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More specifically, it involves the study of the different legal "systems" (or "families") in existence in the world, including the [[common law]], the [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]], [[socialist law]], [[Canon law]], [[Halakha|Jewish Law]], [[Sharia|Islamic law]], [[Hindu law]], and [[Chinese law]]. It includes the description and analysis of foreign legal systems, even where no explicit comparison is undertaken. The importance of comparative law has increased enormously in the present age of internationalism, [[economic globalization]], and democratization. ==History== The origins of modern Comparative Law can be traced back to [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]] in 1667 in his Latin-language book {{Lang|la|Nova Methodus Discendae Docendaeque Iurisprudentiae}} (New Methods of Studying and Teaching Jurisprudence).<ref>English translation: Leibniz (2017)</ref> Chapter 7 (Presentation of Law as the Project for all Nations, Lands and Times) introduces the idea of classifying Legal Systems into several families. A few years later, Leibniz introduced an idea of Language families.<ref>Leibniz, ''Dissertatio de origine Germanorum'' (1697), ''Epistolica de Historia Etymologica Dissertatio'', (1712).</ref> Although every Legal System is unique, Comparative Law through studies of their similarities and differences allows for classification of Legal Systems, wherein Law Families is the basic level of the classification. The main differences between Law Families are found in the source(s) of Law, the role of court precedents, the origin and development of the Legal System. [[Montesquieu]] is generally regarded as an early founding figure of comparative law. His comparative approach is obvious in the following excerpt from Chapter III of Book I of his masterpiece, ''[[De l'esprit des lois]]'' (1748; first translated by Thomas Nugent, 1750):<ref>{{cite book|title=The Spirit of Law|author=Baron De Montesquieu|place=New York |publisher=Hafner |year=1949}}</ref>{{blockquote|[T]he political and civil laws of each nation ... should be adapted in such a manner to the people for whom they are framed that it should be a great chance if those of one nation suit another. They should be in relation to the nature and principle of each government: whether they form it, as may be said of politic laws; or whether they support it, as in the case of civil institutions. They should be in relation to the climate of each country, to the quality of its soil, to its situation and extent, to the principal occupation of the natives, whether husbandmen, huntsmen, or shepherds: they should have relation to the degree of liberty which the constitution will bear; to the religion of the inhabitants, to their inclinations, riches, numbers, commerce, manners, and customs.}} Also, in Chapter XI (entitled 'How to compare two different Systems of Laws') of Book XXIX, discussing the French and English systems for punishment of false witnesses, he advises that "to determine which of those systems is most agreeable to reason, we must take them each as a whole and compare them in their entirety." Yet another place where Montesquieu's comparative approach is evident is the following, from Chapter XIII of Book XXIX: [[Image:HSMaine.jpg|thumbnail|150px|right|Sir [[Henry James Sumner Maine]], British jurist and first professor of comparative law at [[University of Oxford|Oxford]]]] {{blockquote|As the civil laws depend on the political institutions, because they are made for the same society, whenever there is a design of adopting the civil law of another nation, it would be proper to examine beforehand whether they have both the same institutions and the same political law.}} The modern founding figure of comparative and [[legal anthropology|anthropological]] jurisprudence was Sir [[Henry Maine]], a British jurist and legal historian.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iEk-Fpdw4MYC|title=Sir Henry Maine: A Study in Victorian Jurisprudence|author=Raymond Cocks|year=2004|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=34|isbn=9780521524964}}</ref> In his 1861 work ''[[Ancient Law|Ancient Law: Its Connection with the Early History of Society, and Its Relation to Modern Ideas]]'', he set out his views on the development of legal institutions in primitive societies and engaged in a comparative discussion of [[Far East|Eastern]] and [[Western culture|West]]ern legal traditions. This work placed comparative law in its historical context and was widely read and influential. The first university course on the subject was established at the [[University of Oxford]] in 1869, with Maine taking up the position of professor.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/358681/Sir-Henry-Maine|title=Sir Henry Maine|access-date=2012-12-17}}</ref> Comparative law in the US was brought by a legal scholar fleeing persecution in Germany, [[Rudolf Schlesinger]]. Schlesinger eventually became professor of comparative law at [[Cornell Law School]] helping to spread the discipline throughout the US.{{citation needed|date=May 2023}} ==Purpose== {{One source|section|date=June 2023}} Comparative law is an academic discipline that involves the study of legal systems, including their constitutive elements and how they differ,<ref>See, e.g., Kristoffel Grechenig & Martin Gelter, The Transatlantic Divergence in Legal Thought: American Law and Economics vs. German Doctrinalism, [http://ssrn.com/abstract=1161168 ''Hastings International and Comparative Law Review 2008, vol. 31, p. 295-360''] comparing German style and U.S. style legal scholarship</ref> and how their elements combine into a system. Several disciplines have developed as separate branches of comparative law, including comparative [[constitutional law]], comparative [[administrative law]], comparative [[Civil law (private law)|civil law]] (in the sense of the law of [[tort]]s, [[contract]]s, [[Property law|property]] and [[Law of obligations|obligations]]), comparative [[commercial law]] (in the sense of [[Companies law|business organisations]] and trade), and comparative [[criminal law]]. Studies of these specific areas may be viewed as micro- or macro-comparative legal analysis, i.e. detailed comparisons of two countries, or broad-ranging studies of several countries. Comparative civil law studies, for instance, show how the law of private relations is organised, interpreted and used in different systems or countries. The purposes of comparative law are: * To attain a deeper knowledge of the legal systems in effect * To perfect the legal systems in effect * Possibly, to contribute to a unification of legal systems, of a smaller or larger scale (cf. for instance, the [[UNIDROIT]] initiative) ==Relationship with other legal subjects== Comparative law is different from general [[jurisprudence]] (i.e. legal theory) and from [[public international law|public]] and [[private international law|private]] international law. However, it helps inform all of these areas of normativity. For example, comparative law can help international legal institutions, such as those of the [[United Nations System]], in analyzing the laws of different countries regarding their treaty obligations. Comparative law would be applicable to private international law when developing an approach to interpretation in a conflicts analysis. Comparative law may contribute to legal theory by creating categories and concepts of general application. Comparative law may also provide insights into the question of [[legal transplants]], i.e. the transplanting of law and legal institutions from one system to another. The notion of [[legal transplants]] was coined by [[Alan Watson (legal scholar)|Alan Watson]], one of the world's renowned legal scholars specializing in comparative law. [[Gunther Teubner]] expanded the notion of legal transplantation to include ''legal irritation'': Rather than smoothly integrating into domestic legal systems, a foreign rule disrupts established norms and societal arrangements. This disruption sparks an evolution where the external rule's meaning is redefined and where significant transformations within the internal context are triggered.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Teubner |first=Gunther |date=1998 |title=Legal Irritants: Good Faith in British Law or How Unifying Law Ends Up in New Divergences |url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=876950 |journal=The Modern Law Review |volume=61 |issue=1 |pages=11–32|doi=10.1111/1468-2230.00125 |ssrn=876950 }}</ref> Lasse Schuldt added that irritation is not spontaneous, but requires institutional drivers.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Schuldt |first=Lasse |date=2023-09-25 |title=Driving Irritation: Thailand's Supreme Court and the English Roots of Corporate Criminal Liability |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/asian-journal-of-comparative-law/article/driving-irritation-thailands-supreme-court-and-the-english-roots-of-corporate-criminal-liability/A5C74EAC37FB689A03E54F5EBB6B1409/share/bb0af930ebdb2439ba3e100ae30a2ee0cf5d32ab19310b744e9142b2f1e3b2c5 |journal=Asian Journal of Comparative Law |volume=19 |language=en |pages=142–158 |doi=10.1017/asjcl.2023.29 |s2cid=263007531 |issn=2194-6078}}</ref> Also, the usefulness of comparative law for [[sociology of law]] and [[law and economics]] (and vice versa) is very large. The comparative study of the various legal systems may show how different legal regulations for the same problem function in practice. Conversely, sociology of law and law & economics may help comparative law answer questions, such as: * How do regulations in different legal systems really function in the respective societies? * Are legal rules comparable? * How do the similarities and differences between legal systems get explained? ==Classifications of legal systems== ===David=== [[René David]]<ref>''Traité élémentaire de droit civil comparé : Introduction à l'étude des droits étrangers et à la méthode comparative'' - in French; Paris, 1950</ref> proposed the classification of legal systems, according to the different ideology inspiring each one, into five groups or families:<ref name="VARGA-p54-DAVID">{{cite book |last=Varga |first=Csaba |date=2012 |title=COMPARATIVE LEGAL CULTURES |url=https://philarchive.org/archive/VARCLC |location=Budapest |publisher= |pages=54–55 |isbn=9789632773377}}</ref> * [[Western world|Western]] laws, a group subdivided into the: ** [[Civil law (legal system)|Civil law subgroup]] (whose jurisprudence is based on post-classical [[Roman Law]]) ** [[Common law|Common law subgroup]] (originating in [[English law]]) * [[Law of the Soviet Union|Soviet Law]] * [[Sharia|Muslim Law]] * [[Hindu law|Hindu Law]] * [[Chinese law|Chinese Law]] * [[Jewish Law]] Especially with respect to the aggregating by David of the Civil and Common laws into a single family, David argued that the antithesis between the Common law and Civil law systems, is of a technical rather than of an ideological nature. Of a different kind is, for instance, the antithesis between, say, Italian and American laws, and of a different kind than between the Soviet, Muslim, Hindu, or Chinese laws. According to David, the Civil law legal systems included those countries where legal science was formulated according to Roman law, whereas Common law countries are those dominated by judge-made law. The characteristics that he believed uniquely differentiate the Western legal family from the other four are: * liberal democracy * capitalist economy * Christian religion ===Arminjon, Nolde, and Wolff=== Arminjon, Nolde, and Wolff<ref>''Traité de droit comparé'' – in French; Paris 1950–1952</ref> believed that, for purposes of classifying the (then) contemporary legal systems of the world, it was required that those systems ''per se'' get studied, irrespective of external factors, such as geographical ones. They proposed the classification of legal system into seven groups, or so-called 'families', in particular the:<ref name="VARGA-p59-WOLFF">{{cite book |last=Varga |first=Csaba |date=2012 |title=COMPARATIVE LEGAL CULTURES |url=https://philarchive.org/archive/VARCLC |location=Budapest |publisher= |page=59 |isbn=9789632773377}}</ref> * [[Law of France|French group]], under which they also included the countries that codified their law either in 19th or in the first half of the 20th century, using the [[Napoleonic code|Napoleonic ''code civil'']] of year 1804 as a model; this includes countries and jurisdictions such as Italy, Portugal, Spain, Romania, [[Louisiana]], various South American states such as Brazil, [[Quebec]], [[Saint Lucia]], the [[Ionian Islands]], Egypt, and [[Lebanon]] * [[Law of Germany|German group]] * Scandinavian group, comprising the laws of Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Iceland * [[Common law|English group]], including, ''inter alia'', England, the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand * Russian group * [[Sharia|Islamic group]] (used in the [[Muslim world]]) * [[Hindu law|Hindu group]] ===Zweigert and Kötz=== Konrad Zweigert and [[Hein Kötz]]<ref>Konrad Zweigert, Hein Kötz: ''An Introduction to Comparative Law'', translation from the German original: ''Einführung in die Rechtsvergleichung auf dem Gebiete des Privatrechts'' by Tony Weir, 3rd edition; Oxford, 1998. {{ISBN|9780198268598}}.</ref> propose a different, multidimensional methodology for categorizing laws, i.e. for ordering families of laws. They maintain that, to determine such families, five criteria should be taken into account, in particular: the historical background, the characteristic way of thought, the different institutions, the recognized sources of law, and the dominant ideology. Using the aforementioned criteria, they classify the legal systems of the world into six families:<ref name="VARGA-p63-KOTZ">{{cite book |last=Varga |first=Csaba |date=2012 |title=COMPARATIVE LEGAL CULTURES |url=https://philarchive.org/archive/VARCLC |location=Budapest |publisher= |pages=63–64 |isbn=9789632773377}}</ref> * [[Roman law|Roman family]] * [[Law of Germany|German family]] * [[Common law|Common law family]] * Nordic family * Family of the laws of the [[Far East]] (China and Japan) * Religious family (Jewish, Muslim, and Hindu law) Up to the second German edition of their introduction to comparative law, Zweigert and Kötz also used to mention [[Socialist law|Soviet or socialist law]] as another family of laws.<ref>Konrad Zweigert, Hein Kötz: ''Einführung in die Rechtsvergleichung''. 3rd edition. 1996. Mohr Siebeck. Tübingen. 1996. {{ISBN|3-16-146548-2}} (Hein Kötz mentions in the preface to the third edition on page&nbsp;V that the fall of "soviet communism" also made an end to the "soviet family of laws", which made it possible to save some 60&nbsp;pages as compared to the 2nd edition).</ref> ===Glenn=== [[H. Patrick Glenn]]<ref>''Legal Traditions of the World'' - Oxford University Press, 2000</ref> proposed the classification of legal systems places national laws in the broader context of major legal tradition:<ref name="VARGA-p68-GLENN">{{cite book |last=Varga |first=Csaba |date=2012 |title=COMPARATIVE LEGAL CULTURES |url=https://philarchive.org/archive/VARCLC |location=Budapest |publisher= |page=68 |isbn=9789632773377}}</ref> * Chthonic (or indigenous) law * [[Talmudic law]] * [[Islamic law]] * [[Hindu law]] * [[Chinese law#Confucianism|Confucianism law]] * [[Civil law (legal system)|Civil law]] * [[Common law]] ==Professional associations== * [[American Association of Law Libraries]] * [[American Society of Comparative Law]] * [[International Association of Judicial Independence and World Peace]] * [[International Association of Procedural Law]] * [[International Law Association]] ==Comparative law periodicals== * ''[[American Journal of Comparative Law]]'' * ''[[German Law Journal]]'' * ''[[Journal of Comparative Legislation and International Law]]'' * [http://www.wildy.com/isbn/1477-0814/journal-of-comparative-law-annual-subscription ''The Journal of Comparative Law''] ==See also== * [[Annual Bulletin (Comparative Law Bureau)|''Annual Bulletin'' of the Comparative Law Bureau]] (American Bar Association: 1908–1914, 1933), the first comparative law journal in the U.S. * [[Comparative criminal justice]] * [[Comparative law wiki]], online wikis where jurists can complete questionnaires regarding their home legal system * [[Friedrich Carl von Savigny]] (1779–1861) – a German legal scholar who wrote on comparative law * [[List of national legal systems]] * [[Rule according to higher law]] * [[Rule of law]] == References == === Notes === {{reflist|20em|group=nb}} === Citations === {{Reflist|20em}} === Sources === * Billis, Emmanouil. 'On the methodology of comparative criminal law research: Paradigmatic approaches to the research method of functional comparison and the heuristic device of ideal types', ''Maastricht Journal of European and Comparative Law'' 6 (2017): 864–881. * [[H Collins]], 'Methods and Aims of Comparative Contract Law' (1989) 11 OJLS 396. * Cotterrell, Roger (2006). ''Law, Culture and Society: Legal Ideas in the Mirror of Social Theory''. Aldershot: Ashgate. * De Cruz, Peter (2007) ''Comparative Law in a Changing World'', 3rd edn (1st edn 1995). London: Routledge-Cavendish. * Donahue, Charles (2008) 'Comparative Law before the "Code Napoléon"' in ''The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Law''. Eds. Mathias Reimann & Reinhard Zimmermann. Oxford: Oxford University Press. * Glanert, Simone (2008) 'Speaking Language to Law: The Case of Europe', ''Legal Studies'' 28: 161–171. * Hamza, Gabor (1991). ''Comparative Law and Antiquity''. Budapest: Akademiai Kiado. * Husa, Jaakko. ''A New Introduction to Comparative Law''. Oxford–Portland (Oregon): Hart, 2015. * [[O Kahn-Freund]], 'Comparative Law as an Academic Subject' (1966) 82 LQR 40. * Kischel, Uwe. ''Comparative Law''. Trans. Andrew Hammel. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019. * Legrand, Pierre (1996). 'European Legal Systems Are Not Converging', ''International and Comparative Law Quarterly'' 45: 52–81. * Legrand, Pierre (1997). 'Against a European Civil Code', ''Modern Law Review'' 60: 44–63. * Legrand, Pierre and Roderick Munday, eds. (2003). ''Comparative Legal Studies: Traditions and Transitions''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. * Legrand, Pierre (2003). 'The Same and the Different', in ''Comparative Legal Studies: Traditions and Transitions''. Eds. Pierre Legrand & Roderick Munday. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. * Leibniz, Gottffried Wilhelm (2017) ''The New Method of Learning and Teaching Jurisprudence... Translation of the 1667 Frankfurt Edition''. Clark, NJ: Talbot Publishing. * Lundmark, Thomas, Charting the divide between common and civil law, Oxford University Press, 2012. * MacDougal, M.S. 'The Comparative Study of Law for Policy Purposes: Value Clarification as an Instrument of Democratic World Order' (1952) 61 Yale Law Journal 915 (difficulties and requirements of good comparative law). * {{cite book |title=Schlesinger's Comparative Law: Cases, Text, Materials|last=Mattei|first=Ugo |author2=Teemu Ruskola |author3=Antonio Gidi |year=2009 |publisher=Foundation |location=London|isbn=978-1-58778-591-7}}. * [[Menski Werner]] (2006) ''Comparative Law in a Global Context: the Legal Traditions of Asia and Africa''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. * Orucu, Esin and David Nelken, eds. ''Comparative Law: A Handbook''. Oxford: Hart, 2007. * Reimann, Mathias & Reinhard Zimmermann, eds. ''The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Law'', 2nd edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019 (1st edn. 2008). * Samuel, Geoffrey. ''An Introduction to Comparative Law Theory and Method''. Oxford: Hart, 2014. * Siems, Mathias. ''Comparative Law''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014. * Watson, Alan. ''Legal Transplants: An Approach to Comparative Law'', 2nd edn. University of Georgia Press, 1993. * Zweigert, Konrad & Hein Kötz. ''An Introduction to Comparative Law'', 3rd edn. Trans. Tony Weir. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998. ;Legal systems * {{cite book|title=Major Legal Systems in the World Today: An Introduction to the Comparative Study of Law|last=David|first=René|author2=Brierley, John E. C.|year=1985|publisher=Stevens|location=London|isbn=0-420-47340-8|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/majorlegalsystem00davi}}. * Glendon, Mary Ann, Paolo G. Carozza, & Colin B. Picker. ''Comparative Legal Traditions in a Nutshell'', 4th edn. West Academic Publishing, 2015. * Glendon, Mary Ann, Paolo G. Carozza, & Colin B. Picker (2014). ''Comparative Legal Traditions: Text, Materials and Cases on Western Law'', 4th edn. West Academic Publishing. * Glenn, H. Patrick. ''Legal Traditions of the World'', 5th edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014 (1st edn 2000). ;Fields * Bignami, Fracesca & David Zaring, eds. ''Comparative Law and Regulation: Understanding the Global Regulatory Process''. Edward Elgar, 2018. * Graziano, Thomas Kadner. ''Comparative Contract Law: Cases, Materials and Exercises'', 2nd edn. Edward Elgar, 2019. * Kozolchyk, Boris. ''Comparative Commercial Contracts: Law, Culture and Economic Development'', 2nd edn. West Academic Publishing, 2018. * Nelken, David, ed. ''Contrasting Criminal Justice: Getting from Here to There''. Aldershot: Ashgate/Dartmouth, 2000. * Roberts, Anthea et al., eds. ''Comparative International Law''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018. ==External links== * [https://web.archive.org/web/20190809113731/http://www.alanwatson.org/ Alan Watson Foundation] * [https://law.tulane.edu/centers/eason Eason Weinmann Center for International and Comparative Law at Tulane University Law School] * [https://n-lex.europa.eu/n-lex/index?lang=en European Union national law portal] * [https://www.global-regulation.com/ Global-Regulation search engine] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100130093740/http://www.iuscomparatum.org/AIDC International Academy of Comparative Law] {{in lang|fr}} * [http://www.iacl-aidc.org International Association of Constitutional Law] * [http://www.internationalconstitutionallaw.net International Constitutional Law] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210518150439/http://internationalconstitutionallaw.net/ |date=2021-05-18 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20190422114950/http://www.juriglobe.ca/eng/index.php JuriGlobe] * [https://www.mpil.de/en/pub/news.cfm Max Planck Institute for Comparative Public Law and International Law] * [https://ouclf.law.ox.ac.uk/ Oxford University Comparative Law Forum] * [https://www.loc.gov/law/help/guide/nations.php US Library of Congress Guide to Law Online: Nations] * [https://blogs.loc.gov/law/category/global-law/ US Library of Congress Global Law blog] {{law}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Comparative law| ]] [[Category:Academic disciplines]] [[Category:Jurisprudence]] </textarea><div class="templatesUsed"><div class="mw-templatesUsedExplanation"><p><span id="templatesused">Pages transcluded onto the current version of this page<span class="posteditwindowhelplinks"> (<a href="/wiki/Help:Transclusion" title="Help:Transclusion">help</a>)</span>:</span> </p></div><ul> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Ambox" title="Template:Ambox">Template:Ambox</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Ambox&action=edit" title="Template:Ambox">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a 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