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States Supreme Court case</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox scotus" style="line-height: 1.4em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above fn" style="background-color: #99c0ff; padding: 0.2em; line-height: 1.4em; font-size:125%; font-style: italic">Santa Clara Pueblo v. Martinez</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="Seal of the United States Supreme Court"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/100px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/150px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/200px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="720" /></span></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="padding-top: 0.5em; font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court of the United States</a></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #99c0ff; white-space:nowrap">Argued November 29, 1977<br />Decided May 15, 1978</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Full case name</th><td class="infobox-data"><i>Santa Clara Pueblo et al., v. Julia Martinez et al.</i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Docket no.</th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/docket/docketfiles/html/public/76-682.html">76-682</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Citations</th><td class="infobox-data">436 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/us/436/49/case.html">49</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_436" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 436">more</a></i>)<div>98 S. Ct. 1670; 56 <a href="/wiki/L._Ed._2d" class="mw-redirect" title="L. Ed. 2d">L. Ed. 2d</a> 106; 1978 <a href="/wiki/U.S._LEXIS" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. LEXIS">U.S. LEXIS</a> 8</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #99c0ff; white-space:nowrap">Case history</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Prior</th><td class="infobox-data">Decision in favor of respondents, <i>Martinez v. Santa Clara Pueblo</i>, 402 <a href="/wiki/F._Supp." class="mw-redirect" title="F. Supp.">F. Supp.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/FSupp/402/5/1413437/">5</a> (<a href="/wiki/D.N.M." class="mw-redirect" title="D.N.M.">D.N.M.</a> 1975); reversed and remanded, <i>Martinez v. Santa Clara Pueblo</i>, 540 <a href="/wiki/F.2d" class="mw-redirect" title="F.2d">F.2d</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate-courts/F2/540/1039/468641/">1039</a> (<a href="/wiki/10th_Cir." class="mw-redirect" title="10th Cir.">10th Cir.</a> 1976); <a href="/wiki/Certiorari" title="Certiorari">cert.</a> granted, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_431" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 431">431</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> 913 (1977).</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #99c0ff; white-space:nowrap">Holding</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Title I of the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">Indian Civil Rights Act</a> does not expressly or implicitly create a <a href="/wiki/Cause_of_action" title="Cause of action">cause of action</a> for <a href="/wiki/Declaratory_judgment" title="Declaratory judgment">declaratory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Injunction" title="Injunction">injunctive relief</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Federal_judiciary_of_the_United_States" title="Federal judiciary of the United States">federal courts</a>.</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #99c0ff; white-space:nowrap">Court membership</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><dl style="margin:0; padding:0.1em 0.5em; text-align:center; line-height:1.3em;"> <dt style="margin:0;">Chief Justice</dt> <dd style="margin:0 0 0.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Warren_E._Burger" title="Warren E. Burger">Warren E. Burger</a> </dd> <dt style="margin:0;">Associate Justices</dt> <dd style="margin:0;"><a href="/wiki/William_J._Brennan_Jr." title="William J. Brennan Jr.">William J. Brennan Jr.</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/wiki/Potter_Stewart" title="Potter Stewart">Potter Stewart</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Byron_White" title="Byron White">Byron White</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Harry_Blackmun" title="Harry Blackmun">Harry Blackmun</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/wiki/Lewis_F._Powell_Jr." title="Lewis F. Powell Jr.">Lewis F. Powell Jr.</a><br /><a href="/wiki/William_Rehnquist" title="William Rehnquist">William Rehnquist</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/wiki/John_Paul_Stevens" title="John Paul Stevens">John P. Stevens</a> </dd></dl></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #99c0ff; white-space:nowrap">Case opinions</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Majority</th><td class="infobox-data">Marshall, joined by Burger, Brennan, Stewart, Powell, Stevens, and Rehnquist (all but Part III)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Dissent</th><td class="infobox-data">White</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Blackmun took no part in the consideration or decision of the case.</td></tr></tbody></table> <p><i><b>Santa Clara Pueblo v. Martinez</b></i>, 436 U.S. 49 (1978), was a landmark case in the area of <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_United_States_federal_Indian_law_and_policy" title="Outline of United States federal Indian law and policy">federal Indian law</a> involving issues of great importance to the meaning of <a href="/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States" title="Tribal sovereignty in the United States">tribal sovereignty</a> in the contemporary United States. The Supreme Court sustained a law passed by the governing body of the <a href="/wiki/Santa_Clara_Pueblo,_New_Mexico" title="Santa Clara Pueblo, New Mexico">Santa Clara Pueblo</a> that explicitly discriminated on the basis of sex.<sup id="cite_ref-op_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-op-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In so doing, the Court advanced a theory of tribal sovereignty that weighed the interests of tribes sufficient to justify a law that, had it been passed by a state legislature or Congress, would have almost certainly been struck down as a violation of <a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause#Sex,_disability,_and_sexual_orientation" title="Equal Protection Clause">equal protection</a>. </p><p>Along with the watershed cases, <i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Wheeler_(1978)" title="United States v. Wheeler (1978)">United States v. Wheeler</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Oliphant_v._Suquamish_Indian_Tribe" title="Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe">Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe</a></i>, <i>Santa Clara</i> completed the trilogy of seminal Indian law cases to come down in the 1978 term.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Facts">Facts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Santa_Clara_Pueblo_v._Martinez&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Facts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Petitioners were the Santa Clara Pueblo, an <a href="/wiki/Indian_tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian tribe">Indian tribe</a> that is known to have existed for more than 600 years, and its Governor, Lucario Padilla.<sup id="cite_ref-op_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-op-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Respondents were Julia Martinez, a full-blooded member of the Santa Clara Pueblo, and her daughter. Martinez brought suit in federal court against the tribe and Padilla, asking the court to strike down a tribal ordinance denying membership in the tribe to children of female members who marry outside the tribe, while extending membership to children of male members who marry outside the tribe. </p><p>Martinez was married to a member of the <a href="/wiki/Navajo_Nation" title="Navajo Nation">Navajo Nation</a>, and, according to the ordinance her children were ineligible for membership in the Santa Clara Pueblo. While her children could live with her on the reservation, they were not permitted to vote in tribal elections, hold secular office in the tribe, possess a right to remain on the reservation if their mother died, nor inherit their mother's home or her possessory interests in communally held land.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Petitioner's Brief observed that this exclusion from Pueblo membership had no bearing on whether Martinez's children (and others similarly situated) could receive federal benefits provided to Indians generally. In fact, her children were all receiving federal Indian educational and medical benefits.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Martinez claimed that the tribe's membership ordinance discriminated on the basis of both sex and ancestry in violation of Title I of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Civil Rights Act of 1968">Indian Civil Rights Act of 1968</a> (ICRA) (<a href="/wiki/Act_of_Congress" title="Act of Congress">Pub.L.</a> 90–284, 82 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large">Stat.</a> 73, enacted April 11, 1968), which provides in relevant part that no "Indian tribe in exercising powers of self-government shall ... deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of its laws."<sup id="cite_ref-op_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-op-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The case was brought in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_District_of_New_Mexico" title="United States District Court for the District of New Mexico">United States District Court for the District of New Mexico</a>. The District Court found for the Petitioners, because membership rules are critical to the "social . . . self-definition" of tribes and thus vital to the tribe's survival as a distinct community. To that end, it found that striking the proper balance between equal protection and tribal <a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">self-determination</a> was best left to the Pueblo's judgment.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Tenth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit">10th Circuit Court of Appeals</a> reversed, holding that no "compelling tribal interest" justified the ordinance's sex-based classification. The Petitioners appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court, which ultimately reversed the 10th Circuit's holding and sustained the tribal ordinance.<sup id="cite_ref-SC55_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SC55-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Central_holdings">Central holdings</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Santa_Clara_Pueblo_v._Martinez&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Central holdings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ol><li>Suits against tribes under the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">Indian Civil Rights Act of 1968</a> (ICRA) are barred by <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_immunity_in_the_United_States" title="Sovereign immunity in the United States">tribal sovereign immunity</a>, since nothing on the face of ICRA purports to subject tribes to the jurisdiction of federal courts in civil actions for declaratory or injunctive relief.</li> <li>ICRA does not authorize a private cause-of-action for declaratory and injunctive relief against the Pueblo's Governor. Congress' failure to provide remedies other than habeas corpus for enforcement of ICRA was deliberate, as is manifest from the structure of the statutory scheme and the legislative history of ICRA.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reasoning">Reasoning</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Santa_Clara_Pueblo_v._Martinez&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Reasoning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Justice <a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a> began the majority opinion by discussing general principles of tribal sovereignty relevant to the case. He noted that tribes are distinct, sovereign political communities existing within the United States, which retain powers of self-government. These include the authority to pass substantive laws governing internal matters, such as tribal membership.<sup id="cite_ref-SC55_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SC55-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, because tribes are separate sovereigns that existed prior to the ratification of the U.S. Constitution, constitutional protections such as those provided by the Fourteenth Amendment, do not constrain tribes on their own terms.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Instead, Congress must exercise its <a href="/wiki/Plenary_power" title="Plenary power">plenary power</a> over tribes to abridge tribal sovereignty.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The substantive rights guarantees of the Indian Civil Rights act, such as the guarantee of equal protection under the law, represent such an abridgment. It is unclear, however, if Congress intended to permit federal suits against tribes, by individuals such as Martinez, to enforce those rights.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two doctrines of law, <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_immunity_in_the_United_States" title="Sovereign immunity in the United States">sovereign immunity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Implied_cause_of_action" class="mw-redirect" title="Implied cause of action">implied causes-of-action</a>, were examined to decide if Congress intended to permit such suits. </p><p>Part III of the opinion addressed why the Pueblo was immune from suit. Tribes, like states and the federal government, are generally entitled to <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_immunity_in_the_United_States" title="Sovereign immunity in the United States">sovereign immunity</a>, which means they cannot be sued in court without their consent. Congress may, however, abrogate a tribe's sovereign immunity pursuant to its plenary power. Finding that nothing in the text of ICRA appeared to waive tribal immunity, Justice Marshall held the Pueblo immune from suit in federal court. This meant the tribe could not be sued for passing the membership ordinance, which indirectly protected the law from being struck down under ICRA.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Part IV analyzed whether the case may proceed against the other Petitioner, Governor Padillo. Padillo, being an officer of the tribe, does not receive the protection of tribal sovereign immunity. The obstacle for Martinez was that ICRA did not explicitly authorize suits against tribes in federal court. For her case to be lawful, the Court would need to find an <a href="/wiki/Implied_cause_of_action" class="mw-redirect" title="Implied cause of action">implied cause-of-action</a> that permitted federal suits against tribes. </p><p>To emphasize the importance of this decision, Justice Marshall observed that finding a private cause-of-action would interfere with tribal sovereignty in a way the text of the statute does not, on its own terms, allow. It would disrupt the ability of tribes to govern themselves. Out of respect for tribal sovereignty, the Court decided to "tread lightly", given the lack of express Congressional direction as to whether it has exercised its plenary power to diminish tribal sovereignty.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Justice Marshall proceeded to analyze the statute's legislative history and structure under the Supreme Court's implied cause-of-action case law. This case law requires consideration of factors including, whether a cause-of-action is supported by the legislative history of the statute and whether a cause-of-action would be consistent with the statute's purpose. While ICRA was designed to secure Constitutional rights to tribal members as against their tribal governments, it did not include all rights citizens enjoy under the Constitution. For example, ICRA made no mention of a prohibition on the establishment of religion or require the appointment of counsel for indigent criminal defendants. These exceptions reflect the other purpose of ICRA: to safeguard and promote tribal sovereignty. ICRA imposed an obligation on tribal governments to respect the rights enumerated, but it was tribal courts that were intended to vindicate those rights, not federal ones. Creating a cause-of-action would undermine the latter goal of ICRA and, in addition, impose significant financial burdens on the already economically disadvantaged tribes.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This decision to not imply a cause-of-action was further supported by how ICRA specifically permits habeas corpus petitions in federal court. This is a less intrusive form of review than Congress otherwise could have prescribed. Additionally, the legislative history of ICRA indicated that Congress considered, but rejected, proposals that would have permitted federal review of civil ICRA violations by the Attorney General and the Secretary of the Interior. In light of this history, Justice Marshall decided it would be "highly unlikely" that Congress intended to create a private cause-of-action in federal courts to enforce ICRA.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Justice Marshall concluded his opinion with an affirmation of tribal self-determination, the quasi-sovereign status of tribes, and how threatening federal review of ICRA claims would be to the cultural and political survival of tribes. He reiterated that Congress may authorize such federal review, but "unless and until Congress" acts, the Court would not imply a private cause-of-action for it.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dissent">Dissent</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Santa_Clara_Pueblo_v._Martinez&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Dissent"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Byron_White" title="Byron White">Justice Byron White</a> wrote a solo dissent, disagreeing with the majority's opinion. He acknowledged the importance of tribal culture but did not think concern for it should protect arbitrary or unconstitutional tribal official action. He was unpersuaded by the majority's position that Congress's rejection of federal review of ICRA violations, indicated Congress did not intend to create a private federal cause-of-action for ICRA violations. Those proposals would have primarily affected off-reservation violations of Indian rights by non-Indians, like illegal detentions by state officials. They had nothing to do with whether a tribal member can sue a tribe in federal court.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For Justice White, the most important consideration was whether the private cause-of-action would be consistent with the purpose of ICRA. That was clearly the case because ICRA was designed, first and foremost, to safeguard to Indians the same constitutional rights other Americans enjoy. A private cause-of-action is necessary to effectuate those rights. He cited legislative history suggesting Congressional concern regarding the lack of remedies for violations of Indian rights. Justice White argued that it would be inconsistent with this purpose of ICRA to limit review of ICRA violations to tribal institutions. For instance, the judicial and legislative powers of the Santa Clara Pueblo are both vested in the Pueblo Council. This means the same body that passed the allegedly unlawful ordinance would be deciding if it violates ICRA. A private federal cause-of-action is necessary to avoid this conflict-of-interest.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Finally, Justice White addressed the competing purpose of ICRA: to protect and promote tribal sovereignty. He stated that ICRA and its attendant imposition of rights on the tribes was already a major intrusion on tribal sovereignty. A federal cause-of-action would simply give meaning to those rights, as there cannot be a right without a remedy.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Significance">Significance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Santa_Clara_Pueblo_v._Martinez&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Significance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Doctrinal_effects">Doctrinal effects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Santa_Clara_Pueblo_v._Martinez&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Doctrinal effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The case greatly limited the influence of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Civil Rights Act of 1968">Indian Civil Rights Act of 1968</a> outside of tribal courts. In finding no private cause-of-action, the ability of individual tribe members to bring cases in a federal court for alleged violations of their rights under ICRA, was greatly diminished. As the Court recognized in <i>Santa Clara</i>, the only express means to bring ICRA claims in a federal court is through a habeas corpus petition, an action explicitly authorized by the Indian Civil Rights Act.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Court's reasoning also reflects an attitude of solicitude for tribal sovereignty with respect to implied causes-of-action. It was because of the importance of tribal sovereignty that the factors the Court used to decide whether to find a cause-of-action militated against finding one. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Subsequent_cases">Subsequent cases</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Santa_Clara_Pueblo_v._Martinez&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Subsequent cases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Santa Clara</i> has been cited and discussed by the Supreme Court in a diverse set of subsequent Indian law decisions. Notable examples include: </p><p><i><a href="/wiki/Merrion_v._Jicarilla_Apache_Tribe" title="Merrion v. Jicarilla Apache Tribe">Merrion v. Jicarilla Apache Tribe</a></i>, 455 U.S. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/455/130/#149">130</a> (1982): In upholding a tribal tax tax of on-reservation oil and gas production as an exercise of the inherent sovereignty of a tribe to govern its internal affairs, the Court (in an opinion by Justice Marshall) cited the passage in <i>Santa Clara</i> stating that it will "tread lightly" where Congress has not expressly indicated its intent as to whether it has used its plenary power to abridge tribal sovereignty.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his dissent in the case, <a href="/wiki/John_Paul_Stevens" title="John Paul Stevens">Justice Stevens</a> cited <i>Santa Clara</i> for the proposition that the equal protection principles of the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments do not limit tribal power in the same way they limit state and federal power.<sup id="cite_ref-Merrion170_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Merrion170-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This means, according to Justice Stevens, tribal sovereignty over members is, in some ways, greater than a state's power over its citizens.<sup id="cite_ref-Merrion170_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Merrion170-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i><a href="/wiki/Rice_v._Cayetano" title="Rice v. Cayetano">Rice v. Cayetano</a></i>, 528 U.S. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/528/495/#517">495</a> (2000): In this case, the majority struck down a Hawaii state law that restricted voting in elections for Trustees of the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Hawaiian_Affairs" title="Office of Hawaiian Affairs">Office of Hawaiian Affairs</a> to persons with a specific degree of Native Hawaiian ancestry, for being an unconstitutional, race-based classification.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Breyer" title="Stephen Breyer">Justice Breyer</a>, concurring in the judgment, cited <i>Santa Clara</i> to illustrate the principle that tribes possess broad authority to define their membership.<sup id="cite_ref-Rice527_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rice527-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He nevertheless agreed with the majority's conclusion that the "race-based" classification was unconstitutional.<sup id="cite_ref-Rice527_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rice527-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was in part because it was the state of Hawaii, rather than Native Hawaiians, who created the problematic classification.<sup id="cite_ref-Rice527_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rice527-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i><a href="/wiki/Nevada_v._Hicks" title="Nevada v. Hicks">Nevada v. Hicks</a></i>, 533 U.S. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/533/353/#374">353</a> (2001): The <i>Hicks</i> Court held that tribal courts do not have jurisdiction over state officials who act on a reservation to investigate off-reservation violations of state law.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/David_Souter" title="David Souter">Justice Souter</a>, concurring in the judgment, cited <i>Santa Clara</i> to illustrate a tension in the Court's Indian law jurisprudence on the role of tribal courts. He first observed that <i>Santa Clara</i> affirmed the appropriateness of tribal courts as the exclusive forum for adjudicating disputes involving "important personal and property interests of both Indians and non-Indians."<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He contrasted this holding of <i>Santa Clara</i> with cases like <i><a href="/wiki/Oliphant_v._Suquamish_Indian_Tribe" title="Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe">Oliphant</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Montana_v._United_States" title="Montana v. United States">Montana</a></i>, which suggest tribes and their courts lack jurisdiction over non-members.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i><a href="/wiki/Michigan_v._Bay_Mills_Indian_Community" title="Michigan v. Bay Mills Indian Community">Michigan v. Bay Mills Indian Community</a></i>, 572 U.S. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/572/12-515/">782</a> (2014): The Supreme Court held that tribal sovereign immunity protects a tribe from suit for operating a casino outside Indian lands.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In her majority opinion, <a href="/wiki/Elena_Kagan" title="Elena Kagan">Justice Kagan</a> cited <i>Santa Clara</i> for the proposition that in spite of federal plenary power, tribes remain separate sovereigns who pre-exist the Constitution. She further cited <i>Santa Clara</i>'s holding that tribes enjoy sovereign immunity and that any Congressional abrogation of tribal sovereign immunity must be explicit.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Justice Kagan, like Justice Marshall in <i>Merrion</i>, cited the "tread lightly" language of <i>Santa Clara</i> to emphasize the importance of demanding an express Congressional statement as to whether it is changing the extent of tribal sovereignty.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>United States v. Bryant</i>, 136 U.S. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/579/15-420/">1954</a> (2016): In this case, the Court held that tribal criminal court convictions for domestic violence that were obtained against a defendant not represented by counsel, were admissible in a subsequent federal criminal case (where they empowered prosecutors to seek a higher sentence for the defendant). This was because the <a href="/wiki/Sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Sixth Amendment</a> right to counsel does not apply to the tribes.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg" title="Ruth Bader Ginsburg">Justice Ginsburg</a>, writing for the majority, cited <i>Santa Clara</i> for the principle that the Constitution and its limits on state and federal power do not apply to the tribes, as they are separate sovereigns pre-existing the Constitution. This was critical in reaching the conclusion that the Sixth Amendment does not apply to tribes.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Administrative_Law">Administrative Law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Santa_Clara_Pueblo_v._Martinez&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Administrative Law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Supreme Court's decision in <i>Santa Clara</i> has also been cited in administrative agency rules and decisions. Notable examples include: </p><p><b>Indian Child Welfare Act Proceedings</b>. 81 <a href="/wiki/Federal_Register" title="Federal Register">FR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.federalregister.gov/citation/81-FR-38778">38778</a> (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ecfr.gov/cgi-bin/text-idx?SID=e2dbff5156c7eab51fe41d52b079b121&mc=true&tpl=/ecfrbrowse/Title25/25cfr23_main_02.tpl">25 CFR 23</a>. This Final Rule improves implementation of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Child_Welfare_Act" title="Indian Child Welfare Act">Indian Child Welfare Act</a> (ICWA), including requirements imposed on State courts to fully comply with ICWA and to maintain certain records.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Final Rule cites <i>Santa Clara</i> to affirm that delineating membership requirements is a sovereign function of tribes.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Procedures for Reestablishing a Formal Government-to-Government Relationship With the Native Hawaiian Community.</b> 81 <a href="/wiki/Federal_Register" title="Federal Register">FR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.federalregister.gov/citation/81-FR-71278">71278</a> (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ecfr.gov/cgi-bin/text-idx?SID=018123ae5cd2be9659a5d49eb1561b31&mc=true&tpl=/ecfrbrowse/Title43/43cfr50_main_02.tpl">43 CFR 50</a>. This Final Rule establishes an administrative process and criteria for the Secretary of the Interior to use to re-establish a formal government-to-government relationship with the Native Hawaiian Community if the Community ever forms a government and seeks such a relationship. The Final Rule cites <i>Santa Clara</i> for the principle that Native communities may define their own membership<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and concludes that the Native Hawaiian community can decide what "tests" they wish to use to ascertain whether an individual can be a member.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i><b>Secretary of Labor v. Navajo Forest Products Industries</b></i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oshrc.gov/assets/1/18/Docket_No._76-5013.htm?5435">8 O.S.H. Cas. (BNA) 2094 (1980)</a>. Shortly after <i>Santa Clara</i> was decided, the <a href="/wiki/Occupational_Safety_and_Health_Review_Commission" title="Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission">Occupational Safety Health Review Commission</a> decided that a Navajo Nation tribal enterprise was exempt from the <a href="/wiki/Occupational_Safety_and_Health_Act_(United_States)" title="Occupational Safety and Health Act (United States)">Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970</a>, including the application of citations and penalties levied against the enterprise pursuant to the Act. The Commission cited <i>Santa Clara</i> for the proposition that tribes retain the sovereign authority to establish substantive law and regulate their own internal affairs. This understanding of tribal sovereignty was considered in connection with a treaty between the Navajo Nation and the United States limiting the kinds of federal officials who could be present and act on the reservation. The treaty was read to preserve, rather than cede, the tribal sovereignty affirmed in <i>Santa Clara</i>. The Commission thus concluded that the treaty precluded enforcement of the Act against the tribal enterprise.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i><b>Larry Martin v. Billings Area Director, Bureau of Indian Affairs</b></i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oha.doi.gov:8080/isysquery/40101f28-4f82-46e5-8bee-45115fb682d0/1/doc/19ibia279.PDF#xml=http://IHAESCWVPWEB01.doi.net:8080/isysquery/40101f28-4f82-46e5-8bee-45115fb682d0/1/hilite/">19 IBIA 279</a> (1991): The Interior Board of Indian Affairs (IBIA),<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which reviews decisions by the <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Indian_Affairs" title="Bureau of Indian Affairs">Bureau of Indian Affairs</a> (BIA) involving Indian affairs, was asked to consider an appeal by a subcontractor who was performing home renovations on the Assiniboine and Sioux Tribes of the Fort Peck Indian Reservation, under an <a href="/wiki/Indian_Self-Determination_and_Education_Assistance_Act_of_1975" title="Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975">Indian Self-Determination Act</a> (ISDA) contract.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The IBIA cited the discussion of the dual purposes of ICRA in <i>Santa Clara</i> to find that, like ICRA, ISDA does not have an implied cause-of-action to challenge tribal action. The Indian Self-Determination Act has only one purpose: promoting tribal sovereignty. This means the reasoning of <i>Santa Clara</i> applies even more forcefully, as there are no countervailing purposes that might support an implied cause-of-action. Finding a cause-of-action would undermine the purpose of ISDA, just like how finding a cause-of-action in <i>Santa Clara</i> would have undermined the purpose of ICRA.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i><b>Welmas and Dukic v. Sacramento Area Director, Bureau of Indian Affairs</b></i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oha.doi.gov:8080/isysquery/75a7d2a5-1c49-406e-9362-a1cf1e66519c/1/doc/24ibia264.PDF#xml=http://IHAESCWVPWEB01.doi.net:8080/isysquery/75a7d2a5-1c49-406e-9362-a1cf1e66519c/1/hilite/">24 IBIA 264</a> (1993): The BIA was asked by members of the Cabazon Band of Mission Indians to review sanctions imposed on them by the Band's tribal council.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The IBIA analyzed <i>Santa Clara</i> in its determination that ICRA did not grant the BIA authority to review the tribal action at issue. The IBIA referenced <i>Santa Clara</i>'s discussion of an administrative review process that Congress rejected in passing ICRA as evidence that the review sought by the Band members was "specifically rejected" by Congress and thus not authorized by ICRA.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Equal_Protection">Equal Protection</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Santa_Clara_Pueblo_v._Martinez&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Equal Protection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As the Court did not reach the merits, the questions of whether a "compelling tribal interest" is required to justify tribal laws that discriminate on the basis of sex, and if one is, what constitutes such an interest, were not resolved. The Briefs did, however, present arguments on this important issue. </p><p>The Petitioners' Brief emphasized how ICRA rights guarantees are not as strong as constitutional ones and so the standard in equal protection cases should be lower than <a href="/wiki/Strict_scrutiny" title="Strict scrutiny">strict scrutiny</a> (the standard signalled by the 10th Circuit's use of the "compelling tribal interest" phrase).<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It contended for the lowest established standard of review, the "rational relation" test, which would only require a rational relationship to exist between the law and its intended purpose. This was the case here, as the tribe's political and cultural independence depended on its ability to maintain its patrilineal social order. This interest in the tribe's survival was "compelling," and certainly "rationally related" to the ordinance.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Respondents' Brief argued for a higher form of review as the tribal law at issue involved a sex-based discrimination. The Brief pointed to the fact that recent Supreme Court <a href="/wiki/Craig_v._Boren" title="Craig v. Boren">precedent</a> established a higher standard for state and federal sex-based classifications: <a href="/wiki/Intermediate_scrutiny" title="Intermediate scrutiny">intermediate scrutiny</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, the mere fact that the Pueblo had a tradition of treating male and female members differently, is not sufficient to justify the classification.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scholarly_commentary">Scholarly commentary</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Santa_Clara_Pueblo_v._Martinez&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Scholarly commentary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The decision spurred a robust debate within legal academia. For example, <a href="/wiki/Catharine_MacKinnon" class="mw-redirect" title="Catharine MacKinnon">Catherine MacKinnon</a> wrote that the tribal ordinance was patriarchal, aimed at perpetuating male supremacy in the Pueblo.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While she recognized the importance of tribal sovereignty, she contended that by disadvantaging women, the ordinance ultimately undermined the tribe's autonomy as a distinct community. This was because, to MacKinnon, the law was a concession to male-supremacist, colonialist United States policy. MacKinnon believed the law was passed because the tribal council feared the U.S. government might impose <a href="/wiki/Dawes_Act" title="Dawes Act">allotment</a> on the tribe. MacKinnon asserted that in many other tribes whose land had been allotted, much of the land passed out of tribal hands when female members married male non-members, as the husbands would acquire control of the land. This would not happen when male members married female non-members. Thus, the ordinance was aimed at protecting the integrity of the tribe's land holdings. Yet, by giving preference to male intermarriage while punishing female intermarriage, the tribe was cowing to the U.S. government's threat of allotment, thereby undermining tribal autonomy.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Francine Skenandore responded to MacKinnon's position with an account of Indian feminism that presents tribal identity and tribal women's identity as deeply linked. This results in an emphasis less on gender equality and more on tribal survival and autonomy. Skenandore argues that MacKinnon is trying to force Native women to choose between their identity as women and identity as tribal members, whereas she believes the two work together. Thus, the decision in <i>Santa Clara</i> advanced Indian feminism insofar as it preserved tribal sovereignty and the ability of the tribe to work through its understanding of gender equality outside the control of United States law and empire. She points out that MacKinnon does not understand how tribal membership is a privilege, not a right and that MacKinnon uses rights language to wholly dismiss tribal culture and tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Petitioners' Brief provides support for Skenandore's critique. The Brief noted that the membership ordinance simply codified an unwritten tribal rule that had existed from time immemorial.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rina Swentzell, a Santa Clara Pueblo member, wrote of how the decision affirming the tribe's self-determination to decide who is a member was critical to the Pueblo's continuance as an independent community.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was a community issue that ought be handled internally by the members, not imposed on them by the Supreme Court. In her article, "Testimony of a Santa Clara Woman," she discusses how balance, in life and between the sexes, is an important part of Santa Clara Pueblan culture and tradition. She notes that the 1936 Santa Clara Constitution, pursuant to which the membership ordinance was passed, was primarily written by non-pueblo individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Judith Resnik provides a similar critique of the decision as MacKinnon. She questions the role of tradition and history in the rule, instead identifying the ordinance as a product of U.S. influence, if not encouragement. It reflects the long-standing U.S. tradition of subjugating women.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Skenandore responded to Resnik as well, noting that her argument suggests tribes have been assimilated into the dominant legal culture of the United States and questions their existence as distinct communities. This ignores the long, and continuing, history of tribal resistance to assimilation. Skenandore reiterates that Native feminists understand the connection between gender identity and tribal identity and how critical the preservation of tribal sovereignty is to their feminism.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Note:_Canadian_policy_under_the_Indian_Act_of_1951">Note: Canadian policy under the Indian Act of 1951</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Santa_Clara_Pueblo_v._Martinez&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Note: Canadian policy under the Indian Act of 1951"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Santa Clara's membership ordinance was similar to Canadian policy governing the status of First Nations or Indian women under the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_Act_of_1951&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Indian Act of 1951 (page does not exist)">Indian Act of 1951</a>. This was different from the Santa Clara Pueblo case, in that the government was imposing rules on all Indians or First Nations. But it was discriminatory against Indian women and their children. The Act said that First Nations/Indian women who married a non-First Nations man or non-status man, would lose their status as Indians. If they married a man from another tribe, they would lose rights in their birth tribe, as would their children. They could not return to their original tribe and get benefits they had received before. But First Nations men who married a non-Indian or non-status woman, or a woman from another First Nation, suffered no such loss or change in status. </p><p>Women organized and finally got this law changed, challenging it in court and appealing to the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Human_Rights_Committee" title="United Nations Human Rights Committee">United Nations Human Rights Committee</a>. In 1981, the UN found Canada in breach of the <a href="/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights" title="International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights">International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights</a>. In 1982 Canada amended its constitution, establishing the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Charter_of_Rights_and_Freedoms" title="Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms">Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms</a>. In 1985 it passed Bill C-31, which "revised Indian status to address the gender discrimination of the Indian Act."<sup id="cite_ref-C-31_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-C-31-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Santa_Clara_Pueblo_v._Martinez&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Clara_Indian_Reservation" title="Santa Clara Indian Reservation">Santa Clara Indian Reservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Civil Rights Act of 1968">Indian Civil Rights Act of 1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_436" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 436">List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 436</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Santa_Clara_Pueblo_v._Martinez&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-op-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-op_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-op_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-op_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Santa Clara Pueblo v. Martinez</i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_436" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 436">436</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/436/49/#51">49, 51</a> (1978).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181219152859/http://www.fedbar.org/Resources_1/Federal-Lawyer-Magazine/2008/The-Federal-Lawyer-MarchApril-2008/Features/Trapped-in-the-Spring-of-1978-The-Continuing-Impact-of-the-Supreme-Courts-Decisions-in-Oliphant-W.aspx?FT=.pdf">"Ezekiel J.N. Fletcher, <i>Trapped in the Spring of 1978: The Continuing Impact of The Supreme Court's Decision in</i> Oliphant<i>,</i> Wheeler<i>, and</i> Martinez, 55 APR Fed. Law 36 (2008)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fedbar.org/Resources_1/Federal-Lawyer-Magazine/2008/The-Federal-Lawyer-MarchApril-2008/Features/Trapped-in-the-Spring-of-1978-The-Continuing-Impact-of-the-Supreme-Courts-Decisions-in-Oliphant-W.aspx?FT=.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on December 19, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 29,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ezekiel+J.N.+Fletcher%2C+Trapped+in+the+Spring+of+1978%3A+The+Continuing+Impact+of+The+Supreme+Court%27s+Decision+in+Oliphant%2C+Wheeler%2C+and+Martinez%2C+55+APR+Fed.+Law+36+%282008%29.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fedbar.org%2FResources_1%2FFederal-Lawyer-Magazine%2F2008%2FThe-Federal-Lawyer-MarchApril-2008%2FFeatures%2FTrapped-in-the-Spring-of-1978-The-Continuing-Impact-of-the-Supreme-Courts-Decisions-in-Oliphant-W.aspx%3FFT%3D.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanta+Clara+Pueblo+v.+Martinez" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Santa Clara</i>, 436 U.S. 51-53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Brief of the Petitioners, Santa Clara Pueblo v Martinez, No 76-682, at 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Santa Clara</i>, 436 U.S. at 54.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SC55-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SC55_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SC55_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Santa Clara</i>, 436 U.S. at 55.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Santa Clara</i>, 436 U.S. at 56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Santa Clara</i>, 436 U.S. at 56-57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Santa Clara</i>, 436 U.S. at 57-58.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Santa Clara</i> 436 U.S. at 58-59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Santa Clara</i>, 436 U.S. at 59-60.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Santa Clara</i>, 436 U.S. at 60-65.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Santa Clara</i>, 436 U.S. at 66-69.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Santa Clara</i>, 436 U.S. at 123-124.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Santa Clara</i>, 436 U.S. at 72-79 (J. White, dissenting).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Santa Clara</i>, 436 U.S. at 79-82 (J. White, dissenting).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Santa Clara</i>, 436 U.S. at 82-83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Santa Clara</i>, 436 U.S. at 58.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Merrion_v._Jicarilla_Apache_Tribe" title="Merrion v. Jicarilla Apache Tribe">Merrion v. Jicarilla Apache Tribe</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_455" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 455">455</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/455/130/#149">130, 149</a> (1982).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Merrion170-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Merrion170_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Merrion170_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Merrion</i>, 455 U.S. at 170.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Rice_v._Cayetano" title="Rice v. Cayetano">Rice v. Cayetano</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_528" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 528">528</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/528/495/#517">495, 517</a> (2001).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rice527-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rice527_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rice527_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rice527_22-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Rice</i>, 528 U.S. at 527.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Nevada_v._Hicks" title="Nevada v. Hicks">Nevada v. Hicks</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_533" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 533">533</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/533/353/#374">353, 374</a> (2001).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Hicks</i>, 533 U.S. at 376.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Hicks</i>, 533 U.S. at 376-77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Michigan v. Bay Mills Indian Community</i>, 572 U.S. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/572/12-515/">782</a> (2014).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Bay Mills Indian Community</i>, 572 U.S. at 788-790.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Bay Mills Indian Community</i>, 572 U.S. at 803.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Bryant" title="United States v. Bryant">United States v. Bryant</a></i>, No. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/579/15-420/">15-420</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_579" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 579">579</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> ___, 136 S.Ct. 1954, 1958-59 (2016).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Bryant</i>, 136 S.Ct. at 1962.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">81 <a href="/wiki/Federal_Register" title="Federal Register">FR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.federalregister.gov/citation/81-FR-38778">38778</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">81 <a href="/wiki/Federal_Register" title="Federal Register">FR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.federalregister.gov/citation/81-FR-38783">38783</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">81 <a href="/wiki/Federal_Register" title="Federal Register">FR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.federalregister.gov/citation/81-FR-71278">71278</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">81 <a href="/wiki/Federal_Register" title="Federal Register">FR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.federalregister.gov/citation/81-FR-71297">71297</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Secretary of Labor v. Navajo Forest Products</i>, 8 O.S.H. Cas. (BNA) 2094 (1980).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.doi.gov/oha/organization/ibia">"About the Interior Board of Indian Appeals"</a>. <i>U.S. Department of the Interior</i>. May 26, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=U.S.+Department+of+the+Interior&rft.atitle=About+the+Interior+Board+of+Indian+Appeals&rft.date=2019-05-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.doi.gov%2Foha%2Forganization%2Fibia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanta+Clara+Pueblo+v.+Martinez" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Larry Martin</i>, 19 IBIA at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oha.doi.gov:8080/isysquery/40101f28-4f82-46e5-8bee-45115fb682d0/1/doc/19ibia279.PDF#xml=http://IHAESCWVPWEB01.doi.net:8080/isysquery/40101f28-4f82-46e5-8bee-45115fb682d0/1/hilite/">281</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Larry Martin</i>, 19 IBIA at 286-87.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Weimas,</i> 24 IBIA at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oha.doi.gov:8080/isysquery/75a7d2a5-1c49-406e-9362-a1cf1e66519c/1/doc/24ibia264.PDF#xml=http://IHAESCWVPWEB01.doi.net:8080/isysquery/75a7d2a5-1c49-406e-9362-a1cf1e66519c/1/hilite/">265-67</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Weimas</i>, 24 IBIA at 271-72.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brief of the Petitioners at 23-24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brief of the Petitioners at 27-29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brief of the Respondents, Santa Clara Pueblo v Martinez, No 76-682, at 27-28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Id.</i> at 35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://turtletalk.files.wordpress.com/2008/08/mackinnon-chapter.pdf">Catherine A. MacKinnon, Feminism Unmodified 68-69 (1987).</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">MacKinnon, <i>supra</i> at 66-68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1176897979">.mw-parser-output .bluebook-title{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output .bluebook-title i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .bluebook-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .bluebook-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .bluebook-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .bluebook-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#3a3;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><cite id="CITEREFSkenandore2002">Francine R. Skenandore, <span class="bluebook-title bluebook-lock-none" title=""><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unm.edu/~exa10/Skenandore.htm">Revisiting <i>Santa Clara Pueblo v. Martinez</i>: Feminist Perspectives on Tribal Sovereignty</a></span>, 17 Wis. Women's L.J. 347 (2002).</cite></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1176897979"><cite id="CITEREFSwentzell2004">Rina Swentzell, <span class="bluebook-title bluebook-lock-none" title="">Testimony of a Santa Clara Woman</span>, 14 Kan. J.L. & Pub. Pol'y 97 (2004).</cite></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Swentzell</i>, <i>supra</i> at 99.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1176897979"><cite id="CITEREFResnik1989">Judith Resnik, <span class="bluebook-title bluebook-lock-none" title=""><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/fss_papers/911/">Dependent Sovereigns: Indian Tribes, States, and the Federal Courts</a></span>, 56 U. Chi. L. Rev. 671, 725 (1989).</cite></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkenandore2002" class="citation journal cs1">Skenandore, Francine R. (2002). "Revisiting Santa Clara". <i>Wisconsin Women's Law Journal</i>. <b>17</b>: 358.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wisconsin+Women%27s+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=Revisiting+Santa+Clara&rft.volume=17&rft.pages=358&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Skenandore&rft.aufirst=Francine+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanta+Clara+Pueblo+v.+Martinez" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-C-31-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-C-31_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca/bill_c-31/">"Government Policy: Bill C-31"</a>. <i>Indigenous Foundations</i>. First Nations and Indigenous Studies, University of British Columbia. 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 4,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Indigenous+Foundations&rft.atitle=Government+Policy%3A+Bill+C-31&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Findigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca%2Fbill_c-31%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanta+Clara+Pueblo+v.+Martinez" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Santa_Clara_Pueblo_v._Martinez&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Text of <i>Santa Clara Pueblo v. Martinez</i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_436" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 436">436</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> 49 (1978) is available from: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-supreme-court/436/49.html">Findlaw</a>  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/436/49/">Justia</a>  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdn.loc.gov/service/ll/usrep/usrep436/usrep436049/usrep436049.pdf">Library of Congress</a>  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/1977/76-682">Oyez (oral argument audio)</a> </li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:USArticleIII" title="Template:USArticleIII"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:USArticleIII" title="Template talk:USArticleIII"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:USArticleIII" title="Special:EditPage/Template:USArticleIII"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="U.S._Supreme_Court_Article_III_case_law" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">U.S. Supreme Court</a> <a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">Article III</a> case law</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Federalism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Federalism_in_the_United_States" title="Federalism in the United States">Federalism</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Abstention_doctrine" title="Abstention doctrine">Abstention</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Railroad_Commission_v._Pullman_Co." title="Railroad Commission v. Pullman Co.">Railroad Commission v. Pullman Co.</a></i> (1941)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Burford_v._Sun_Oil_Co." title="Burford v. Sun Oil Co.">Burford v. Sun Oil Co.</a></i> (1943)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Power_%26_Light_Co._v._City_of_Thibodaux" title="Louisiana Power & Light Co. v. City of Thibodaux">Louisiana Power & Light Co. v. City of Thibodaux</a></i> (1959)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_Gas_Pipe_Line_Co._v._Ideal_Cement_Co." title="United Gas Pipe Line Co. v. Ideal Cement Co.">United Gas Pipe Line Co. v. Ideal Cement Co.</a></i> (1962)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/England_v._Louisiana_State_Board_of_Medical_Examiners" title="England v. Louisiana State Board of Medical Examiners">England v. Louisiana State Board of Medical Examiners</a></i> (1964)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Younger_v._Harris" title="Younger v. Harris">Younger v. Harris</a></i> (1971)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Colorado_River_Water_Conservation_District_v._United_States" title="Colorado River Water Conservation District v. United States">Colorado River Water Conservation District v. United States</a></i> (1976)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Moses_H._Cone_Memorial_Hospital_v._Mercury_Construction_Corp." title="Moses H. Cone Memorial Hospital v. Mercury Construction Corp.">Moses H. Cone Memorial Hospital v. Mercury Construction Corp.</a></i> (1983)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Adequate_and_independent_state_ground" title="Adequate and independent state ground">Adequate and<br />independent state ground</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Murdock_v._City_of_Memphis" title="Murdock v. City of Memphis">Murdock v. City of Memphis</a></i> (1875)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Seneca_Nation_of_Indians_v._Christy" title="Seneca Nation of Indians v. Christy">Seneca Nation of Indians v. Christy</a></i> (1896)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fox_Film_Corp._v._Muller" title="Fox Film Corp. v. Muller">Fox Film Corp. v. Muller</a></i> (1935)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harrison_v._NAACP" title="Harrison v. NAACP">Harrison v. NAACP</a></i> (1959)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Michigan_v._Long" title="Michigan v. Long">Michigan v. Long</a></i> (1983)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Federal_common_law" title="Federal common law">Federal common law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Hudson" title="United States v. Hudson">United States v. Hudson</a></i> (1812)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Swift_v._Tyson" title="Swift v. Tyson">Swift v. Tyson</a></i> (1842)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Black_%26_White_Taxicab_%26_Transfer_Co._v._Brown_%26_Yellow_Taxicab_%26_Transfer_Co." title="Black & White Taxicab & Transfer Co. v. Brown & Yellow Taxicab & Transfer Co.">Black & White Taxicab & Transfer Co. v. Brown & Yellow Taxicab & Transfer Co.</a></i> (1928)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Erie_Railroad_Co._v._Tompkins" title="Erie Railroad Co. v. Tompkins">Erie Railroad Co. v. Tompkins</a></i> (1938)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hinderlider_v._La_Plata_River_%26_Cherry_Creek_Ditch_Co." title="Hinderlider v. La Plata River & Cherry Creek Ditch Co.">Hinderlider v. La Plata River & Cherry Creek Ditch Co.</a></i> (1938)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Clearfield_Trust_Co._v._United_States" title="Clearfield Trust Co. v. United States">Clearfield Trust Co. v. United States</a></i> (1943)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rooker%E2%80%93Feldman_doctrine" title="Rooker–Feldman doctrine">Rooker–Feldman doctrine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Rooker_v._Fidelity_Trust_Co." title="Rooker v. Fidelity Trust Co.">Rooker v. Fidelity Trust Co.</a></i> (1923)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_Court_of_Appeals_v._Feldman" title="District of Columbia Court of Appeals v. Feldman">District of Columbia Court of Appeals v. Feldman</a></i> (1983)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Exxon_Mobil_Corp._v._Saudi_Basic_Industries_Corp." title="Exxon Mobil Corp. v. Saudi Basic Industries Corp.">Exxon Mobil Corp. v. Saudi Basic Industries Corp.</a></i> (2005)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sovereign_immunity_in_the_United_States" title="Sovereign immunity in the United States">Sovereign immunity</a> and<br /><a href="/wiki/Presidential_immunity_in_the_United_States" title="Presidential immunity in the United States">presidential immunity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Little_v._Barreme" title="Little v. Barreme">Little v. Barreme</a></i> (1804)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Schooner_Exchange_v._M%27Faddon" title="The Schooner Exchange v. M'Faddon">The Schooner Exchange v. M'Faddon</a></i> (1812)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_v._Johnson" title="Mississippi v. Johnson">Mississippi v. Johnson</a></i> (1867)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Lee_(1882)" title="United States v. Lee (1882)">United States v. Lee</a></i> (1882)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Schillinger_v._United_States" title="Schillinger v. United States">Schillinger v. United States</a></i> (1894)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Feres_v._United_States" title="Feres v. United States">Feres v. United States</a></i> (1950)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Wunderlich" title="United States v. Wunderlich">United States v. Wunderlich</a></i> (1951)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Banco_Nacional_de_Cuba_v._Sabbatino" title="Banco Nacional de Cuba v. Sabbatino">Banco Nacional de Cuba v. Sabbatino</a></i> (1964)</li> <li><i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Santa Clara Pueblo v. Martinez</a></i> (1978)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nixon_v._Fitzgerald" title="Nixon v. Fitzgerald">Nixon v. Fitzgerald</a></i> (1982)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Stanley" title="United States v. Stanley">United States v. Stanley</a></i> (1987)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_Tax_Commission_v._Citizen_Band,_Potawatomi_Indian_Tribe_of_Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma Tax Commission v. Citizen Band, Potawatomi Indian Tribe of Oklahoma">Oklahoma Tax Commission v. Citizen Band, Potawatomi Indian Tribe of Oklahoma</a></i> (1991)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia_v._Nelson" title="Saudi Arabia v. Nelson">Saudi Arabia v. Nelson</a></i> (1993)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Clinton_v._Jones" title="Clinton v. Jones">Clinton v. Jones</a></i> (1997)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kiowa_Tribe_of_Oklahoma_v._Manufacturing_Technologies,_Inc." title="Kiowa Tribe of Oklahoma v. Manufacturing Technologies, Inc.">Kiowa Tribe of Oklahoma v. Manufacturing Technologies, Inc.</a></i> (1998)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/College_Savings_Bank_v._Florida_Prepaid_Postsecondary_Education_Expense_Board" title="College Savings Bank v. Florida Prepaid Postsecondary Education Expense Board">College Savings Bank v. Florida Prepaid Postsecondary Education Expense Board</a></i> (1999)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/C_%26_L_Enterprises,_Inc._v._Citizen_Band,_Potawatomi_Indian_Tribe_of_Oklahoma" title="C & L Enterprises, Inc. v. Citizen Band, Potawatomi Indian Tribe of Oklahoma">C & L Enterprises, Inc. v. Citizen Band, Potawatomi Indian Tribe of Oklahoma</a></i> (2001)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Inyo_County_v._Paiute-Shoshone_Indians_of_the_Bishop_Community" title="Inyo County v. Paiute-Shoshone Indians of the Bishop Community">Inyo County v. Paiute-Shoshone Indians of the Bishop Community</a></i> (2003)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._White_Mountain_Apache_Tribe" title="United States v. White Mountain Apache Tribe">United States v. White Mountain Apache Tribe</a></i> (2003)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Austria_v._Altmann" title="Republic of Austria v. Altmann">Republic of Austria v. Altmann</a></i> (2004)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/City_of_Sherrill_v._Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_New_York" title="City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York">City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York</a></i> (2005)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dolan_v._United_States_Postal_Service" title="Dolan v. United States Postal Service">Dolan v. United States Postal Service</a></i> (2006)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Permanent_Mission_of_India_v._City_of_New_York" title="Permanent Mission of India v. City of New York">Permanent Mission of India v. City of New York</a></i> (2007)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ali_v._Federal_Bureau_of_Prisons" title="Ali v. Federal Bureau of Prisons">Ali v. Federal Bureau of Prisons</a></i> (2008)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Samantar_v._Yousuf" title="Samantar v. Yousuf">Samantar v. Yousuf</a></i> (2010)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Bormes" title="United States v. Bormes">United States v. Bormes</a></i> (2012)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Argentina_v._NML_Capital,_Ltd." title="Republic of Argentina v. NML Capital, Ltd.">Republic of Argentina v. NML Capital, Ltd.</a></i> (2014)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/OBB_Personenverkehr_AG_v._Sachs" title="OBB Personenverkehr AG v. Sachs">OBB Personenverkehr AG v. Sachs</a></i> (2015)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jam_v._International_Finance_Corp." title="Jam v. International Finance Corp.">Jam v. International Finance Corp.</a></i> (2019)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Sudan_v._Harrison" title="Republic of Sudan v. Harrison">Republic of Sudan v. Harrison</a></i> (2019)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Opati_v._Republic_of_Sudan" title="Opati v. Republic of Sudan">Opati v. Republic of Sudan</a></i> (2020)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Trump_v._United_States_(2024)" title="Trump v. United States (2024)">Trump v. United States</a></i> (2024)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Jurisdiction" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Federal_jurisdiction_(United_States)" title="Federal jurisdiction (United States)">Jurisdiction</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Chisholm_v._Georgia" title="Chisholm v. Georgia">Chisholm v. Georgia</a></i> (1793)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Marbury_v._Madison" title="Marbury v. Madison">Marbury v. Madison</a></i> (1803)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._More" title="United States v. More">United States v. More</a></i> (1805)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Martin_v._Hunter%27s_Lessee" title="Martin v. Hunter's Lessee">Martin v. Hunter's Lessee</a></i> (1816)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/American_Insurance_Co._v._356_Bales_of_Cotton" title="American Insurance Co. v. 356 Bales of Cotton">American Insurance Co. v. 356 Bales of Cotton</a></i> (1828)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sheldon_v._Sill" title="Sheldon v. Sill">Sheldon v. Sill</a></i> (1850)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Jackalow" title="United States v. Jackalow">United States v. Jackalow</a></i> (1862)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ex_parte_Vallandigham" title="Ex parte Vallandigham">Ex parte Vallandigham</a></i> (1864)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ex_parte_McCardle" title="Ex parte McCardle">Ex parte McCardle</a></i> (1869)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Klein" title="United States v. Klein">United States v. Klein</a></i> (1871)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/City_of_St._Louis_v._Myers" title="City of St. Louis v. Myers">City of St. Louis v. Myers</a></i> (1885)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Barrett_v._United_States" title="Barrett v. United States">Barrett v. United States</a></i> (1898)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Burton_v._United_States#Burton_I_(1905)" title="Burton v. United States">Burton v. United States I</a></i> (1905)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Burton_v._United_States#Burton_II_(1906)" title="Burton v. United States">Burton v. United States II</a></i> (1906)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Louisville_%26_Nashville_Railroad_Co._v._Mottley" title="Louisville & Nashville Railroad Co. v. Mottley">Louisville & Nashville Railroad Co. v. Mottley</a></i> (1908)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Muskrat_v._United_States" title="Muskrat v. United States">Muskrat v. United States</a></i> (1911)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/American_Well_Works_Co._v._Layne_%26_Bowler_Co." title="American Well Works Co. v. Layne & Bowler Co.">American Well Works Co. v. Layne & Bowler Co.</a></i> (1916)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Smith_v._Kansas_City_Title_%26_Trust_Co." title="Smith v. Kansas City Title & Trust Co.">Smith v. Kansas City Title & Trust Co.</a></i> (1921)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hartsville_Oil_Mill_v._United_States" title="Hartsville Oil Mill v. United States">Hartsville Oil Mill v. United States</a></i> (1926)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_v._Illinois" title="Wisconsin v. Illinois">Wisconsin v. Illinois</a></i> (1929)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Crowell_v._Benson" title="Crowell v. Benson">Crowell v. Benson</a></i> (1932)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Colegrove_v._Green" title="Colegrove v. Green">Colegrove v. Green</a></i> (1946)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Glidden_Co._v._Zdanok" title="Glidden Co. v. Zdanok">Glidden Co. v. Zdanok</a></i> (1962)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_New_York_v._County_of_Oneida" title="Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. County of Oneida">Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. County of Oneida</a></i> (1974)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arizona_v._New_Mexico" title="Arizona v. New Mexico">Arizona v. New Mexico</a></i> (1976)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mt._Healthy_City_School_District_Board_of_Education_v._Doyle" title="Mt. Healthy City School District Board of Education v. Doyle">Mt. Healthy City School District Board of Education v. Doyle</a></i> (1977)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Northern_Pipeline_Construction_Co._v._Marathon_Pipe_Line_Co." title="Northern Pipeline Construction Co. v. Marathon Pipe Line Co.">Northern Pipeline Construction Co. v. Marathon Pipe Line Co.</a></i> (1982)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_v._Union_Carbide&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thomas v. Union Carbide (page does not exist)">Thomas v. Union Carbide</a></i> (1985)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Commodity_Futures_Trading_Commission_v._Schor" title="Commodity Futures Trading Commission v. Schor">Commodity Futures Trading Commission v. Schor</a></i> (1986)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Merrell_Dow_Pharmaceuticals_Inc._v._Thompson" title="Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals Inc. v. Thompson">Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals Inc. v. Thompson</a></i> (1986)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plaut_v._Spendthrift_Farm,_Inc." title="Plaut v. Spendthrift Farm, Inc.">Plaut v. Spendthrift Farm, Inc.</a></i> (1995)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/JPMorgan_Chase_Bank_v._Traffic_Stream_(BVI)_Infrastructure_Ltd." title="JPMorgan Chase Bank v. Traffic Stream (BVI) Infrastructure Ltd.">JPMorgan Chase Bank v. Traffic Stream (BVI) Infrastructure Ltd.</a></i> (2002)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Grable_%26_Sons_Metal_Products,_Inc._v._Darue_Engineering_%26_Mfg." title="Grable & Sons Metal Products, Inc. v. Darue Engineering & Mfg.">Grable & Sons Metal Products, Inc. v. Darue Engineering & Mfg.</a></i> (2005)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bowles_v._Russell" title="Bowles v. Russell">Bowles v. Russell</a></i> (2007)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Patchak_v._Zinke" title="Patchak v. Zinke">Patchak v. Zinke</a></i> (2018)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Justiciability" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Justiciability" title="Justiciability">Justiciability</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mootness" title="Mootness">Mootness</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/DeFunis_v._Odegaard" title="DeFunis v. Odegaard">DeFunis v. Odegaard</a></i> (1974)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Campbell-Ewald_Co._v._Gomez" title="Campbell-Ewald Co. v. Gomez">Campbell-Ewald Co. v. Gomez</a></i> (2016)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Uzuegbunam_v._Preczewski" title="Uzuegbunam v. Preczewski">Uzuegbunam v. Preczewski</a></i> (2021)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Acheson_Hotels,_LLC_v._Laufer" title="Acheson Hotels, LLC v. Laufer">Acheson Hotels, LLC v. Laufer</a></i> (2023)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Political_question" title="Political question">Political question</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Baker_v._Carr" title="Baker v. Carr">Baker v. Carr</a></i> (1962)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Goldwater_v._Carter" title="Goldwater v. Carter">Goldwater v. Carter</a></i> (1979)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nixon_v._United_States" title="Nixon v. United States">Nixon v. United States</a></i> (1993)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ripeness" title="Ripeness">Ripeness</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Poe_v._Ullman" title="Poe v. Ullman">Poe v. Ullman</a></i> (1961)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Toilet_Goods_Ass%27n,_Inc._v._Gardner" title="Toilet Goods Ass'n, Inc. v. Gardner">Toilet Goods Ass'n, Inc. v. Gardner</a></i> (1967)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Laird_v._Tatum" title="Laird v. Tatum">Laird v. Tatum</a></i> (1972)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Williamson_County_Regional_Planning_Commission_v._Hamilton_Bank_of_Johnson_City" title="Williamson County Regional Planning Commission v. Hamilton Bank of Johnson City">Williamson County Regional Planning Commission v. Hamilton Bank of Johnson City</a></i> (1985)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Trump_v._New_York" title="Trump v. New York">Trump v. New York</a></i> (2020)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Standing_(law)#United_States" title="Standing (law)">Standing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Bailiff_v._Tipping" title="Bailiff v. Tipping">Bailiff v. Tipping</a></i> (1805)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fairchild_v._Hughes" title="Fairchild v. Hughes">Fairchild v. Hughes</a></i> (1922)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_v._Mellon" title="Massachusetts v. Mellon">Massachusetts v. Mellon</a></i> (1923)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ex_parte_Levitt" title="Ex parte Levitt">Ex parte Levitt</a></i> (1937)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Altvater_v._Freeman" title="Altvater v. Freeman">Altvater v. Freeman</a></i> (1943)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Flast_v._Cohen" title="Flast v. Cohen">Flast v. Cohen</a></i> (1968)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Club_v._Morton" title="Sierra Club v. Morton">Sierra Club v. Morton</a></i> (1972)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Students_Challenging_Regulatory_Agency_Procedures" title="United States v. Students Challenging Regulatory Agency Procedures">United States v. Students Challenging Regulatory Agency Procedures</a></i> (1973)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Schlesinger_v._Reservists_Committee_to_Stop_the_War" title="Schlesinger v. Reservists Committee to Stop the War">Schlesinger v. Reservists Committee to Stop the War</a></i> (1974)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Warth_v._Seldin" title="Warth v. Seldin">Warth v. Seldin</a></i> (1975)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Illinois_Brick_Co._v._Illinois" title="Illinois Brick Co. v. Illinois">Illinois Brick Co. v. Illinois</a></i> (1977)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pfizer_Inc._v._Government_of_India" title="Pfizer Inc. v. Government of India">Pfizer Inc. v. Government of India</a></i> (1978)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Valley_Forge_Christian_College_v._Americans_United_for_Separation_of_Church_%26_State" title="Valley Forge Christian College v. Americans United for Separation of Church & State">Valley Forge Christian College v. Americans United for Separation of Church & State</a></i> (1982)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/City_of_Los_Angeles_v._Lyons" title="City of Los Angeles v. Lyons">City of Los Angeles v. Lyons</a></i> (1983)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Allen_v._Wright" title="Allen v. Wright">Allen v. Wright</a></i> (1984)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Diamond_v._Charles" title="Diamond v. Charles">Diamond v. Charles</a></i> (1986)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lujan_v._Defenders_of_Wildlife" title="Lujan v. Defenders of Wildlife">Lujan v. Defenders of Wildlife</a></i> (1992)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Raines_v._Byrd" title="Raines v. Byrd">Raines v. Byrd</a></i> (1997)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/FEC_v._Akins" title="FEC v. Akins">FEC v. Akins</a></i> (1998)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Friends_of_the_Earth,_Inc._v._Laidlaw_Environmental_Services,_Inc." title="Friends of the Earth, Inc. v. Laidlaw Environmental Services, Inc.">Friends of the Earth, Inc. v. Laidlaw Environmental Services, Inc.</a></i> (2000)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/DaimlerChrysler_Corp._v._Cuno" title="DaimlerChrysler Corp. v. Cuno">DaimlerChrysler Corp. v. Cuno</a></i> (2006)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hein_v._Freedom_From_Religion_Foundation" title="Hein v. Freedom From Religion Foundation">Hein v. Freedom From Religion Foundation</a></i> (2007)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_v._Environmental_Protection_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Massachusetts v. Environmental Protection Agency">Massachusetts v. Environmental Protection Agency</a></i> (2007)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arizona_Christian_School_Tuition_Organization_v._Winn" title="Arizona Christian School Tuition Organization v. Winn">Arizona Christian School Tuition Organization v. Winn</a></i> (2011)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bond_v._United_States_(2011)" title="Bond v. United States (2011)">Bond v. United States</a></i> (2011)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Clapper_v._Amnesty_International_USA" title="Clapper v. Amnesty International USA">Clapper v. Amnesty International USA</a></i> (2013)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Spokeo,_Inc._v._Robins" title="Spokeo, Inc. v. Robins">Spokeo, Inc. v. Robins</a></i> (2016)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Texas_v._Pennsylvania" title="Texas v. Pennsylvania">Texas v. Pennsylvania</a></i> (2020)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Trump_v._New_York" title="Trump v. New York">Trump v. New York</a></i> (2020)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Uzuegbunam_v._Preczewski" title="Uzuegbunam v. Preczewski">Uzuegbunam v. Preczewski</a></i> (2021)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/TransUnion_LLC_v._Ramirez" title="TransUnion LLC v. Ramirez">TransUnion LLC v. Ramirez</a></i> (2021)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Biden_v._Nebraska" title="Biden v. Nebraska">Biden v. Nebraska</a></i> (2023)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/FDA_v._Alliance_for_Hippocratic_Medicine" title="FDA v. Alliance for Hippocratic Medicine">FDA v. Alliance for Hippocratic Medicine</a></i> (2024)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Murthy_v._Missouri" title="Murthy v. Missouri">Murthy v. Missouri</a></i> (2024)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Hayburn%27s_Case" title="Hayburn's Case">Hayburn's Case</a></i> (1792)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/County_of_Oneida_v._Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_New_York_State" title="County of Oneida v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York State">County of Oneida v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York State</a></i> (1985)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Davis_v._Bandemer" title="Davis v. Bandemer">Davis v. Bandemer</a></i> (1986)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vieth_v._Jubelirer" title="Vieth v. Jubelirer">Vieth v. Jubelirer</a></i> (2004)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rucho_v._Common_Cause" title="Rucho v. Common Cause">Rucho v. Common Cause</a></i> / <i><a href="/wiki/Benisek_v._Lamone" title="Benisek v. Lamone">Benisek v. Lamone</a></i> (2019)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Treason" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Treason_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Treason laws in the United States">Treason</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ex_parte_Bollman" title="Ex parte Bollman">Ex parte Bollman</a></i> (1807)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Burr_conspiracy" title="Burr conspiracy">United States v. Burr</a></i> (1807)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cramer_v._United_States" title="Cramer v. United States">Cramer v. United States</a></i> (1945)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Others" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Others</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Stuart_v._Laird" title="Stuart v. Laird">Stuart v. Laird</a></i> (1803)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Osborn_v._Bank_of_the_United_States" title="Osborn v. Bank of the United States">Osborn v. Bank of the United States</a></i> (1824)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Forrester_v._White" title="Forrester v. White">Forrester v. White</a></i> (1988)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mistretta_v._United_States" title="Mistretta v. United States">Mistretta v. United States</a></i> (1989)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Peretz_v._United_States" title="Peretz v. United States">Peretz v. United States</a></i> (1991)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Hatter" title="United States v. Hatter">United States v. Hatter</a></i> (2001)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Stern_v._Marshall" title="Stern v. Marshall">Stern v. Marshall</a></i> (2011)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bank_Markazi_v._Peterson" title="Bank Markazi v. Peterson">Bank Markazi v. Peterson</a></i> (2016)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Rights_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#F0E68C;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_rights" title="Template:Native American rights"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Native_American_rights" title="Template talk:Native American rights"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Native_American_rights" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Native American rights"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Rights_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_civil_rights" title="Native American civil rights">Rights</a> of <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans in the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#F0E68C;;width:1%">Case law</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Johnson_v._McIntosh" title="Johnson v. McIntosh">Johnson v. McIntosh</a></i> (1823)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_v._Georgia" title="Cherokee Nation v. Georgia">Cherokee Nation v. Georgia</a></i> (1831)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Worcester_v._Georgia" title="Worcester v. Georgia">Worcester v. Georgia</a></i> (1832)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fellows_v._Blacksmith" title="Fellows v. Blacksmith">Fellows v. Blacksmith</a></i> (1857)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_York_ex_rel._Cutler_v._Dibble" title="New York ex rel. Cutler v. Dibble">New York ex rel. Cutler v. Dibble</a></i> (1858)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Standing_Bear_v._Crook" class="mw-redirect" title="Standing Bear v. Crook">Standing Bear v. Crook</a></i> (D. Neb. 1879)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ex_parte_Crow_Dog" title="Ex parte Crow Dog">Ex parte Crow Dog</a></i> (1883)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elk_v._Wilkins" title="Elk v. Wilkins">Elk v. Wilkins</a></i> (1884)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Seneca_Nation_of_Indians_v._Christy" title="Seneca Nation of Indians v. Christy">Seneca Nation of Indians v. Christy</a></i> (1896)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Talton_v._Mayes" title="Talton v. Mayes">Talton v. Mayes</a></i> (1896)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lone_Wolf_v._Hitchcock" title="Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock">Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock</a></i> (1903)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Santa_Fe_Pacific_Railroad_Co." title="United States v. Santa Fe Pacific Railroad Co.">United States v. Santa Fe Pacific Railroad Co.</a></i> (1941)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tee-Hit-Ton_Indians_v._United_States" title="Tee-Hit-Ton Indians v. United States">Tee-Hit-Ton Indians v. United States</a></i> (1955)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Williams_v._Lee" title="Williams v. Lee">Williams v. Lee</a></i> (1959)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Federal_Power_Commission_v._Tuscarora_Indian_Nation" title="Federal Power Commission v. Tuscarora Indian Nation">Federal Power Commission v. Tuscarora Indian Nation</a></i> (1960)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Menominee_Tribe_v._United_States" title="Menominee Tribe v. United States">Menominee Tribe v. United States</a></i> (1968)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/McClanahan_v._Arizona_State_Tax_Commission" title="McClanahan v. Arizona State Tax Commission">McClanahan v. Arizona State Tax Commission</a></i> (1973)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_New_York_v._County_of_Oneida" title="Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. County of Oneida">Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. County of Oneida</a></i> (1974)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bryan_v._Itasca_County" title="Bryan v. Itasca County">Bryan v. Itasca County</a></i> (1976)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Antelope" title="United States v. Antelope">United States v. Antelope</a></i> (1977)</li> <li><i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Santa Clara Pueblo v. Martinez</a></i> (1978)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Merrion_v._Jicarilla_Apache_Tribe" title="Merrion v. Jicarilla Apache Tribe">Merrion v. Jicarilla Apache Tribe</a></i> (1982)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Solem_v._Bartlett" title="Solem v. Bartlett">Solem v. Bartlett</a></i> (1984)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/County_of_Oneida_v._Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_New_York_State" title="County of Oneida v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York State">County of Oneida v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York State</a></i> (1985)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_v._Catawba_Indian_Tribe,_Inc." title="South Carolina v. Catawba Indian Tribe, Inc.">South Carolina v. Catawba Indian Tribe, Inc.</a></i> (1986)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hodel_v._Irving" title="Hodel v. Irving">Hodel v. Irving</a></i> (1987)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Band_of_Choctaw_Indians_v._Holyfield" title="Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians v. Holyfield">Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians v. Holyfield</a></i> (1989)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Duro_v._Reina" title="Duro v. Reina">Duro v. Reina</a></i> (1990)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/South_Dakota_v._Bourland" title="South Dakota v. Bourland">South Dakota v. Bourland</a></i> (1993)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Idaho_v._Coeur_d%27Alene_Tribe_of_Idaho" title="Idaho v. Coeur d'Alene Tribe of Idaho">Idaho v. Coeur d'Alene Tribe of Idaho</a></i> (1997)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Idaho_v._United_States" title="Idaho v. United States">Idaho v. United States</a></i> (2001)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Lara" title="United States v. Lara">United States v. Lara</a></i> (2004)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/City_of_Sherrill_v._Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_New_York" title="City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York">City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York</a></i> (2005)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cobell_v._Salazar" title="Cobell v. Salazar">Cobell v. Salazar</a></i> (D.C. Cir. 2009)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Adoptive_Couple_v._Baby_Girl" title="Adoptive Couple v. Baby Girl">Adoptive Couple v. Baby Girl</a></i> (2013)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sharp_v._Murphy" title="Sharp v. Murphy">Sharp v. Murphy</a> </i>and<i> <a href="/wiki/McGirt_v._Oklahoma" title="McGirt v. Oklahoma">McGirt v. Oklahoma</a></i> (2020)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_v._Castro-Huerta" title="Oklahoma v. Castro-Huerta">Oklahoma v. Castro-Huerta</a></i> (2022)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_involving_Indian_tribes" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases involving Indian tribes">List of United States Supreme Court cases involving Indian tribes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#F0E68C;;width:1%">Legislation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">Blood quantum laws</a> (1705 onwards)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonintercourse_Act" title="Nonintercourse Act">Nonintercourse Act</a> (1790,1793,1796,1799,1802,1834)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civilization_Fund_Act" title="Civilization Fund Act">Civilization Act</a> (1819)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Indian Removal Act</a> (1830)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawes_Act" title="Dawes Act">Dawes Act</a> (1887)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curtis_Act_of_1898" title="Curtis Act of 1898">Curtis Act</a> (1898)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burke_Act" title="Burke Act">Burke Act</a> (1906)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Citizenship_Act" title="Indian Citizenship Act">Indian Citizenship Act</a> (1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Reorganization_Act" title="Indian Reorganization Act">Indian Reorganization Act</a> (1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_arts_and_crafts_laws" title="Indian arts and crafts laws">Indian arts and crafts laws</a> (1935–2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_Indian_Welfare_Act" title="Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act">Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act</a> (1936)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationality_Act_of_1940" title="Nationality Act of 1940">Nationality Act</a> (1940)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Law_280" title="Public Law 280">Public Law 280</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Relocation_Act_of_1956" title="Indian Relocation Act of 1956">Indian Relocation Act</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">Indian Civil Rights Act</a> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Native_Claims_Settlement_Act" title="Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act">Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Self-Determination_and_Education_Assistance_Act_of_1975" title="Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975">Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act</a> (1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Religious_Freedom_Act" title="American Indian Religious Freedom Act">American Indian Religious Freedom Act</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Child_Welfare_Act" title="Indian Child Welfare Act">Indian Child Welfare Act</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diminishment" title="Diminishment">Diminishment</a> (1984)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Gaming_Regulatory_Act" title="Indian Gaming Regulatory Act">Indian Gaming Regulatory Act</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Languages_Act_of_1990" title="Native American Languages Act of 1990">Native American Languages Act</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Graves_Protection_and_Repatriation_Act" title="Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act">Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Arts_and_Crafts_Act_of_1990" title="Indian Arts and Crafts Act of 1990">Indian Arts and Crafts Act</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_Truth_in_Advertising_for_Native_Art" title="Cherokee Nation Truth in Advertising for Native Art">Cherokee Nation Truth in Advertising for Native Art</a> (2008)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#F0E68C;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_recognition_in_the_United_States" title="Native American recognition in the United States">Federal</a> and<br /><a href="/wiki/State-recognized_tribes_in_the_United_States" title="State-recognized tribes in the United States">State recognition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_recognition_of_Native_Hawaiians" title="United States federal recognition of Native Hawaiians">Federal recognition of Native Hawaiians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legal_status_of_Hawaii" title="Legal status of Hawaii">Legal status of Hawaii</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_in_the_contiguous_United_States" title="List of federally recognized tribes in the contiguous United States">Federally recognized tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-recognized_tribes_in_the_United_States" title="State-recognized tribes in the United States">State recognized tribes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#F0E68C;;width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States" title="Aboriginal title in the United States">Aboriginal title</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Indian_Affairs" title="Bureau of Indian Affairs">Bureau of Indian Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Commission" title="Cherokee Commission">Cherokee Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawes_Rolls" title="Dawes Rolls">Dawes Rolls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_on_the_Rights_of_Indigenous_Peoples" title="Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples">Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eagle_feather_law" title="Eagle feather law">Eagle feather law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eagle-bone_whistle" title="Eagle-bone whistle">Eagle-bone whistle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting_license" title="Hunting license">Hunting license</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_the_Courts_of_the_Conqueror" title="In the Courts of the Conqueror">In the Courts of the Conqueror</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Indian reservations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_Walk_of_the_Navajo" title="Long Walk of the Navajo">Long Walk of the Navajo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Indian_Gaming_Commission" title="National Indian Gaming Commission">National Indian Gaming Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_civil_rights" title="Native American civil rights">Native American civil rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_gaming" title="Native American gaming">Native American gaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Rights_Fund" title="Native American Rights Fund">Native American Rights Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recognition_of_Native_American_sacred_sites_in_the_United_States" title="Recognition of Native American sacred sites in the United States">Recognition of sacred sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seminole_Wars" title="Seminole Wars">Seminole Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survivance" title="Survivance">Survivance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_rights" title="Treaty rights">Treaty rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States" title="Tribal sovereignty in the United States">Tribal sovereignty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_self-determination" title="Native American self-determination">Self-determination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Congressional_Joint_Special_Committee_on_Conditions_of_Indian_Tribes" title="United States Congressional Joint Special Committee on Conditions of Indian Tribes">United States Congressional Joint Special Committee on Conditions of Indian Tribes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    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