><p>The al-Andalus philosopher <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a> (1126–1198) was the founder of the <a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a> school of philosophy, and his works and commentaries influenced medieval thought in Western Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-Hasse_153-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hasse-153"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Another influential al-Andalus philosopher was <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufail" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Tufail">Ibn Tufail</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jewish_philosophy_and_culture">Jewish philosophy and culture</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Andalus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=22" title="Edit section: Jewish philosophy and culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Golden_age_of_Jewish_culture_in_Spain" title="Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain">Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maimonides_Memorial-C%C3%B3rdoba.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Maimonides_Memorial-C%C3%B3rdoba.jpg/170px-Maimonides_Memorial-C%C3%B3rdoba.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Maimonides_Memorial-C%C3%B3rdoba.jpg/255px-Maimonides_Memorial-C%C3%B3rdoba.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Maimonides_Memorial-C%C3%B3rdoba.jpg/340px-Maimonides_Memorial-C%C3%B3rdoba.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>Memorial to <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a> in Córdoba</figcaption></figure> <p>As <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iraq#Babylonia_as_the_centre_of_Judaism" title="History of the Jews in Iraq">Jewish thought in Babylonia</a> declined, the tolerance of <i>al-Andalus</i> made it the new centre of Jewish intellectual endeavours. Poets and commentators like <a href="/wiki/Judah_Halevi" title="Judah Halevi">Judah Halevi</a> (1086–1145) and <a href="/wiki/Dunash_ben_Labrat" title="Dunash ben Labrat">Dunash ben Labrat</a> (920–990) contributed to the cultural life of <i>al-Andalus</i>, but the area was even more important to the development of Jewish philosophy. A stream of Jewish philosophers, cross-fertilizing with Muslim philosophers (see <a href="/wiki/Joint_Jewish_and_Islamic_philosophies" class="mw-redirect" title="Joint Jewish and Islamic philosophies">joint Jewish and Islamic philosophies</a>), culminated with the widely celebrated Jewish thinker of the Middle Ages, <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a> (1135–1205), though he did not actually do any of his work in <i>al-Andalus</i>, his family having fled persecution by the <a href="/wiki/Almohad_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Almohad dynasty">Almohads</a> around 1159.<sup id="cite_ref-Hurvitz2020_154-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hurvitz2020-154"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Art_and_architecture">Art and architecture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Andalus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=23" title="Edit section: Art and architecture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Moorish_architecture" title="Moorish architecture">Moorish architecture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mud%C3%A9jar_art" title="Mudéjar art">Mudéjar art</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Great_Mosque_of_C%C3%B3rdoba_(Spain).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Great_Mosque_of_C%C3%B3rdoba_%28Spain%29.jpg/220px-Great_Mosque_of_C%C3%B3rdoba_%28Spain%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Great_Mosque_of_C%C3%B3rdoba_%28Spain%29.jpg/330px-Great_Mosque_of_C%C3%B3rdoba_%28Spain%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Great_Mosque_of_C%C3%B3rdoba_%28Spain%29.jpg/440px-Great_Mosque_of_C%C3%B3rdoba_%28Spain%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="3024" /></a><figcaption>A section of the hypostyle hall in the <a href="/wiki/Mosque%E2%80%93Cathedral_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" title="Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba">Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba</a>, begun in 785</figcaption></figure> <p>In Córdoba, <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_I" title="Abd al-Rahman I">Abd ar-Rahman I</a> built the <a href="/wiki/Mosque%E2%80%93Cathedral_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" title="Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba">Great Mosque of Córdoba</a> in 785. It was expanded multiple times up until the 10th century, and after the Reconquista it was converted into a Catholic cathedral. Its key features include a <a href="/wiki/Hypostyle" title="Hypostyle">hypostyle</a> hall with marble columns supporting <a href="/wiki/Two-tiered_arch" class="mw-redirect" title="Two-tiered arch">two-tiered arches</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Horseshoe_arch" title="Horseshoe arch">horseshoe-arch</a> <a href="/wiki/Mihrab" title="Mihrab">mihrab</a>, ribbed domes, a courtyard (<i><a href="/wiki/Sahn" title="Sahn">sahn</a></i>) with gardens, and a <a href="/wiki/Minaret" title="Minaret">minaret</a> (later converted into a <a href="/wiki/Bell_tower" title="Bell tower">bell tower</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Bloom2020_155-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bloom2020-155"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 17–21, 61–79">&#58;&#8202;17–21,&#8202;61–79&#8202;</span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ruggles2011_156-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruggles2011-156"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Abd ar-Rahman III, at the height of his power, began construction of <a href="/wiki/Madinat_al-Zahra" title="Madinat al-Zahra">Madinat al-Zahra</a>, a luxurious palace-city to serve as a new capital.<sup id="cite_ref-Bloom2020_155-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bloom2020-155"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 51–58">&#58;&#8202;51–58&#8202;</span></sup> The Umayyads also reconstructed the <a href="/wiki/Roman_bridge_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" title="Roman bridge of Córdoba">Roman-era bridge</a> over the Guadalquivir River in Córdoba, while the Almohads later added the <a href="/wiki/Calahorra_Tower" title="Calahorra Tower">Calahorra Tower</a> to the bridge.<sup id="cite_ref-Barrucand1992_157-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barrucand1992-157"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 39, 45, 101, 137">&#58;&#8202;39,&#8202;45,&#8202;101,&#8202;137&#8202;</span></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Mosque_of_Cristo_de_la_Luz" title="Mosque of Cristo de la Luz">Bab al-Mardum Mosque</a> (later converted to a church) in Toledo is a well-preserved example of a small neighbourhood mosque built at the end of the Caliphate period.<sup id="cite_ref-Bloom2020_155-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bloom2020-155"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 79">&#58;&#8202;79&#8202;</span></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spagna,_cordoba,_pisside_col_nome_di_al-mughina,_avorio,_X_sec._04.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Spagna%2C_cordoba%2C_pisside_col_nome_di_al-mughina%2C_avorio%2C_X_sec._04.JPG/220px-Spagna%2C_cordoba%2C_pisside_col_nome_di_al-mughina%2C_avorio%2C_X_sec._04.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="296" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Spagna%2C_cordoba%2C_pisside_col_nome_di_al-mughina%2C_avorio%2C_X_sec._04.JPG/330px-Spagna%2C_cordoba%2C_pisside_col_nome_di_al-mughina%2C_avorio%2C_X_sec._04.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Spagna%2C_cordoba%2C_pisside_col_nome_di_al-mughina%2C_avorio%2C_X_sec._04.JPG/440px-Spagna%2C_cordoba%2C_pisside_col_nome_di_al-mughina%2C_avorio%2C_X_sec._04.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2072" data-file-height="2792" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Pyxis_of_al-Mughira" title="Pyxis of al-Mughira">Pyxis of al-Mughira</a>, a carved ivory casket made at <a href="/wiki/Madinat_al-Zahra" title="Madinat al-Zahra">Madinat al-Zahra</a>, dated to 968</figcaption></figure> <p>The official workshops of the Caliphate, such as those at <a href="/wiki/Madinat_al-Zahra" title="Madinat al-Zahra">Madinat al-Zahra</a>, produced luxury goods for use at court or as gifts for guests, allies, and diplomats, which stimulated artistic production. Many objects produced in the caliph's workshops later made their way into the collections of museums and Christian cathedrals in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECatlos2018139–141_158-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECatlos2018139–141-158"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Among the most famous objects of this period are ivory boxes which are carved with vegetal, <a href="/wiki/Figurative_art" title="Figurative art">figurative</a>, and epigraphic motifs. Notable surviving examples include the <a href="/wiki/Pyxis_of_al-Mughira" title="Pyxis of al-Mughira">Pyxis of al-Mughira</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Pyxis_of_Zamora" title="Pyxis of Zamora">Pyxis of Zamora</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Leyre_Casket" title="Leyre Casket">Leyre Casket</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-BloomBlair2009_159-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BloomBlair2009-159"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Met1992_160-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Met1992-160"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p> During the Taifas period, art and culture continued to flourish despite the political fragmentation of Al-Andalus. The <a href="/wiki/Aljafer%C3%ADa" title="Aljafería">Aljaferia Palace</a> of Zaragoza is the most significant palace preserved from this period, featuring complex ornamental <a href="/wiki/Arcade_(architecture)" title="Arcade (architecture)">arcades</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stucco" title="Stucco">stucco</a> decoration. In other cities, a number of important palaces or fortresses were begun or expanded by local dynasties such as the <a href="/wiki/Alcazaba_of_M%C3%A1laga" title="Alcazaba of Málaga">Alcazaba of Málaga</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Alcazaba_of_Almer%C3%ADa" title="Alcazaba of Almería">Alcazaba of Almería</a>. Other examples of architecture from around this period include the <a href="/wiki/El_Ba%C3%B1uelo" title="El Bañuelo">Bañuelo</a> of Granada, an <a href="/wiki/Hammam" title="Hammam">Islamic bathhouse</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Barrucand1992_157-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barrucand1992-157"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 116–128">&#58;&#8202;116–128&#8202;</span></sup></p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:La_Giralda,_Seville,_Spain_-_Sep_2009.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/La_Giralda%2C_Seville%2C_Spain_-_Sep_2009.jpg/220px-La_Giralda%2C_Seville%2C_Spain_-_Sep_2009.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/La_Giralda%2C_Seville%2C_Spain_-_Sep_2009.jpg/330px-La_Giralda%2C_Seville%2C_Spain_-_Sep_2009.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/La_Giralda%2C_Seville%2C_Spain_-_Sep_2009.jpg/440px-La_Giralda%2C_Seville%2C_Spain_-_Sep_2009.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2912" data-file-height="4368" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Giralda" title="Giralda">Giralda</a> of Seville, originally built by the Almohads, is a prime example of Andalusi architecture.</figcaption></figure><p>In Seville, Almohad rulers built the Great Mosque of Seville (later transformed into the <a href="/wiki/Seville_Cathedral" title="Seville Cathedral">Cathedral of Seville</a>), which consisted of a hypostyle prayer hall, a courtyard (now known as the <i>Patio de los Naranjos</i> or Court of Oranges), and a massive minaret tower now known as the <a href="/wiki/Giralda" title="Giralda">Giralda</a>. The minaret was later expanded after being converted into a bell tower for the current cathedral.<sup id="cite_ref-Bloom2020_155-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bloom2020-155"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 130–133">&#58;&#8202;130–133&#8202;</span></sup> Almohad architecture promoted new forms and decorative designs such as the <a href="/wiki/Multifoil_arch" title="Multifoil arch">multifoil arch</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sebka" title="Sebka">sebka</a> motif, probably influenced by the Caliphate-period architecture of Córdoba.<sup id="cite_ref-Marçais1954_161-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marçais1954-161"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 232–234, 257–258">&#58;&#8202;232–234,&#8202;257–258&#8202;</span></sup> </p><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Granada%27s_sunset.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Granada%27s_sunset.jpg/220px-Granada%27s_sunset.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Granada%27s_sunset.jpg/330px-Granada%27s_sunset.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Granada%27s_sunset.jpg/440px-Granada%27s_sunset.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Alhambra" title="Alhambra">Alhambra</a>, begun by the first Nasrid emir <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_I_of_Granada" title="Muhammad I of Granada">Ibn al-Ahmar</a> in the 13th century</figcaption></figure> <p>Artists and intellectuals took refuge at Granada after the Christian kingdoms expanded significantly in the 13th century. The palaces of the <a href="/wiki/Alhambra" title="Alhambra">Alhambra</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Generalife" title="Generalife">Generalife</a> in Granada reflect the culture and art of the last centuries of Muslim rule of Al-Andalus.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_162-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-162"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The complex was begun by Ibn al-Ahmar, the first Nasrid emir, and the last major additions were made during the reigns of <a href="/wiki/Yusuf_I_of_Granada" title="Yusuf I of Granada">Yusuf I</a> (1333–1353) and <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_V_of_Granada" title="Muhammad V of Granada">Muhammad V</a> (1353–1391).<sup id="cite_ref-Bloom2020_155-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bloom2020-155"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 152">&#58;&#8202;152&#8202;</span></sup> It integrates buildings and gardens with the natural qualities of the site and is a testament to Andalusi culture and to the skills of the Muslim artisans, craftsmen, and builders of their era. Nasrid architecture continued the earlier traditions of Andalusi architecture while also synthesizing them into its own distinctive style, which had many similarities with contemporary Marinid architecture in North Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-Arnold2017_163-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arnold2017-163"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 219, 224">&#58;&#8202;219,&#8202;224&#8202;</span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bloom2020_155-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bloom2020-155"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 149–168">&#58;&#8202;149–168&#8202;</span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 78–82">&#58;&#8202;78–82&#8202;</span></sup> It is characterized by the use of the <a href="/wiki/Courtyard" title="Courtyard">courtyard</a> as a central space and basic unit around which other halls and rooms were organized. Courtyards typically had water features at their centre, such as a <a href="/wiki/Reflecting_pool" title="Reflecting pool">reflective pool</a> or a fountain. Decoration was focused on the inside of buildings and was executed primarily with <a href="/wiki/Zellij" title="Zellij">tile mosaics</a> on lower walls and carved stucco on the upper walls. <a href="/wiki/Islamic_geometric_patterns" title="Islamic geometric patterns">Geometric patterns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabesque" title="Arabesque">vegetal motifs</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy" title="Islamic calligraphy">calligraphy</a> were the main types of decorative motifs. Additionally, "stalactite"-like sculpting, known as <a href="/wiki/Muqarnas" title="Muqarnas">muqarnas</a>, was used for three-dimensional features like <a href="/wiki/Vault_(architecture)" title="Vault (architecture)">vaulted</a> ceilings, particularly during the reign of Muhammad V and after.<sup id="cite_ref-BermúdezLópez2011_165-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BermúdezLópez2011-165"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bloom2020_155-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bloom2020-155"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 164–167">&#58;&#8202;164–167&#8202;</span></sup> </p><p>Even after Muslim territories were conquered by the Christian kingdoms, Andalusi art and architecture continued to appear for many centuries as a prestigious style under new Christian patrons employing Muslim craftsmen, originating the <a href="/wiki/Mozarabic_art_and_architecture" title="Mozarabic art and architecture">Mozarabic art</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Le%C3%B3n" title="Kingdom of León">Kingdom of Leon</a> during the 10th century and becoming what is known as the <a href="/wiki/Mud%C3%A9jar_art" title="Mudéjar art">Mudéjar style</a> (named after the <a href="/wiki/Mud%C3%A9jar" title="Mudéjar">Mudéjars</a> or Muslims under Christian rule). Numerous examples are found in the early churches of Toledo (e.g. the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_San_Rom%C3%A1n,_Toledo" title="Church of San Román, Toledo">Church of San Román</a>, 13th century) and in the cities of Aragon such as Zaragoza and <a href="/wiki/Teruel" title="Teruel">Teruel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Marçais1954_161-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marçais1954-161"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 361–368">&#58;&#8202;361–368&#8202;</span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Among the most famous examples is the <a href="/wiki/Alc%C3%A1zar_of_Seville" title="Alcázar of Seville">Alcázar of Seville</a>, the former Abbadid and Almohad palace redeveloped by Christian rulers such as Peter of Castile, who in 1364 started adding new Moorish-style sections with the help of Muslim craftsmen from Granada and Toledo.<sup id="cite_ref-Bloom2020_155-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bloom2020-155"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 171">&#58;&#8202;171&#8202;</span></sup> Some surviving 13th and 14th-century <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jewish</a> <a href="/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue">synagogues</a> were also built (or rebuilt) in Mudéjar style under Christian rule, such as the <a href="/wiki/Synagogue_of_Santa_Mar%C3%ADa_la_Blanca" title="Synagogue of Santa María la Blanca">Synagogue of Santa Maria la Blanca</a> in Toledo (rebuilt in its current form circa 1250),<sup id="cite_ref-Qantara2020a_167-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Qantara2020a-167"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba_Synagogue" title="Córdoba Synagogue">Synagogue of Córdoba</a> (1315),<sup id="cite_ref-Qantara2020b_168-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Qantara2020b-168"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Synagogue_of_El_Tr%C3%A1nsito" title="Synagogue of El Tránsito">Synagogue of El Tránsito</a> (1355–1357).<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p><br /> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Food_and_agriculture">Food and agriculture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Andalus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=24" title="Edit section: Food and agriculture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spread_sugarcane.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Spread_sugarcane.JPG/220px-Spread_sugarcane.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Spread_sugarcane.JPG/330px-Spread_sugarcane.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Spread_sugarcane.JPG/440px-Spread_sugarcane.JPG 2x" data-file-width="483" data-file-height="248" /></a><figcaption>The cultivation of sugarcane had reached the south of the Iberian Peninsula by the 16th century CE due to Arab conquest and administration of the region.</figcaption></figure><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Arab_Agricultural_Revolution" title="Arab Agricultural Revolution">Arab Agricultural Revolution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_cuisine" title="Mediterranean cuisine">Mediterranean cuisine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Qanat" title="Qanat">Qanat</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bananas_Muslim_world.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Bananas_Muslim_world.JPG/220px-Bananas_Muslim_world.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Bananas_Muslim_world.JPG/330px-Bananas_Muslim_world.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Bananas_Muslim_world.JPG/440px-Bananas_Muslim_world.JPG 2x" data-file-width="535" data-file-height="289" /></a><figcaption>Diffusion of bananas from India to the Iberian peninsula during Islamic rule.</figcaption></figure> <p>Crops produced using irrigation, along with food imported from the Middle East, provided areas around <i>Andalusī</i> cities with an agricultural economic sector that was the most advanced in Europe by far, sparking the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Agricultural_Revolution" title="Arab Agricultural Revolution">Arab Agricultural Revolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Squatriti_171-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Squatriti-171"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> A variety of foodstuffs, spices and crops were introduced to Spain and <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Sicily" class="mw-redirect" title="Emirate of Sicily">Sicily</a> during Arab rule, via the commercial networks of the Islamic world. These include sugarcane,<sup id="cite_ref-spanish-food.org_173-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spanish-food.org-173"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> rice,<sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> cotton, alfalfa, oranges,<sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> lemons,<sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> apricots,<sup id="cite_ref-177" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-177"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> spinach,<sup id="cite_ref-178" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-178"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> eggplants,<sup id="cite_ref-179" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-179"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> carrots,<sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Saffron" title="Saffron">saffron</a><sup id="cite_ref-181" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-181"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> and bananas.<sup id="cite_ref-182" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-182"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The Arabs also continued extensive cultivation and production of olive oil (the Spanish words for 'oil' and 'olive'—<i>aceite</i> and <i>aceituna</i>, respectively—are derived from the Arabic <i>al-zait</i>, meaning 'olive juice'),<sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> and pomegranates (the heraldic symbol of Granada) from classical <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman</a> times. </p><p>Arabic influence still lingers on in Spanish cuisine through these fruits, vegetables, spices and cooking and agricultural techniques.<sup id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-184"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-spanish-food.org_173-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spanish-food.org-173"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> One of the largest palm groves in the world, called the <a href="/wiki/Palmeral_of_Elche" title="Palmeral of Elche">Palmeral of Elche</a>, was established by the Arabs between the 7th–10th centuries to facilitate fruit (including pomegranate and date crops) and vegetable growth underneath the cool shade of palm trees and irrigation channels, and is cited by <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> as an example of the transfer of agricultural practices from one continent (North Africa) to another (Iberian Peninsula of Europe).<sup id="cite_ref-185" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-185"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>The period of Arab rule also involved the extension of Roman irrigation channels as well as the introduction of novel irrigation techniques from the <a href="/wiki/Persianate_society" title="Persianate society">Persianate</a> world, such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Acequia" title="Acequia">acequia</a></i> (deriving from the classical Arabic <i>as-sāqiya</i>) – subterranean channels used to transport water from highland aquifers to lowland fields in arid environments –first originating in either the Arabian Peninsula or the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Persian Empire</a> (referred to as <i>qanat</i> or <i>karez</i> in the Middle East). These structures are still found in Andalusia province, particularly in Granada.<sup id="cite_ref-McKenzie2017_186-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McKenzie2017-186"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>The confection <i><a href="/wiki/Alfajor" title="Alfajor">alfajor</a></i> (supposedly from <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">الفاخر</span></span>) has its origins in al-Andalus.<sup id="cite_ref-Krondl2011_187-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Krondl2011-187"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Homosexuality_and_pederasty">Homosexuality and pederasty</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Andalus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=25" title="Edit section: Homosexuality and pederasty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Homosexuality" title="Encyclopedia of Homosexuality">Encyclopedia of Homosexuality</a></i> states that "Al-Andalus had many links to Hellenistic culture, and except for the Almoravid and Almohadic periods (1086–1212), it was hedonistic and tolerant of homosexuality, indeed one of the times in world history in which sensuality of all sorts has been most openly enjoyed. Important rulers such as Abd al-Rahman III, al-Hakam II, Hisham II, and al-Mu-tamid openly chose boys as sexual partners, and kept <a href="/wiki/Catamites" class="mw-redirect" title="Catamites">catamites</a>. Homosexual prostitution was widespread, and its customers came from higher levels of society than those of heterosexual prostitutes." The verses of <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Quzman" title="Ibn Quzman">Ibn Quzman</a> describe an openly bisexual lifestyle.<sup id="cite_ref-188" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-188"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Andalusi anthologies of poetry such as the <i><a href="/wiki/R%C4%81y%C4%81t_al-mubarriz%C4%ABn_wa-gh%C4%81y%C4%81t_al-mumayyaz%C4%ABn" class="mw-redirect" title="Rāyāt al-mubarrizīn wa-ghāyāt al-mumayyazīn">Rāyāt al-mubarrizīn wa-ghāyāt al-mumayyazīn</a></i> are known in part for their homoerotic and "abundant pederastic poetry". Such themes were also found in the Sephardic Jewish poetry of the time.<sup id="cite_ref-189" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-189"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the book <i>Medieval Iberia: An Encyclopedia</i>, Daniel Eisenberg describes <a href="/wiki/Homosexuality" title="Homosexuality">homosexuality</a> as "a key symbolic issue throughout the Middle Ages in Iberia", stating that "in al-Andalus homosexual pleasures were much indulged in by the intellectual and political elite. Evidence includes the behaviour of rulers, such as Abd al-Rahmn III, Al-Hakam II, Hisham II, and Al Mu'tamid, who openly kept male harems; the memoirs of <a href="/wiki/Abdallah_ibn_Buluggin" title="Abdallah ibn Buluggin">Abdallah ibn Buluggin</a>, last Zirid king of Granada, makes references to male prostitutes, who charged higher fees and had a higher class of clientele than did their female counterparts: the repeated criticisms of Christians; and especially the abundant poetry. Both <a href="/wiki/Pederasty" title="Pederasty">pederasty</a> and love between adult males are found. Although homosexual practices were never officially condoned, prohibitions against them were rarely enforced, and usually there was not even a pretense of doing so." Male homosexual relations allowed nonprocreative sexual practices and were not seen as a form of identity. Very little is known about the homosexual behaviour of women.<sup id="cite_ref-GerliArmistead2003_190-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GerliArmistead2003-190"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slavery">Slavery</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Andalus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=26" title="Edit section: Slavery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Al-Andalus" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Al-Andalus">Slavery in Al-Andalus</a></div> <p>Slavery existed in Muslim al-Andalus as well as in the Christian kingdoms, and both sides of the religious border followed the custom of not enslaving people of their own religion. Consequently, Muslims were enslaved in Christian lands, while Christians and other non-Muslims were enslaved in al-Andalus.<sup id="cite_ref-Phillips2014_191-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Phillips2014-191"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Moors imported white Christian slaves from the 8th century until the end of the <a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a> in the late 15th century. The slaves were exported from the Christian section of Spain, as well as Eastern Europe (<i><a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a></i>). Saqaliba slavery in al-Andalus was especially prominent in the <a href="/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphate of Córdoba">Caliphate of Córdoba</a> where white slaves constituted most of the administrative personnel in the courts and palaces.<sup id="cite_ref-192" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-192"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>The slaves of the Caliph were often European <a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">saqaliba</a> slaves trafficked from Northern or Eastern Europe. While male saqaliba could be given work in a number of tasks, such as offices in the kitchen, falconry, mint, textile workshops, the administration or the royal guard (in the case of <a href="/wiki/Harem" title="Harem">harem</a> guards, they were castrated), female saqaliba were placed in the harem.<sup id="cite_ref-Scales1993_193-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scales1993-193"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>The harem could contain thousands of slave concubines; the harem of <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_I" title="Abd al-Rahman I">Abd al-Rahman I</a> consisted of 6,300 women.<sup id="cite_ref-Man1999_194-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Man1999-194"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> They were appreciated for their light skin.<sup id="cite_ref-Ruiz2007_195-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruiz2007-195"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The concubines (<a href="/wiki/Jawaris" class="mw-redirect" title="Jawaris">jawaris</a>) were educated in accomplishments to please their master, and many became known and respected for their knowledge in a variety of subjects from music to medicine.<sup id="cite_ref-Ruiz2007_195-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruiz2007-195"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Jawaris concubines who gave birth to a child attained the status of an <i><a href="/wiki/Umm_walad" class="mw-redirect" title="Umm walad">umm walad</a></i>, which meant that they could no longer be sold and were to be set free after the death of her master. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Andalus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=27" title="Edit section: Legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moorish_architecture" title="Moorish architecture">Moorish architecture</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_world_contributions_to_Medieval_Europe" title="Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe">Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe</a></div><p>As Andalusi cities were conquered by Leon, Castile, and other Christian Spanish kingdoms, Christian monarchs such as <a href="/wiki/Alfonso_X_of_Castile" title="Alfonso X of Castile">Alfonso X of Castile</a> started translating the mountainous libraries of al-Andalus into Latin. These libraries contained translations of Ancient Greek texts, as well as new ones made by Muslims in the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a>. That, combined with the interaction with Muslims during the <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a> introducing Greek scholars to the west, helped launch the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>&#93;</sup> Scientists and philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Al-Zahrawi" title="Al-Zahrawi">Al-Zahrawi</a> (fathers of rationalism and surgery, respectively) heavily inspired the Renaissance, and their ideas are still world renowned to this day.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>&#93;</sup> Al Andalus has also left art and architecture and has some of the best preserved <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a> architecture in the world, with examples including the <a href="/wiki/Mosque%E2%80%93Cathedral_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" title="Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba">Cathedral of Córdoba</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Alhambra" title="Alhambra">Alhambra</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Giralda" title="Giralda">Giralda</a> and many more.<sup id="cite_ref-196" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-196"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-197" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-197"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-198" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-198"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-199" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-199"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-200" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-200"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a result of the Reconquista and fall of many important Andalusi cities, substantial numbers of Andalusi migrated to the Maghreb where they found place at the courts of Maghrebi rulers. Many of the elite Andalusi immigrants were Arabs. For a variety of reasons, "Andalusi" came to be almost synonymous with "Arab" in the Maghreb.<sup id="cite_ref-201" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-201"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Andalus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=28" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gharb_Al-Andalus" class="mw-redirect" title="Gharb Al-Andalus">Gharb Al-Andalus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_diaspora" title="Arab diaspora">Arab diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Convivencia" class="mw-redirect" title="La Convivencia">La Convivencia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam" title="History of Islam">History of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_under_Muslim_rule" title="History of the Jews under Muslim rule">History of the Jews under Muslim rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_American_Muslims" title="Hispanic and Latino American Muslims">Hispanic and Latino Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_antisemitism#Iberian_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam and antisemitism">Islam and anti-Semitism in Iberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Spain" title="Islam in Spain">Islam in Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Portugal" title="Islam in Portugal">Islam in Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Moroccan_writers#List_of_Moorish_writers" title="List of Moroccan writers">List of Andalusi and Moroccan writers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moorish_Gibraltar" title="Moorish Gibraltar">Moorish Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Muslim conquests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kemal_Reis" title="Kemal Reis">Kemal Reis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_and_cultural_exchange_in_Al-Andalus" class="mw-redirect" title="Social and cultural exchange in Al-Andalus">Social and cultural exchange in Al-Andalus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Muslim_presence_in_the_Iberian_peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of the Muslim presence in the Iberian peninsula">Timeline of the Muslim presence in the Iberian peninsula</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History_2">History</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Andalus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=29" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1216972533">.mw-parser-output .col-begin{border-collapse:collapse;padding:0;color:inherit;width:100%;border:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .col-begin-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .col-break{vertical-align:top;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .col-break-2{width:50%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-3{width:33.3%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-4{width:25%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-5{width:20%}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .col-begin,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr>td{display:block!important;width:100%!important}.mw-parser-output .col-break{padding-left:0!important}}</style><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks vcard plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Spain" title="Category:History of Spain">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_Spain" title="History of Spain">History of <span class="fn org label">Spain</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Carte_historique_des_Royaumes_d%27Espagne_et_Portugal.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Carte_historique_des_Royaumes_d%27Espagne_et_Portugal.jpg/250px-Carte_historique_des_Royaumes_d%27Espagne_et_Portugal.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Carte_historique_des_Royaumes_d%27Espagne_et_Portugal.jpg/375px-Carte_historique_des_Royaumes_d%27Espagne_et_Portugal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Carte_historique_des_Royaumes_d%27Espagne_et_Portugal.jpg/500px-Carte_historique_des_Royaumes_d%27Espagne_et_Portugal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2795" data-file-height="2313" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#e3e3ff;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Spain#Prehistory" title="History of Spain">Prehistory</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Iberia" title="Prehistoric Iberia">Prehistoric Iberia</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#e3e3ff;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Spain#Early_history_of_the_Iberian_Peninsula" title="History of Spain">Early history</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_Pre-Roman_peoples_of_the_Iberian_Peninsula" title="List of the Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula">Pre-Roman peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthaginian_Iberia" title="Carthaginian Iberia">Carthaginian Spain</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(575–206 BCE)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#e3e3ff;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Hispania" title="Hispania">Roman Hispania</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_the_Iberian_Peninsula" title="Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula">Roman Conquest</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(206–27 BCE)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispania" title="Hispania">Hispania</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(218 BCE–472 CE)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Hispania" title="Romanization of Hispania">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Hispania" title="Diocese of Hispania">Diocese of Hispania</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#e3e3ff;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Spain_in_the_Middle_Ages#Early_medieval_Spain" title="Spain in the Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Suebi" title="Kingdom of the Suebi">Kingdom of the Suebi</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(409–585)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visigothic_Kingdom" title="Visigothic Kingdom">Kingdom of the Visigoths</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(418–721)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spania" title="Spania">Byzantine Spania</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(552–624)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#e3e3ff;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Spain_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Spain in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_conquest_of_Hispania" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad conquest of Hispania">Muslim conquest</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(711–716)</span></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Al-Andalus</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(711–1492)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista"><i>Reconquista</i></a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(711–1492)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spain_in_the_Middle_Ages#Medieval_Christian_Spain" title="Spain in the Middle Ages">Christian kingdoms</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(718–1479)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#e3e3ff;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Spain#Early_Modern_Spain" title="History of Spain">Early modern period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Monarchs_of_Spain" title="Catholic Monarchs of Spain">Catholic Monarchs</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1479–1516)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granada_War" title="Granada War">Granada War</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1482–1492)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">Colonisation of the Americas</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1492–1898)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Spain" title="Habsburg Spain">Habsburgs</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1516–1700)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Golden_Age" title="Spanish Golden Age">Golden Age</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1556–1659)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iberian_Union" title="Iberian Union">Iberian Union</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1580–1640)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Spain_(1700%E2%80%931810)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Spain (1700–1810)">Bourbons</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1700–1808)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1701–1714)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nueva_Planta_decrees" title="Nueva Planta decrees">Nueva Planta Decrees</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1707–1716)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#e3e3ff;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Peninsular_War" title="Peninsular War">Peninsular War</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abdications_of_Bayonne" title="Abdications of Bayonne">Abdications of Bayonne</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1808)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spain_under_Joseph_Bonaparte" title="Spain under Joseph Bonaparte">Napoleonic Spain</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1808–1813)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cortes_of_C%C3%A1diz" title="Cortes of Cádiz">Cortes of Cádiz</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1810–1814)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Constitution_of_1812" title="Spanish Constitution of 1812">Constitution of Cádiz</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1812)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Valen%C3%A7ay" title="Treaty of Valençay">Treaty of Valençay</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1813)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#e3e3ff;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_VII#Restoration" title="Ferdinand VII">Absolutist restoration</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Spain_(1810%E2%80%931873)#Reaction_(1814–1820)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Spain (1810–1873)">Sexenio Absolutista</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1814–1820)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Trienio_Liberal" title="Trienio Liberal">Trienio Liberal</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1820–1823)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ominous_Decade" title="Ominous Decade">Ominous Decade</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1823–1833)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#e3e3ff;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Reign_of_Isabella_II_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Reign of Isabella II of Spain">Reign of Isabella II</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regencies_on_behalf_of_Isabella_II_of_Spain#The_regency_of_Maria_Christina" class="mw-redirect" title="Regencies on behalf of Isabella II of Spain">Regency of María Cristina</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1833–1840)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Carlist_War" title="First Carlist War">First Carlist War</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1833–1840)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regencies_on_behalf_of_Isabella_II_of_Spain#The_regency_of_Espartero" class="mw-redirect" title="Regencies on behalf of Isabella II of Spain">Regency of Espartero</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1840–1843)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9cada_moderada" title="Década moderada">Década moderada</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1844–1854)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Carlist_War" title="Second Carlist War">Second Carlist War</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1846–1849)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bienio_progresista" title="Bienio progresista">Bienio progresista</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1854–1856)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution_(Spain)" title="Glorious Revolution (Spain)">Glorious Revolution</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1868)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#e3e3ff;;color: var(--color-base)"><i><a href="/wiki/Sexenio_Democr%C3%A1tico" title="Sexenio Democrático">Sexenio Democrático</a></i></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_(1868%E2%80%931871)" title="Provisional Government (1868–1871)">Provisional Government</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1868–1871)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amadeo_I_of_Spain#King_of_Spain" title="Amadeo I of Spain">Reign of Amadeo I</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1870–1873)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Carlist_War" title="Third Carlist War">Third Carlist War</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1872–1876)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Spanish_Republic" title="First Spanish Republic">First Republic</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1873–1874)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#e3e3ff;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Restoration_(Spain)" title="Restoration (Spain)">Restoration Spain</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reign_of_Alfonso_XII" title="Reign of Alfonso XII">Reign of Alfonso XII</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1874–1885)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regency_of_Maria_Christina_of_Austria" title="Regency of Maria Christina of Austria">Regency of María Cristina</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1885–1902)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reign_of_Alfonso_XIII" title="Reign of Alfonso XIII">Reign of Alfonso XIII</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1886–1931)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1898)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spain_during_World_War_I" title="Spain during World War I">Spain during World War I</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1914–1918)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rif_War" title="Rif War">Rif War</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(–1927)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship_of_Primo_de_Rivera" title="Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera">Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1923–1930)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictablanda_of_D%C3%A1maso_Berenguer" title="Dictablanda of Dámaso Berenguer"><i>Dictablanda</i> of Dámaso Berenguer</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1930–1931)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#e3e3ff;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Second_Spanish_Republic" title="Second Spanish Republic">Second Republic</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_Second_Spanish_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the Second Spanish Republic">Provisional Government</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1931)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Biennium" title="First Biennium">First Biennium</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1931–1933)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Background_of_the_Spanish_Civil_War#The_&quot;black_biennium&quot;" title="Background of the Spanish Civil War">Second Biennium</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1933–1936)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution_of_1934" title="Revolution of 1934">Revolution and Asturian miners' strike</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1934)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1936_Spanish_general_election" title="1936 Spanish general election">1936 general election</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1936)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_coup_of_July_1936" title="Spanish coup of July 1936">1936 coup d'état</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1936)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Civil War</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1936–1939)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Final_offensive_of_the_Spanish_Civil_War" title="Final offensive of the Spanish Civil War">Nationalist victory</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1939)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#e3e3ff;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Francoist_Spain" title="Francoist Spain">Francoist Spain</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spain_during_World_War_II" title="Spain during World War II">Spain during World War II</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1939–1945)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_Division" title="Blue Division">Blue Division</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1941–1944)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Maquis" title="Spanish Maquis">Spanish Maquis</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1939–1965)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Republican_government_in_exile" title="Spanish Republican government in exile">Republican exile</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1939–1977)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_conflict" title="Basque conflict">Basque conflict</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1959–2011)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#e3e3ff;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Spain_(1975%E2%80%93present)" title="History of Spain (1975–present)">Contemporary history</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_transition_to_democracy" title="Spanish transition to democracy">Transition to democracy</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1975–1978)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Spain" title="Constitution of Spain">Current constitution</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1978)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1981_Spanish_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempt" class="mw-redirect" title="1981 Spanish coup d&#39;état attempt">1981 coup d'état attempt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2004_Madrid_train_bombings" title="2004 Madrid train bombings">Madrid train bombings</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2004)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008%E2%80%932014_Spanish_financial_crisis" title="2008–2014 Spanish financial crisis">2008–2014 financial crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_Barcelona_attacks" title="2017 Barcelona attacks">2017 Barcelona attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalan_declaration_of_independence" title="Catalan declaration of independence">Catalan declaration of independence</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2017)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Spain" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Spain">COVID-19 pandemic</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2020–2022)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#e3e3ff;;color: var(--color-base)">Topic</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Spain" title="Economic history of Spain">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Spain#History" title="Law enforcement in Spain">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_history_in_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT history in Spain">LGBT history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Spain" title="Military history of Spain">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Spain#History" title="Religion in Spain">Religious history</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em; border-top:#aaa 1px solid;"> <b><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Spanish_history" title="Timeline of Spanish history">Timeline</a></b></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><i><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/16px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/24px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/32px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Spain" title="Portal:Spain">Spain&#32;portal</a></i></li><li><i><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/16px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/24px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/32px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History&#32;portal</a></i></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Spain" title="Template:History of Spain"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Spain" title="Template talk:History of Spain"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Spain" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Spain"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td class="col-break"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks vcard plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Portugal" title="Category:History of Portugal">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_Portugal" title="History of Portugal">History of <span class="fn org label">Portugal</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Royal_Arms_of_Portugal.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Royal_Arms_of_Portugal.svg/80px-Royal_Arms_of_Portugal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Royal_Arms_of_Portugal.svg/120px-Royal_Arms_of_Portugal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Royal_Arms_of_Portugal.svg/160px-Royal_Arms_of_Portugal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="580" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Portugal" title="Ancient Portugal">Ancient</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Iberia" title="Prehistoric Iberia">Prehistoric Iberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Roman_peoples_of_the_Iberian_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula">Pre-Roman Peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_Hispania" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman conquest of Hispania">Roman conquest of Hispania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Hispania" title="Romanization of Hispania">Romanization of Hispania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusitania" title="Lusitania">Lusitania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallaecia" title="Gallaecia">Gallaecia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Suebi" title="Kingdom of the Suebi">Suebic Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visigothic_Kingdom" title="Visigothic Kingdom">Visigothic Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spania" title="Spania">Spania</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Portugal_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Portugal in the Middle Ages">Medieval</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_conquest_of_Hispania" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad conquest of Hispania">Umayyad conquest of Hispania</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Al-Andalus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gharb_Al-Andalus" class="mw-redirect" title="Gharb Al-Andalus">Gharb Al-Andalus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Portugal" title="County of Portugal">County of Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portugal_in_the_Reconquista" title="Portugal in the Reconquista">Reconquista</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_House_of_Burgundy" title="Portuguese House of Burgundy">Portuguese House of Burgundy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1383%E2%80%931385_Crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="1383–1385 Crisis">1383–1385 Crisis</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Portugal#Naval_exploration_and_Portuguese_Empire_(15th–16th_centuries)" title="History of Portugal">Age of Discovery</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Portugal_(1415%E2%80%931578)" title="History of Portugal (1415–1578)">Imperial expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Aviz" title="House of Aviz">House of Aviz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Renaissance" title="Portuguese Renaissance">Portuguese Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Portuguese_Succession" title="War of the Portuguese Succession">War of the Portuguese Succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iberian_Union" title="Iberian Union">Iberian Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch-Portuguese_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch-Portuguese War">Dutch-Portuguese War</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Portugal_(1640%E2%80%931777)" title="History of Portugal (1640–1777)">Bragantine</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Restoration_War" title="Portuguese Restoration War">Restoration War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Braganza" title="House of Braganza">House of Braganza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1755_Lisbon_earthquake" title="1755 Lisbon earthquake">Great Lisbon earthquake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Portugal_(1777%E2%80%931834)" title="History of Portugal (1777–1834)">Imperial decline, war, and revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfer_of_the_Portuguese_Court_to_Brazil" class="mw-redirect" title="Transfer of the Portuguese Court to Brazil">Transfer of Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Wars" title="Liberal Wars">Liberal Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Portugal_(1834%E2%80%931910)" title="History of Portugal (1834–1910)">Constitutional Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/5_October_1910_revolution" title="5 October 1910 revolution">1910 Revolution</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Portugal#The_First_Republic_(1910–1926)" title="History of Portugal">First Republic</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Portuguese_Republic" title="First Portuguese Republic">First Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_the_North" title="Monarchy of the North">Monarchy of the North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portugal_during_World_War_I" title="Portugal during World War I">Portugal during World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/28_May_1926_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="28 May 1926 coup d&#39;état">1926 coup d'état</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Portugal#Estado_Novo_(1933–1974)" title="History of Portugal">Second Republic</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ditadura_Nacional" title="Ditadura Nacional">Ditadura Nacional</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portugal_during_World_War_II" title="Portugal during World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Estado_Novo_(Portugal)" title="Estado Novo (Portugal)">Estado Novo</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Colonial_War" title="Portuguese Colonial War">Portuguese Colonial War</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Portugal#The_Third_Republic_(1974–)" title="History of Portugal">Third Republic</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carnation_Revolution" title="Carnation Revolution">Carnation Revolution</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Processo_Revolucion%C3%A1rio_Em_Curso" class="mw-redirect" title="Processo Revolucionário Em Curso">Processo Revolucionário Em Curso</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_transition_to_democracy" title="Portuguese transition to democracy">Transition to democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Portuguese_Republic" title="Third Portuguese Republic">Third Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2010%E2%80%932014_Portuguese_financial_crisis" title="2010–2014 Portuguese financial crisis">Financial crisis</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2010–2014)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Portugal" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Portugal">COVID-19 pandemic</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2020–2022)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Portugal" title="History of Portugal">Topic</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/Category:Archives_in_Portugal" title="Category:Archives in Portugal">Archives</a> - <a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Portugal" title="Economic history of Portugal">Economy</a> - <a href="/wiki/History_of_Portuguese" title="History of Portuguese">Language</a> - <a href="/wiki/LGBT_history_in_Portugal" title="LGBT history in Portugal">LGBT</a> - <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Portugal" title="History of the Jews in Portugal">Judaism</a> - <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Portugal" title="Military history of Portugal">Military</a> - <a href="/wiki/Music_history_of_Portugal" title="Music history of Portugal">Music</a></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_Regions_of_Portugal" title="Autonomous Regions of Portugal">Regions</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Azores" title="History of the Azores">Azorean history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Madeira" title="History of Madeira">Madeiran history</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Portuguese_history" title="Timeline of Portuguese history">Timeline</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #ccc; border-bottom:1px solid #ccc"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/16px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/24px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/32px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Portugal" title="Portal:Portugal">Portugal&#32;portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Portugal" title="Template:History of Portugal"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Portugal" title="Template talk:History of Portugal"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Portugal" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Portugal"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td class="col-break"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile vcard"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Gibraltar" title="Category:History of Gibraltar">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_Gibraltar" title="History of Gibraltar">History of <span class="fn org label">Gibraltar</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Arms_of_Gibraltar.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coat of arms of Gibraltar"><img alt="Coat of arms of Gibraltar" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Arms_of_Gibraltar.svg/50px-Arms_of_Gibraltar.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Arms_of_Gibraltar.svg/75px-Arms_of_Gibraltar.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Arms_of_Gibraltar.svg/100px-Arms_of_Gibraltar.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="511" data-file-height="609" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Gibraltar#Prehistory_and_ancient_history" title="History of Gibraltar">Prehistory</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Iberia" title="Prehistoric Iberia">Prehistoric Iberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neanderthals_of_Gibraltar" class="mw-redirect" title="Neanderthals of Gibraltar">Neanderthals of Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gibraltar_1" title="Gibraltar 1">Gibraltar 1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gibraltar_2" title="Gibraltar 2">Gibraltar 2</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Gibraltar#Muslim_rule_(711–1309,_1333–1462)" title="History of Gibraltar">Medieval</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_conquest_of_Hispania" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad conquest of Hispania">Umayyad conquest of Hispania</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Al-Andalus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moorish_Gibraltar" title="Moorish Gibraltar">Moorish Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Siege_of_Gibraltar" class="mw-redirect" title="First Siege of Gibraltar">First Siege of Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Siege_of_Gibraltar" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Siege of Gibraltar">Second Siege of Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Siege_of_Gibraltar" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Siege of Gibraltar">Third Siege of Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Siege_of_Gibraltar" class="mw-redirect" title="Fourth Siege of Gibraltar">Fourth Siege of Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Siege_of_Gibraltar" class="mw-redirect" title="Fifth Siege of Gibraltar">Fifth Siege of Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Siege_of_Gibraltar" class="mw-redirect" title="Sixth Siege of Gibraltar">Sixth Siege of Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventh_Siege_of_Gibraltar" class="mw-redirect" title="Seventh Siege of Gibraltar">Seventh Siege of Gibraltar</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Gibraltar#Castilian_and_Spanish_rule_(1462–1704)" title="History of Gibraltar">Early modern</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eighth_Siege_of_Gibraltar" class="mw-redirect" title="Eighth Siege of Gibraltar">Eighth Siege of Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ninth_Siege_of_Gibraltar" class="mw-redirect" title="Ninth Siege of Gibraltar">Ninth Siege of Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenth_Siege_of_Gibraltar" class="mw-redirect" title="Tenth Siege of Gibraltar">Tenth Siege of Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Monarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Monarchs">Catholic Monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquisate_of_Gibraltar" title="Marquisate of Gibraltar">Marquisate of Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Gibraltar" title="Capture of Gibraltar">Capture of Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Siege_of_Gibraltar" class="mw-redirect" title="Twelfth Siege of Gibraltar">Twelfth Siege of Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Utrecht" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Utrecht">Treaty of Utrecht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Siege_of_Gibraltar" class="mw-redirect" title="Thirteenth Siege of Gibraltar">Thirteenth Siege of Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Siege_of_Gibraltar" title="Great Siege of Gibraltar">Great Siege of Gibraltar</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Gibraltar#The_19th_century" title="History of Gibraltar">19th century</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Calpe_Hunt" title="Royal Calpe Hunt">Royal Calpe Hunt</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Gibraltar#The_20th_century" title="History of Gibraltar">20th century</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Gibraltar_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Gibraltar during World War II">Military history of Gibraltar during World War II</a></div></li> <li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Evacuation_of_the_Gibraltarian_civilian_population_during_World_War_II" title="Evacuation of the Gibraltarian civilian population during World War II">Evacuation of the Gibraltarian civilian population <span class="nowrap">during World War II</span></a></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Felix" title="Operation Felix">Operation Felix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1967_Gibraltar_sovereignty_referendum" title="1967 Gibraltar sovereignty referendum">First sovereignty referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gibraltar_Constitution_Order_1969" title="Gibraltar Constitution Order 1969">First constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Closure_of_the_Gibraltar-Spain_border&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Closure of the Gibraltar-Spain border (page does not exist)">Border closure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Flavius" title="Operation Flavius">Operation Flavius</a>/<a href="/wiki/Death_on_the_Rock" title="Death on the Rock">Death on the Rock</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Gibraltar#Modern_Gibraltar" title="History of Gibraltar">Modern Gibraltar</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2002_Gibraltar_sovereignty_referendum" title="2002 Gibraltar sovereignty referendum">Second sovereignty referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cordoba_Agreement,_2006" title="Cordoba Agreement, 2006">Cordoba Agreement, 2006</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gibraltar_Constitution_Order_2006" title="Gibraltar Constitution Order 2006">Second constitution</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">See also</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nationality_in_Gibraltar" title="History of nationality in Gibraltar">History of nationality in Gibraltar</a></li> <li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Political_development_in_modern_Gibraltar" title="Political development in modern Gibraltar">Political development in <span class="nowrap">modern Gibraltar</span></a></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortifications_of_Gibraltar" title="Fortifications of Gibraltar">Fortifications of Gibraltar</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-top:#aaa 1px solid"> <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_history_of_Gibraltar" title="Timeline of the history of Gibraltar">Timeline</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Flag_of_Gibraltar.svg/16px-Flag_of_Gibraltar.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Flag_of_Gibraltar.svg/24px-Flag_of_Gibraltar.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Flag_of_Gibraltar.svg/32px-Flag_of_Gibraltar.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Gibraltar" title="Portal:Gibraltar">Gibraltar&#32;portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Gibraltar" title="Template:History of Gibraltar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Gibraltar" title="Template talk:History of Gibraltar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Gibraltar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Gibraltar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>&#32; </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Andalus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=30" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Translations: <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <span lang="ar" dir="rtl">الأنْدَلُس</span> <a href="/wiki/DIN_31635" title="DIN 31635">translit.</a> <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn"><i>al-'Andalus</i></i></span>; <a href="/wiki/Aragonese_language" title="Aragonese language">Aragonese</a>: <i lang="an">al-Andalus</i>; <a href="/wiki/Asturian_language" title="Asturian language">Asturian</a>: <i lang="ast">al-Ándalus</i>; <a href="/wiki/Basque_language" title="Basque language">Basque</a>: <i lang="eu">al-Andalus</i>; <a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber</a>: <span lang="ber">ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵍⵓⵙ</span>, <small>romanized:&#160;</small><span title="Berber languages romanization"><i lang="ber-Latn">Andalus</i></span>; <a href="/wiki/Catalan_language" title="Catalan language">Catalan</a>: <i lang="ca">al-Àndalus</i>; <a href="/wiki/Galician_language" title="Galician language">Galician</a>: <i lang="gl">al-Andalus</i>; <a href="/wiki/Occitan_language" title="Occitan language">Occitan</a>: <i lang="oc">Al Andalús</i>; <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a>: <i lang="pt">al-Ândalus</i>; <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>: <i lang="es">al-Ándalus</i>. Also known in English, perhaps in a slightly dated or quaint sense, as <b>Moorish Spain</b>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Andalus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=31" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-árabesmedievales-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-árabesmedievales_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-árabesmedievales_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"Para los autores árabes medievales, el término Al-Andalus designa la totalidad de las zonas conquistadas&#160;– siquiera temporalmente&#160;– por tropas arabo-musulmanas en territorios actualmente pertenecientes a Portugal, España y Francia" ("For medieval Arab authors, Al-Andalus designated all the conquered areas&#160;– even temporarily&#160;– by Arab-Muslim troops in territories now belonging to Spain, Portugal and France"), <a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_%C3%81ngel_Garc%C3%ADa_de_Cort%C3%A1zar" class="extiw" title="es:José Ángel García de Cortázar">García de Cortázar, José Ángel</a>. <i>V Semana de Estudios Medievales: Nájera, 1 al 5 de agosto de 1994</i>, Gobierno de La Rioja, Instituto de Estudios Riojanos, 1995, p. 52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ruano(Spain)2002-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ruano(Spain)2002_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ruano(Spain)2002_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBenito_Ruano,_Eloy2002" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-interwiki-linked-name"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eloy_Benito_Ruano" class="extiw" title="es:Eloy Benito Ruano">Benito Ruano, Eloy</a> <span class="cs1-format">[in Spanish]</span> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xX35wGGJaaIC"><i>Tópicos y realidades de la Edad Media</i></a>. Real Academia de la Historia. p.&#160;79. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-95983-06-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-84-95983-06-0"><bdi>978-84-95983-06-0</bdi></a>. <q>Los arabes y musulmanes de la Edad Media aplicaron el nombre de Al-Andalus a todas aquellas tierras que habian formado parte del reino visigodo: la Peninsula Ibérica y la Septimania ultrapirenaica. ("The Arabs and Muslims from the Middle Ages used the name of al-Andalus for all those lands that were formerly part of the Visigothic kingdom: the Iberian Peninsula and Septimania")</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=T%C3%B3picos+y+realidades+de+la+Edad+Media&amp;rft.pages=79&amp;rft.pub=Real+Academia+de+la+Historia&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.isbn=978-84-95983-06-0&amp;rft.au=Benito+Ruano%2C+Eloy&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxX35wGGJaaIC&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-IrvinSunquist2002-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-IrvinSunquist2002_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIrvinSunquist2002" class="citation book cs1">Irvin, Dale T.; Sunquist, Scott (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=C2akvQfa-QMC&amp;pg=PA30"><i>History of the World Christian Movement: Volume 1: Earliest Christianity To 1453</i></a>. A&amp;C Black. p.&#160;30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-567-08866-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-567-08866-6"><bdi>978-0-567-08866-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=History+of+the+World+Christian+Movement%3A+Volume+1%3A+Earliest+Christianity+To+1453&amp;rft.pages=30&amp;rft.pub=A%26C+Black&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-567-08866-6&amp;rft.aulast=Irvin&amp;rft.aufirst=Dale+T.&amp;rft.au=Sunquist%2C+Scott&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DC2akvQfa-QMC%26pg%3DPA30&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FrydeReitz2009-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FrydeReitz2009_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuis_Corral,_Fernando2009" class="citation book cs1">Luis Corral, Fernando (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X9_moud2DyQC&amp;pg=PA67">"The Christian Frontier against al-Andalus (Muslim Spain): concept and politics during the reigns of King Fernando I of Castile and Leon and his successors until 1230"</a>. In Natalie Fryde; Dirk Reitz (eds.). <i>Walls, Ramparts, and Lines of Demarcation: Selected Studies from Antiquity to Modern Times</i>. LIT Verlag Münster. p.&#160;67. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-8258-9478-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-8258-9478-8"><bdi>978-3-8258-9478-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=The+Christian+Frontier+against+al-Andalus+%28Muslim+Spain%29%3A+concept+and+politics+during+the+reigns+of+King+Fernando+I+of+Castile+and+Leon+and+his+successors+until+1230&amp;rft.btitle=Walls%2C+Ramparts%2C+and+Lines+of+Demarcation%3A+Selected+Studies+from+Antiquity+to+Modern+Times&amp;rft.pages=67&amp;rft.pub=LIT+Verlag+M%C3%BCnster&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.isbn=978-3-8258-9478-8&amp;rft.au=Luis+Corral%2C+Fernando&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DX9_moud2DyQC%26pg%3DPA67&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-García-Fitz2010-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-García-Fitz2010_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarcía_Fitz2010" class="citation book cs1">García Fitz, Francisco (2010). Rogers, Clifford J.; Caferro, William; Reid, Shelley (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mzwpq6bLHhMC&amp;pg=RA1-PA325"><i>The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology</i></a>. Oxford University Press. pp.&#160;325–326. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-533403-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-533403-6"><bdi>978-0-19-533403-6</bdi></a>. <q>Barely eight years after the initial crossing of the Straits of Gibraltar, the Muslims had come to dominate almost the entire Peninsula with the exception of a few northern mountainous regions along Cantabrian and Pyrenean ranges. In these areas, indigenous populations, including the Asturians, Cantabrians, and Basques, who had been brought under Visigothic control, were able to escape Islamic domination.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Encyclopedia+of+Medieval+Warfare+and+Military+Technology&amp;rft.pages=325-326&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-19-533403-6&amp;rft.aulast=Garc%C3%ADa+Fitz&amp;rft.aufirst=Francisco&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dmzwpq6bLHhMC%26pg%3DRA1-PA325&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRíos_Saloma2011" class="citation book cs1">Ríos Saloma, Martín Federico (2011). <i>La Reconquista: una construcción historiográfica (siglos XVI-XIX)</i>. Marcial Pons Historia. México Madrid: Universidad nacional autónoma de México, Instituto de inversigaciones históricas M. Pons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-92820-47-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-84-92820-47-4"><bdi>978-84-92820-47-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=La+Reconquista%3A+una+construcci%C3%B3n+historiogr%C3%A1fica+%28siglos+XVI-XIX%29&amp;rft.place=M%C3%A9xico+Madrid&amp;rft.series=Marcial+Pons+Historia&amp;rft.pub=Universidad+nacional+aut%C3%B3noma+de+M%C3%A9xico%2C+Instituto+de+inversigaciones+hist%C3%B3ricas+M.+Pons&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.isbn=978-84-92820-47-4&amp;rft.aulast=R%C3%ADos+Saloma&amp;rft.aufirst=Mart%C3%ADn+Federico&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarcía_Sanjuán2020" class="citation journal cs1">García Sanjuán, Alejandro (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hdl.handle.net/10459.1/69327">"Weaponizing Historical Knowledge: the Notion of Reconquista in Spanish Nationalism"</a>. <i>Imago Temporis: Medium Aevum</i>. <b>XIV</b>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.21001%2Fitma.2020.14.04">10.21001/itma.2020.14.04</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10272%2F19498">10272/19498</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1888-3931">1888-3931</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:226491379">226491379</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Imago+Temporis%3A+Medium+Aevum&amp;rft.atitle=Weaponizing+Historical+Knowledge%3A+the+Notion+of+Reconquista+in+Spanish+Nationalism&amp;rft.volume=XIV&amp;rft.date=2020&amp;rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10272%2F19498&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A226491379%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.issn=1888-3931&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.21001%2Fitma.2020.14.04&amp;rft.aulast=Garc%C3%ADa+Sanju%C3%A1n&amp;rft.aufirst=Alejandro&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhdl.handle.net%2F10459.1%2F69327&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oxford-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEsposito,_John_L.2003" class="citation book cs1">Esposito, John L. (2003). <a href="/wiki/The_Oxford_Dictionary_of_Islam" title="The Oxford Dictionary of Islam"><i>The Oxford Dictionary of Islam</i></a>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facref%2F9780195125580.001.0001">10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0195125584" title="Special:BookSources/0195125584"><bdi>0195125584</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/50280143">50280143</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+Islam&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F50280143&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780195125580.001.0001&amp;rft.isbn=0195125584&amp;rft.au=Esposito%2C+John+L.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-rediscScience-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-rediscScience_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rediscScience_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCovington2007" class="citation journal cs1">Covington, Richard (2007). Arndt, Robert (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.aramcoworld.com/issue/200703/rediscovering.arabic.science.htm">"Rediscovering Arabic Science"</a>. <i>Saudi Aramco World</i>. <b>58</b> (3). Aramco Services Company: 2–16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Saudi+Aramco+World&amp;rft.atitle=Rediscovering+Arabic+Science&amp;rft.volume=58&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=2-16&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.aulast=Covington&amp;rft.aufirst=Richard&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.aramcoworld.com%2Fissue%2F200703%2Frediscovering.arabic.science.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PanzramCallegarin2018-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PanzramCallegarin2018_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPanzram,_SabineLaurent_Callegarin2018" class="citation book cs1">Panzram, Sabine; Laurent Callegarin (November 22, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HsZ6DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA145"><i>Entre civitas y madina: El mundo de las ciudades en la península ibérica y en el norte de África (siglos IV-IX)</i></a>. Casa de Velázquez. p.&#160;145. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-9096-227-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-84-9096-227-5"><bdi>978-84-9096-227-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Entre+civitas+y+madina%3A+El+mundo+de+las+ciudades+en+la+pen%C3%ADnsula+ib%C3%A9rica+y+en+el+norte+de+%C3%81frica+%28siglos+IV-IX%29&amp;rft.pages=145&amp;rft.pub=Casa+de+Vel%C3%A1zquez&amp;rft.date=2018-11-22&amp;rft.isbn=978-84-9096-227-5&amp;rft.au=Panzram%2C+Sabine&amp;rft.au=Laurent+Callegarin&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHsZ6DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA145&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MMOA-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MMOA_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFL._Bates,_Michael1992" class="citation book cs1">L. Bates, Michael (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lLAryx8bC8UC&amp;pg=PA384">"The Islamic Coinage of Spain"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Jerrilynn_D._Dodds" class="mw-redirect" title="Jerrilynn D. Dodds">Jerrilynn D. Dodds</a> (ed.). <i>Al-Andalus: The Art of Islamic Spain</i>. Metropolitan Museum of Art. p.&#160;384. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87099-636-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87099-636-8"><bdi>978-0-87099-636-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=The+Islamic+Coinage+of+Spain&amp;rft.btitle=Al-Andalus%3A+The+Art+of+Islamic+Spain&amp;rft.pages=384&amp;rft.pub=Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art&amp;rft.date=1992&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-87099-636-8&amp;rft.au=L.+Bates%2C+Michael&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlLAryx8bC8UC%26pg%3DPA384&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Glick2005-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Glick2005_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlick,_Thomas_F.2005" class="citation book cs1">Glick, Thomas F. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cWqmebvcjj0C&amp;pg=PR21"><i>Islamic And Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages</i></a>. BRILL. p.&#160;21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-14771-3" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-14771-3"><bdi>90-04-14771-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Islamic+And+Christian+Spain+in+the+Early+Middle+Ages&amp;rft.pages=21&amp;rft.pub=BRILL&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.isbn=90-04-14771-3&amp;rft.au=Glick%2C+Thomas+F.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcWqmebvcjj0C%26pg%3DPR21&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCantó2016" class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Cantó, Pablo (September 9, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://verne.elpais.com/verne/2016/09/09/articulo/1473434604_706233.html">"De dónde vienen los nombres de las Comunidades Autónomas españolas"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/El_Pa%C3%ADs" title="El País">El País</a></i> (in Spanish). <a href="/wiki/Prisa" class="mw-redirect" title="Prisa">Prisa</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 15,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=El+Pa%C3%ADs&amp;rft.atitle=De+d%C3%B3nde+vienen+los+nombres+de+las+Comunidades+Aut%C3%B3nomas+espa%C3%B1olas&amp;rft.date=2016-09-09&amp;rft.aulast=Cant%C3%B3&amp;rft.aufirst=Pablo&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fverne.elpais.com%2Fverne%2F2016%2F09%2F09%2Farticulo%2F1473434604_706233.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Vallvé1986-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Vallvé1986_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVallvé,_Joaquín1986" class="citation book cs1">Vallvé, Joaquín (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9p0cAAAAMAAJ"><i>La división territorial de la España musulmana</i></a>. Instituto de Filología. pp.&#160;55–59. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-00-06295-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-84-00-06295-8"><bdi>978-84-00-06295-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=La+divisi%C3%B3n+territorial+de+la+Espa%C3%B1a+musulmana&amp;rft.pages=55-59&amp;rft.pub=Instituto+de+Filolog%C3%ADa&amp;rft.date=1986&amp;rft.isbn=978-84-00-06295-8&amp;rft.au=Vallv%C3%A9%2C+Joaqu%C3%ADn&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9p0cAAAAMAAJ&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Halm1989-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Halm1989_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalm1989" class="citation journal cs1">Halm, Heinz (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/islm.1989.66.2.252/html">"Al-Andalus und Gothica Sors"</a>. <i>Der Islam</i>. <b>66</b> (2): 252–263. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fislm.1989.66.2.252">10.1515/islm.1989.66.2.252</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161971416">161971416</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Der+Islam&amp;rft.atitle=Al-Andalus+und+Gothica+Sors&amp;rft.volume=66&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=252-263&amp;rft.date=1989&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fislm.1989.66.2.252&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161971416%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.aulast=Halm&amp;rft.aufirst=Heinz&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.degruyter.com%2Fdocument%2Fdoi%2F10.1515%2Fislm.1989.66.2.252%2Fhtml&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bossong2002-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bossong2002_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBossong2002" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Bossong, Georg (2002). Restle, David; Zaefferer, Dietmar (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rose.uzh.ch/dam/jcr:ffffffff-c23e-37d9-0000-00001d0776dd/boss_bask_120.pdf">"Der Name al-Andalus: neue Überlegungen zu einem alten Problem"</a> &#91;The Name al-Andalus: Revisiting an Old Problem&#93; <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs</i>. Sounds and systems: studies in structure and change. (in German). <b>141</b>. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton: 149. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-089465-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-089465-3"><bdi>978-3-11-089465-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1861-4302">1861-4302</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080627064440/http://www.rose.unizh.ch/seminar/personen/bossong/boss_bask_120.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on June 27, 2008. <q>Only a few years after the Islamic conquest of Spain, <i>Al-Andalus</i> appears in coin inscriptions as the Arabic equivalent of <i>Hispania</i>. The traditionally held view that the etymology of this name has to do with the Vandals is shown to have no serious foundation. The phonetic, morphosyntactic, and historical problems connected with this etymology are too numerous. Moreover, the existence of this name in various parts of central and northern Spain proves that <i>Al-Andalus</i> cannot be derived from this <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic tribe</a>. It was the original name of the Punta Marroquí cape near Tarifa; very soon, it became generalized to designate the whole Peninsula. Undoubtedly, the name is of Pre-Indo-European origin. The parts of this compound (<i>anda</i> and <i>luz</i>) are frequent in the indigenous toponymy of the Iberian Peninsula.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Linguistics.+Studies+and+Monographs&amp;rft.atitle=Der+Name+al-Andalus%3A+neue+%C3%9Cberlegungen+zu+einem+alten+Problem&amp;rft.volume=141&amp;rft.pages=149&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.issn=1861-4302&amp;rft.isbn=978-3-11-089465-3&amp;rft.aulast=Bossong&amp;rft.aufirst=Georg&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rose.uzh.ch%2Fdam%2Fjcr%3Affffffff-c23e-37d9-0000-00001d0776dd%2Fboss_bask_120.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO&#39;Callaghan1983" class="citation book cs1">O'Callaghan, Joseph F. (October 31, 1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yA3p6v3UxyIC&amp;pg=PA142"><i>A History of Medieval Spain</i></a>. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. p.&#160;142. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0801468728" title="Special:BookSources/0801468728"><bdi>0801468728</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/907117391">907117391</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=A+History+of+Medieval+Spain&amp;rft.place=Ithaca&amp;rft.pages=142&amp;rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&amp;rft.date=1983-10-31&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F907117391&amp;rft.isbn=0801468728&amp;rft.aulast=O%27Callaghan&amp;rft.aufirst=Joseph+F.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyA3p6v3UxyIC%26pg%3DPA142&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Collins2012-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Collins2012_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoger_Collins2012" class="citation book cs1">Roger Collins (May 7, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AVBzo8Vak7sC&amp;pg=PA12"><i>Caliphs and Kings: Spain, 796–1031</i></a>. John Wiley &amp; Sons. pp.&#160;8–9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-18184-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-18184-2"><bdi>978-0-631-18184-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Caliphs+and+Kings%3A+Spain%2C+796%E2%80%931031&amp;rft.pages=8-9&amp;rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&amp;rft.date=2012-05-07&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-631-18184-2&amp;rft.au=Roger+Collins&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAVBzo8Vak7sC%26pg%3DPA12&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ṭāha2016-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ṭāha2016_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF&#39;Abdulwāhid_Dḥanūn_Ṭāha2016" class="citation book cs1">'Abdulwāhid Dḥanūn Ṭāha (July 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RCglDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA166">"Early Muslim Settlement in Spain: The Berber Tribes in Al-Andalus"</a>. <i>Routledge Library Editions: Muslim Spain</i>. Taylor &amp; Francis. pp.&#160;166–177. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-98576-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-98576-0"><bdi>978-1-134-98576-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Early+Muslim+Settlement+in+Spain%3A+The+Berber+Tribes+in+Al-Andalus&amp;rft.btitle=Routledge+Library+Editions%3A+Muslim+Spain&amp;rft.pages=166-177&amp;rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&amp;rft.date=2016-07&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-134-98576-0&amp;rft.au=%27Abdulw%C4%81hid+D%E1%B8%A5an%C5%ABn+%E1%B9%AC%C4%81ha&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRCglDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA166&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pérès2007-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pérès2007_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPérès2007" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Pérès, Henri (2007). "Balāṭ al-S̲h̲uhadāʾ". In Bearman, P.; Th. Bianquis, Th.; C.E. Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). <i>Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition</i>. pp.&#160;988–989. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_SIM_1135">10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_1135</a>. <q>Balāṭ al-S̲h̲uhadāʾ: an expression used by the Arab historians for the Battle of Poitiers, which was fought between Charles Martel, at the head of the Christian Frankish armies, and the governor of Muslim Spain ʿAbd al-Raḥmān b. ʿAbd Allāh al-Ghāfiḳī in Ramaḍān 114/October 732.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Bal%C4%81%E1%B9%AD+al-S%CC%B2h%CC%B2uhad%C4%81%CA%BE&amp;rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Islam%2C+Second+Edition&amp;rft.pages=988-989&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_SIM_1135&amp;rft.aulast=P%C3%A9r%C3%A8s&amp;rft.aufirst=Henri&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Specifically, 27,000 Arab troops were composed of 6,000 men from each of the four main <i>junds</i> of <a href="/wiki/Jund_Dimashq" title="Jund Dimashq">Jund Dimashq (Damascus)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jund_Hims" title="Jund Hims">Jund Hims (Homs)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jund_al-Urdunn" title="Jund al-Urdunn">Jund al-Urdunn (Jordan)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jund_Filastin" title="Jund Filastin">Jund Filastin (Filastin)</a>, plus 3,000 from <a href="/wiki/Jund_Qinnasrin" title="Jund Qinnasrin">Jund Qinnasrin</a>. An additional 3,000 were picked up in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>. See R. Dozy (1913) <i>Spanish Islam: A History of the Muslims in Spain</i> (translated by Francis Griffin Stokes from Dozy's original (1861) French <i>Histoire des Musulmans d'Espagne</i>, with consultation of the 1874 German version and the 1877 Spanish version) Chatto &amp; Windus, London, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AtQ7yAftTdQC&amp;pg=PA133">page 133</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Collins201212-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Collins201212_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoger_Collins2012" class="citation book cs1">Roger Collins (May 7, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AVBzo8Vak7sC&amp;pg=PA12"><i>Caliphs and Kings: Spain, 796–1031</i></a>. John Wiley &amp; Sons. p.&#160;12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-18184-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-18184-2"><bdi>978-0-631-18184-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Caliphs+and+Kings%3A+Spain%2C+796%E2%80%931031&amp;rft.pages=12&amp;rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&amp;rft.date=2012-05-07&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-631-18184-2&amp;rft.au=Roger+Collins&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAVBzo8Vak7sC%26pg%3DPA12&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Makki1992-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Makki1992_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMahmoud_Makki1992" class="citation book cs1">Mahmoud Makki (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cbfORLWv1HkC&amp;pg=PA12">"The Political History of Al-Andalus"</a>. In Salma Khadra Jayyusi; Manuela Marín (eds.). <i>The Legacy of Muslim Spain</i>. Brill. pp.&#160;12–13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-09599-3" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-09599-3"><bdi>90-04-09599-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=The+Political+History+of+Al-Andalus&amp;rft.btitle=The+Legacy+of+Muslim+Spain&amp;rft.pages=12-13&amp;rft.pub=Brill&amp;rft.date=1992&amp;rft.isbn=90-04-09599-3&amp;rft.au=Mahmoud+Makki&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcbfORLWv1HkC%26pg%3DPA12&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Levi-Provençal, (1950: p. 48); Kennedy (1996: p. 45).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco_Cardini&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Franco Cardini (page does not exist)">Cardini, Franco</a>. <i>Europe and Islam</i>, Wiley-Blackwell, 2001, p. 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Safran2013-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Safran2013_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSafran2013" class="citation book cs1">Safran, Janina M. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V45HDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA42"><i>Defining Boundaries in al-Andalus: Muslims, Christians, and Jews in Islamic Iberia</i></a>. Cornell University Press. p.&#160;42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-6801-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-6801-8"><bdi>978-0-8014-6801-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Defining+Boundaries+in+al-Andalus%3A+Muslims%2C+Christians%2C+and+Jews+in+Islamic+Iberia&amp;rft.pages=42&amp;rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-8014-6801-8&amp;rft.aulast=Safran&amp;rft.aufirst=Janina+M.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DV45HDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA42&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Flood2018-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Flood2018_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlood2018" class="citation book cs1">Flood, Timothy M. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Duh3DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA24"><i>Rulers and Realms in Medieval Iberia, 711–1492</i></a>. McFarland. p.&#160;24. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4766-7471-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4766-7471-1"><bdi>978-1-4766-7471-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Rulers+and+Realms+in+Medieval+Iberia%2C+711%E2%80%931492&amp;rft.pages=24&amp;rft.pub=McFarland&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-4766-7471-1&amp;rft.aulast=Flood&amp;rft.aufirst=Timothy+M.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDuh3DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA24&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kennedy201431-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kennedy201431_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy2014" class="citation book cs1">Kennedy, Hugh (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NFfJAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA31"><i>Muslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of al-Andalus</i></a>. Routledge. p.&#160;35. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-87041-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-87041-8"><bdi>978-1-317-87041-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Muslim+Spain+and+Portugal%3A+A+Political+History+of+al-Andalus&amp;rft.pages=35&amp;rft.pub=Routledge&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-317-87041-8&amp;rft.aulast=Kennedy&amp;rft.aufirst=Hugh&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNFfJAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA31&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WHistEnc2020-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WHistEnc2020_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHistEnc2020_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/Abd_al-Rahman_I/">"Abd al-Rahman I"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/World_History_Encyclopedia" title="World History Encyclopedia">World History Encyclopedia</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 14,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=World+History+Encyclopedia&amp;rft.atitle=Abd+al-Rahman+I&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldhistory.org%2FAbd_al-Rahman_I%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kennedy2014-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kennedy2014_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy2014" class="citation book cs1">Kennedy, Hugh (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NFfJAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA35"><i>Muslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of al-Andalus</i></a>. Routledge. p.&#160;35. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-87041-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-87041-8"><bdi>978-1-317-87041-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Muslim+Spain+and+Portugal%3A+A+Political+History+of+al-Andalus&amp;rft.pages=35&amp;rft.pub=Routledge&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-317-87041-8&amp;rft.aulast=Kennedy&amp;rft.aufirst=Hugh&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNFfJAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA35&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarrucandBednorz1992" class="citation book cs1">Barrucand, Marianne; Bednorz, Achim (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/moorisharchitect00mari/mode/2up"><i>Moorish architecture in Andalusia</i></a>. Taschen. pp.&#160;40 (and after). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3822896322" title="Special:BookSources/3822896322"><bdi>3822896322</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Moorish+architecture+in+Andalusia&amp;rft.pages=40+%28and+after%29&amp;rft.pub=Taschen&amp;rft.date=1992&amp;rft.isbn=3822896322&amp;rft.aulast=Barrucand&amp;rft.aufirst=Marianne&amp;rft.au=Bednorz%2C+Achim&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmoorisharchitect00mari%2Fmode%2F2up&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kennedy201459-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kennedy201459_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy2014" class="citation book cs1">Kennedy, Hugh (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NFfJAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA35"><i>Muslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of al-Andalus</i></a>. Routledge. pp.&#160;59–60. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-87041-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-87041-8"><bdi>978-1-317-87041-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Muslim+Spain+and+Portugal%3A+A+Political+History+of+al-Andalus&amp;rft.pages=59-60&amp;rft.pub=Routledge&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-317-87041-8&amp;rft.aulast=Kennedy&amp;rft.aufirst=Hugh&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNFfJAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA35&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFnewsthelinks2020" class="citation web cs1">newsthelinks (May 29, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thelinksnews.com/2020/05/29/abbas-ibn-firnas-the-first-human-to-fly/">"Abbas Ibn Firnas: the first human to fly | The Links News"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 14,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Abbas+Ibn+Firnas%3A+the+first+human+to+fly+%7C+The+Links+News&amp;rft.date=2020-05-29&amp;rft.au=newsthelinks&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthelinksnews.com%2F2020%2F05%2F29%2Fabbas-ibn-firnas-the-first-human-to-fly%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTheBiography.usTheBiography.us" class="citation web cs1">TheBiography.us; TheBiography.us. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200921054301/https://thebiography.us/en/abd-al-rahman-ii">"Biography of Emir de al-Andalus Abd al-Rahman o Abderramán II (792–852)"</a>. <i>thebiography.us</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 14,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=thebiography.us&amp;rft.atitle=Biography+of+Emir+de+al-Andalus+Abd+al-Rahman+o+Abderram%C3%A1n+II+%28792%E2%80%93852%29&amp;rft.au=TheBiography.us&amp;rft.au=TheBiography.us&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fthebiography.us%2Fen%2Fabd-al-rahman-ii&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarton1999" class="citation journal cs1">Barton, S (April 1, 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ehr/114.456.403">"Shorter notices. Medieval Iberia. Readings from Christian, Muslim and Jewish sources. OR Constable &#91;ed&#93;"</a>. <i>The English Historical Review</i>. <b>114</b> (456): 403–404. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fehr%2F114.456.403">10.1093/ehr/114.456.403</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0013-8266">0013-8266</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+English+Historical+Review&amp;rft.atitle=Shorter+notices.+Medieval+Iberia.+Readings+from+Christian%2C+Muslim+and+Jewish+sources.+OR+Constable+%5Bed%5D&amp;rft.volume=114&amp;rft.issue=456&amp;rft.pages=403-404&amp;rft.date=1999-04-01&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fehr%2F114.456.403&amp;rft.issn=0013-8266&amp;rft.aulast=Barton&amp;rft.aufirst=S&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1093%2Fehr%2F114.456.403&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarcía-Arenal2004" class="citation journal cs1">García-Arenal, Mercedes (July 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0038713400090308">"The Ornament of the World: How Muslims, Jews and Christians Created a Culture of Tolerance in Medieval Spain. María Rosa Menocal"</a>. <i>Speculum</i>. <b>79</b> (3): 801–804. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0038713400090308">10.1017/s0038713400090308</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0038-7134">0038-7134</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Speculum&amp;rft.atitle=The+Ornament+of+the+World%3A+How+Muslims%2C+Jews+and+Christians+Created+a+Culture+of+Tolerance+in+Medieval+Spain.+Mar%C3%ADa+Rosa+Menocal&amp;rft.volume=79&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=801-804&amp;rft.date=2004-07&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0038713400090308&amp;rft.issn=0038-7134&amp;rft.aulast=Garc%C3%ADa-Arenal&amp;rft.aufirst=Mercedes&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1017%2Fs0038713400090308&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaputo2019" class="citation journal cs1">Caputo, Nina (December 1, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ahr/rhz1187">"Brian A. Catlos. Kingdoms of Faith: A New History of Islamic Spain"</a>. <i>The American Historical Review</i>. <b>124</b> (5): 1823–1825. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fahr%2Frhz1187">10.1093/ahr/rhz1187</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-8762">0002-8762</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+American+Historical+Review&amp;rft.atitle=Brian+A.+Catlos.+Kingdoms+of+Faith%3A+A+New+History+of+Islamic+Spain.&amp;rft.volume=124&amp;rft.issue=5&amp;rft.pages=1823-1825&amp;rft.date=2019-12-01&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fahr%2Frhz1187&amp;rft.issn=0002-8762&amp;rft.aulast=Caputo&amp;rft.aufirst=Nina&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1093%2Fahr%2Frhz1187&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVersteegh1990" class="citation journal cs1">Versteegh, Kees (January 1, 1990). "The Arab Presence in France and Switzerland in the 10th Century". <i>Arabica</i>. <b>37</b> (3): 359–388. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F157005890X00041">10.1163/157005890X00041</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1570-0585">1570-0585</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4057147">4057147</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Arabica&amp;rft.atitle=The+Arab+Presence+in+France+and+Switzerland+in+the+10th+Century&amp;rft.volume=37&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=359-388&amp;rft.date=1990-01-01&amp;rft.issn=1570-0585&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4057147%23id-name%3DJSTOR&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F157005890X00041&amp;rft.aulast=Versteegh&amp;rft.aufirst=Kees&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWenner1980" class="citation journal cs1">Wenner, Manfred W. (August 1980). "The Arab/Muslim Presence in Medieval Central Europe". <i>International Journal of Middle East Studies</i>. <b>12</b> (1): 59–79. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0020743800027136">10.1017/S0020743800027136</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1471-6380">1471-6380</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/163627">163627</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162537404">162537404</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Middle+East+Studies&amp;rft.atitle=The+Arab%2FMuslim+Presence+in+Medieval+Central+Europe&amp;rft.volume=12&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=59-79&amp;rft.date=1980-08&amp;rft.issn=1471-6380&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162537404%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F163627%23id-name%3DJSTOR&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0020743800027136&amp;rft.aulast=Wenner&amp;rft.aufirst=Manfred+W.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Some authors mention bands penetrating as far north as Sankt Gallen, where they sacked the monastery in 939. Cf. Ekkehard, Casus S. Galli, IV, 15 (pp. 137f); Lévi-Provençal (1950:60); Reinaud (1964:149f).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chandler1987-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Chandler1987_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chandler, Tertius. <i>Four Thousand Years of Urban Growth: An Historical Census</i> (1987), St. David's University Press (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etext.org/Politics/World.Systems/datasets/citypop/civilizations/citypops_2000BC-1988AD">etext.org</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080211233018/http://www.etext.org/Politics/World.Systems/datasets/citypop/civilizations/citypops_2000BC-1988AD">Archived</a> 2008-02-11 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88946-207-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-88946-207-0">0-88946-207-0</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MP-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MP_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Perry, Marvin; Myrna Chase, Margaret C. Jacob, James R. Jacob. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kKGgoNo4un0C&amp;pg=PA261&amp;lpg=PA261"><i>Western Civilization: Ideas, Politics, and Society</i></a> (2008), 903 pages, pp. 261–262.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Metcalfe2013-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Metcalfe2013_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Metcalfe2013_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Metcalfe2013_44-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMetcalfeRosser-Owen2013" class="citation journal cs1">Metcalfe, Alex; Rosser-Owen, Mariam (April 1, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236145160">"Forgotten Connections? Medieval Material Culture and Exchange in the Central and Western Mediterranean"</a>. <i>Al-Masaq</i>. <b>25</b>: 1–8. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09503110.2013.767010">10.1080/09503110.2013.767010</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161283814">161283814</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Al-Masaq&amp;rft.atitle=Forgotten+Connections%3F+Medieval+Material+Culture+and+Exchange+in+the+Central+and+Western+Mediterranean&amp;rft.volume=25&amp;rft.pages=1-8&amp;rft.date=2013-04-01&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09503110.2013.767010&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161283814%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.aulast=Metcalfe&amp;rft.aufirst=Alex&amp;rft.au=Rosser-Owen%2C+Mariam&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F236145160&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkinner2012" class="citation journal cs1">Skinner, Patricia (August 1, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263375006">"Amalfitans in the Caliphate of Cordoba&#160;&#8211;&#32; Or Not?"</a>. <i>Al Masaq: Islam and the Medieval Mediterranean</i>. <b>24</b> (2): 125–138. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09503110.2012.684742">10.1080/09503110.2012.684742</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162395730">162395730</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Al+Masaq%3A+Islam+and+the+Medieval+Mediterranean&amp;rft.atitle=Amalfitans+in+the+Caliphate+of+Cordoba+%26ndash%3B%26%2332%3B+Or+Not%3F&amp;rft.volume=24&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=125-138&amp;rft.date=2012-08-01&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09503110.2012.684742&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162395730%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.aulast=Skinner&amp;rft.aufirst=Patricia&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F263375006&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGerber1994" class="citation book cs1">Gerber, Jane S. 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Simon and Schuster. pp.&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/jewsofspainhisto0000gerb/page/54">54</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780029115749" title="Special:BookSources/9780029115749"><bdi>9780029115749</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Jews+of+Spain%3A+A+History+of+the+Sephardic+Experience&amp;rft.pages=54&amp;rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&amp;rft.date=1994&amp;rft.isbn=9780029115749&amp;rft.aulast=Gerber&amp;rft.aufirst=Jane+S.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjewsofspainhisto0000gerb%2Fpage%2F54&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Khaldun. 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(1995). <i>The New Cambridge Medieval History</i>. p.&#160;157. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05571-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05571-0"><bdi>978-1-139-05571-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/921054517">921054517</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+New+Cambridge+Medieval+History.&amp;rft.pages=157&amp;rft.date=1995&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F921054517&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-139-05571-0&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarcelóHeidenreich2014" class="citation journal cs1">Barceló, Carmen; Heidenreich, Anja (October 19, 2014). "Lusterware Made in the Abbadid Taifa of Seville (Eleventh Century) and Its Early Production in the Mediterranean Region". <i>Muqarnas Online</i>. <b>31</b> (1): 245–276. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F22118993-00311P10">10.1163/22118993-00311P10</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0732-2992">0732-2992</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Muqarnas+Online&amp;rft.atitle=Lusterware+Made+in+the+Abbadid+Taifa+of+Seville+%28Eleventh+Century%29+and+Its+Early+Production+in+the+Mediterranean+Region&amp;rft.volume=31&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=245-276&amp;rft.date=2014-10-19&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F22118993-00311P10&amp;rft.issn=0732-2992&amp;rft.aulast=Barcel%C3%B3&amp;rft.aufirst=Carmen&amp;rft.au=Heidenreich%2C+Anja&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996152–153-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996152–153_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy1996">Kennedy 1996</a>, pp.&#160;152–153.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996161-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996161_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy1996">Kennedy 1996</a>, p.&#160;161.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996153-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996153_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy1996">Kennedy 1996</a>, p.&#160;153.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996159–162-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996159–162_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy1996">Kennedy 1996</a>, pp.&#160;159–162.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996164–166-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996164–166_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy1996">Kennedy 1996</a>, pp.&#160;164–166.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996166-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996166_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy1996">Kennedy 1996</a>, p.&#160;166.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996173–174-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996173–174_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy1996">Kennedy 1996</a>, pp.&#160;173–174.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Neci̇poğluBailey2008-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Neci̇poğluBailey2008_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYasser_Tabbaa2008" class="citation book cs1">Yasser Tabbaa (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K8stDgJSiJ4C&amp;pg=PA133">"Andalusian Roots And Abbasid Homage In The Qubbat Al-Barudiyyin In Marrakech"</a>. 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BRILL. pp.&#160;133–134. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-17327-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-17327-9"><bdi>978-90-04-17327-9</bdi></a>. <q>Whereas this Hispanocentric perspective might apply for Moroccan architecture of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries—when many Andalusian artisans are known to have resettled in Morocco—it seems anachronistic in dealing with periods when Andalusia itself was ruled by dynasties from Morocco, in particular the Almoravids (1061–1147) and the Almohads (1130–1260).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Andalusian+Roots+And+Abbasid+Homage+In+The+Qubbat+Al-Barudiyyin+In+Marrakech&amp;rft.btitle=Frontiers+of+Islamic+Art+and+Architecture%3A+Essays+in+Celebration+of+Oleg+Grabar%27s+Eightieth+Birthday%3B+the+Aga+Khan+Program+for+Islamic+Architecture+Thirtieth+Anniversary+Special+Volume&amp;rft.pages=133-134&amp;rft.pub=BRILL&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft.isbn=978-90-04-17327-9&amp;rft.au=Yasser+Tabbaa&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DK8stDgJSiJ4C%26pg%3DPA133&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMessier2001" class="citation journal cs1">Messier, Ronald (January 1, 2001). 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Verso. p.&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/longtwentiethcen00arri_968/page/n135">120</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84467-304-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84467-304-9"><bdi>978-1-84467-304-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Long+Twentieth+Century&amp;rft.pages=120&amp;rft.pub=Verso&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-84467-304-9&amp;rft.aulast=Arrighi&amp;rft.aufirst=Giovanni&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flongtwentiethcen00arri_968&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996280–300-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996280–300_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy1996">Kennedy 1996</a>, pp.&#160;280–300.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECatlos2018337-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECatlos2018337_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCatlos2018">Catlos 2018</a>, p.&#160;337.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996277–278-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996277–278_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy1996">Kennedy 1996</a>, pp.&#160;277–278.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996277-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996277_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy1996">Kennedy 1996</a>, p.&#160;277.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey199014–15-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey199014–15_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarvey1990">Harvey 1990</a>, pp.&#160;14–15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTellier,_L.N.2009" class="citation book cs1">Tellier, L.N. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cXuCjDbxC1YC"><i>Urban World History: An Economic and Geographical Perspective</i></a>. Presses de l'Universite du Quebec. p.&#160;260. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9782760522091" title="Special:BookSources/9782760522091"><bdi>9782760522091</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Urban+World+History%3A+An+Economic+and+Geographical+Perspective&amp;rft.pages=260&amp;rft.pub=Presses+de+l%27Universite+du+Quebec&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.isbn=9782760522091&amp;rft.au=Tellier%2C+L.N.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcXuCjDbxC1YC&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-google152-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-google152_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeyer,_M._C.Beezley,_W._H.2000" class="citation book cs1">Meyer, M. C.; Beezley, W. H. (2000). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195112283"><i>The Oxford History of Mexico</i></a></span>. Oxford University Press, US. p.&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195112283/page/31">31</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511228-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511228-3"><bdi>978-0-19-511228-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Oxford+History+of+Mexico&amp;rft.pages=31&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press%2C+US&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-19-511228-3&amp;rft.au=Meyer%2C+M.+C.&amp;rft.au=Beezley%2C+W.+H.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780195112283&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECatlos2018354-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECatlos2018354_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCatlos2018">Catlos 2018</a>, p.&#160;354.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996278–289-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996278–289_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy1996">Kennedy 1996</a>, pp.&#160;278–289.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996288–292-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996288–292_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy1996">Kennedy 1996</a>, pp.&#160;288–292.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996291-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996291_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy1996">Kennedy 1996</a>, p.&#160;291.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECatlos2018357–359-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECatlos2018357–359_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCatlos2018">Catlos 2018</a>, pp.&#160;357–359.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECatlos2018377-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECatlos2018377_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCatlos2018">Catlos 2018</a>, p.&#160;377.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey1990268-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey1990268_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarvey1990">Harvey 1990</a>, p.&#160;268.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996300-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996300_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy1996">Kennedy 1996</a>, p.&#160;300.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996300–303-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy1996300–303_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy1996">Kennedy 1996</a>, pp.&#160;300–303.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey1990308–323-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey1990308–323_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarvey1990">Harvey 1990</a>, pp.&#160;308–323.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKamen2005" class="citation book cs1">Kamen, Henry (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=j7Acr02a9KUC&amp;pg=PA37"><i>Spain 1469–1714: A Society of Conflict</i></a> (Third&#160;ed.). Pearson. pp.&#160;37–38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780582784642" title="Special:BookSources/9780582784642"><bdi>9780582784642</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Spain+1469%E2%80%931714%3A+A+Society+of+Conflict&amp;rft.pages=37-38&amp;rft.edition=Third&amp;rft.pub=Pearson&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.isbn=9780582784642&amp;rft.aulast=Kamen&amp;rft.aufirst=Henry&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dj7Acr02a9KUC%26pg%3DPA37&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mediano2013-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mediano2013_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFernando_Rodríguez_Mediano2013" class="citation book cs1">Fernando Rodríguez Mediano (April 19, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VYSQWmuaLLgC&amp;pg=PA41"><i>The Orient in Spain: Converted Muslims, the Forged Lead Books of Granada, and the Rise of Orientalism</i></a>. BRILL. p.&#160;42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-25029-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-25029-1"><bdi>978-90-04-25029-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Orient+in+Spain%3A+Converted+Muslims%2C+the+Forged+Lead+Books+of+Granada%2C+and+the+Rise+of+Orientalism&amp;rft.pages=42&amp;rft.pub=BRILL&amp;rft.date=2013-04-19&amp;rft.isbn=978-90-04-25029-1&amp;rft.au=Fernando+Rodr%C3%ADguez+Mediano&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVYSQWmuaLLgC%26pg%3DPA41&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Majid2004-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Majid2004_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnouar_Majid2004" class="citation book cs1">Anouar Majid (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Xk0RyYpWz-kC&amp;pg=PA25"><i>Freedom and Orthodoxy: Islam and Difference in the Post-Andalusian Age</i></a>. Stanford University Press. p.&#160;25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4981-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4981-7"><bdi>978-0-8047-4981-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Freedom+and+Orthodoxy%3A+Islam+and+Difference+in+the+Post-Andalusian+Age&amp;rft.pages=25&amp;rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-8047-4981-7&amp;rft.au=Anouar+Majid&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXk0RyYpWz-kC%26pg%3DPA25&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grieve2009-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Grieve2009_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatricia_E._Grieve2009" class="citation book cs1">Patricia E. Grieve (March 19, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JcI0iI1TiD4C&amp;pg=PA6"><i>The Eve of Spain: Myths of Origins in the History of Christian, Muslim, and Jewish Conflict</i></a>. JHU Press. p.&#160;6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-9036-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-9036-9"><bdi>978-0-8018-9036-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Eve+of+Spain%3A+Myths+of+Origins+in+the+History+of+Christian%2C+Muslim%2C+and+Jewish+Conflict&amp;rft.pages=6&amp;rft.pub=JHU+Press&amp;rft.date=2009-03-19&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-8018-9036-9&amp;rft.au=Patricia+E.+Grieve&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJcI0iI1TiD4C%26pg%3DPA6&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harvey, L. P. <i>Muslims in Spain, 1500 to 1614</i>. University of Chicago Press, 2008, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226319650" title="Special:BookSources/9780226319650">9780226319650</a>, p. 1 (<i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U-kQJr-D_ikC&amp;pg=PA1">excerpt</a></i>, p. 1, at <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=4040221"><i>Vínculos Historia</i>: <i>The moriscos who remained. The permanence of Islamic origin population in Early Modern Spain: Kingdom of Granada, XVII–XVIII centuries</i></a> (In Spanish)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0522-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0522_92-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0522_92-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForcada2022" class="citation book cs1">Forcada, Miquel (2022). "al-Andalus, religious and rational sciences". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.). <i>Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three</i>. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004161658" title="Special:BookSources/9789004161658"><bdi>9789004161658</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=al-Andalus%2C+religious+and+rational+sciences&amp;rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Islam%2C+Three&amp;rft.pub=Brill&amp;rft.date=2022&amp;rft.isbn=9789004161658&amp;rft.aulast=Forcada&amp;rft.aufirst=Miquel&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSamsóFierro1998" class="citation book cs1">Samsó, Julio; Fierro, Maribel (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J8fADwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR37"><i>The Formation of al-Andalus, Part 2: Language, Religion, Culture and the Sciences</i></a>. Routledge. pp.&#160;xxxvii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-351-88958-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-351-88958-2"><bdi>978-1-351-88958-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Formation+of+al-Andalus%2C+Part+2%3A+Language%2C+Religion%2C+Culture+and+the+Sciences&amp;rft.pages=xxxvii&amp;rft.pub=Routledge&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-351-88958-2&amp;rft.aulast=Sams%C3%B3&amp;rft.aufirst=Julio&amp;rft.au=Fierro%2C+Maribel&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJ8fADwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPR37&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bakar2006-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bakar2006_94-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bakar2006_94-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bakar2006_94-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bakar2006_94-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bakar2006_94-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBakar2006" class="citation journal cs1">Bakar, Osman (2006). "The Golden Age of Andalusian Science". <i>Islamica Magazine</i> (18): 106–112 &#8211; via ProQuest.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Islamica+Magazine&amp;rft.atitle=The+Golden+Age+of+Andalusian+Science&amp;rft.issue=18&amp;rft.pages=106-112&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.aulast=Bakar&amp;rft.aufirst=Osman&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pormann2007a-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pormann2007a_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPormann,_Peter_E.2007" class="citation book cs1">Pormann, Peter E. (2007). <i>Medieval Islamic medicine</i>. <a href="/wiki/Savage-Smith,_Emilie" class="mw-redirect" title="Savage-Smith, Emilie">Savage-Smith, Emilie</a>. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781589011601" title="Special:BookSources/9781589011601"><bdi>9781589011601</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/71581787">71581787</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Medieval+Islamic+medicine&amp;rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&amp;rft.pub=Georgetown+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F71581787&amp;rft.isbn=9781589011601&amp;rft.au=Pormann%2C+Peter+E.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ashgate1998b-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ashgate1998b_96-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ashgate1998b_96-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarín,_ManuelaSamsó,_JulioFierro,_Ma._Isabel1998" class="citation book cs1">Marín, Manuela; Samsó, Julio; Fierro, Ma. Isabel (1998). <i>The formation of al-Andalus</i>. Aldershot: Ashgate. pp.&#160;xlvi. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86078-708-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-86078-708-7"><bdi>0-86078-708-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/38890783">38890783</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+formation+of+al-Andalus&amp;rft.place=Aldershot&amp;rft.pages=xlvi&amp;rft.pub=Ashgate&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F38890783&amp;rft.isbn=0-86078-708-7&amp;rft.au=Mar%C3%ADn%2C+Manuela&amp;rft.au=Sams%C3%B3%2C+Julio&amp;rft.au=Fierro%2C+Ma.+Isabel&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPormann,_Peter_E.2007" class="citation book cs1">Pormann, Peter E. (2007). <i>Medieval Islamic medicine</i>. Savage-Smith, Emilie. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. pp.&#160;61–62. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58901-160-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58901-160-1"><bdi>978-1-58901-160-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/71581787">71581787</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Medieval+Islamic+medicine&amp;rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&amp;rft.pages=61-62&amp;rft.pub=Georgetown+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F71581787&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-58901-160-1&amp;rft.au=Pormann%2C+Peter+E.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pormann2007b-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pormann2007b_98-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pormann2007b_98-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPormann,_Peter_E.2007" class="citation book cs1">Pormann, Peter E. (2007). <i>Medieval Islamic medicine</i>. Savage-Smith, Emilie. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. p.&#160;117. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58901-160-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58901-160-1"><bdi>978-1-58901-160-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/71581787">71581787</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Medieval+Islamic+medicine&amp;rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&amp;rft.pages=117&amp;rft.pub=Georgetown+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F71581787&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-58901-160-1&amp;rft.au=Pormann%2C+Peter+E.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPormann,_Peter_E.2007" class="citation book cs1">Pormann, Peter E. (2007). <i>Medieval Islamic medicine</i>. Savage-Smith, Emilie. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. pp.&#160;53–54. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58901-160-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58901-160-1"><bdi>978-1-58901-160-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/71581787">71581787</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Medieval+Islamic+medicine&amp;rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&amp;rft.pages=53-54&amp;rft.pub=Georgetown+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F71581787&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-58901-160-1&amp;rft.au=Pormann%2C+Peter+E.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarín,_ManuelaSamsó,_JulioFierro,_Ma._Isabel1998" class="citation book cs1">Marín, Manuela; Samsó, Julio; Fierro, Ma. Isabel (1998). <i>The formation of al-Andalus</i>. Aldershot: Ashgate. pp.&#160;393–394. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86078-708-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-86078-708-7"><bdi>0-86078-708-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/38890783">38890783</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+formation+of+al-Andalus&amp;rft.place=Aldershot&amp;rft.pages=393-394&amp;rft.pub=Ashgate&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F38890783&amp;rft.isbn=0-86078-708-7&amp;rft.au=Mar%C3%ADn%2C+Manuela&amp;rft.au=Sams%C3%B3%2C+Julio&amp;rft.au=Fierro%2C+Ma.+Isabel&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPormann,_Peter_E.2007" class="citation book cs1">Pormann, Peter E. (2007). <i>Medieval Islamic medicine</i>. Savage-Smith, Emilie. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. pp.&#160;82, 119. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58901-160-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58901-160-1"><bdi>978-1-58901-160-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/71581787">71581787</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Medieval+Islamic+medicine&amp;rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&amp;rft.pages=82%2C+119&amp;rft.pub=Georgetown+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F71581787&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-58901-160-1&amp;rft.au=Pormann%2C+Peter+E.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Saliba1994-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Saliba1994_102-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Saliba1994_102-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaliba,_George.1994" class="citation book cs1">Saliba, George. (1994). <i>A history of Arabic astronomy&#160;: planetary theories during the golden age of Islam</i>. New York: New York University Press. pp.&#160;62–63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8147-8023-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8147-8023-7"><bdi>0-8147-8023-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/35666761">35666761</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=A+history+of+Arabic+astronomy+%3A+planetary+theories+during+the+golden+age+of+Islam&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pages=62-63&amp;rft.pub=New+York+University+Press&amp;rft.date=1994&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F35666761&amp;rft.isbn=0-8147-8023-7&amp;rft.au=Saliba%2C+George.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWall,_Wilson2018" class="citation book cs1">Wall, Wilson (October 2018). <i>A history of optical telescopes in astronomy</i>. Cham, Switzerland: Springer. pp.&#160;9–10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-99088-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-99088-0"><bdi>978-3-319-99088-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1060593202">1060593202</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=A+history+of+optical+telescopes+in+astronomy&amp;rft.place=Cham%2C+Switzerland&amp;rft.pages=9-10&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.date=2018-10&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1060593202&amp;rft.isbn=978-3-319-99088-0&amp;rft.au=Wall%2C+Wilson&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSamsó2007" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Samsó, Julio (2007). "Biṭrūjī: Nūr al-Dīn Abū Isḥāq [Abū Jaҁfar]Ibrāhīm ibn Yūsuf al-Biṭrūjī". In Hockey, Thomas; Trimble, Virginia; Williams, Thomas R.; Bracher, Katherine (eds.). <i>Biṭrūjī: Nūr al-Dīn Abū Isḥāq &#91;Abū Jaҁfar&#93;Ibrāhīm ibn Yūsuf al-Biṭrūjī</i>. <i>The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers</i>. Springer New York. pp.&#160;133–134. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-0-387-30400-7_164">10.1007/978-0-387-30400-7_164</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-30400-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-30400-7"><bdi>978-0-387-30400-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Bi%E1%B9%ADr%C5%ABj%C4%AB%3A+N%C5%ABr+al-D%C4%ABn+Ab%C5%AB+Is%E1%B8%A5%C4%81q+%26%2391%3BAb%C5%AB+Ja%D2%81far%26%2393%3BIbr%C4%81h%C4%ABm+ibn+Y%C5%ABsuf+al-Bi%E1%B9%ADr%C5%ABj%C4%AB&amp;rft.btitle=The+Biographical+Encyclopedia+of+Astronomers&amp;rft.pages=133-134&amp;rft.pub=Springer+New+York&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-0-387-30400-7_164&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-387-30400-7&amp;rft.aulast=Sams%C3%B3&amp;rft.aufirst=Julio&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNasr,_Seyyed_HosseinLeaman,_Oliver" class="citation book cs1">Nasr, Seyyed Hossein; Leaman, Oliver. <i>History of Islamic philosophy</i>. London: Routledge. pp.&#160;330–343. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-82459-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-82459-7"><bdi>978-0-203-82459-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1081429768">1081429768</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=History+of+Islamic+philosophy&amp;rft.place=London&amp;rft.pages=330-343&amp;rft.pub=Routledge&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1081429768&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-203-82459-7&amp;rft.au=Nasr%2C+Seyyed+Hossein&amp;rft.au=Leaman%2C+Oliver&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForcada2007" class="citation cs2">Forcada, Miquel (2007), "Ibn Rushd: Abū al-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad ibn Rushd al-Ḥafīd", in Hockey, Thomas; Trimble, Virginia; Williams, Thomas R.; Bracher, Katherine (eds.), <i>The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers</i>, Springer New York, pp.&#160;564–565, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-0-387-30400-7_687">10.1007/978-0-387-30400-7_687</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-30400-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-30400-7"><bdi>978-0-387-30400-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Ibn+Rushd%3A+Ab%C5%AB+al-Wal%C4%ABd+Mu%E1%B8%A5ammad+ibn+A%E1%B8%A5mad+ibn+Mu%E1%B8%A5ammad+ibn+Rushd+al-%E1%B8%A4af%C4%ABd&amp;rft.btitle=The+Biographical+Encyclopedia+of+Astronomers&amp;rft.pages=564-565&amp;rft.pub=Springer+New+York&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-0-387-30400-7_687&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-387-30400-7&amp;rft.aulast=Forcada&amp;rft.aufirst=Miquel&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTbakhi_AbdelghaniAmr_Samir_S.2008" class="citation journal cs1">Tbakhi Abdelghani; Amr Samir S. (March 1, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6074522">"Ibn Rushd (Averroës): Prince of Science"</a>. <i>Annals of Saudi Medicine</i>. <b>28</b> (2): 145–147. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5144%2F0256-4947.2008.145">10.5144/0256-4947.2008.145</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a>&#160;<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6074522">6074522</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18398288">18398288</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Saudi+Medicine&amp;rft.atitle=Ibn+Rushd+%28Averro%C3%ABs%29%3A+Prince+of+Science&amp;rft.volume=28&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=145-147&amp;rft.date=2008-03-01&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6074522%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18398288&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5144%2F0256-4947.2008.145&amp;rft.au=Tbakhi+Abdelghani&amp;rft.au=Amr+Samir+S.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6074522&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarín,_ManuelaSamsó,_JulioFierro,_Ma._Isabel1998" class="citation book cs1">Marín, Manuela; Samsó, Julio; Fierro, Ma. Isabel (1998). <i>The formation of al-Andalus</i>. Aldershot: Ashgate. p.&#160;277. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86078-708-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-86078-708-7"><bdi>0-86078-708-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/38890783">38890783</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+formation+of+al-Andalus&amp;rft.place=Aldershot&amp;rft.pages=277&amp;rft.pub=Ashgate&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F38890783&amp;rft.isbn=0-86078-708-7&amp;rft.au=Mar%C3%ADn%2C+Manuela&amp;rft.au=Sams%C3%B3%2C+Julio&amp;rft.au=Fierro%2C+Ma.+Isabel&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarín,_ManuelaSamsó,_JulioFierro,_Ma._Isabel1998" class="citation book cs1">Marín, Manuela; Samsó, Julio; Fierro, Ma. Isabel (1998). <i>The formation of al-Andalus</i>. Aldershot: Ashgate. pp.&#160;277–281. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86078-708-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-86078-708-7"><bdi>0-86078-708-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/38890783">38890783</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+formation+of+al-Andalus&amp;rft.place=Aldershot&amp;rft.pages=277-281&amp;rft.pub=Ashgate&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F38890783&amp;rft.isbn=0-86078-708-7&amp;rft.au=Mar%C3%ADn%2C+Manuela&amp;rft.au=Sams%C3%B3%2C+Julio&amp;rft.au=Fierro%2C+Ma.+Isabel&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Abate2018-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Abate2018_110-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbate2018" class="citation book cs1">Abate, Mark T. (November 14, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=R_d5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA66"><i>Convivencia and Medieval Spain: Convivencia and Medieval Spain</i></a>. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan. pp.&#160;66–83. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-96481-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-96481-2"><bdi>978-3-319-96481-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1066115111">1066115111</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Convivencia+and+Medieval+Spain%3A+Convivencia+and+Medieval+Spain&amp;rft.place=Cham&amp;rft.pages=66-83&amp;rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&amp;rft.date=2018-11-14&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1066115111&amp;rft.isbn=978-3-319-96481-2&amp;rft.aulast=Abate&amp;rft.aufirst=Mark+T.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DR_d5DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA66&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarín,_ManuelaSamsó,_JulioFierro,_Ma._Isabel1998" class="citation book cs1">Marín, Manuela; Samsó, Julio; Fierro, Ma. Isabel (1998). <i>The formation of al-Andalus</i>. Aldershot: Ashgate. pp.&#160;xxxviii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86078-708-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-86078-708-7"><bdi>0-86078-708-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/38890783">38890783</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+formation+of+al-Andalus&amp;rft.place=Aldershot&amp;rft.pages=xxxviii&amp;rft.pub=Ashgate&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F38890783&amp;rft.isbn=0-86078-708-7&amp;rft.au=Mar%C3%ADn%2C+Manuela&amp;rft.au=Sams%C3%B3%2C+Julio&amp;rft.au=Fierro%2C+Ma.+Isabel&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLabanyi2010" class="citation book cs1">Labanyi, Jo (2010). <i>Spanish Literature: A Very Short Introduction</i>. Oxford University Press. p.&#160;13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780191613524" title="Special:BookSources/9780191613524"><bdi>9780191613524</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Spanish+Literature%3A+A+Very+Short+Introduction&amp;rft.pages=13&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.isbn=9780191613524&amp;rft.aulast=Labanyi&amp;rft.aufirst=Jo&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFletcherFletcher2006" class="citation book cs1">Fletcher, Richard; Fletcher, Richard A. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wrMG-LfuU7oC"><i>Moorish Spain</i></a>. University of California Press. p.&#160;27. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520248403" title="Special:BookSources/9780520248403"><bdi>9780520248403</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Moorish+Spain&amp;rft.pages=27&amp;rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.isbn=9780520248403&amp;rft.aulast=Fletcher&amp;rft.aufirst=Richard&amp;rft.au=Fletcher%2C+Richard+A.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwrMG-LfuU7oC&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuiz2012" class="citation book cs1">Ruiz, Ana (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5pseHOJuX_8C"><i>Medina Mayrit: The Origins of Madrid</i></a>. Algora Publishing. p.&#160;57. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780875869261" title="Special:BookSources/9780875869261"><bdi>9780875869261</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Medina+Mayrit%3A+The+Origins+of+Madrid&amp;rft.pages=57&amp;rft.pub=Algora+Publishing&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.isbn=9780875869261&amp;rft.aulast=Ruiz&amp;rft.aufirst=Ana&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5pseHOJuX_8C&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlick1999Chapter_5:_Ethnic_Relations-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGlick1999Chapter_5:_Ethnic_Relations_115-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGlick1999">Glick 1999</a>, Chapter 5: Ethnic Relations.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The rate of conversion is slow until the tenth century (less than one-quarter of the eventual total number of converts had been converted); the explosive period coincides closely with the reign of 'Abd al-Rahmdn III (912–961); the process is completed (eighty per cent converted) by around 1100. The curve, moreover, makes possible a reasonable estimate of the religious distribution of the population. Assuming that there were seven million Hispano-Romans in the peninsula in 711 and that the numbers of this segment of the population remained level through the eleventh century (with population growth balancing out Christian migration to the north), then by 912 there would have been approximately 2.8 million indigenous Muslims (muwalladûn) plus Arabs and Berbers. At this point Christians still vastly outnumbered Muslims. By 1100, however, the number of indigenous Muslims would have risen to a majority of 5.6 million.", (Glick 1999, Chapter 1: At the crossroads of civilization)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennison2016166-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBennison2016166_117-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBennison2016">Bennison 2016</a>, p.&#160;166.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wasserstein, 1995, p. 101.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jayyusi. <i>The legacy of Muslim Spain</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen1994" class="citation book cs1">Cohen, Mark R. (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fgbib5exskUC"><i>Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages</i></a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780691010823" title="Special:BookSources/9780691010823"><bdi>9780691010823</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 24,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Under+Crescent+and+Cross%3A+The+Jews+in+the+Middle+Ages&amp;rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&amp;rft.date=1994&amp;rft.isbn=9780691010823&amp;rft.aulast=Cohen&amp;rft.aufirst=Mark+R.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dfgbib5exskUC&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://countrystudies.us/spain/5.htm">"Spain&#160;– Al Andalus"</a>, <i>Country Studies US</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Country+Studies+US&amp;rft.atitle=Spain+%E2%80%93+Al+Andalus&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcountrystudies.us%2Fspain%2F5.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stavans, 2003, p. 10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kraemer, 2005, pp. 10–13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">O'Callaghan, 1975, p. 286.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roth, 1994, pp. 113–116.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schweitzer267-268-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Schweitzer267-268_126-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schweitzer, Frederick M.; Marvin Perry. <i>Anti-Semitism: myth and hate from antiquity to the present</i>, Palgrave Macmillan, 2002, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-16561-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-312-16561-7">0-312-16561-7</a>, pp. 267–268.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=412&amp;letter=G&amp;search=Granada">Granada</a> by Richard Gottheil, Meyer Kayserling, <i><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Encyclopedia" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Encyclopedia">Jewish Encyclopedia</a></i>. 1906 ed.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harzig, Hoerder and Shubert, 2003, p. 42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BL45-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BL45_129-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis1987" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Lewis, Bernard</a> (1987) [1984], <i>The Jews of Islam</i>, <a href="/wiki/Princeton,_New_Jersey" title="Princeton, New Jersey">Princeton, N.J.</a>: <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>, pp.&#160;44–45, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00807-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00807-3"><bdi>978-0-691-00807-3</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/84042575">84042575</a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/17588445">17588445</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Jews+of+Islam&amp;rft.place=Princeton%2C+N.J.&amp;rft.pages=44-45&amp;rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&amp;rft.date=1987&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F17588445&amp;rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F84042575&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-691-00807-3&amp;rft.aulast=Lewis&amp;rft.aufirst=Bernard&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-islamicworldeb-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-islamicworldeb_130-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-26925">"Islamic world". (2007). <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>.</a> <i>Encyclopædia Britannica Online</i>. Retrieved September 2, 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-frank-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-frank_131-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-frank_131-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Frank and Leaman, 2003, pp. 137–138.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090213223723/http://www.myjewishlearning.com/history_community/Medieval/IntergroupTO/JewishMuslim/Almohads.htm"><i>The Almohads</i></a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.myjewishlearning.com/history_community/Medieval/IntergroupTO/JewishMuslim/Almohads.htm">the original</a> on February 13, 2009</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Almohads&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.myjewishlearning.com%2Fhistory_community%2FMedieval%2FIntergroupTO%2FJewishMuslim%2FAlmohads.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Previte-Orton (1971), vol. 1, p. 377.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zZ1m4rJJZAYC"><i>A Descriptive and Comparative Grammar of Andalusi Arabic</i></a>. Edited by the Institute of Islamic Studies of the University of Zaragoza. 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Strategic Book. p.&#160;79. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781625164018" title="Special:BookSources/9781625164018"><bdi>9781625164018</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Arabic-Andalusian+Poetry+and+the+Rise+of+the+European+Love-Lyric&amp;rft.pages=79&amp;rft.pub=Strategic+Book&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.isbn=9781625164018&amp;rft.aulast=Lu%27Lu%27a&amp;rft.aufirst=%27Abdulw%C4%81%C4%A7id&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQSARAgAAQBAJ&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMonroe2013" class="citation journal cs1">Monroe, James T. 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University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-32706-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-32706-8"><bdi>978-0-226-32706-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/912872749">912872749</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+lost+paradise+%3A+Andalusi+music+in+urban+North+Africa&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&amp;rft.date=2016-04-08&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F912872749&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-226-32706-8&amp;rft.aulast=Glasser&amp;rft.aufirst=Jonathan&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F912872749&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hamerly2017-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hamerly2017_152-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHamerly2017" class="citation book cs1">Hamerly, Don (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J2vNDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA4">"The Córdovan Library of Caliph al-Hakam II"</a>. In Kimball, Melanie A.; Wisser, Katherine M. (eds.). <i>Libraries - Traditions and Innovations: Papers from the Library History Seminar XIII</i>. Walter de Gruyter GmbH &amp; Co KG. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-045084-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-045084-2"><bdi>978-3-11-045084-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=The+C%C3%B3rdovan+Library+of+Caliph+al-Hakam+II&amp;rft.btitle=Libraries+-+Traditions+and+Innovations%3A+Papers+from+the+Library+History+Seminar+XIII&amp;rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter+GmbH+%26+Co+KG&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft.isbn=978-3-11-045084-2&amp;rft.aulast=Hamerly&amp;rft.aufirst=Don&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJ2vNDgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA4&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hasse-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hasse_153-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHasse2021" class="citation web cs1">Hasse, Dag Nikolaus (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/arabic-islamic-influence/">"Influence of Arabic and Islamic Philosophy on the Latin West"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Influence+of+Arabic+and+Islamic+Philosophy+on+the+Latin+West&amp;rft.date=2021&amp;rft.aulast=Hasse&amp;rft.aufirst=Dag+Nikolaus&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Farabic-islamic-influence%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hurvitz2020-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hurvitz2020_154-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHurvitz2020" class="citation book cs1">Hurvitz, Nimrod (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-RQMEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA215"><i>Conversion to Islam in the Premodern Age: A Sourcebook</i></a>. Univ of California Press. p.&#160;215. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-96910-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-96910-0"><bdi>978-0-520-96910-0</bdi></a>. <q>He and his family had left their native town of Córdoba around 554/1159 to escape persecution by the Almohads, who had recently conquered al-Andalus and replaced the ruling Almoravid dynasty. After fleeing Córdoba, Maimonides settled in Fez but fled persecution again in 560/1165, moving first to Palestine and finally to Fusṭāṭ, near Cairo, where he would remain.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Conversion+to+Islam+in+the+Premodern+Age%3A+A+Sourcebook&amp;rft.pages=215&amp;rft.pub=Univ+of+California+Press&amp;rft.date=2020&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-520-96910-0&amp;rft.aulast=Hurvitz&amp;rft.aufirst=Nimrod&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-RQMEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA215&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bloom2020-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bloom2020_155-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bloom2020_155-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bloom2020_155-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bloom2020_155-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bloom2020_155-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bloom2020_155-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bloom2020_155-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bloom2020_155-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBloom2020" class="citation book cs1">Bloom, Jonathan M. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IRHbDwAAQBAJ&amp;dq=Architecture+of+the+Islamic+West%3A+North+Africa+and+the+Iberian+Peninsula%2C+700-1800&amp;pg=PP1"><i>Architecture of the Islamic West: North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, 700–1800</i></a>. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780300218701" title="Special:BookSources/9780300218701"><bdi>9780300218701</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Architecture+of+the+Islamic+West%3A+North+Africa+and+the+Iberian+Peninsula%2C+700%E2%80%931800&amp;rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2020&amp;rft.isbn=9780300218701&amp;rft.aulast=Bloom&amp;rft.aufirst=Jonathan+M.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIRHbDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3DArchitecture%2Bof%2Bthe%2BIslamic%2BWest%253A%2BNorth%2BAfrica%2Band%2Bthe%2BIberian%2BPeninsula%252C%2B700-1800%26pg%3DPP1&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ruggles2011-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ruggles2011_156-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuggles2011" class="citation book cs1">Ruggles, D. Fairchild (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=848k_veh0IkC&amp;q=generalife&amp;pg=PA155"><i>Islamic Gardens and Landscapes</i></a>. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp.&#160;90–93. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780812207286" title="Special:BookSources/9780812207286"><bdi>9780812207286</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Islamic+Gardens+and+Landscapes&amp;rft.pages=90-93&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.isbn=9780812207286&amp;rft.aulast=Ruggles&amp;rft.aufirst=D.+Fairchild&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D848k_veh0IkC%26q%3Dgeneralife%26pg%3DPA155&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Barrucand1992-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Barrucand1992_157-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Barrucand1992_157-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarrucandBednorz1992" class="citation book cs1">Barrucand, Marianne; Bednorz, Achim (1992). <i>Moorish architecture in Andalusia</i>. Taschen. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3822876348" title="Special:BookSources/3822876348"><bdi>3822876348</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Moorish+architecture+in+Andalusia&amp;rft.pub=Taschen&amp;rft.date=1992&amp;rft.isbn=3822876348&amp;rft.aulast=Barrucand&amp;rft.aufirst=Marianne&amp;rft.au=Bednorz%2C+Achim&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECatlos2018139–141-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECatlos2018139–141_158-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCatlos2018">Catlos 2018</a>, pp.&#160;139–141.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BloomBlair2009-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BloomBlair2009_159-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBloomBlair2009" class="citation book cs1">Bloom, Jonathan M.; Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC&amp;pg=RA1-PA332">"Córdoba"</a>. <i>The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture</i>. Oxford University Press. p.&#160;332. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195309911" title="Special:BookSources/9780195309911"><bdi>9780195309911</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=C%C3%B3rdoba&amp;rft.btitle=The+Grove+Encyclopedia+of+Islamic+Art+and+Architecture&amp;rft.pages=332&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.isbn=9780195309911&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dun4WcfEASZwC%26pg%3DRA1-PA332&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Met1992-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Met1992_160-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDodds1992" class="citation book cs1">Dodds, Jerrilynn D., ed. (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/art/metpublications/Al_Andalus_The_Art_of_Islamic_Spain"><i>Al-Andalus: The Art of Islamic Spain</i></a>. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0870996371" title="Special:BookSources/0870996371"><bdi>0870996371</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Al-Andalus%3A+The+Art+of+Islamic+Spain&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=The+Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art&amp;rft.date=1992&amp;rft.isbn=0870996371&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.metmuseum.org%2Fart%2Fmetpublications%2FAl_Andalus_The_Art_of_Islamic_Spain&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Marçais1954-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Marçais1954_161-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Marçais1954_161-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarçais1954" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Marçais, Georges (1954). <i>L'architecture musulmane d'Occident</i> (in French). Paris: Arts et métiers graphiques.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=L%27architecture+musulmane+d%27Occident&amp;rft.place=Paris&amp;rft.pub=Arts+et+m%C3%A9tiers+graphiques&amp;rft.date=1954&amp;rft.aulast=Mar%C3%A7ais&amp;rft.aufirst=Georges&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EB1911-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_162-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChisholm1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a>, ed. (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Alhambra, The"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Alhambra,_The">"Alhambra, The"&#160;</a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol.&#160;1 (11th&#160;ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp.&#160;656–658.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Alhambra%2C+The&amp;rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&amp;rft.pages=656-658&amp;rft.edition=11th&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft.date=1911&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Arnold2017-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Arnold2017_163-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArnold2017" class="citation book cs1">Arnold, Felix (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bXjXDQAAQBAJ&amp;dq=Islamic+Palace+Architecture+in+the+Western+Mediterranean&amp;pg=PP1"><i>Islamic Palace Architecture in the Western Mediterranean: A History</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780190624552" title="Special:BookSources/9780190624552"><bdi>9780190624552</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Islamic+Palace+Architecture+in+the+Western+Mediterranean%3A+A+History&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft.isbn=9780190624552&amp;rft.aulast=Arnold&amp;rft.aufirst=Felix&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbXjXDQAAQBAJ%26dq%3DIslamic%2BPalace%2BArchitecture%2Bin%2Bthe%2BWestern%2BMediterranean%26pg%3DPP1&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIrwin2004" class="citation book cs1">Irwin, Robert (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M64VYn8Qq-QC&amp;dq=robert+irwin+alhambra&amp;pg=PP1"><i>The Alhambra</i></a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674063600" title="Special:BookSources/9780674063600"><bdi>9780674063600</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Alhambra&amp;rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.isbn=9780674063600&amp;rft.aulast=Irwin&amp;rft.aufirst=Robert&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DM64VYn8Qq-QC%26dq%3Drobert%2Birwin%2Balhambra%26pg%3DPP1&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BermúdezLópez2011-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BermúdezLópez2011_165-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBermúdez_López2011" class="citation book cs1">Bermúdez López, Jesús (2011). <i>The Alhambra and the Generalife: Official Guide</i>. TF Editores. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788492441129" title="Special:BookSources/9788492441129"><bdi>9788492441129</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Alhambra+and+the+Generalife%3A+Official+Guide&amp;rft.pub=TF+Editores&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.isbn=9788492441129&amp;rft.aulast=Berm%C3%BAdez+L%C3%B3pez&amp;rft.aufirst=Jes%C3%BAs&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBorrás_GualísLavado_ParadinasPleguezuelo_HernándezPérez_Higuera2018" class="citation book cs1">Borrás Gualís, Gonzalo M.; Lavado Paradinas, Pedro; Pleguezuelo Hernández, Alfonso; Pérez Higuera, María Teresa; Mogollón Cano-Cortés, María Pilar; Morales, Alfredo J.; López Guzman, Rafael; Sorroche Cuerva, Miguel Ángel; Stuyck Fernández Arche, Sandra (2018). <i>Mudéjar Art: Islamic Aesthetics in Christian Art (Islamic Art in the Mediterranean)</i>. Museum Ohne Grenzen (Museum With No Frontiers). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783902782144" title="Special:BookSources/9783902782144"><bdi>9783902782144</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Mud%C3%A9jar+Art%3A+Islamic+Aesthetics+in+Christian+Art+%28Islamic+Art+in+the+Mediterranean%29&amp;rft.pub=Museum+Ohne+Grenzen+%28Museum+With+No+Frontiers%29&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft.isbn=9783902782144&amp;rft.aulast=Borr%C3%A1s+Gual%C3%ADs&amp;rft.aufirst=Gonzalo+M.&amp;rft.au=Lavado+Paradinas%2C+Pedro&amp;rft.au=Pleguezuelo+Hern%C3%A1ndez%2C+Alfonso&amp;rft.au=P%C3%A9rez+Higuera%2C+Mar%C3%ADa+Teresa&amp;rft.au=Mogoll%C3%B3n+Cano-Cort%C3%A9s%2C+Mar%C3%ADa+Pilar&amp;rft.au=Morales%2C+Alfredo+J.&amp;rft.au=L%C3%B3pez+Guzman%2C+Rafael&amp;rft.au=Sorroche+Cuerva%2C+Miguel+%C3%81ngel&amp;rft.au=Stuyck+Fern%C3%A1ndez+Arche%2C+Sandra&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Qantara2020a-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Qantara2020a_167-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.qantara-med.org/public/show_document.php?do_id=1349&amp;lang=en">"Qantara – Synagogue of Santa Maria la Blanca"</a>. <i>www.qantara-med.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 21,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=www.qantara-med.org&amp;rft.atitle=Qantara+%E2%80%93+Synagogue+of+Santa+Maria+la+Blanca&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.qantara-med.org%2Fpublic%2Fshow_document.php%3Fdo_id%3D1349%26lang%3Den&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Qantara2020b-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Qantara2020b_168-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.qantara-med.org/public/show_document.php?do_id=177">"Qantara – Synagogue de Cordoue"</a>. <i>www.qantara-med.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 21,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=www.qantara-med.org&amp;rft.atitle=Qantara+%E2%80%93+Synagogue+de+Cordoue&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.qantara-med.org%2Fpublic%2Fshow_document.php%3Fdo_id%3D177&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://en.www.turismocastillalamancha.es/patrimonio/museo-sefardi-sinagoga-del-transito-2264/descripcion/">"Visit Sefardí Museum, El Tránsito Synagogue | TCLM"</a>. <i>en.www.turismocastillalamancha.es</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 22,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=en.www.turismocastillalamancha.es&amp;rft.atitle=Visit+Sefard%C3%AD+Museum%2C+El+Tr%C3%A1nsito+Synagogue+%7C+TCLM&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fen.www.turismocastillalamancha.es%2Fpatrimonio%2Fmuseo-sefardi-sinagoga-del-transito-2264%2Fdescripcion%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bh.org.il/el-transito-synagogue-in-toledo-spain/">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"El Transito" Synagogue in Toledo, Spain"</a>. <i>Beit Hatfutsot</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 22,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Beit+Hatfutsot&amp;rft.atitle=%22El+Transito%22+Synagogue+in+Toledo%2C+Spain&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bh.org.il%2Fel-transito-synagogue-in-toledo-spain%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Squatriti-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Squatriti_171-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSquatriti,_Paolo2014" class="citation journal cs1">Squatriti, Paolo (2014). "Of Seeds, Seasons, and Seas: Andrew Watson's Medieval Agrarian Revolution Forty Years Later". <i>The Journal of Economic History</i>. <b>74</b> (4): 1205–1220. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0022050714000904">10.1017/S0022050714000904</a> (inactive November 1, 2024). <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154969169">154969169</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Economic+History&amp;rft.atitle=Of+Seeds%2C+Seasons%2C+and+Seas%3A+Andrew+Watson%27s+Medieval+Agrarian+Revolution+Forty+Years+Later&amp;rft.volume=74&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=1205-1220&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0022050714000904&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154969169%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.au=Squatriti%2C+Paolo&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuggles2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/D._Fairchild_Ruggles" title="D. Fairchild Ruggles">Ruggles, D. Fairchild</a> (2008). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/islamicgardensla0000rugg"><i>Islamic Gardens and Landscapes</i></a></span>. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp.&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/islamicgardensla0000rugg/page/15">15–36</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0812240252" title="Special:BookSources/978-0812240252"><bdi>978-0812240252</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Islamic+Gardens+and+Landscapes&amp;rft.pages=15-36&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft.isbn=978-0812240252&amp;rft.aulast=Ruggles&amp;rft.aufirst=D.+Fairchild&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fislamicgardensla0000rugg&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-spanish-food.org-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-spanish-food.org_173-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-spanish-food.org_173-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.spanish-food.org/spanish-food-history-arab-influence.html">"Arab Influence | Spanish-food.org"</a>. <i>www.spanish-food.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 7,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=www.spanish-food.org&amp;rft.atitle=Arab+Influence+%7C+Spanish-food.org&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.spanish-food.org%2Fspanish-food-history-arab-influence.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrist1957" class="citation journal cs1">Crist, Raymond E. (1957). "Rice Culture in Spain". <i>The Scientific Monthly</i>. <b>84</b> (2): 66–74. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1957SciMo..84...66C">1957SciMo..84...66C</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3771">0096-3771</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/21775">21775</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Scientific+Monthly&amp;rft.atitle=Rice+Culture+in+Spain&amp;rft.volume=84&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=66-74&amp;rft.date=1957&amp;rft.issn=0096-3771&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F21775%23id-name%3DJSTOR&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1957SciMo..84...66C&amp;rft.aulast=Crist&amp;rft.aufirst=Raymond+E.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ft.lk/ft-lite/the-story-of-andalusian-oranges-in-spain/6-579841">"The story of Andalusian Oranges in Spain"</a>. <i>www.ft.lk</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Chicago Review Press. p.&#160;129. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56976-954-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56976-954-6"><bdi>978-1-56976-954-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Sweet+Invention%3A+A+History+of+Dessert&amp;rft.pages=129&amp;rft.pub=Chicago+Review+Press&amp;rft.date=2011-10-01&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-56976-954-6&amp;rft.au=Michael+Krondl&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDt0RErSFvE8C&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoster1999" class="citation book cs1">Foster, David William, ed. (1999). <i>Spanish Writers on Gay and Lesbian Themes</i>. Greenwood Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780313303326" title="Special:BookSources/9780313303326"><bdi>9780313303326</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Spanish+Writers+on+Gay+and+Lesbian+Themes&amp;rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.isbn=9780313303326&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDynes2016" class="citation book cs1">Dynes, Wayne R. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 10,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Homosexuality&amp;rft.pages=1237&amp;rft.pub=Routledge&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft.isbn=9781317368120&amp;rft.aulast=Dynes&amp;rft.aufirst=Wayne+R.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dg7TOCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT487&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GerliArmistead2003-190"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-GerliArmistead2003_190-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEisenberg,_Daniel2003" class="citation book cs1">Eisenberg, Daniel (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ra9BtjLRNMsC&amp;pg=PA398">"Homosexuality"</a>. In E. Michael Gerli; Samuel G. Armistead (eds.). <i>Medieval Iberia</i>. Taylor &amp; Francis. p.&#160;398. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-93918-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-93918-8"><bdi>978-0-415-93918-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Homosexuality&amp;rft.btitle=Medieval+Iberia&amp;rft.pages=398&amp;rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-415-93918-8&amp;rft.au=Eisenberg%2C+Daniel&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dra9BtjLRNMsC%26pg%3DPA398&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Phillips2014-191"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Phillips2014_191-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_D._Phillips2014" class="citation book cs1">William D. Phillips (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KbboAQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA58"><i>Slavery in Medieval and Early Modern Iberia</i></a>. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp.&#160;58–59. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-4491-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-4491-5"><bdi>978-0-8122-4491-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Slavery+in+Medieval+and+Early+Modern+Iberia&amp;rft.pages=58-59&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-8122-4491-5&amp;rft.au=William+D.+Phillips&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKbboAQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA58&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fernandez-Morera 2016 pp. 163–164</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Scales1993-193"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Scales1993_193-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_C._Scales1993" class="citation book cs1">Peter C. Scales (December 31, 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m-Wvg__iHPAC&amp;pg=PA134"><i>The Fall of the Caliphate of Córdoba: Berbers and Andalusis in Conflict</i></a>. BRILL. p.&#160;134. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-09868-2" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-09868-2"><bdi>90-04-09868-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Fall+of+the+Caliphate+of+C%C3%B3rdoba%3A+Berbers+and+Andalusis+in+Conflict&amp;rft.pages=134&amp;rft.pub=BRILL&amp;rft.date=1993-12-31&amp;rft.isbn=90-04-09868-2&amp;rft.au=Peter+C.+Scales&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dm-Wvg&#95;_iHPAC%26pg%3DPA134&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Man1999-194"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Man1999_194-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMan,_John1999" class="citation book cs1">Man, John (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=j-CgtWP38nsC&amp;pg=PA72"><i>Atlas of the Year 1000</i></a>. Harvard University Press. p.&#160;72. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-54187-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-54187-0"><bdi>978-0-674-54187-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Atlas+of+the+Year+1000&amp;rft.pages=72&amp;rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-674-54187-0&amp;rft.au=Man%2C+John&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dj-CgtWP38nsC%26pg%3DPA72&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ruiz2007-195"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ruiz2007_195-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ruiz2007_195-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuiz,_Ana2007" class="citation book cs1">Ruiz, Ana (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qMBlwWbxq3kC&amp;pg=PA35"><i>Vibrant Andalusia: The Spice of Life in Southern Spain</i></a>. Algora Publishing. p.&#160;35. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87586-541-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87586-541-6"><bdi>978-0-87586-541-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Vibrant+Andalusia%3A+The+Spice+of+Life+in+Southern+Spain&amp;rft.pages=35&amp;rft.pub=Algora+Publishing&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-87586-541-6&amp;rft.au=Ruiz%2C+Ana&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqMBlwWbxq3kC%26pg%3DPA35&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/m0008w6v">"Al-Andalus: the Legacy"</a>. <i>BBC Radio</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=BBC+Radio&amp;rft.atitle=Al-Andalus%3A+the+Legacy&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fprogrammes%2Fm0008w6v&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMenocal" class="citation book cs1">Menocal, Maria. <i>The Ornament of the World</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0316168718" title="Special:BookSources/0316168718"><bdi>0316168718</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Ornament+of+the+World&amp;rft.isbn=0316168718&amp;rft.aulast=Menocal&amp;rft.aufirst=Maria&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYork" class="citation web cs1">York, University of. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.york.ac.uk/news-and-events/events/public-lectures/spring-2020/legacy-al-andalus/">"The Legacy of al-Andalus: Craftsmanship and architectural fragments from Islamic Spain"</a>. <i>University of York</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 17,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=University+of+York&amp;rft.atitle=The+Legacy+of+al-Andalus%3A+Craftsmanship+and+architectural+fragments+from+Islamic+Spain&amp;rft.aulast=York&amp;rft.aufirst=University+of&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.york.ac.uk%2Fnews-and-events%2Fevents%2Fpublic-lectures%2Fspring-2020%2Flegacy-al-andalus%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/engl257/Don%20Quixote/moorish_influence_on_renaiss.htm">"The Moorish Influence On Renaiss"</a>. <i>www.webpages.uidaho.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 17,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=www.webpages.uidaho.edu&amp;rft.atitle=The+Moorish+Influence+On+Renaiss&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.webpages.uidaho.edu%2Fengl257%2FDon%2520Quixote%2Fmoorish_influence_on_renaiss.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Al-Andalus">"Al-Andalus | Facts, History, &amp; Maps"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 17,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&amp;rft.atitle=Al-Andalus+%7C+Facts%2C+History%2C+%26+Maps&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2FAl-Andalus&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRouighi2019" class="citation book cs1">Rouighi, Ramzi (August 2, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ap67DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA67"><i>Inventing the Berbers: History and Ideology in the Maghrib</i></a>. University of Pennsylvania Press. p.&#160;67. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-5130-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-5130-2"><bdi>978-0-8122-5130-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Inventing+the+Berbers%3A+History+and+Ideology+in+the+Maghrib&amp;rft.pages=67&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&amp;rft.date=2019-08-02&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-8122-5130-2&amp;rft.aulast=Rouighi&amp;rft.aufirst=Ramzi&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAp67DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA67&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Andalus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=32" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Alfonso, Esperanza, 2007. <i>Islamic Culture Through Jewish Eyes: al-Andalus from the Tenth to Twelfth Century</i>. NY: Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-43732-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-43732-5">978-0-415-43732-5</a></li> <li>Al-Djazairi, Salah Eddine 2005. <i>The Hidden Debt to Islamic Civilisation</i>. Manchester: Bayt Al-Hikma Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9551156-1-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-9551156-1-2">0-9551156-1-2</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBennison2016" class="citation book cs1">Bennison, Amira K. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=19JVDwAAQBAJ"><i>The Almoravid and Almohad Empires</i></a>. Edinburgh University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780748646821" title="Special:BookSources/9780748646821"><bdi>9780748646821</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Almoravid+and+Almohad+Empires&amp;rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft.isbn=9780748646821&amp;rft.aulast=Bennison&amp;rft.aufirst=Amira+K.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D19JVDwAAQBAJ&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoloix-Gallardo2021" class="citation book cs1">Boloix-Gallardo, Bárbara (2021). "Granada, Capital of al-Andalus and Core of the Nasrid Kingdom (7th–9th/13th–15th Centuries)". In Boloix-Gallardo, Bárbara (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tBhREAAAQBAJ"><i>A Companion to Islamic Granada</i></a>. Brill. pp.&#160;122–163. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-42581-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-42581-1"><bdi>978-90-04-42581-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Granada%2C+Capital+of+al-Andalus+and+Core+of+the+Nasrid+Kingdom+%287th%E2%80%939th%2F13th%E2%80%9315th+Centuries%29&amp;rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Islamic+Granada&amp;rft.pages=122-163&amp;rft.pub=Brill&amp;rft.date=2021&amp;rft.isbn=978-90-04-42581-1&amp;rft.aulast=Boloix-Gallardo&amp;rft.aufirst=B%C3%A1rbara&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtBhREAAAQBAJ&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Bossong, Georg. 2002. "Der Name <i>Al-Andalus</i>: Neue Überlegungen zu einem alten Problem", <i>Sounds and Systems: Studies in Structure and Change. A Festschrift for Theo Vennemann</i>, eds. David Restle &amp; Dietmar Zaefferer. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, pp.&#160;149–164. (In German) Also available <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110894653.149/html">online</a></li> <li>Calderwood, Eric. 2018. <i>Colonial al-Andalus&#160;: Spain and the making of modern Moroccan culture</i>. Harvard University Press</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCatlos2018" class="citation book cs1">Catlos, Brian A. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xKBfDwAAQBAJ"><i>Kingdoms of Faith: A New History of Islamic Spain</i></a>. New York: Basic Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0465055876" title="Special:BookSources/978-0465055876"><bdi>978-0465055876</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Kingdoms+of+Faith%3A+A+New+History+of+Islamic+Spain&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=Basic+Books&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft.isbn=978-0465055876&amp;rft.aulast=Catlos&amp;rft.aufirst=Brian+A.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxKBfDwAAQBAJ&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Cohen, Mark. 1994. <i>Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages</i>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-01082-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-01082-X">0-691-01082-X</a></li> <li>Collins, Roger. 1989. <i>The Arab Conquest of Spain, 710–797</i>, Oxford: Blackwell. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-19405-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-19405-3">0-631-19405-3</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDodds,_Jerrilynn_D.1992" class="citation book cs1">Dodds, Jerrilynn D. (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/45966/rec/1"><i>Al-Andalus: the art of Islamic Spain</i></a>. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780870996368" title="Special:BookSources/9780870996368"><bdi>9780870996368</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Al-Andalus%3A+the+art+of+Islamic+Spain&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=The+Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art&amp;rft.date=1992&amp;rft.isbn=9780870996368&amp;rft.au=Dodds%2C+Jerrilynn+D.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibmma.contentdm.oclc.org%2Fcdm%2Fcompoundobject%2Fcollection%2Fp15324coll10%2Fid%2F45966%2Frec%2F1&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Fernandez-Morera, Dario. 2016. <i>The Myth of the Andalusian Paradise: Muslims, Christians, and Jews under Islamic Rule in Medieval Spain</i>. NY: <a href="/wiki/Intercollegiate_Studies_Institute" title="Intercollegiate Studies Institute">Intercollegiate Studies Institute</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1610170956" title="Special:BookSources/978-1610170956">978-1610170956</a></li> <li>Frank, Daniel H. &amp; Leaman, Oliver. 2003. <i>The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Jewish Philosophy</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-65574-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-65574-9">0-521-65574-9</a></li> <li>Gerli, E. Michael, ed., 2003. <i>Medieval Iberia: An Encyclopedia</i>. NY: Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-93918-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-93918-6">0-415-93918-6</a></li> <li>Halm, Heinz. 1989. "Al-Andalus und Gothica Sors", <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/islm.1989.66.2.252/html">[1]</a></i> 66:252–263.</li> <li>Hamilton, Michelle M., Sarah J. Portnoy, and David A. Wacks, eds. 2004. <i>Wine, Women, and Song: Hebrew and Arabic Literature in Medieval Iberia</i>. Newark, Del.: Juan de la Cuesta Hispanic Monographs.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarvey1990" class="citation book cs1">Harvey, Leonard Patrick (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nWyXAwAAQBAJ"><i>Islamic Spain, 1250 to 1500</i></a>. University of Chigaco Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0226319628" title="Special:BookSources/0226319628"><bdi>0226319628</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Islamic+Spain%2C+1250+to+1500&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Chigaco+Press&amp;rft.date=1990&amp;rft.isbn=0226319628&amp;rft.aulast=Harvey&amp;rft.aufirst=Leonard+Patrick&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnWyXAwAAQBAJ&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Harzig, Christiane, Dirk Hoerder, and Adrian Shubert. 2003. <i>The Historical Practice in Diversity</i>. Berghahn Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57181-377-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-57181-377-2">1-57181-377-2</a></li> <li>Jayyusi, Salma Khadra. 1992. <i>The Legacy of Muslim Spain</i>, 2 vols. Leiden–NY–Cologne: Brill [chief consultant to the editor, Manuela Marín].</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy1996" class="citation book cs1">Kennedy, Hugh (1996). <i>Muslim Spain and Portugal: a political history of al-Andalus</i>. Harlow: Longman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-49515-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-49515-6"><bdi>0-582-49515-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Muslim+Spain+and+Portugal%3A+a+political+history+of+al-Andalus&amp;rft.place=Harlow&amp;rft.pub=Longman&amp;rft.date=1996&amp;rft.isbn=0-582-49515-6&amp;rft.aulast=Kennedy&amp;rft.aufirst=Hugh&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Kraemer, Joel. 1997. "Comparing Crescent and Cross (book review)", <i>The Journal of Religion</i> 77, no. 3 (1997): 449–454.</li> <li>Kraemer, Joel. 2005. "Moses Maimonides: An Intellectual Portrait", <i>The Cambridge Companion to Maimonides</i>, ed. Kenneth Seeskin. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-81974-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-81974-1">0-521-81974-1</a></li> <li>Kraemer, Joel. 2008. <i>Maimonides: the Life and World of One of Civilization's Greatest Minds</i>. NY: Doubleday. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-385-51199-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-385-51199-X">0-385-51199-X</a></li> <li>Lafuente y Alcántara, Emilio, trans. 1867. <i><a href="/wiki/Akhb%C4%81r_majm%C5%AB%CA%BFa" title="Akhbār majmūʿa">Ajbar Machmua (colección de tradiciones): crónica anónima del siglo XI, dada a luz por primera vez, traducida y anotada</a></i>. Madrid: Real Academia de la Historia y Geografía. In Spanish and Arabic. Also available in the public domain online, see External Links.</li> <li>Luscombe, David and Jonathan Riley-Smith, eds. 2004. <i>The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume 4, c. 1024&#160;&#8211;&#32; c. 1198, Part 1</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-41411-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-41411-3">0-521-41411-3</a></li> <li>Marcus, Ivan G., "Beyond the Sephardic mystique", <i>Orim</i>, vol. 1 (1985): 35–53.</li> <li>Marín, Manuela, ed. 1998. <i>The Formation of Al-Andalus</i>, vol. 1: <i>History and Society</i>. Aldershot: Ashgate. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86078-708-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-86078-708-7">0-86078-708-7</a></li> <li>Menocal, Maria Rosa. 2002. <i>Ornament of the World: How Muslims, Jews, and Christians Created a Culture of Tolerance in Medieval Spain</i>. Boston: Little, Brown and Company; London: Back Bay Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-316-16871-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-316-16871-8">0-316-16871-8</a></li> <li>Monroe, James T. 1970. <i>Islam and the Arabs in Spanish scholarship: (Sixteenth century to the present)</i>. Leiden: Brill.</li> <li>Monroe, James T. 1974. <i>Hispano-Arabic Poetry: A Student Anthology</i>. Berkeley, Cal.: University of California Press.</li> <li>Netanyahu, Benzion. 1995. <i>The Origins Of The Inquisition in Fifteenth Century Spain</i>. NY: Random House <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-679-41065-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-679-41065-1">0-679-41065-1</a></li> <li>O'Callaghan, Joseph F. 1975. <i>A History of Medieval Spain</i>. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8014-9264-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8014-9264-5">0-8014-9264-5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rageh_Omaar" title="Rageh Omaar">Omaar, Rageh</a>. 2005. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcfour/documentaries/features/islamic-history-europe.shtml">An Islamic History of Europe</a></i>. video documentary, <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a> 4, August 2005.</li> <li>Reilly, Bernard F. 1993. <i>The Medieval Spains</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-39741-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-39741-3">0-521-39741-3</a></li> <li>Roth, Norman. 1994. <i>Jews, Visigoths and Muslims in Medieval Spain: Cooperation and Conflict</i>. Leiden: Brill. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-06131-2" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-06131-2">90-04-06131-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudio_S%C3%A1nchez-Albornoz_y_Mendui%C3%B1a" class="mw-redirect" title="Claudio Sánchez-Albornoz y Menduiña">Sanchez-Albornoz, Claudio</a>. 1974. <i>El Islam de España y el Occidente</i>. Madrid: Espasa-Calpe. Colección Austral; 1560. [Originally published in 1965 in the conference proceedings, <i>L'occidente e l'islam nell'alto medioevo: 2–8 aprile 1964</i>, 2 vols. Spoleto: Centro Italiano di studi sull'Alto Medioevo. Series: Settimane di studio del Centro Italiano di studi sull'Alto Medioevo; 12. Vol. 1:149–308.]</li> <li>Schorsch, Ismar, 1989. "The myth of Sephardic supremacy", <i>The Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook</i> 34 (1989): 47–66.</li> <li>Stavans, Ilan. 2003. <i>The Scroll and the Cross: 1,000 Years of Jewish-Hispanic Literature</i>. London: Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-92930-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-92930-X">0-415-92930-X</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/45966/rec/1"><i>The Art of medieval Spain, A.D. 500–1200</i></a>. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 1993. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0870996851" title="Special:BookSources/0870996851"><bdi>0870996851</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Art+of+medieval+Spain%2C+A.D.+500%E2%80%931200&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=The+Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art&amp;rft.date=1993&amp;rft.isbn=0870996851&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibmma.contentdm.oclc.org%2Fcdm%2Fcompoundobject%2Fcollection%2Fp15324coll10%2Fid%2F45966%2Frec%2F1&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Wasserstein, David J. 1995. "Jewish élites in Al-Andalus", <i>The Jews of Medieval Islam: Community, Society and Identity</i>, ed. Daniel Frank. Leiden: Brill. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-10404-6" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-10404-6">90-04-10404-6</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Andalus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=33" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlick2005" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_F._Glick" title="Thomas F. Glick">Glick, Thomas</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libro.uca.edu/ics/emspain.htm">"Islamic and Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages: Comparative Perspectives on Social and Cultural Formation"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Islamic+and+Christian+Spain+in+the+Early+Middle+Ages%3A+Comparative+Perspectives+on+Social+and+Cultural+Formation&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.aulast=Glick&amp;rft.aufirst=Thomas&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibro.uca.edu%2Fics%2Femspain.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlick1999" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_F._Glick" title="Thomas F. Glick">Glick, Thomas</a> (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libro.uca.edu/ics/emspain.htm">"Islamic and Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 23,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Islamic+and+Christian+Spain+in+the+Early+Middle+Ages&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.aulast=Glick&amp;rft.aufirst=Thomas&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibro.uca.edu%2Fics%2Femspain.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Andalus" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Andalus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=34" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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Online</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070512082946/http://www.paradoxplace.com/Photo%20Pages/Spain/Spain_History/Al-Andalus_Chronology.htm">Al-Andalus Chronology and Photos</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libro.uca.edu/martyrs/martyrs.htm">Christian Martyrs in Muslim Spain</a> by Kenneth Baxter Wolf</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091014132337/http://www.afropop.org/Alandalus/Alandalus.html">The Musical Legacy of Al-Andalus</a>&#160;– historical maps, photos, and music showing the Great Mosque of Córdoba and related movements of people and culture over time</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.islamicspain.tv">"Cities of Light: The Rise and Fall of Islamic Spain"</a> (documentary film)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/art/metpublications/Al_Andalus_The_Art_of_Islamic_Spain">Al-Andalus: the art of Islamic Spain</a>, Scholarly essays and exhibition catalog from the Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF or on Google Books)</li> <li>Patricia, Countess Jellicoe, 1992, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110708141619/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/199205/the.art.of.islamic.spain.htm">The Art of Islamic Spain</a>, <i>Saudi Aramco World</i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/41035">History of the Spanish Muslims</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Reinhart_Dozy" title="Reinhart Dozy">Reinhart Dozy</a>, in French</li></ul> <p><span class="geo-inline-hidden noexcerpt"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&amp;#124;text-top&amp;#124;10px&amp;#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&amp;#124;link=https&amp;#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q123559#identifiers&amp;#124;class=noprint&amp;#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&amp;#124;text-top&amp;#124;10px&amp;#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&amp;#124;link=https&amp;#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q123559#identifiers&amp;#124;class=noprint&amp;#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q123559#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/313540021">VIAF</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4536234-8">Germany</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/158022513">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/endulus">İslâm Ansiklopedisi</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <!-- NewPP limit report Parsed 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[\"CITEREFMcKitterick1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMenocal\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMessier2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMetcalfeRosser-Owen2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeyer,_M._C.Beezley,_W._H.2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichael_Krondl2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMonroe2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNasr,_Seyyed_HosseinLeaman,_Oliver\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Callaghan1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPanzram,_SabineLaurent_Callegarin2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPatricia_E._Grieve2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeter_C._Scales1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPormann,_Peter_E.2007\"] = 5,\n [\"CITEREFPérès2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoger_Collins2012\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFRouighi2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRuggles2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRuggles2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRuiz,_Ana2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRuiz2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRíos_Saloma2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSafran2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSaliba,_George.1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSamsó2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSamsóFierro1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScott2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSkinner2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSquatriti,_Paolo2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTbakhi_AbdelghaniAmr_Samir_S.2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTellier,_L.N.2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTheBiography.usTheBiography.us\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVallvé,_Joaquín1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVersteegh1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWall,_Wilson2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWenner1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliam_D._Phillips2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYasser_Tabbaa2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYork\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFnewsthelinks2020\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 6,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 2,\n [\"Citation\"] = 4,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 7,\n [\"Cite EB1911\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 91,\n [\"Cite encyclopaedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 20,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 28,\n [\"Col-begin\"] = 1,\n [\"Col-break\"] = 3,\n [\"Col-end\"] = 1,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Coord\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 1,\n [\"For other uses\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 1,\n [\"Google books\"] = 1,\n [\"History of Gibraltar\"] = 1,\n [\"History of Portugal\"] = 1,\n [\"History of Spain\"] = 1,\n [\"History of al-Andalus\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 22,\n [\"Ill\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 1,\n [\"Langx\"] = 11,\n [\"Legend\"] = 3,\n [\"Main\"] = 12,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 1,\n [\"No footnotes\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Pie chart\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Reign\"] = 3,\n [\"Relevance inline\"] = 2,\n [\"Rp\"] = 14,\n [\"See also\"] = 4,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 33,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Snd\"] = 7,\n [\"Transliteration\"] = 1,\n [\"Use British English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use mdy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikiquote\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","360","26.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","240","17.6"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","140","10.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","100","7.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","100","7.4"],["recursiveClone 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projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2003-11-03T06:04:40Z","dateModified":"2024-11-26T13:59:34Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/8\/89\/Al-Andalus732.svg","headline":"in historiography, the territories of the Iberian Peninsula under Islamic rule between 711 and 1492"}</script> </body> </html>

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