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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Low-energy_machines_and_particle_therapy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Low-energy_machines_and_particle_therapy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Low-energy machines and particle therapy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Low-energy_machines_and_particle_therapy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radiation_sterilization_of_medical_devices" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radiation_sterilization_of_medical_devices"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Radiation sterilization of medical devices</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radiation_sterilization_of_medical_devices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electrostatic_particle_accelerators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electrostatic_particle_accelerators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Electrostatic particle accelerators</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electrostatic_particle_accelerators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electrodynamic_(electromagnetic)_particle_accelerators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electrodynamic_(electromagnetic)_particle_accelerators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Electrodynamic (electromagnetic) particle accelerators</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Electrodynamic_(electromagnetic)_particle_accelerators-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Electrodynamic (electromagnetic) particle accelerators subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Electrodynamic_(electromagnetic)_particle_accelerators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Magnetic_induction_accelerators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Magnetic_induction_accelerators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Magnetic induction accelerators</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Magnetic_induction_accelerators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Linear_induction_accelerators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Linear_induction_accelerators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Linear induction accelerators</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Linear_induction_accelerators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Betatrons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Betatrons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Betatrons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Betatrons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Linear_accelerators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Linear_accelerators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Linear accelerators</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Linear_accelerators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Circular_or_cyclic_RF_accelerators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Circular_or_cyclic_RF_accelerators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Circular or cyclic RF accelerators</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Circular_or_cyclic_RF_accelerators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cyclotrons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cyclotrons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>Cyclotrons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cyclotrons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Synchrocyclotrons_and_isochronous_cyclotrons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Synchrocyclotrons_and_isochronous_cyclotrons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.2</span> <span>Synchrocyclotrons and isochronous cyclotrons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Synchrocyclotrons_and_isochronous_cyclotrons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Synchrotrons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Synchrotrons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.3</span> <span>Synchrotrons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Synchrotrons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Electron_synchrotrons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electron_synchrotrons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.3.1</span> <span>Electron synchrotrons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electron_synchrotrons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Synchrotron_radiation_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Synchrotron_radiation_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.4</span> <span>Synchrotron radiation sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Synchrotron_radiation_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fixed-field_alternating_gradient_accelerators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fixed-field_alternating_gradient_accelerators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.5</span> <span>Fixed-field alternating gradient accelerators</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fixed-field_alternating_gradient_accelerators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rhodotron" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rhodotron"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.6</span> <span>Rhodotron</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rhodotron-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.7</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Targets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Targets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Targets</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Targets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Detectors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Detectors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Detectors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Detectors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Higher_energies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Higher_energies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Higher energies</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Higher_energies-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Higher energies subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Higher_energies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Advanced_Accelerator_Concepts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Advanced_Accelerator_Concepts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Advanced Accelerator Concepts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Advanced_Accelerator_Concepts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Black_hole_production_and_public_safety_concerns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Black_hole_production_and_public_safety_concerns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Black hole production and public safety concerns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Black_hole_production_and_public_safety_concerns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Accelerator_operator" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Accelerator_operator"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Accelerator operator</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Accelerator_operator-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Particle accelerator</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 74 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-74" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">74 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deeltjieversneller" title="Deeltjieversneller – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Deeltjieversneller" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teilchenbeschleuniger" title="Teilchenbeschleuniger – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Teilchenbeschleuniger" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%B9_%D8%AC%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="مسرع جسيمات – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مسرع جسيمات" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acelerador_de_part%C3%ADcules" title="Acelerador de partícules – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Acelerador de partícules" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%A3%E0%A6%BE_%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%95" title="কণা ত্বরক – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="কণা ত্বরক" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BA_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85_%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%86%D1%96%D1%86" title="Паскаральнік зараджаных часціц – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Паскаральнік зараджаных часціц" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Ускорител на частици – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Ускорител на частици" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%98%E0%BE%B1%E0%BD%B4%E0%BD%A2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A6%E0%BE%A3%E0%BD%BC%E0%BD%93%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A6%E0%BE%90%E0%BE%B1%E0%BD%BA%E0%BD%91%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%96%E0%BE%B1%E0%BD%BA%E0%BD%91%E0%BC%8B_%E0%BD%80%E0%BE%B1%E0%BD%B2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A1%E0%BD%BC%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%86%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8D" title="མྱུར་སྣོན་སྐྱེད་བྱེད་ ཀྱི་ཡོ་ཆས། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="མྱུར་སྣོན་སྐྱེད་བྱེད་ ཀྱི་ཡོ་ཆས།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accelerador_de_part%C3%ADcules" title="Accelerador de partícules – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Accelerador de partícules" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urychlova%C4%8D_%C4%8D%C3%A1stic" title="Urychlovač částic – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Urychlovač částic" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyflymydd_gronynnol" title="Cyflymydd gronynnol – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Cyflymydd gronynnol" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partikelaccelerator" title="Partikelaccelerator – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Partikelaccelerator" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teilchenbeschleuniger" title="Teilchenbeschleuniger – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Teilchenbeschleuniger" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiirendi" title="Kiirendi – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kiirendi" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CF%80%CE%B9%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%87%CF%85%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%AE%CF%82_%CF%83%CF%89%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%B4%CE%AF%CF%89%CE%BD" title="Επιταχυντής σωματιδίων – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Επιταχυντής σωματιδίων" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acelerador_de_part%C3%ADculas" title="Acelerador de partículas – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Acelerador de partículas" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partikla_akcelilo" title="Partikla akcelilo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Partikla akcelilo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partikula-azeleragailu" title="Partikula-azeleragailu – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Partikula-azeleragailu" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8%E2%80%8C%D8%AF%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%B0%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="شتاب‌دهنده ذرات – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="شتاب‌دهنده ذرات" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acc%C3%A9l%C3%A9rateur_de_particules" title="Accélérateur de particules – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Accélérateur de particules" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luasaire_c%C3%A1ithn%C3%ADn" title="Luasaire cáithnín – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Luasaire cáithnín" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acelerador_de_part%C3%ADculas" title="Acelerador de partículas – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Acelerador de partículas" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9E%85%EC%9E%90_%EA%B0%80%EC%86%8D%EA%B8%B0" title="입자 가속기 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="입자 가속기" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A3_%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95" title="कण त्वरक – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="कण त्वरक" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akcelerator_%C4%8Destica" title="Akcelerator čestica – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Akcelerator čestica" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pemercepat_partikel" title="Pemercepat partikel – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pemercepat partikel" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eindahra%C3%B0all" title="Eindahraðall – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Eindahraðall" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acceleratore_di_particelle" title="Acceleratore di particelle – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Acceleratore di particelle" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%99%D7%A5_%D7%97%D7%9C%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%9D" title="מאיץ חלקיקים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מאיץ חלקיקים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%A3_%E0%B2%B5%E0%B3%87%E0%B2%97%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B7%E0%B2%95" title="ಕಣ ವೇಗೋತ್ಕರ್ಷಕ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಕಣ ವೇಗೋತ್ಕರ್ಷಕ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8F%D0%B4%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D2%93%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%B1%D3%A9%D0%BB%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B4%D1%96%D2%A3_%D2%AF%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%88%D1%96" title="Зарядталған бөлшектердің үдеткіші – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Зарядталған бөлшектердің үдеткіші" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kichapuzi_chembe" title="Kichapuzi chembe – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Kichapuzi chembe" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particularum_acceleratrum" title="Particularum acceleratrum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Particularum acceleratrum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Da%C4%BCi%C5%86u_pa%C4%81trin%C4%81t%C4%81js" title="Daļiņu paātrinātājs – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Daļiņu paātrinātājs" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daleli%C5%B3_greitintuvas" title="Dalelių greitintuvas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Dalelių greitintuvas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acceleratui_de_Partixelle" title="Acceleratui de Partixelle – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Acceleratui de Partixelle" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9szecskegyors%C3%ADt%C3%B3" title="Részecskegyorsító – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Részecskegyorsító" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B7%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%87_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Забрзувач на честички – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Забрзувач на честички" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%BF" title="കണികാത്വരണി – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="കണികാത്വരണി" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A3_%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95" title="कण त्वरक – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="कण त्वरक" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pemecut_zarah" title="Pemecut zarah – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pemecut zarah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D3%A9%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D1%85%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B3%D1%83%D1%83%D1%80" title="Цөмийн хурдасгуур – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Цөмийн хурдасгуур" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%99%E1%80%BE%E1%80%AF%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%A1%E1%80%9B%E1%80%BE%E1%80%AD%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%99%E1%80%BC%E1%80%BE%E1%80%84%E1%80%B7%E1%80%BA%E1%80%85%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA" title="အမှုန်အရှိန်မြှင့်စက် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အမှုန်အရှိန်မြှင့်စက်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deeltjesversneller" title="Deeltjesversneller – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Deeltjesversneller" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8A%A0%E9%80%9F%E5%99%A8" title="加速器 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="加速器" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partikkelakselerator" title="Partikkelakselerator – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Partikkelakselerator" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partikkelakselerator" title="Partikkelakselerator – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Partikkelakselerator" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accelerator_de_particulas" title="Accelerator de particulas – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Accelerator de particulas" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zarracha_tezlatgichi" title="Zarracha tezlatgichi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Zarracha tezlatgichi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%B0%D8%B1%D9%88_%D8%AA%D8%B9%D8%AC%D9%8A%D9%84_%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%88%D9%86%DA%A9%D9%8A_%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B4%D9%8A%D9%86" title="د ذرو تعجيل کوونکي ماشين – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د ذرو تعجيل کوونکي ماشين" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akcelerator_cz%C4%85stek" title="Akcelerator cząstek – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Akcelerator cząstek" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acelerador_de_part%C3%ADculas" title="Acelerador de partículas – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Acelerador de partículas" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accelerator_de_particule" title="Accelerator de particule – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Accelerator de particule" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8F%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85_%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%86" title="Ускоритель заряженных частиц – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Ускоритель заряженных частиц" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Particle accelerator" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ur%C3%BDch%C4%BEova%C4%8D_%C4%8Dast%C3%ADc" title="Urýchľovač častíc – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Urýchľovač častíc" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pospe%C5%A1evalnik" title="Pospeševalnik – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Pospeševalnik" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Акцелератор – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Акцелератор" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akcelerator_%C4%8Destica" title="Akcelerator čestica – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Akcelerator čestica" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiukkaskiihdytin" title="Hiukkaskiihdytin – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Hiukkaskiihdytin" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partikelaccelerator" title="Partikelaccelerator – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Partikelaccelerator" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF" title="துகள் முடுக்கி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="துகள் முடுக்கி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8B_%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%81%D3%99%D0%BA%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BB%D3%99%D1%80_%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BB%D3%99%D1%82%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%B5" title="Коргылы кисәкчекләр тизләткече – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Коргылы кисәкчекләр тизләткече" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AA%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%9F%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%87%E0%B0%9F%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D" title="పార్టికల్ యాక్సెలరేటర్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="పార్టికల్ యాక్సెలరేటర్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B7%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%84" title="เครื่องเร่งอนุภาค – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เครื่องเร่งอนุภาค" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Par%C3%A7ac%C4%B1k_h%C4%B1zland%C4%B1r%C4%B1c%C4%B1" title="Parçacık hızlandırıcı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Parçacık hızlandırıcı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zar%C3%BDadly_b%C3%B6lejikleri_tizlendiriji" title="Zarýadly bölejikleri tizlendiriji – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Zarýadly bölejikleri tizlendiriji" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8E%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%87_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8F%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%85_%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BA" title="Прискорювач заряджених частинок – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Прискорювач заряджених частинок" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B0%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%B9" title="ذراتی مسرع – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ذراتی مسرع" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1y_gia_t%E1%BB%91c_h%E1%BA%A1t" title="Máy gia tốc hạt – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Máy gia tốc hạt" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akselerador_hin_partikulo" title="Akselerador hin partikulo – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Akselerador hin partikulo" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90%E5%8A%A0%E9%80%9F%E5%99%A8" title="粒子加速器 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="粒子加速器" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90%E5%8A%A0%E9%80%9F%E5%99%A8" title="粒子加速器 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="粒子加速器" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90%E5%8A%A0%E9%80%9F%E5%99%A8" title="粒子加速器 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="粒子加速器" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Research apparatus for particle physics</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Atom smasher" and "Supercollider" redirect here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Atom_smasher_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Atom smasher (disambiguation)">Atom smasher (disambiguation)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Supercollider_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Supercollider (disambiguation)">Supercollider (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fermilab.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Fermilab.jpg/330px-Fermilab.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Fermilab.jpg/495px-Fermilab.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Fermilab.jpg/660px-Fermilab.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="1960" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Tevatron" title="Tevatron">Tevatron (background circle)</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Synchrotron" title="Synchrotron">synchrotron</a> <a href="/wiki/Collider" title="Collider">collider</a> type particle accelerator at <a href="/wiki/Fermi_National_Accelerator_Laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory">Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory</a> (Fermilab), Batavia, Illinois, USA. Shut down in 2011, until 2007 it was the most powerful particle accelerator in the world, accelerating protons to an energy of over 1 <a href="/wiki/TeV" class="mw-redirect" title="TeV">TeV</a> (tera electron volts). Beams of protons and antiprotons, circulating in opposite directions in the rear ring, collided at two magnetically induced intersection points. </figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Linear_accelerator_animation_16frames_1.6sec.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Linear_accelerator_animation_16frames_1.6sec.gif/480px-Linear_accelerator_animation_16frames_1.6sec.gif" decoding="async" width="480" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Linear_accelerator_animation_16frames_1.6sec.gif/720px-Linear_accelerator_animation_16frames_1.6sec.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Linear_accelerator_animation_16frames_1.6sec.gif 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="255" /></a><figcaption>Animation showing the operation of a <a href="/wiki/Linear_particle_accelerator" title="Linear particle accelerator">linear accelerator</a>, widely used in both physics research and cancer treatment.</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>particle accelerator</b> is a machine that uses <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_field" title="Electromagnetic field">electromagnetic fields</a> to propel <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">charged</a> <a href="/wiki/Particle" title="Particle">particles</a> to very high speeds and energies to contain them in well-defined <a href="/wiki/Particle_beam" title="Particle beam">beams</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Small accelerators are used for fundamental research in <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particle physics</a>. Accelerators are also used as <a href="/wiki/Synchrotron_light_source" title="Synchrotron light source">synchrotron light sources</a> for the study of <a href="/wiki/Condensed_matter_physics" title="Condensed matter physics">condensed matter physics</a>. Smaller particle accelerators are used in a wide variety of applications, including <a href="/wiki/Particle_therapy" title="Particle therapy">particle therapy</a> for <a href="/wiki/Oncology" title="Oncology">oncological</a> purposes, <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_in_medicine" title="Isotopes in medicine">radioisotope</a> production for medical diagnostics, <a href="/wiki/Ion_implantation" title="Ion implantation">ion implanters</a> for the manufacture of <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductors</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Accelerator_mass_spectrometry" title="Accelerator mass spectrometry">accelerator mass spectrometers</a> for measurements of rare isotopes such as <a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiocarbon">radiocarbon</a>. </p><p>Large accelerators include the <a href="/wiki/Relativistic_Heavy_Ion_Collider" title="Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider">Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider</a> at <a href="/wiki/Brookhaven_National_Laboratory" title="Brookhaven National Laboratory">Brookhaven National Laboratory</a> in New York and the largest accelerator, the <a href="/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider" title="Large Hadron Collider">Large Hadron Collider</a> near Geneva, Switzerland, operated by <a href="/wiki/European_Organization_for_Nuclear_Research" class="mw-redirect" title="European Organization for Nuclear Research">CERN</a>. It is a <a href="/wiki/Collider" title="Collider">collider</a> accelerator, which can accelerate two beams of protons to an energy of 6.5 <a href="/wiki/TeV" class="mw-redirect" title="TeV">TeV</a> and cause them to collide head-on, creating center-of-mass energies of 13 TeV. There are more than 30,000 accelerators in operation around the world.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are two basic classes of accelerators: electrostatic and electrodynamic (or electromagnetic) accelerators.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Electrostatic_particle_accelerator" title="Electrostatic particle accelerator">Electrostatic particle accelerators</a></i> use static <a href="/wiki/Electric_field" title="Electric field">electric fields</a> to accelerate particles. The most common types are the <a href="/wiki/Cockcroft%E2%80%93Walton_generator" title="Cockcroft–Walton generator">Cockcroft–Walton generator</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Van_de_Graaff_generator" title="Van de Graaff generator">Van de Graaff generator</a>. A small-scale example of this class is the <a href="/wiki/Cathode-ray_tube" title="Cathode-ray tube">cathode-ray tube</a> in an ordinary old television set. The achievable <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">kinetic energy</a> for particles in these devices is determined by the accelerating <a href="/wiki/Voltage" title="Voltage">voltage</a>, which is limited by <a href="/wiki/Electrical_breakdown" title="Electrical breakdown">electrical breakdown</a>. <i>Electrodynamic</i> or <i>electromagnetic</i> accelerators, on the other hand, use changing electromagnetic fields (either <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_induction" title="Electromagnetic induction">magnetic induction</a> or oscillating <a href="/wiki/Radio_frequency" title="Radio frequency">radio frequency</a> fields) to accelerate particles. Since in these types the particles can pass through the same accelerating field multiple times, the output energy is not limited by the strength of the accelerating field. This class, which was first developed in the 1920s, is the basis for most modern large-scale accelerators. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Rolf_Wider%C3%B8e" title="Rolf Widerøe">Rolf Widerøe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Ising" class="mw-redirect" title="Gustav Ising">Gustav Ising</a>, <a href="/wiki/Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd" class="mw-redirect" title="Leó Szilárd">Leó Szilárd</a>, <a href="/wiki/Max_Steenbeck" title="Max Steenbeck">Max Steenbeck</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence">Ernest Lawrence</a> are considered pioneers of this field, having conceived and built the first operational <a href="/wiki/Linear_particle_accelerator" title="Linear particle accelerator">linear particle accelerator</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Betatron" title="Betatron">betatron</a>, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Cyclotron" title="Cyclotron">cyclotron</a>. Because the target of the particle beams of early accelerators was usually the atoms of a piece of matter, with the goal being to create collisions with their nuclei in order to investigate nuclear structure, accelerators were commonly referred to as <b>atom smashers</b> in the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term persists despite the fact that many modern accelerators create collisions between two <a href="/wiki/Subatomic_particles" class="mw-redirect" title="Subatomic particles">subatomic particles</a>, rather than a particle and an atomic nucleus.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Uses">Uses</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Particle_accelerator&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Uses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Particle_accelerator_DSC09089.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Particle_accelerator_DSC09089.JPG/220px-Particle_accelerator_DSC09089.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Particle_accelerator_DSC09089.JPG/330px-Particle_accelerator_DSC09089.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Particle_accelerator_DSC09089.JPG/440px-Particle_accelerator_DSC09089.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1676" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Beamline" title="Beamline">Beamlines</a> leading from the <a href="/wiki/Van_de_Graaff_accelerator" class="mw-redirect" title="Van de Graaff accelerator">Van de Graaff accelerator</a> to various experiments, in the basement of the <a href="/wiki/Jussieu_Campus" title="Jussieu Campus">Jussieu Campus</a> in <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SLAC_National_Accelerator_Laboratory_Aerial_2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/SLAC_National_Accelerator_Laboratory_Aerial_2.png/220px-SLAC_National_Accelerator_Laboratory_Aerial_2.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/SLAC_National_Accelerator_Laboratory_Aerial_2.png/330px-SLAC_National_Accelerator_Laboratory_Aerial_2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/SLAC_National_Accelerator_Laboratory_Aerial_2.png/440px-SLAC_National_Accelerator_Laboratory_Aerial_2.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Building covering the 2 mile (3.2 km) beam tube of the <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Linear_Accelerator" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanford Linear Accelerator">Stanford Linear Accelerator</a> (SLAC) at Menlo Park, California, the second most powerful linac in the world.</figcaption></figure> <p>Beams of high-energy particles are useful for fundamental and applied research in the sciences and also in many technical and industrial fields unrelated to fundamental research.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are approximately 30,000 accelerators worldwide; of these, only about 1% are research machines with energies above 1 <a href="/wiki/GeV" class="mw-redirect" title="GeV">GeV</a>, while about 44% are for <a href="/wiki/Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">radiotherapy</a>, 41% for <a href="/wiki/Ion_implantation" title="Ion implantation">ion implantation</a>, 9% for industrial processing and research, and 4% for biomedical and other low-energy research.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Particle_physics">Particle physics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Particle_accelerator&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Particle physics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For the most basic inquiries into the dynamics and structure of matter, space, and time, physicists seek the simplest kinds of interactions at the highest possible energies. These typically entail particle energies of many <a href="/wiki/GeV" class="mw-redirect" title="GeV">GeV</a>, and interactions of the simplest kinds of particles: <a href="/wiki/Lepton" title="Lepton">leptons</a> (e.g. electrons and <a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">positrons</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Quark" title="Quark">quarks</a> for the matter, or <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gluon" title="Gluon">gluons</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Quantum_field_theory" title="Quantum field theory">field quanta</a>. Since isolated quarks are experimentally unavailable due to <a href="/wiki/Color_confinement" title="Color confinement">color confinement</a>, the simplest available experiments involve the interactions of, first, leptons with each other, and second, of leptons with <a href="/wiki/Nucleon" title="Nucleon">nucleons</a>, which are composed of quarks and gluons. To study the collisions of quarks with each other, scientists resort to collisions of nucleons, which at high energy may be usefully considered as <a href="/wiki/Two-body_problem" title="Two-body problem">essentially 2-body interactions</a> of the quarks and gluons of which they are composed. This elementary particle physicists tend to use machines creating beams of electrons, positrons, protons, and <a href="/wiki/Antiproton" title="Antiproton">antiprotons</a>, interacting with each other or with the simplest nuclei (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> or <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a>) at the highest possible energies, generally hundreds of GeV or more. </p><p>The largest and highest-energy particle accelerator used for elementary <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particle physics</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider" title="Large Hadron Collider">Large Hadron Collider</a> (LHC) at <a href="/wiki/CERN" title="CERN">CERN</a>, operating since 2009.<sup id="cite_ref-CERNNovember_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CERNNovember-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nuclear_physics_and_isotope_production">Nuclear physics and isotope production</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Particle_accelerator&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Nuclear physics and isotope production"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physicist" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear physicist">Nuclear physicists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cosmologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmologist">cosmologists</a> may use beams of bare <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">atomic nuclei</a>, stripped of electrons, to investigate the structure, interactions, and properties of the nuclei themselves, and of <a href="/wiki/Condensed_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Condensed matter">condensed matter</a> at extremely high temperatures and densities, such as might have occurred in the first moments of the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a>. These investigations often involve collisions of heavy nuclei – of atoms like <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> or <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a> – at energies of several GeV per <a href="/wiki/Nucleon" title="Nucleon">nucleon</a>. The largest such particle accelerator is the <a href="/wiki/Relativistic_Heavy_Ion_Collider" title="Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider">Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider</a> (RHIC) at <a href="/wiki/Brookhaven_National_Laboratory" title="Brookhaven National Laboratory">Brookhaven National Laboratory</a>. </p><p>Particle accelerators can also produce proton beams, which can produce proton-rich medical or research <a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotopes</a> as opposed to the neutron-rich ones made in <a href="/wiki/Fission_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Fission reactor">fission reactors</a>; however, recent work has shown how to make <sup>99</sup><a href="/wiki/Molybdenum" title="Molybdenum">Mo</a>, usually made in reactors, by accelerating isotopes of hydrogen,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although this method still requires a reactor to produce <a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">tritium</a>. An example of this type of machine is <a href="/wiki/LANSCE" class="mw-redirect" title="LANSCE">LANSCE</a> at <a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_National_Laboratory" title="Los Alamos National Laboratory">Los Alamos National Laboratory</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Synchrotron_radiation">Synchrotron radiation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Particle_accelerator&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Synchrotron radiation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">Electrons</a> propagating through a magnetic field emit very bright and coherent <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photon</a> beams via <a href="/wiki/Synchrotron_radiation" title="Synchrotron radiation">synchrotron radiation</a>. It has numerous uses in the study of atomic structure, chemistry, condensed matter physics, biology, and technology. A large number of <a href="/wiki/Synchrotron_light_source" title="Synchrotron light source">synchrotron light sources</a> exist worldwide. Examples in the U.S. are <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Synchrotron_Radiation_Lightsource" title="Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource">SSRL</a> at <a href="/wiki/SLAC_National_Accelerator_Laboratory" title="SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory">SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Advanced_Photon_Source" title="Advanced Photon Source">APS</a> at Argonne National Laboratory, <a href="/wiki/Advanced_Light_Source" title="Advanced Light Source">ALS</a> at <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Berkeley_National_Laboratory" title="Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory">Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory</a>, and <a href="/wiki/National_Synchrotron_Light_Source_II" title="National Synchrotron Light Source II">NSLS-II</a> at <a href="/wiki/Brookhaven_National_Laboratory" title="Brookhaven National Laboratory">Brookhaven National Laboratory</a>. In Europe, there are <a href="/wiki/MAX_IV_Laboratory" title="MAX IV Laboratory">MAX IV</a> in Lund, Sweden, <a href="/wiki/BESSY" title="BESSY">BESSY</a> in Berlin, Germany, <a href="/wiki/Diamond_Light_Source" title="Diamond Light Source">Diamond</a> in Oxfordshire, UK, <a href="/wiki/European_Synchrotron_Radiation_Facility" title="European Synchrotron Radiation Facility">ESRF</a> in <a href="/wiki/Grenoble" title="Grenoble">Grenoble</a>, France, the latter has been used to extract detailed 3-dimensional images of insects trapped in amber.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Free-electron_laser" title="Free-electron laser">Free-electron lasers</a> (FELs) are a special class of light sources based on <a href="/wiki/Synchrotron_radiation" title="Synchrotron radiation">synchrotron radiation</a> that provides shorter pulses with higher temporal <a href="/wiki/Coherence_(physics)" title="Coherence (physics)">coherence</a>. A specially designed FEL is the most <a href="/wiki/Synchrotron_light_source#Brilliance" title="Synchrotron light source">brilliant</a> source of <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">x-rays</a> in the observable universe.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most prominent examples are the <a href="/wiki/SLAC_National_Accelerator_Laboratory#LCLS" title="SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory">LCLS</a> in the U.S. and <a href="/wiki/European_XFEL" title="European XFEL">European XFEL</a> in Germany. More attention is being drawn towards <a href="/wiki/X-ray#Soft_and_hard_X-rays" title="X-ray">soft x-ray</a> lasers, which together with pulse shortening opens up new methods for <a href="/wiki/Attophysics" class="mw-redirect" title="Attophysics">attosecond science</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Apart from x-rays, FELs are used to emit <a href="/wiki/Terahertz_radiation" title="Terahertz radiation">terahertz light</a>, e.g. FELIX in Nijmegen, Netherlands, TELBE in Dresden, Germany and NovoFEL in Novosibirsk, Russia. </p><p>Thus there is a great demand for electron accelerators of moderate (<a href="/wiki/Electronvolt" title="Electronvolt">GeV</a>) energy, high intensity and high beam quality to drive light sources. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Low-energy_machines_and_particle_therapy">Low-energy machines and particle therapy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Particle_accelerator&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Low-energy machines and particle therapy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Everyday examples of particle accelerators are <a href="/wiki/Cathode_ray_tube" class="mw-redirect" title="Cathode ray tube">cathode ray tubes</a> found in television sets and <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-ray</a> generators. These low-energy accelerators use a single pair of <a href="/wiki/Electrode" title="Electrode">electrodes</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Direct_current" title="Direct current">DC</a> voltage of a few thousand volts between them. In an X-ray generator, the target itself is one of the electrodes. A low-energy particle accelerator called an <a href="/wiki/Ion_implanter" class="mw-redirect" title="Ion implanter">ion implanter</a> is used in the manufacture of <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuits</a>. </p><p>At lower energies, beams of accelerated nuclei are also used in medicine as <a href="/wiki/Particle_therapy" title="Particle therapy">particle therapy</a>, for the treatment of cancer. </p><p>DC accelerator types capable of accelerating particles to speeds sufficient to cause nuclear reactions are <a href="/wiki/Cockcroft%E2%80%93Walton_generator" title="Cockcroft–Walton generator">Cockcroft–Walton generators</a> or <a href="/wiki/Voltage_multiplier" title="Voltage multiplier">voltage multipliers</a>, which convert AC to high voltage DC, or <a href="/wiki/Van_de_Graaff_generator" title="Van de Graaff generator">Van de Graaff generators</a> that use static electricity carried by belts. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radiation_sterilization_of_medical_devices">Radiation sterilization of medical devices</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Particle_accelerator&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Radiation sterilization of medical devices"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Electron_beam_processing" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron beam processing">Electron beam processing</a> is commonly used for sterilization. <a href="/wiki/Electron_beams" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron beams">Electron beams</a> are an on-off technology that provide a much higher dose rate than gamma or X-rays emitted by <a href="/wiki/Radioisotope" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioisotope">radioisotopes</a> like <a href="/wiki/Cobalt-60" title="Cobalt-60">cobalt-60</a> (<sup>60</sup>Co) or <a href="/wiki/Caesium-137" title="Caesium-137">caesium-137</a> (<sup>137</sup>Cs). Due to the higher dose rate, less exposure time is required and polymer degradation is reduced. Because <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> carry a charge, electron beams are less penetrating than both gamma and X-rays.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Electrostatic_particle_accelerators">Electrostatic particle accelerators</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Particle_accelerator&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Electrostatic particle accelerators"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cockcroft%E2%80%93Walton_generator.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Cockcroft%E2%80%93Walton_generator.jpg/150px-Cockcroft%E2%80%93Walton_generator.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Cockcroft%E2%80%93Walton_generator.jpg/225px-Cockcroft%E2%80%93Walton_generator.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Cockcroft%E2%80%93Walton_generator.jpg/300px-Cockcroft%E2%80%93Walton_generator.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1930" data-file-height="3206" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Cockcroft%E2%80%93Walton_generator" title="Cockcroft–Walton generator">Cockcroft–Walton generator</a> (<a href="/wiki/Philips" title="Philips">Philips</a>, 1937), residing in <a href="/wiki/Science_Museum_(London)" class="mw-redirect" title="Science Museum (London)">Science Museum (London)</a>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Electrostatic_particle_accelerator" title="Electrostatic particle accelerator">Electrostatic particle accelerator</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2mv_accelerator-MJC01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/2mv_accelerator-MJC01.jpg/250px-2mv_accelerator-MJC01.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/2mv_accelerator-MJC01.jpg/375px-2mv_accelerator-MJC01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/2mv_accelerator-MJC01.jpg/500px-2mv_accelerator-MJC01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1222" data-file-height="913" /></a><figcaption>A 1960s single stage 2 MeV linear Van de Graaff accelerator, here opened for maintenance</figcaption></figure> <p>Historically, the first accelerators used simple technology of a single static high voltage to accelerate charged particles. The charged particle was accelerated through an evacuated tube with an electrode at either end, with the static potential across it. Since the particle passed only once through the potential difference, the output energy was limited to the accelerating voltage of the machine. While this method is still extremely popular today, with the electrostatic accelerators greatly out-numbering any other type, they are more suited to lower energy studies owing to the practical voltage limit of about 1 MV for air insulated machines, or 30 MV when the accelerator is operated in a tank of pressurized gas with high <a href="/wiki/Dielectric_strength" title="Dielectric strength">dielectric strength</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Sulfur_hexafluoride" title="Sulfur hexafluoride">sulfur hexafluoride</a>. In a <i>tandem accelerator</i> the potential is used twice to accelerate the particles, by reversing the charge of the particles while they are inside the terminal. This is possible with the acceleration of <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nuclei" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic nuclei">atomic nuclei</a> by using <a href="/wiki/Anion" class="mw-redirect" title="Anion">anions</a> (negatively charged <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ions</a>), and then passing the beam through a thin foil to strip electrons off the anions inside the high voltage terminal, converting them to cations (positively charged ions), which are accelerated again as they leave the terminal. </p><p>The two main types of electrostatic accelerator are the <a href="/wiki/Cockcroft%E2%80%93Walton_accelerator" class="mw-redirect" title="Cockcroft–Walton accelerator">Cockcroft–Walton accelerator</a>, which uses a diode-capacitor voltage multiplier to produce high voltage, and the <a href="/wiki/Van_de_Graaff_accelerator" class="mw-redirect" title="Van de Graaff accelerator">Van de Graaff accelerator</a>, which uses a moving fabric belt to carry charge to the high voltage electrode. Although electrostatic accelerators accelerate particles along a straight line, the term linear accelerator is more often used for accelerators that employ oscillating rather than static electric fields. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Electrodynamic_(electromagnetic)_particle_accelerators"><span id="Electrodynamic_.28electromagnetic.29_particle_accelerators"></span>Electrodynamic (electromagnetic) particle accelerators</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Particle_accelerator&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Electrodynamic (electromagnetic) particle accelerators"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Due to the high voltage ceiling imposed by electrical discharge, in order to accelerate particles to higher energies, techniques involving dynamic fields rather than static fields are used. Electrodynamic acceleration can arise from either of two mechanisms: non-resonant <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_induction" title="Electromagnetic induction">magnetic induction</a>, or resonant circuits or <a href="/wiki/Microwave_cavity" title="Microwave cavity">cavities</a> excited by oscillating <a href="/wiki/Radio_frequency" title="Radio frequency">radio frequency</a> (RF) fields.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Electrodynamic accelerators can be <i>linear</i>, with particles accelerating in a straight line, or <i>circular</i>, using magnetic fields to bend particles in a roughly circular orbit. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Magnetic_induction_accelerators">Magnetic induction accelerators</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Particle_accelerator&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Magnetic induction accelerators"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Magnetic induction accelerators accelerate particles by induction from an increasing magnetic field, as if the particles were the secondary winding in a transformer. The increasing magnetic field creates a circulating electric field which can be configured to accelerate the particles. Induction accelerators can be either linear or circular. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Linear_induction_accelerators">Linear induction accelerators</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Particle_accelerator&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Linear induction accelerators"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Linear_induction_accelerator" title="Linear induction accelerator">Linear induction accelerator</a></div> <p>Linear induction accelerators utilize ferrite-loaded, non-resonant induction cavities. Each cavity can be thought of as two large washer-shaped disks connected by an outer cylindrical tube. Between the disks is a ferrite toroid. A voltage pulse applied between the two disks causes an increasing magnetic field which inductively couples power into the charged particle beam.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The linear induction accelerator was invented by <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Christofilos" title="Nicholas Christofilos">Christofilos</a> in the 1960s.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Linear induction accelerators are capable of accelerating very high beam currents (>1000 A) in a single short pulse. They have been used to generate X-rays for flash radiography (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Dual-Axis_Radiographic_Hydrodynamic_Test_Facility" title="Dual-Axis Radiographic Hydrodynamic Test Facility">DARHT</a> at <a href="/wiki/LANL" class="mw-redirect" title="LANL">LANL</a>), and have been considered as particle injectors for <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_confinement_fusion" title="Magnetic confinement fusion">magnetic confinement fusion</a> and as drivers for <a href="/wiki/Free_electron_laser" class="mw-redirect" title="Free electron laser">free electron lasers</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Betatrons">Betatrons</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Particle_accelerator&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Betatrons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Betatron" title="Betatron">Betatron</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Betatron" title="Betatron">Betatron</a> is a circular magnetic induction accelerator, invented by <a href="/wiki/Donald_William_Kerst" title="Donald William Kerst">Donald Kerst</a> in 1940 for accelerating <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a>. The concept originates ultimately from Norwegian-German scientist <a href="/wiki/Rolf_Wider%C3%B8e" title="Rolf Widerøe">Rolf Widerøe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These machines, like synchrotrons, use a donut-shaped ring magnet (see below) with a cyclically increasing B field, but accelerate the particles by induction from the increasing magnetic field, as if they were the secondary winding in a transformer, due to the changing magnetic flux through the orbit.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Achieving constant orbital radius while supplying the proper accelerating electric field requires that the magnetic flux linking the orbit be somewhat independent of the magnetic field on the orbit, bending the particles into a constant radius curve. These machines have in practice been limited by the large radiative losses suffered by the electrons moving at nearly the speed of light in a relatively small radius orbit. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Linear_accelerators">Linear accelerators</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Particle_accelerator&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Linear accelerators"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Linear_particle_accelerator" title="Linear particle accelerator">Linear particle accelerator</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Desy_tesla_cavity01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Desy_tesla_cavity01.jpg/220px-Desy_tesla_cavity01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="332" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Desy_tesla_cavity01.jpg/330px-Desy_tesla_cavity01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Desy_tesla_cavity01.jpg/440px-Desy_tesla_cavity01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="464" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption>Modern <a href="/wiki/Superconducting_radio_frequency" title="Superconducting radio frequency">superconducting radio frequency</a>, multicell linear accelerator component.</figcaption></figure> <p>In a <a href="/wiki/Linear_particle_accelerator" title="Linear particle accelerator">linear particle accelerator</a> (linac), particles are accelerated in a straight line with a target of interest at one end. They are often used to provide an initial low-energy kick to particles before they are injected into circular accelerators. The longest linac in the world is the <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Linear_Accelerator_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanford Linear Accelerator Center">Stanford Linear Accelerator</a>, SLAC, which is 3 km (1.9 mi) long. SLAC was originally an <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a>–<a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">positron</a> collider but is now a X-ray <a href="/wiki/Free-electron_laser" title="Free-electron laser">Free-electron laser</a>. </p><p>Linear high-energy accelerators use a linear array of plates (or drift tubes) to which an alternating high-energy field is applied. As the particles approach a plate they are accelerated towards it by an opposite polarity charge applied to the plate. As they pass through a hole in the plate, the <a href="/wiki/Electrical_polarity" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical polarity">polarity</a> is switched so that the plate now repels them and they are now accelerated by it towards the next plate. Normally a stream of "bunches" of particles are accelerated, so a carefully controlled AC voltage is applied to each plate to continuously repeat this process for each bunch. </p><p>As the particles approach the speed of light the switching rate of the electric fields becomes so high that they operate at <a href="/wiki/Radio_frequency" title="Radio frequency">radio frequencies</a>, and so <a href="/wiki/Microwave_cavity" title="Microwave cavity">microwave cavities</a> are used in higher energy machines instead of simple plates. </p><p>Linear accelerators are also widely used in <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, for <a href="/wiki/Radiotherapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiotherapy">radiotherapy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Radiosurgery" title="Radiosurgery">radiosurgery</a>. Medical grade linacs accelerate electrons using a <a href="/wiki/Klystron" title="Klystron">klystron</a> and a complex bending magnet arrangement which produces a beam of energy <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6987961305892200000♠"></span>6–30 <a href="/wiki/Electronvolt" title="Electronvolt">MeV</a></span>. The electrons can be used directly or they can be collided with a target to produce a beam of <a href="/wiki/X-rays" class="mw-redirect" title="X-rays">X-rays</a>. The reliability, flexibility and accuracy of the radiation beam produced has largely supplanted the older use of <a href="/wiki/Cobalt-60" title="Cobalt-60">cobalt-60</a> therapy as a treatment tool. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Circular_or_cyclic_RF_accelerators">Circular or cyclic RF accelerators <span class="anchor" id="Circular_accelerators"></span></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Particle_accelerator&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Circular or cyclic RF accelerators"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the circular accelerator, particles move in a circle until they reach enough energy. The particle track is typically bent into a circle using <a href="/wiki/Electromagnet" title="Electromagnet">electromagnets</a>. The advantage of circular accelerators over linear accelerators (<i>linacs</i>) is that the ring topology allows continuous acceleration, as the particle can transit indefinitely. Another advantage is that a circular accelerator is smaller than a linear accelerator of comparable power (i.e. a linac would have to be extremely long to have the equivalent power of a circular accelerator). </p><p>Depending on the energy and the particle being accelerated, circular accelerators suffer a disadvantage in that the particles emit <a href="/wiki/Synchrotron_radiation" title="Synchrotron radiation">synchrotron radiation</a>. When any charged particle is accelerated, it emits <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">electromagnetic radiation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Secondary_emission" title="Secondary emission">secondary emissions</a>. As a particle traveling in a circle is always accelerating towards the center of the circle, it continuously radiates towards the tangent of the circle. This radiation is called <a href="/wiki/Synchrotron_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Synchrotron light">synchrotron light</a> and depends highly on the mass of the accelerating particle. For this reason, many high energy electron accelerators are linacs. Certain accelerators (<a href="/wiki/Synchrotron" title="Synchrotron">synchrotrons</a>) are however built specially for producing synchrotron light (<a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-rays</a>). </p><p>Since the <a href="/wiki/Special_theory_of_relativity" class="mw-redirect" title="Special theory of relativity">special theory of relativity</a> requires that matter always travels slower than the speed of light in <a href="/wiki/Vacuum" title="Vacuum">vacuum</a>, in high-energy accelerators, as the energy increases the particle speed approaches the speed of light as a limit, but never attains it. Therefore, particle physicists do not generally think in terms of speed, but rather in terms of a particle's <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a> or <a href="/wiki/Momentum" title="Momentum">momentum</a>, usually measured in <a href="/wiki/Electron_volt" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron volt">electron volts</a> (eV). An important principle for circular accelerators, and <a href="/wiki/Particle_beam" title="Particle beam">particle beams</a> in general, is that the <a href="/wiki/Curvature" title="Curvature">curvature</a> of the particle trajectory is proportional to the particle charge and to the magnetic field, but inversely proportional to the (typically <a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">relativistic</a>) <a href="/wiki/Momentum" title="Momentum">momentum</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cyclotrons">Cyclotrons</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Particle_accelerator&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Cyclotrons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Berkeley_60-inch_cyclotron.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Berkeley_60-inch_cyclotron.jpg/220px-Berkeley_60-inch_cyclotron.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Berkeley_60-inch_cyclotron.jpg/330px-Berkeley_60-inch_cyclotron.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Berkeley_60-inch_cyclotron.jpg/440px-Berkeley_60-inch_cyclotron.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2409" /></a><figcaption>Lawrence's 60 inch cyclotron, with magnet poles 60 inches (5 feet, 1.5 meters) in diameter, at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California" title="University of California">University of California</a> <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Radiation_Laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Lawrence Radiation Laboratory">Lawrence Radiation Laboratory</a>, Berkeley, in August, 1939, the most powerful accelerator in the world at the time. <a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn T. Seaborg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edwin_McMillan" title="Edwin McMillan">Edwin McMillan</a> <i>(right)</i> used it to discover <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neptunium" title="Neptunium">neptunium</a> and many other transuranic elements and isotopes, for which they received the 1951 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> in chemistry.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cyclotron" title="Cyclotron">Cyclotron</a></div> <p>The earliest operational circular accelerators were <a href="/wiki/Cyclotron" title="Cyclotron">cyclotrons</a>, invented in 1929 by <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence">Ernest Lawrence</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a>. Cyclotrons have a single pair of hollow D-shaped plates to accelerate the particles and a single large <a href="/wiki/Dipole_magnet" title="Dipole magnet">dipole magnet</a> to bend their path into a circular orbit. It is a characteristic property of charged particles in a uniform and constant magnetic field B that they orbit with a constant period, at a frequency called the <a href="/wiki/Cyclotron_frequency" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyclotron frequency">cyclotron frequency</a>, so long as their speed is small compared to the speed of light <i>c</i>. This means that the accelerating D's of a cyclotron can be driven at a constant frequency by a RF accelerating power source, as the beam spirals outwards continuously. The particles are injected in the center of the magnet and are extracted at the outer edge at their maximum energy. </p><p>Cyclotrons reach an energy limit because of <a href="/wiki/Relativistic_mass" class="mw-redirect" title="Relativistic mass">relativistic effects</a> whereby the particles effectively become more massive, so that their cyclotron frequency drops out of sync with the accelerating RF. Therefore, simple cyclotrons can accelerate protons only to an energy of around 15 million electron volts (15 MeV, corresponding to a speed of roughly 10% of <i>c</i>), because the protons get out of phase with the driving electric field. If accelerated further, the beam would continue to spiral outward to a larger radius but the particles would no longer gain enough speed to complete the larger circle in step with the accelerating RF. To accommodate relativistic effects the magnetic field needs to be increased to higher radii as is done in <a href="/wiki/Isochronous_cyclotron" class="mw-redirect" title="Isochronous cyclotron">isochronous cyclotrons</a>. An example of an isochronous cyclotron is the <a href="/wiki/Paul_Scherrer_Institute" title="Paul Scherrer Institute">PSI Ring cyclotron</a> in Switzerland, which provides protons at the energy of 590 MeV which corresponds to roughly 80% of the speed of light. The advantage of such a cyclotron is the maximum achievable extracted proton current which is currently 2.2 mA. The energy and current correspond to 1.3 MW beam power which is the highest of any accelerator currently existing. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Synchrocyclotrons_and_isochronous_cyclotrons">Synchrocyclotrons and isochronous cyclotrons</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Particle_accelerator&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Synchrocyclotrons and isochronous cyclotrons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Synchrocyclotron" title="Synchrocyclotron">Synchrocyclotron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Isochronous_cyclotron" class="mw-redirect" title="Isochronous cyclotron">Isochronous cyclotron</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Orsay_proton_therapy_dsc04444.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Orsay_proton_therapy_dsc04444.jpg/220px-Orsay_proton_therapy_dsc04444.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Orsay_proton_therapy_dsc04444.jpg/330px-Orsay_proton_therapy_dsc04444.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Orsay_proton_therapy_dsc04444.jpg/440px-Orsay_proton_therapy_dsc04444.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>A magnet in the synchrocyclotron at the <a href="/wiki/Orsay" title="Orsay">Orsay</a> <a href="/wiki/Proton_therapy" title="Proton therapy">proton therapy</a> center</figcaption></figure> <p>A classic cyclotron can be modified to increase its energy limit. The historically first approach was the <a href="/wiki/Synchrocyclotron" title="Synchrocyclotron">synchrocyclotron</a>, which accelerates the particles in bunches. It uses a constant <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic field</a> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle B}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>B</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle B}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/47136aad860d145f75f3eed3022df827cee94d7a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.764ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle B}"></span>, but reduces the accelerating field's frequency so as to keep the particles in step as they spiral outward, matching their mass-dependent <a href="/wiki/Cyclotron_resonance" title="Cyclotron resonance">cyclotron resonance</a> frequency. This approach suffers from low average beam intensity due to the bunching, and again from the need for a huge magnet of large radius and constant field over the larger orbit demanded by high energy. </p><p>The second approach to the problem of accelerating relativistic particles is the <a href="/wiki/Isochronous_cyclotron" class="mw-redirect" title="Isochronous cyclotron">isochronous cyclotron</a>. In such a structure, the accelerating field's frequency (and the cyclotron resonance frequency) is kept constant for all energies by shaping the magnet poles so to increase magnetic field with radius. Thus, all particles get accelerated in <a href="/wiki/Isochronous" class="mw-redirect" title="Isochronous">isochronous</a> time intervals. Higher energy particles travel a shorter distance in each orbit than they would in a classical cyclotron, thus remaining in phase with the accelerating field. The advantage of the isochronous cyclotron is that it can deliver continuous beams of higher average intensity, which is useful for some applications. The main disadvantages are the size and cost of the large magnet needed, and the difficulty in achieving the high magnetic field values required at the outer edge of the structure. </p><p>Synchrocyclotrons have not been built since the isochronous cyclotron was developed. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Synchrotrons">Synchrotrons</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Particle_accelerator&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Synchrotrons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Synchrotron" title="Synchrotron">Synchrotron</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fermilab.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Fermilab.jpg/220px-Fermilab.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Fermilab.jpg/330px-Fermilab.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Fermilab.jpg/440px-Fermilab.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="1960" /></a><figcaption>Aerial photo of the <a href="/wiki/Tevatron" title="Tevatron">Tevatron</a> (background ring) and Main Injector (foreground ring which is not actually circular) rings at <a href="/wiki/Fermilab" title="Fermilab">Fermilab</a>. The Tevatron ring also contains Main Ring and a section of it is still used for downstream experiments. The Main Injector below (about half the diameter of the Tevatron) is for preliminary acceleration, beam cooling and storage, etc.</figcaption></figure> <p>To reach still higher energies, with relativistic mass approaching or exceeding the rest mass of the particles (for protons, billions of electron volts or <a href="/wiki/GeV" class="mw-redirect" title="GeV">GeV</a>), it is necessary to use a <a href="/wiki/Synchrotron" title="Synchrotron">synchrotron</a>. This is an accelerator in which the particles are accelerated in a ring of constant radius. An immediate advantage over cyclotrons is that the magnetic field need only be present over the actual region of the particle orbits, which is much narrower than that of the ring. (The largest cyclotron built in the US had a 184-inch-diameter (4.7 m) magnet pole, whereas the diameter of synchrotrons such as the <a href="/wiki/LEP" class="mw-redirect" title="LEP">LEP</a> and <a href="/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider" title="Large Hadron Collider">LHC</a> is nearly 10 km. The aperture of the two beams of the LHC is of the order of a centimeter.) The LHC contains 16 RF cavities, 1232 superconducting dipole magnets for beam steering, and 24 quadrupoles for beam focusing.<sup id="cite_ref-CERN-MAG_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CERN-MAG-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even at this size, the LHC is limited by its ability to steer the particles without them going adrift. This limit is theorized to occur at 14 TeV.<sup id="cite_ref-CERN-13_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CERN-13-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, since the particle momentum increases during acceleration, it is necessary to turn up the magnetic field B in proportion to maintain constant curvature of the orbit. In consequence, synchrotrons cannot accelerate particles continuously, as cyclotrons can, but must operate cyclically, supplying particles in bunches, which are delivered to a target or an external beam in beam "spills" typically every few seconds. </p><p>Since high energy synchrotrons do most of their work on particles that are already traveling at nearly the speed of light <i>c</i>, the time to complete one orbit of the ring is nearly constant, as is the frequency of the <a href="/wiki/Cavity_resonator" class="mw-redirect" title="Cavity resonator">RF cavity resonators</a> used to drive the acceleration. </p><p>In modern synchrotrons, the beam aperture is small and the magnetic field does not cover the entire area of the particle orbit as it does for a cyclotron, so several necessary functions can be separated. Instead of one huge magnet, one has a line of hundreds of bending magnets, enclosing (or enclosed by) vacuum connecting pipes. The design of synchrotrons was revolutionized in the early 1950s with the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Strong_focusing" title="Strong focusing">strong focusing</a> concept.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The focusing of the beam is handled independently by specialized <a href="/wiki/Quadrupole_magnets" class="mw-redirect" title="Quadrupole magnets">quadrupole magnets</a>, while the acceleration itself is accomplished in separate RF sections, rather similar to short linear accelerators.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, there is no necessity that cyclic machines be circular, but rather the beam pipe may have straight sections between magnets where beams may collide, be cooled, etc. This has developed into an entire separate subject, called "beam physics" or "beam optics".<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>More complex modern synchrotrons such as the Tevatron, <a href="/wiki/LEP" class="mw-redirect" title="LEP">LEP</a>, and LHC may deliver the particle bunches into <a href="/wiki/Storage_ring" title="Storage ring">storage rings</a> of magnets with a constant magnetic field, where they can continue to orbit for long periods for experimentation or further acceleration. The highest-energy machines such as the Tevatron and LHC are actually accelerator complexes, with a cascade of specialized elements in series, including linear accelerators for initial beam creation, one or more low energy synchrotrons to reach intermediate energy, storage rings where beams can be accumulated or "cooled" (reducing the magnet aperture required and permitting tighter focusing; see <a href="/wiki/Particle_beam_cooling" title="Particle beam cooling">beam cooling</a>), and a last large ring for final acceleration and experimentation. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DESY1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/DESY1.jpg/220px-DESY1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/DESY1.jpg/330px-DESY1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/DESY1.jpg/440px-DESY1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="984" data-file-height="670" /></a><figcaption>Segment of an electron synchrotron at <a href="/wiki/DESY" title="DESY">DESY</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Electron_synchrotrons">Electron synchrotrons</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Particle_accelerator&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Electron synchrotrons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Synchrotron_light_source" title="Synchrotron light source">Synchrotron light source</a></div> <p>Circular electron accelerators fell somewhat out of favor for particle physics around the time that <a href="/wiki/SLAC" class="mw-redirect" title="SLAC">SLAC</a>'s linear particle accelerator was constructed, because their synchrotron losses were considered economically prohibitive and because their beam intensity was lower than for the unpulsed linear machines. The <a href="/wiki/Cornell_Laboratory_for_Accelerator-based_Sciences_and_Education" title="Cornell Laboratory for Accelerator-based Sciences and Education">Cornell Electron Synchrotron</a>, built at low cost in the late 1970s, was the first in a series of high-energy circular electron accelerators built for fundamental particle physics, the last being <a href="/wiki/LEP" class="mw-redirect" title="LEP">LEP</a>, built at CERN, which was used from 1989 until 2000. </p><p>A large number of electron synchrotrons have been built in the past two decades, as part of <a href="/wiki/Synchrotron_light_source" title="Synchrotron light source">synchrotron light sources</a> that emit ultraviolet light and X rays; see below. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Synchrotron_radiation_sources">Synchrotron radiation sources</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Particle_accelerator&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Synchrotron radiation sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Synchrotron_light_sources" class="mw-redirect" title="Synchrotron light sources">Synchrotron light sources</a></div> <p>Some circular accelerators have been built to deliberately generate radiation (called <a href="/wiki/Synchrotron_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Synchrotron light">synchrotron light</a>) as <a href="/wiki/X-rays" class="mw-redirect" title="X-rays">X-rays</a> also called synchrotron radiation, for example the <a href="/wiki/Diamond_Light_Source" title="Diamond Light Source">Diamond Light Source</a> which has been built at the <a href="/wiki/Rutherford_Appleton_Laboratory" title="Rutherford Appleton Laboratory">Rutherford Appleton Laboratory</a> in England or the <a href="/wiki/Advanced_Photon_Source" title="Advanced Photon Source">Advanced Photon Source</a> at <a href="/wiki/Argonne_National_Laboratory" title="Argonne National Laboratory">Argonne National Laboratory</a> in <a href="/wiki/Illinois" title="Illinois">Illinois</a>, USA. High-energy X-rays are useful for <a href="/wiki/X-ray_spectroscopy" title="X-ray spectroscopy">X-ray spectroscopy</a> of <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a> or <a href="/wiki/X-ray_absorption_fine_structure" title="X-ray absorption fine structure">X-ray absorption fine structure</a> (XAFS), for example. </p><p>Synchrotron radiation is more powerfully emitted by lighter particles, so these accelerators are invariably <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a> accelerators. Synchrotron radiation allows for better imaging as researched and developed at <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Linear_Accelerator_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanford Linear Accelerator Center">SLAC's SPEAR</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fixed-field_alternating_gradient_accelerators">Fixed-field alternating gradient accelerators</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Particle_accelerator&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Fixed-field alternating gradient accelerators"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fixed-Field_alternating_gradient_Accelerator" class="mw-redirect" title="Fixed-Field alternating gradient Accelerator">Fixed-Field alternating gradient Accelerator</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Fixed-Field_alternating_gradient_Accelerator" class="mw-redirect" title="Fixed-Field alternating gradient Accelerator">Fixed-Field Alternating Gradient accelerators (FFA)s</a>, in which a magnetic field which is fixed in time, but with a radial variation to achieve <a href="/wiki/Strong_focusing" title="Strong focusing">strong focusing</a>, allows the beam to be accelerated with a high repetition rate but in a much smaller radial spread than in the cyclotron case. Isochronous FFAs, like isochronous cyclotrons, achieve continuous beam operation, but without the need for a huge dipole bending magnet covering the entire radius of the orbits. Some new developments in FFAs are covered in.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rhodotron">Rhodotron</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Particle_accelerator&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Rhodotron"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rhodotron.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Rhodotron.svg/220px-Rhodotron.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Rhodotron.svg/330px-Rhodotron.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Rhodotron.svg/440px-Rhodotron.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="670" data-file-height="610" /></a><figcaption>A diagram of a Rhodotron. The electron beam is in red. E is the electron gun, L is an electron lens, C is the radiofrequency cavity, and M is a bending magnet.</figcaption></figure> <p>A Rhodotron is an industrial electron accelerator first proposed in 1987 by J. Pottier of the <a href="/wiki/French_Alternative_Energies_and_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission">French Atomic Energy Agency (CEA)</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> manufactured by Belgian company <a href="/wiki/Ion_Beam_Applications" title="Ion Beam Applications">Ion Beam Applications</a>. It accelerates electrons by recirculating them across the diameter of a cylinder-shaped radiofrequency cavity. A Rhodotron has an electron gun, which emits an electron beam that is attracted to a pillar in the center of the cavity. The pillar has holes the electrons can pass through. The electron beam passes through the pillar via one of these holes and then travels through a hole in the wall of the cavity, and meets a bending magnet, the beam is then bent and sent back into the cavity, to another hole in the pillar, the electrons then again go across the pillar and pass though another part of the wall of the cavity and into another bending magnet, and so on, gradually increasing the energy of the beam until it is allowed to exit the cavity for use. The cylinder and pillar may be lined with copper on the inside.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="History">History</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Particle_accelerator&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_accelerators_in_particle_physics" title="List of accelerators in particle physics">List of accelerators in particle physics</a></div> <p>Ernest Lawrence's first cyclotron was a mere 4 inches (100 mm) in diameter. Later, in 1939, he built a machine with a 60-inch diameter pole face, and planned one with a <a href="/wiki/List_of_accelerators_in_particle_physics" title="List of accelerators in particle physics">184-inch</a> diameter in 1942, which was, however, taken over for <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>-related work connected with uranium <a href="/wiki/Isotope_separation" title="Isotope separation">isotope separation</a>; after the war it continued in service for research and medicine over many years. </p><p>The first large proton <a href="/wiki/Synchrotron" title="Synchrotron">synchrotron</a> was the <a href="/wiki/Cosmotron" title="Cosmotron">Cosmotron</a> at <a href="/wiki/Brookhaven_National_Laboratory" title="Brookhaven National Laboratory">Brookhaven National Laboratory</a>, which accelerated <a href="/wiki/Protons" class="mw-redirect" title="Protons">protons</a> to about 3 <a href="/wiki/GeV" class="mw-redirect" title="GeV">GeV</a> (1953–1968). The <a href="/wiki/Bevatron" title="Bevatron">Bevatron</a> at Berkeley, completed in 1954, was specifically designed to accelerate protons to enough energy to create <a href="/wiki/Antiprotons" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiprotons">antiprotons</a>, and verify the <a href="/wiki/Antimatter" title="Antimatter">particle–antiparticle symmetry</a> of nature, then only theorized. The <a href="/wiki/Alternating_Gradient_Synchrotron" title="Alternating Gradient Synchrotron">Alternating Gradient Synchrotron</a> (AGS) at Brookhaven (1960–) was the first large synchrotron with alternating gradient, "<a href="/wiki/Strong_focusing" title="Strong focusing">strong focusing</a>" magnets, which greatly reduced the required aperture of the beam, and correspondingly the size and cost of the bending magnets. The <a href="/wiki/Proton_Synchrotron" title="Proton Synchrotron">Proton Synchrotron</a>, built at <a href="/wiki/CERN" title="CERN">CERN</a> (1959–), was the first major European particle accelerator and generally similar to the AGS. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Linear_Accelerator" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanford Linear Accelerator">Stanford Linear Accelerator</a>, SLAC, became operational in 1966, accelerating electrons to 30 GeV in a 3 km long waveguide, buried in a tunnel and powered by hundreds of large <a href="/wiki/Klystron" title="Klystron">klystrons</a>. It is still the largest linear accelerator in existence, and has been upgraded with the addition of storage rings and an electron-positron collider facility. It is also an X-ray and UV synchrotron photon source. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Fermi_National_Accelerator_Laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory">Fermilab</a> <a href="/wiki/Tevatron" title="Tevatron">Tevatron</a> has a ring with a beam path of 4 miles (6.4 km). It has received several upgrades, and has functioned as a proton-antiproton collider until it was shut down due to budget cuts on September 30, 2011. The largest circular accelerator ever built was the <a href="/wiki/Large_Electron%E2%80%93Positron_Collider" title="Large Electron–Positron Collider">LEP</a> <a href="/wiki/Synchrotron" title="Synchrotron">synchrotron</a> at CERN with a circumference 26.6 kilometers, which was an electron/<a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">positron</a> collider. It achieved an energy of 209 GeV before it was dismantled in 2000 so that the tunnel could be used for the <a href="/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider" title="Large Hadron Collider">Large Hadron Collider</a> (LHC). The LHC is a proton collider, and currently the world's largest and highest-energy accelerator, achieving 6.5 TeV energy per beam (13 TeV in total). </p><p>The aborted <a href="/wiki/Superconducting_Super_Collider" title="Superconducting Super Collider">Superconducting Super Collider</a> (SSC) in <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a> would have had a circumference of 87 km. Construction was started in 1991, but abandoned in 1993. Very large circular accelerators are invariably built in tunnels a few metres wide to minimize the disruption and cost of building such a structure on the surface, and to provide shielding against intense secondary radiations that occur, which are extremely penetrating at high energies. </p><p>Current accelerators such as the <a href="/wiki/Spallation_Neutron_Source" title="Spallation Neutron Source">Spallation Neutron Source</a>, incorporate superconducting <a href="/wiki/Cryomodule" title="Cryomodule">cryomodules</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Relativistic_Heavy_Ion_Collider" title="Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider">Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider" title="Large Hadron Collider">Large Hadron Collider</a> also make use of <a href="/wiki/Superconductivity" title="Superconductivity">superconducting</a> magnets and <a href="/wiki/Cavity_resonator" class="mw-redirect" title="Cavity resonator">RF cavity resonators</a> to accelerate particles. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Targets">Targets</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Particle_accelerator&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Targets"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The output of a particle accelerator can generally be directed towards multiple lines of experiments, one at a given time, by means of a deviating <a href="/wiki/Electromagnet" title="Electromagnet">electromagnet</a>. This makes it possible to operate multiple experiments without needing to move things around or shutting down the entire accelerator beam. Except for synchrotron radiation sources, the purpose of an accelerator is to generate high-energy particles for interaction with matter. </p><p>This is usually a fixed target, such as the <a href="/wiki/Phosphor" title="Phosphor">phosphor</a> coating on the back of the screen in the case of a television tube; a piece of <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a> in an accelerator designed as a neutron source; or a tungsten target for an X-ray generator. In a linac, the target is simply fitted to the end of the accelerator. The particle track in a cyclotron is a spiral outwards from the centre of the circular machine, so the accelerated particles emerge from a fixed point as for a linear accelerator. </p><p>For synchrotrons, the situation is more complex. Particles are accelerated to the desired energy. Then, a fast acting dipole magnet is used to switch the particles out of the circular synchrotron tube and towards the target. </p><p>A variation commonly used for <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particle physics</a> research is a <a href="/wiki/Collider" title="Collider">collider</a>, also called a <i>storage ring collider</i>. Two circular synchrotrons are built in close proximity – usually on top of each other and using the same magnets (which are then of more complicated design to accommodate both beam tubes). Bunches of particles travel in opposite directions around the two accelerators and collide at intersections between them. This can increase the energy enormously; whereas in a fixed-target experiment the energy available to produce new particles is proportional to the square root of the beam energy, in a collider the available energy is linear. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Detectors">Detectors</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Particle_accelerator&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Detectors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> The detectors gather clues about the particles including their speed and charge. Using these, the scientists can actually work on the particle. The process of detection is very complex it requires strong <a href="/wiki/Electromagnet" title="Electromagnet">electromagnets</a> and accelerators to generate enough usable information. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style></p><table class="box-Empty_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span"><b>This section is empty.</b> You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Particle_accelerator&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2024</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Higher_energies">Higher energies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Particle_accelerator&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Higher energies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At present the highest energy accelerators are all circular colliders, but both hadron accelerators and electron accelerators are running into limits. Higher energy hadron and ion cyclic accelerators will require accelerator tunnels of larger physical size due to the increased <a href="/wiki/Rigidity_(electromagnetism)" title="Rigidity (electromagnetism)">beam rigidity</a>. </p><p>For cyclic electron accelerators, a limit on practical bend radius is placed by synchrotron radiation losses and the next generation will probably be linear accelerators 10 times the current length. An example of such a next generation electron accelerator is the proposed 40 km long <a href="/wiki/International_Linear_Collider" title="International Linear Collider">International Linear Collider</a>. </p><p>It is believed that <a href="/wiki/Plasma_acceleration" title="Plasma acceleration">plasma wakefield acceleration</a> in the form of electron-beam "afterburners" and standalone laser pulsers might be able to provide dramatic increases in efficiency over RF accelerators within two to three decades. In plasma wakefield accelerators, the beam cavity is filled with a plasma (rather than vacuum). A short pulse of electrons or laser light either constitutes or immediately precedes the particles that are being accelerated. The pulse disrupts the plasma, causing the charged particles in the plasma to integrate into and move toward the rear of the bunch of particles that are being accelerated. This process transfers energy to the particle bunch, accelerating it further, and continues as long as the pulse is coherent.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Energy gradients as steep as 200 GeV/m have been achieved over millimeter-scale distances using laser pulsers<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and gradients approaching 1 GeV/m are being produced on the multi-centimeter-scale with electron-beam systems, in contrast to a limit of about 0.1 GeV/m for radio-frequency acceleration alone. Existing electron accelerators such as <a href="/wiki/SLAC" class="mw-redirect" title="SLAC">SLAC</a> could use electron-beam afterburners to greatly increase the energy of their particle beams, at the cost of beam intensity. Electron systems in general can provide tightly collimated, reliable beams; laser systems may offer more power and compactness. Thus, plasma wakefield accelerators could be used – if technical issues can be resolved – to both increase the maximum energy of the largest accelerators and to bring high energies into university laboratories and medical centres. </p><p>Higher than 0.25 GeV/m gradients have been achieved by a dielectric laser accelerator,<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which may present another viable approach to building compact high-energy accelerators.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using femtosecond duration laser pulses, an electron accelerating gradient 0.69 GeV/m was recorded for dielectric laser accelerators.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Higher gradients of the order of <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6990160217648700000♠"></span>1 to 6 GeV/m</span> are anticipated after further optimizations.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Advanced_Accelerator_Concepts">Advanced Accelerator Concepts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Particle_accelerator&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Advanced Accelerator Concepts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Advanced Accelerator Concepts encompasses methods of beam acceleration with gradients beyond state of the art in operational facilities. This includes diagnostics methods, timing technology, special needs for injectors, beam matching, beam dynamics and development of adequate simulations. Workshops dedicated to this subject are being held in the US (alternating locations) and in Europe, mostly on Isola d'<a href="/wiki/Elba" title="Elba">Elba</a>. The series of Advanced Accelerator Concepts Workshops, held in the US,<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> started as an international series in 1982.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The European Advanced Accelerator Concepts Workshop series started in 2019.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Topics related to Advanced Accelerator Concepts: </p> <ul><li>Laser <a href="/w/index.php?title=Plasma_Acceleration&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Plasma Acceleration (page does not exist)">Plasma Acceleration</a> of electrons and positrons</li> <li>Laser and High-Gradient Structure-Based Acceleration</li> <li>Beam-Driven Acceleration</li> <li>Laser-Plasma Acceleration of Ions</li> <li>Beam Sources such as <a href="/wiki/Electron_gun" title="Electron gun">electron gun</a>, Monitoring, and Control. See <a href="/wiki/Accelerator_physics" title="Accelerator physics">Accelerator physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">Computer</a> <a href="/wiki/Simulation" title="Simulation">simulation</a> for <a href="/wiki/Accelerator_Physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Accelerator Physics">Accelerator Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser" title="Laser">Laser</a> technology for particle acceleration</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">Electromagnetic radiation</a> Generation</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muon_collider" title="Muon collider">Muon collider</a></li></ul> <p>According to the <a href="/wiki/Inverse_scattering_problem" title="Inverse scattering problem">Inverse scattering problem</a>, any mechanism by which a particle produces radiation (where <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">kinetic energy</a> of the particle is transferred to the <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_field" title="Electromagnetic field">electromagnetic field</a>), can be inverted such that the same radiation mechanism leads to the acceleration of the particle (energy of the radiation field is transferred to kinetic energy of the particle). The opposite is also true, any acceleration mechanism can be inverted to deposit the energy of the particle into a decelerating field, like in a <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy_recovery_system" title="Kinetic energy recovery system">kinetic energy recovery system</a>. This is the idea enabling an <a href="/wiki/Energy_recovery_linac" title="Energy recovery linac">energy recovery linac</a>. This principle, which is also behind the plasma or dielectric wakefield accelerrators, led to a few other interesting developments in advanced accelerator concepts: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherenkov_radiation" title="Cherenkov radiation">Cherenkov radiation</a> led to inverse Cherenkov radiation accelerator.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-electron_laser" title="Free-electron laser">Free-electron laser</a> led to the Inverse Free-electron laser accelerator.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>A <a href="/wiki/Laser" title="Laser">laser</a> can also be inverted to produce acceleration of electrons.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Black_hole_production_and_public_safety_concerns">Black hole production and public safety concerns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Particle_accelerator&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Black hole production and public safety concerns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Safety_of_high_energy_particle_collision_experiments" class="mw-redirect" title="Safety of high energy particle collision experiments">Safety of high energy particle collision experiments</a></div> <p>In the future, the possibility of a black hole production at the highest energy accelerators may arise if certain predictions of <a href="/wiki/Superstring_theory" title="Superstring theory">superstring theory</a> are accurate.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This and other possibilities have led to <a href="/wiki/Safety_of_particle_collisions_at_the_Large_Hadron_Collider" class="mw-redirect" title="Safety of particle collisions at the Large Hadron Collider">public safety concerns</a> that have been widely reported in connection with the <a href="/wiki/LHC" class="mw-redirect" title="LHC">LHC</a>, which began operation in 2008. The various possible dangerous scenarios have been assessed as presenting "no conceivable danger" in the latest risk assessment produced by the LHC Safety Assessment Group.<sup id="cite_ref-LSAGreport_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LSAGreport-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If black holes are produced, it is theoretically predicted that such small black holes should evaporate extremely quickly via <a href="/wiki/Bekenstein%E2%80%93Hawking_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Bekenstein–Hawking radiation">Bekenstein–Hawking radiation</a>, but which is as yet experimentally unconfirmed. If colliders can produce black holes, <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">cosmic rays</a> (and particularly <a href="/wiki/Ultra-high-energy_cosmic_ray" title="Ultra-high-energy cosmic ray">ultra-high-energy cosmic rays</a>, UHECRs) must have been producing them for eons, but they have yet to harm anybody.<sup id="cite_ref-jaffe_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jaffe-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been argued that to conserve energy and momentum, any black holes created in a collision between an UHECR and local matter would necessarily be produced moving at relativistic speed with respect to the Earth, and should escape into space, as their accretion and growth rate should be very slow, while black holes produced in colliders (with components of equal mass) would have some chance of having a velocity less than Earth escape velocity, 11.2 km per sec, and would be liable to capture and subsequent growth. Yet even on such scenarios the collisions of UHECRs with white dwarfs and neutron stars would lead to their rapid destruction, but these bodies are observed to be common astronomical objects. Thus if stable micro black holes should be produced, they must grow far too slowly to cause any noticeable macroscopic effects within the natural lifetime of the solar system.<sup id="cite_ref-LSAGreport_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LSAGreport-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Accelerator_operator">Accelerator operator</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Particle_accelerator&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Accelerator operator"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The use of advanced technologies such as superconductivity, cryogenics, and high powered radiofrequency amplifiers, as well as the presence of ionizing radiation, pose challenges for the safe operation of accelerator facilities.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An <b>accelerator operator</b> controls the operation of a particle accelerator, adjusts operating parameters such as <a href="/wiki/Aspect_ratio" title="Aspect ratio">aspect ratio</a>, current intensity, and position on target. They communicate with and assist accelerator maintenance personnel to ensure readiness of support systems, such as <a href="/wiki/Vacuum" title="Vacuum">vacuum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magnets" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnets">magnets</a>, magnetic and radiofrequency <a href="/wiki/Power_supplies" class="mw-redirect" title="Power supplies">power supplies</a> and controls, and cooling systems. Additionally, the accelerator operator maintains a record of accelerator related events. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Particle_accelerator&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output 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title="Dielectric wall accelerator">Dielectric wall accelerator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_Circular_Collider" title="Future Circular Collider">Future Circular Collider</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Linear_Collider" title="International Linear Collider">International Linear Collider</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KALI_(electron_accelerator)" title="KALI (electron accelerator)">KALI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_particle_accelerator" title="Linear particle accelerator">Linear particle accelerator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_accelerators_in_particle_physics" title="List of accelerators in particle physics">List of accelerators in particle physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Momentum_compaction" title="Momentum compaction">Momentum compaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_transmutation" title="Nuclear transmutation">Nuclear transmutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rolf_Wider%C3%B8e" title="Rolf Widerøe">Rolf Widerøe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superconducting_Super_Collider" title="Superconducting Super Collider">Superconducting Super Collider</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Particle_accelerator&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns 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a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFChaoChou2008" class="citation book cs1">Chao, Alexander W; Chou, Weiren (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldscientific.com/worldscibooks/10.1142/7037"><i>Reviews of Accelerator Science and Technology: Volume 1</i></a>. Singapore: World Scientific. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008rast.book.....C">2008rast.book.....C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1142%2F7037">10.1142/7037</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-283-520-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-283-520-8"><bdi>978-981-283-520-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reviews+of+Accelerator+Science+and+Technology%3A+Volume+1&rft.place=Singapore&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1142%2F7037&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008rast.book.....C&rft.isbn=978-981-283-520-8&rft.aulast=Chao&rft.aufirst=Alexander+W&rft.au=Chou%2C+Weiren&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldscientific.com%2Fworldscibooks%2F10.1142%2F7037&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParticle+accelerator" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLivingstonBlewett1969" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Milton_Stanley_Livingston" class="mw-redirect" title="Milton Stanley Livingston">Livingston, M. S.</a>; Blewett, J. (1969). <i>Particle Accelerators</i>. 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Cham: Springer International Publishing. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021spa..book.....O">2021spa..book.....O</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-030-57031-6">10.1007/978-3-030-57031-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-57030-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-030-57030-9"><bdi>978-3-030-57030-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:234329600">234329600</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Safety+for+Particle+Accelerators&rft.place=Cham&rft.series=Particle+Acceleration+and+Detection&rft.pub=Springer+International+Publishing&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-030-57031-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A234329600%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021spa..book.....O&rft.isbn=978-3-030-57030-9&rft.aulast=Otto&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1007%2F978-3-030-57031-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParticle+accelerator" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCossairtQuinn2019" class="citation book cs1">Cossairt, J. Donald; Quinn, Matthew (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9780429958496"><i>Accelerator Radiation Physics for Personnel and Environmental Protection</i></a> (1 ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, [2019]. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1201%2F9780429491634">10.1201/9780429491634</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-429-49163-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-429-49163-4"><bdi>978-0-429-49163-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:189160205">189160205</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Accelerator+Radiation+Physics+for+Personnel+and+Environmental+Protection&rft.place=Boca+Raton%2C+FL&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=CRC+Press%2C+Taylor+%26+Francis+Group%2C+%5B2019%5D&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A189160205%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1201%2F9780429491634&rft.isbn=978-0-429-49163-4&rft.aulast=Cossairt&rft.aufirst=J.+Donald&rft.au=Quinn%2C+Matthew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.taylorfrancis.com%2Fbooks%2F9780429958496&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParticle+accelerator" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Particle_accelerator&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Particle_accelerators" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Particle accelerators">Particle accelerators</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.slac.stanford.edu/vvc/accelerator.html">What are particle accelerators used for?</a></li> <li>Stanley Humphries (1999) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fieldp.com/cpa.html">Principles of Charged Particle Acceleration</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-elsa.physik.uni-bonn.de/accelerator_list.html">Particle Accelerators around the world</a></li> <li>Wolfgang K. H. Panofsky: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.slac.stanford.edu/pubs/beamline/27/1/27-1-panofsky.pdf">The Evolution of Particle Accelerators & Colliders</a>, (<a href="/wiki/PDF" title="PDF">PDF</a>), Stanford, 1997</li> <li>P.J. Bryant, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cds.cern.ch/record/261062/files/p1_2.pdf">A Brief History and Review of Accelerators</a> (PDF), <a href="/wiki/CERN" title="CERN">CERN</a>, 1994.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeilbronRobert_W._Seidel1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/J.L._Heilbron" class="mw-redirect" title="J.L. Heilbron">Heilbron, J.L.</a>; Robert W. Seidel (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lawrencehislabor00heil"><i><span></span></i>Lawrence and His Laboratory: A History of the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory<i><span></span></i></a>. Berkeley: <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-06426-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-06426-3"><bdi>978-0-520-06426-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lawrence+and+His+Laboratory%3A+A+History+of+the+Lawrence+Berkeley+Laboratory&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-520-06426-3&rft.aulast=Heilbron&rft.aufirst=J.L.&rft.au=Robert+W.+Seidel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flawrencehislabor00heil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParticle+accelerator" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>David Kestenbaum, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=9433495">Massive Particle Accelerator Revving Up</a> NPR's Morning Edition article on 9 April 2007</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRagnar_Hellborg2005" class="citation book cs1">Ragnar Hellborg, ed. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tc6CEuIV1jEC&q=electrostatic+accelerator+book&pg=PA51"><i>Electrostatic Accelerators: Fundamentals and Applications</i></a>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-23983-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-23983-3"><bdi>978-3-540-23983-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Electrostatic+Accelerators%3A+Fundamentals+and+Applications&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-3-540-23983-3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dtc6CEuIV1jEC%26q%3Delectrostatic%2Baccelerator%2Bbook%26pg%3DPA51&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParticle+accelerator" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=science/Particle+Accelerators">Annotated bibliography for particle accelerators from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101007075456/http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=science%2FParticle+Accelerators">Archived</a> 2010-10-07 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.accelerators-for-society.org">Accelerators-for-Society.org</a>, to know more about applications of accelerators for Research and Development, energy and environment, health and medicine, industry, material characterization.</li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exotic_atom" title="Exotic atom">Exotic atom</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Particle accelerator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rydberg_atom" title="Rydberg atom">Rydberg atom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_element" title="Synthetic element">Synthetic element</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Femtotechnology" title="Femtotechnology">Femtotechnology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Femtochemistry" title="Femtochemistry">Femtochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafnium_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Hafnium bomb">Hafnium bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limits_of_computation" title="Limits of computation">Limits of computation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mode-locking" class="mw-redirect" title="Mode-locking">Mode-locking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_isomer" title="Nuclear isomer">Nuclear isomer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleon" title="Nucleon">Nucleon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_timelines#Technology" title="List of timelines">Timelines of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">Engineering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Radiation_(physics_and_health)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Radiation" title="Template:Radiation"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Radiation" title="Template talk:Radiation"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Radiation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Radiation"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Radiation_(physics_and_health)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">Radiation</a> (physics and health)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Main articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Non-ionizing_radiation" title="Non-ionizing radiation">Non-ionizing radiation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acoustic_radiation_force" title="Acoustic radiation force">Acoustic radiation force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">Infrared</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">Light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starlight" title="Starlight">Starlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">Sunlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">Microwave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">Radio waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">Ultraviolet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">Ionizing radiation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">Radioactive decay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cluster_decay" title="Cluster decay">Cluster decay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Background_radiation" title="Background radiation">Background radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">Alpha particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_particle" title="Beta particle">Beta particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">Gamma ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">Cosmic ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_radiation" title="Neutron radiation">Neutron radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">Nuclear fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">Nuclear fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">Nuclear reactors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">Nuclear weapons</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Particle accelerators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radionuclide" title="Radionuclide">Radioactive materials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-ray</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_budget" title="Earth's energy budget">Earth's energy budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">Electromagnetic radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synchrotron_radiation" title="Synchrotron radiation">Synchrotron radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_radiation" title="Thermal radiation">Thermal radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black-body_radiation" title="Black-body radiation">Black-body radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_radiation" title="Particle radiation">Particle radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitational radiation">Gravitational radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_background_radiation" title="Cosmic background radiation">Cosmic background radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherenkov_radiation" title="Cherenkov radiation">Cherenkov radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Askaryan_radiation" title="Askaryan radiation">Askaryan radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bremsstrahlung" title="Bremsstrahlung">Bremsstrahlung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unruh_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Unruh radiation">Unruh radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_radiation" title="Dark radiation">Dark radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_exposure" title="Radiation exposure">Radiation exposure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Radiation <br />and health</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Radiation syndrome <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acute_radiation_syndrome" title="Acute radiation syndrome">acute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronic_radiation_syndrome" title="Chronic radiation syndrome">chronic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_physics" title="Health physics">Health physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dosimetry" title="Dosimetry">Dosimetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation_and_health" title="Electromagnetic radiation and health">Electromagnetic radiation and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser_safety" title="Laser safety">Laser safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lasers_and_aviation_safety" title="Lasers and aviation safety">Lasers and aviation safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_radiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical radiography">Medical radiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_protection" title="Radiation protection">Radiation protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">Radiation therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_damage" title="Radiation damage">Radiation damage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactivity_in_the_life_sciences" title="Radioactivity in the life sciences">Radioactivity in the life sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">Radioactive contamination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiobiology" title="Radiobiology">Radiobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sievert" title="Sievert">Biological dose units and quantities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_device_radiation_and_health" title="Wireless device radiation and health">Wireless device radiation and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_electronic_devices_and_health" class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless electronic devices and health">Wireless electronic devices and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_transfer" title="Heat transfer">Radiation heat-transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_energy_transfer" title="Linear energy transfer">Linear energy transfer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Radiation incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_civilian_radiation_accidents" title="List of civilian radiation accidents">List of civilian radiation accidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1996_San_Juan_de_Dios_radiotherapy_accident" title="1996 San Juan de Dios radiotherapy accident">1996 Costa Rica accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goi%C3%A2nia_accident" title="Goiânia accident">1987 Goiânia accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_Moroccan_radiation_accident" title="1984 Moroccan radiation accident">1984 Moroccan accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1990_Clinic_of_Zaragoza_radiotherapy_accident" class="mw-redirect" title="1990 Clinic of Zaragoza radiotherapy accident">1990 Zaragoza accident</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">Half-life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Nuclear physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_source" title="Radioactive source">Radioactive source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_hardening" title="Radiation hardening">Radiation hardening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Havana_syndrome" title="Havana syndrome">Havana syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable selfref">See also the categories <a href="/wiki/Category:Radiation_effects" title="Category:Radiation effects">Radiation effects</a>, <a href="/wiki/Category:Radioactivity" title="Category:Radioactivity">Radioactivity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Category:Radiobiology" title="Category:Radiobiology">Radiobiology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Category:Radiation_protection" title="Category:Radiation protection">Radiation protection</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style 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