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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Oil shale</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 53 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-53" aria-hidden="true" > 53 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D8%AE%D8%B1_%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%AA%D9%8A" title="صخر زيتي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="صخر زيتي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lutita_bituminosa" title="Lutita bituminosa – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Lutita bituminosa" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yanar_%C5%9Fist" title="Yanar şist – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Yanar şist" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%83%D1%87%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%8B" title="Гаручыя сланцы – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Гаручыя сланцы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D1%88%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8" title="Битуминозни шисти – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Битуминозни шисти" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Шатадаг занар – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Шатадаг занар" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pissarra_bituminosa" title="Pissarra bituminosa – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Pissarra bituminosa" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ropn%C3%A9_b%C5%99idlice" title="Ropné břidlice – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Ropné břidlice" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olieskifer" title="Olieskifer – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Olieskifer" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96lschiefer" title="Ölschiefer – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Ölschiefer" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%B5levkivi" title="Põlevkivi – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Põlevkivi" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esquistos_bituminosos" title="Esquistos bituminosos – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Esquistos bituminosos" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naftoardezo" title="Naftoardezo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Naftoardezo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eskisto_bituminoso" title="Eskisto bituminoso – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Eskisto bituminoso" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%86%DA%AF_%D9%86%D9%81%D8%AA" title="سنگ نفت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سنگ نفت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schiste_bitumineux" title="Schiste bitumineux – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Schiste bitumineux" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xisto_bituminoso" title="Xisto bituminoso – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Xisto bituminoso" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%98%A4%EC%9D%BC_%EC%85%B0%EC%9D%BC" title="오일 셰일 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="오일 셰일" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2" title="तैल शेल – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="तैल शेल" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minyak_serpih" title="Minyak serpih – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Minyak serpih" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ol%C3%ADuleirsteinn" title="Olíuleirsteinn – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Olíuleirsteinn" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scisto_bituminoso" title="Scisto bituminoso – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Scisto bituminoso" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A6%D7%9C%D7%99_%D7%A9%D7%9E%D7%9F" title="פצלי שמן – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פצלי שמן" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BD%D2%93%D1%8B%D1%88_%D1%82%D0%B0%D2%9B%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Жанғыш тақтатас – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Жанғыш тақтатас" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schistus_bituminosus" title="Schistus bituminosus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Schistus bituminosus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degsl%C4%81neklis" title="Degslāneklis – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Degslāneklis" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uelegschifer" title="Uelegschifer – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Uelegschifer" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naftingasis_skal%C5%ABnas" title="Naftingasis skalūnas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Naftingasis skalūnas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olajpala" title="Olajpala – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Olajpala" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minyak_syal" title="Minyak syal – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Minyak syal" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Шатдаг занар – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Шатдаг занар" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olieschalie" title="Olieschalie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Olieschalie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AA%E3%82%A4%E3%83%AB%E3%82%B7%E3%82%A7%E3%83%BC%E3%83%AB" title="オイルシェール – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="オイルシェール" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oljeskifer" title="Oljeskifer – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Oljeskifer" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oljeskifer" title="Oljeskifer – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Oljeskifer" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%81upki_bitumiczne" title="Łupki bitumiczne – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Łupki bitumiczne" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xisto_betuminoso" title="Xisto betuminoso – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Xisto betuminoso" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8E%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%86" title="Горючий сланец – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Горючий сланец" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ile_shale" title="Ile shale – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Ile shale" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%99%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B7%81%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%9A" title="තෙල් ශල්ක – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="තෙල් ශල්ක" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_shale" title="Oil shale – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Oil shale" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naftni_skrilavec" title="Naftni skrilavec – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Naftni skrilavec" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%99%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D1%88%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%99%D0%B0%D1%86" title="Уљни шкриљац – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Уљни шкриљац" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uljni_%C5%A1kriljac" title="Uljni škriljac – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Uljni škriljac" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96ljyliuske" title="Öljyliuske – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Öljyliuske" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oljeskiffer" title="Oljeskiffer – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Oljeskiffer" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%B3%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99" title="หินน้ำมัน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="หินน้ำมัน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D2%9B%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3%D2%B3%D0%BE%D0%B8_%D1%81%D3%AF%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Варақсангҳои сӯзанда – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Варақсангҳои сӯзанда" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroll%C3%BC_%C5%9Feyl" title="Petrollü şeyl – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Petrollü şeyl" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8E%D1%87%D1%96_%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%96" title="Горючі сланці – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Горючі сланці" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%C3%A1_phi%E1%BA%BFn_d%E1%BA%A7u" title="Đá phiến dầu – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Đá phiến dầu" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a 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title="Listen to this article"><img alt="Listen to this article" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/20px-Sound-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/30px-Sound-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/40px-Sound-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="96" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Organic-rich fine-grained sedimentary rock containing kerogen</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the scientific-technical journal, see <a href="/wiki/Oil_Shale_(journal)" title="Oil Shale (journal)">Oil Shale (journal)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Shale_oil" title="Shale oil">Shale oil</a> or <a href="/wiki/Tight_oil" title="Tight oil">Tight oil</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Oil shale</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="background-color: #cddeff"><a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_rock" title="Sedimentary rock">Sedimentary rock</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Oilshale.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/Oilshale.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="222" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="222" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Combustion of oil shale</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #ededed">Composition</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Primary</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kerogen" title="Kerogen">Kerogen</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Quartz" title="Quartz">Quartz</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Feldspar" title="Feldspar">Feldspar</a></li><li> <a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">Clay</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Carbonate" title="Carbonate">Carbonate</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrite" title="Pyrite">Pyrite</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Secondary</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">Uranium</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">Iron</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Vanadium" title="Vanadium">Vanadium</a></li><li> <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">Nickel</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Molybdenum" title="Molybdenum">Molybdenum</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Oil shale is an organic-rich <a href="/wiki/Granularity" title="Granularity">fine-grained</a> <a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_rock" title="Sedimentary rock">sedimentary rock</a> containing <a href="/wiki/Kerogen" title="Kerogen">kerogen</a> (a solid mixture of <a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">organic chemical compounds</a>) from which liquid <a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbon" title="Hydrocarbon">hydrocarbons</a> can be produced. In addition to kerogen, general composition of oil shales constitutes inorganic substance and <a href="/wiki/Bitumen" title="Bitumen">bitumens</a>. Based on their deposition environment, oil shales are classified as marine, lacustrine and terrestrial oil shales.<a href="#cite_note-dyni-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-hutton-2">[2]</a> Oil shales differ from oil-bearing shales, shale deposits that contain <a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">petroleum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tight_oil" title="Tight oil">tight oil</a>) that is sometimes produced from drilled wells. Examples of oil-bearing shales are the <a href="/wiki/Bakken_Formation" class="mw-redirect" title="Bakken Formation">Bakken Formation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Shale" title="Pierre Shale">Pierre Shale</a>, <a href="/wiki/Niobrara_Formation" title="Niobrara Formation">Niobrara Formation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Eagle_Ford_Group" title="Eagle Ford Group">Eagle Ford Formation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WER2013-3">[3]</a> Accordingly, shale oil produced from oil shale should not be confused with tight oil, which is also frequently called shale oil.<a href="#cite_note-WER2013-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-WEO2013-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-reinsalu-5">[5]</a> A 2016 estimate of global <a href="/wiki/Deposition_(geology)" title="Deposition (geology)">deposits</a> set the total world resources of oil shale equivalent of 6.05 trillion barrels (962 billion cubic metres) of <a href="/wiki/Oil_in_place" title="Oil in place">oil in place</a>.<a href="#cite_note-wec2016_16-6">[6]</a> Oil shale has gained attention as a potential abundant source of oil.<a href="#cite_note-evi-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-doe-8">[8]</a> However, the various attempts to develop oil shale deposits have had limited success. Only Estonia and China have well-established oil shale industries, and Brazil, Germany, and Russia utilize oil shale to some extent.<a href="#cite_note-wec_103-9">[9]</a> Oil shale can be <a href="/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion">burned</a> directly in furnaces as a low-grade fuel for <a href="/wiki/Electricity_generation" title="Electricity generation">power generation</a> and <a href="/wiki/District_heating" title="District heating">district heating</a> or used as a raw material in chemical and construction-materials processing.<a href="#cite_note-dyni-1">[1]</a> Heating oil shale to a sufficiently high temperature causes the chemical process of <a href="/wiki/Pyrolysis" title="Pyrolysis">pyrolysis</a> to <a href="/wiki/Yield_(chemistry)" title="Yield (chemistry)">yield</a> a <a href="/wiki/Vapor" title="Vapor">vapor</a>. Upon cooling the vapor, the liquid <a href="/wiki/Unconventional_oil" class="mw-redirect" title="Unconventional oil">unconventional oil</a>, called <a href="/wiki/Shale_oil" title="Shale oil">shale oil</a>, is separated from <a href="/wiki/Combustibility_and_flammability" title="Combustibility and flammability">combustible</a> <a href="/wiki/Oil_shale_gas" title="Oil shale gas">oil-shale gas</a>. Shale oil is a substitute for conventional crude oil; however, extracting shale oil is costlier than the production of conventional crude oil both financially and in terms of its <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_oil_shale_industry" title="Environmental impact of the oil shale industry">environmental impact</a>.<a href="#cite_note-csm-10">[10]</a> Oil-shale mining and processing raise a number of environmental concerns, such as <a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">land use</a>, <a href="/wiki/Waste_management" title="Waste management">waste disposal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Water_resources" title="Water resources">water use</a>, <a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">waste-water management</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse-gas emissions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">air pollution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Burnham-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-openpitimpacts-12">[12]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geology">Geology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_shale&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Geology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Oil_shale_geology" title="Oil shale geology">Oil shale geology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:OilShaleEstonia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/OilShaleEstonia.jpg/220px-OilShaleEstonia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/OilShaleEstonia.jpg/330px-OilShaleEstonia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/OilShaleEstonia.jpg/440px-OilShaleEstonia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="525" /></a><figcaption>Outcrop of <a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</a> oil shale (<a href="/wiki/Kukersite" title="Kukersite">kukersite</a>), northern Estonia</figcaption></figure> Oil shale, an organic-rich sedimentary rock, belongs to the group of <a href="/wiki/Sapropel" title="Sapropel">sapropel</a> <a href="/wiki/Fuel" title="Fuel">fuels</a>.<a href="#cite_note-arvoots-13">[13]</a> It does not have a definite geological definition nor a specific chemical formula, and its seams do not always have discrete boundaries. Oil shales vary considerably in their mineral content, chemical composition, age, type of kerogen, and depositional history, and not all oil shales would necessarily be classified as <a href="/wiki/Shale" title="Shale">shales</a> in the strict sense.<a href="#cite_note-aeo2006_53-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-turkey-15">[15]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Petrologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrologist">petrologist</a> Adrian C. Hutton of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Wollongong" title="University of Wollongong">University of Wollongong</a>, oil shales are not "geological nor geochemically distinctive rock but rather 'economic' term".<a href="#cite_note-hutton2-16">[16]</a> Their common defining feature is low <a href="/wiki/Solubility" title="Solubility">solubility</a> in low-boiling organic solvents and generation of liquid organic products on <a href="/wiki/Thermal_decomposition" title="Thermal decomposition">thermal decomposition</a>.<a href="#cite_note-urov-17">[17]</a> Geologists can classify oil shales on the basis of their composition as <a href="/wiki/Carbonate" title="Carbonate">carbonate</a>-rich shales, <a href="/wiki/Silicon_dioxide" title="Silicon dioxide">siliceous</a> shales, or <a href="/wiki/Cannel_coal" title="Cannel coal">cannel</a> shales.<a href="#cite_note-lee_102-18">[18]</a> Oil shale differs from <a href="/wiki/Organic-rich_sedimentary_rocks" title="Organic-rich sedimentary rocks">bitumen-impregnated rocks</a> (other so-called <a href="/wiki/Unconventional_(oil_%26_gas)_reservoir" class="mw-redirect" title="Unconventional (oil & gas) reservoir">unconventional</a> resources such as <a href="/wiki/Oil_sands" title="Oil sands">oil sands</a> and petroleum reservoir rocks), <a href="/wiki/Humic_substance" title="Humic substance">humic</a> coals and <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbonaceous</a> shale. While oil sands do originate from the <a href="/wiki/Biodegradation" title="Biodegradation">biodegradation</a> of oil, heat and pressure have not (yet) transformed the kerogen in oil shale into petroleum, which means its <a href="/wiki/Maturity_(geology)" title="Maturity (geology)">maturation</a> does not exceed early <a href="/wiki/Catagenesis_(geology)" title="Catagenesis (geology)">mesocatagenetic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-urov-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-geolsoc-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-cna-20">[20]</a> Oil shales differ also from oil-bearing shales, shale deposits that contain tight oil that is sometimes produced from drilled wells. Examples of oil-bearing shales are the <a href="/wiki/Bakken_Formation" class="mw-redirect" title="Bakken Formation">Bakken Formation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Shale" title="Pierre Shale">Pierre Shale</a>, <a href="/wiki/Niobrara_Formation" title="Niobrara Formation">Niobrara Formation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Eagle_Ford_Group" title="Eagle Ford Group">Eagle Ford Formation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WER2013-3">[3]</a> Accordingly, shale oil produced from oil shale should not be confused with tight oil, which is called also frequently shale oil.<a href="#cite_note-WER2013-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-WEO2013-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-reinsalu-5">[5]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Torbanite_2_oil_shale.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Torbanite_2_oil_shale.jpg/220px-Torbanite_2_oil_shale.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="307" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Torbanite_2_oil_shale.jpg/330px-Torbanite_2_oil_shale.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Torbanite_2_oil_shale.jpg/440px-Torbanite_2_oil_shale.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1484" data-file-height="2068" /></a><figcaption>Photomicrographs showing a cannel coal (top) 100% organic matrix and a rich oil shale (bottom) with relatively low mineral content</figcaption></figure>General composition of oil shales constitutes inorganic matrix, bitumens, and kerogen. While the bitumen portion of oil shales is soluble in <a href="/wiki/Carbon_disulfide" title="Carbon disulfide">carbon disulfide</a>, the kerogen portion is insoluble in carbon disulfide and may contain <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vanadium" title="Vanadium">vanadium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Molybdenum" title="Molybdenum">molybdenum</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a>.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-yen-22">[22]</a> Oil shale contains a lower percentage of organic matter than <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a>. In commercial grades of oil shale the ratio of organic matter to mineral matter lies approximately between 0.75:5 and 1.5:5. At the same time, the organic matter in oil shale has an <a href="/wiki/Atomic_ratio" title="Atomic ratio">atomic ratio</a> of hydrogen to carbon (H/C) approximately 1.2 to 1.8 times lower than for crude oil and about 1.5 to 3 times higher than for coals.<a href="#cite_note-arvoots-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-wec_94-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-vankrevelen-24">[24]</a> The organic components of oil shale derive from a variety of organisms, such as the remains of <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">spores</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">pollen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plant_cuticle" title="Plant cuticle">plant cuticles</a> and corky fragments of <a href="/wiki/Herbaceous_plant" title="Herbaceous plant">herbaceous</a> and woody plants, and cellular debris from other aquatic and land plants.<a href="#cite_note-wec_94-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-alali-25">[25]</a> Some deposits contain significant <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossils</a>; Germany's <a href="/wiki/Messel_pit" class="mw-redirect" title="Messel pit">Messel Pit</a> has the status of a UNESCO <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Site" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Site</a>. The mineral matter in oil shale includes various fine-grained <a href="/wiki/Silicon_dioxide" title="Silicon dioxide">silicates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbonate_mineral" title="Carbonate mineral">carbonates</a>.<a href="#cite_note-dyni-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-arvoots-13">[13]</a> Inorganic matrix can contain <a href="/wiki/Quartz" title="Quartz">quartz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Feldspar" title="Feldspar">feldspar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">clay</a> (mainly <a href="/wiki/Illite" title="Illite">illite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chlorite" title="Chlorite">chlorite</a>), carbonate (<a href="/wiki/Calcite" title="Calcite">calcite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dolomite_(mineral)" title="Dolomite (mineral)">dolomite</a>), <a href="/wiki/Pyrite" title="Pyrite">pyrite</a> and some other minerals.<a href="#cite_note-yen-22">[22]</a> Another classification, known as the van Krevelen diagram, assigns kerogen types, depending on the <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> content of oil shales' original organic matter.<a href="#cite_note-turkey-15">[15]</a> The most commonly used classification of oil shales, developed between 1987 and 1991 by Adrian C. Hutton, adapts <a href="/wiki/Petrography" title="Petrography">petrographic</a> terms from coal terminology. This classification designates oil shales as terrestrial, lacustrine (lake-bottom-deposited), or marine (ocean bottom-deposited), based on the environment of the initial <a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">biomass</a> deposit.<a href="#cite_note-dyni-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-hutton-2">[2]</a> Known oil shales are predominantly of aquatic (marine, lacustrine) origin.<a href="#cite_note-urov-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-hutton-2">[2]</a> Hutton's classification scheme has proven useful in estimating the yield and composition of the extracted oil.<a href="#cite_note-wec_95-26">[26]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Resource">Resource</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_shale&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Resource">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Oil_shale_reserves" title="Oil shale reserves">Oil shale reserves</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:OilShaleFossilsEstonia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/OilShaleFossilsEstonia.jpg/220px-OilShaleFossilsEstonia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/OilShaleFossilsEstonia.jpg/330px-OilShaleFossilsEstonia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/OilShaleFossilsEstonia.jpg/440px-OilShaleFossilsEstonia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="525" /></a><figcaption>Fossils in Ordovician oil shale (kukersite), northern Estonia</figcaption></figure> As source rocks for most conventional <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_reservoir" title="Petroleum reservoir">oil reservoirs</a>, oil shale deposits are found in all world oil provinces, although most of them are too deep to be exploited economically.<a href="#cite_note-weo2010_165-27">[27]</a> As with all oil and gas resources, analysts distinguish between oil shale resources and oil shale reserves. "Resources" refer to all oil shale deposits, while "reserves" represent those deposits from which producers can extract oil shale economically using existing technology. Since extraction technologies develop continuously, planners can only estimate the amount of recoverable kerogen.<a href="#cite_note-csm-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-dyni-1">[1]</a> Although resources of oil shale occur in many countries, only 33 countries possess known deposits of potential economic value.<a href="#cite_note-symposium-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-china-29">[29]</a> Well-explored deposits, potentially classifiable as reserves, include the <a href="/wiki/Green_River_Formation" title="Green River Formation">Green River</a> deposits in the <a href="/wiki/Western_United_States" title="Western United States">western United States</a>, the Tertiary deposits in <a href="/wiki/Queensland" title="Queensland">Queensland</a>, Australia, deposits in Sweden and Estonia, the El-Lajjun deposit in Jordan, and deposits in France, Germany, Brazil, China, southern Mongolia and Russia. These deposits have given rise to expectations of yielding at least 40 liters of shale oil per tonne of oil shale, using the <a href="/wiki/Fischer_Assay" class="mw-redirect" title="Fischer Assay">Fischer Assay</a>.<a href="#cite_note-dyni-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-turkey-15">[15]</a> A 2016 estimate set the total world resources of oil shale equivalent to yield of 6.05 trillion barrels (962 billion cubic metres) of shale oil, with the largest resource deposits in the United States accounting more than 80% of the world total resource.<a href="#cite_note-wec2016_16-6">[6]</a> For comparison, at the same time the world's proven <a href="/wiki/Oil_reserves" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil reserves">oil reserves</a> are estimated to be 1.6976 trillion barrels (269.90 billion cubic metres).<a href="#cite_note-wec2016_14-30">[30]</a> The largest deposits in the world occur in the United States in the Green River Formation, which covers portions of <a href="/wiki/Colorado" title="Colorado">Colorado</a>, <a href="/wiki/Utah" title="Utah">Utah</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wyoming" title="Wyoming">Wyoming</a>; about 70% of this resource lies on land owned or managed by the United States federal government.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> Deposits in the United States constitute more than 80% of world resources; other significant resource holders being China, Russia, and Brazil.<a href="#cite_note-wec2016_16-6">[6]</a> The amount of economically recoverable oil shale is unknown.<a href="#cite_note-weo2010_165-27">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_shale&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_oil_shale_industry" title="History of the oil shale industry">History of the oil shale industry</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Production_of_oil_shale.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Production_of_oil_shale.png/350px-Production_of_oil_shale.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Production_of_oil_shale.png 1.5x" data-file-width="525" data-file-height="341" /></a><figcaption>Production of oil shale in millions of metric tons, from 1880 to 2010. Source: Pierre Allix, Alan K. Burnham.<a href="#cite_note-oilfield-32">[32]</a></figcaption></figure> Humans have used oil shale as a fuel since prehistoric times, since it generally burns without any processing.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> Around 3000 BC, "rock oil" was used in <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> for road construction and making architectural adhesives.<a href="#cite_note-moody-34">[34]</a> <a href="/wiki/Celtic_Britons" title="Celtic Britons">Britons</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a> used tractable oil shales to fashion <a href="/wiki/Cist" title="Cist">cists</a> for burial,<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> or just polish it to create ornaments.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> In the 10th century, the Arab physician <a href="/wiki/Masawaih_al-Mardini" title="Masawaih al-Mardini">Masawaih al-Mardini</a> (Mesue the Younger) described a <a href="/wiki/Shale_oil_extraction" title="Shale oil extraction">method of extraction</a> of oil from "some kind of bituminous shale".<a href="#cite_note-art41-37">[37]</a> The first patent for extracting oil from oil shale was British Crown Patent 330 granted in 1694 to Martin Eele, Thomas Hancock and William Portlock, who had "found a way to extract and make great quantities of pitch, tarr, and oyle out of a sort of stone".<a href="#cite_note-moody-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-mushrush39-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-yen56-39">[39]</a> Modern industrial mining of oil shale began in 1837 in <a href="/wiki/Autun" title="Autun">Autun</a>, France, followed by exploitation in Scotland, Germany, and several other countries.<a href="#cite_note-wec_96-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-laherrere-41">[41]</a> Operations during the 19th century focused on the production of <a href="/wiki/Kerosene" title="Kerosene">kerosene</a>, lamp oil, and <a href="/wiki/Paraffin_wax" title="Paraffin wax">paraffin</a>; these products helped supply the growing demand for lighting that arose during the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>, supplied from Scottish oil shales.<a href="#cite_note-encarta1-42">[42]</a> Fuel oil, lubricating oil and grease, and <a href="/wiki/Ammonium_sulfate" title="Ammonium sulfate">ammonium sulfate</a> were also produced.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> Scottish production peaked in around 1913, operating 120 oil shale works,<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> producing 3,332,000 tonnes of oil shale, generating around 2% of the global production of petroleum.<a href="#cite_note-museum-45">[45]</a> The Scottish oil-shale industry expanded immediately before <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> partly because of limited access to conventional petroleum resources and the mass production of automobiles and trucks, which accompanied an increase in gasoline consumption; but mostly because the <a href="/wiki/British_Admiralty" class="mw-redirect" title="British Admiralty">British Admiralty</a> required a reliable fuel source for their fleet as war in Europe loomed. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:XXe_-_Mine_des_T%C3%A9lots_-_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/XXe_-_Mine_des_T%C3%A9lots_-_02.jpg/220px-XXe_-_Mine_des_T%C3%A9lots_-_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/XXe_-_Mine_des_T%C3%A9lots_-_02.jpg/330px-XXe_-_Mine_des_T%C3%A9lots_-_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/XXe_-_Mine_des_T%C3%A9lots_-_02.jpg/440px-XXe_-_Mine_des_T%C3%A9lots_-_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="806" data-file-height="728" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Autun" title="Autun">Autun</a> oil shale mines</figcaption></figure> Although the Estonian and Chinese oil-shale industries continued to grow after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, most other countries abandoned their projects because of high processing costs and the availability of cheaper petroleum.<a href="#cite_note-dyni-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-laherrere-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-wec_97-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-fushun2-47">[47]</a> Following the <a href="/wiki/1973_oil_crisis" title="1973 oil crisis">1973 oil crisis</a>, world production of oil shale reached a peak of 46 million tonnes in 1980 before falling to about 16 million tonnes in 2000, because of competition from <a href="/wiki/1980s_oil_glut" title="1980s oil glut">cheap conventional petroleum in the 1980s</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Burnham-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-symposium-28">[28]</a> On 2 May 1982, known in some circles as "Black Sunday", <a href="/wiki/ExxonMobil" title="ExxonMobil">Exxon</a> canceled its US$5 billion <a href="/wiki/Colony_Shale_Oil_Project" title="Colony Shale Oil Project">Colony Shale Oil Project</a> near <a href="/wiki/Parachute,_Colorado" title="Parachute, Colorado">Parachute, Colorado</a>, because of low oil prices and increased expenses, laying off more than 2,000 workers and leaving a trail of home foreclosures and small business bankruptcies.<a href="#cite_note-chronicle-48">[48]</a> In 1986, President <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> signed into law the <a href="/wiki/Consolidated_Omnibus_Budget_Reconciliation_Act_of_1985" title="Consolidated Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1985">Consolidated Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1985</a>, which among other things abolished the United States' <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_Liquid_Fuels_Program" title="Synthetic Liquid Fuels Program">Synthetic Liquid Fuels Program</a>.<a href="#cite_note-andrews-49">[49]</a> The global oil-shale industry began to revive at the beginning of the 21st century. In 2003, an oil-shale development program restarted in the United States. Authorities introduced a commercial leasing program permitting the extraction of oil shale and oil sands on federal lands in 2005, in accordance with the <a href="/wiki/Energy_Policy_Act_of_2005" title="Energy Policy Act of 2005">Energy Policy Act of 2005</a>.<a href="#cite_note-blm-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-anl-51">[51]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Industry">Industry</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_shale&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Industry">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Oil_shale_industry" title="Oil shale industry">Oil shale industry</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shell_insitu.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A photograph of Shell Oil's experimental in situ shale oil extraction facility in the Piceance Basin of northwestern Colorado. In the center of the photo, a number of oil recovery pipes lie on the ground. Several oil pumps are visible in the background." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Shell_insitu.gif/220px-Shell_insitu.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Shell_insitu.gif/330px-Shell_insitu.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Shell_insitu.gif/440px-Shell_insitu.gif 2x" data-file-width="816" data-file-height="367" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Royal_Dutch_Shell" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Dutch Shell">Shell</a>'s experimental in-situ oil-shale facility, Piceance Basin, Colorado, US</figcaption></figure> As of 2008<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oil_shale&action=edit">[update]</a>, oil shale is utilized primarily in Brazil, China, Estonia and to some extent in Germany, and Russia. Several additional countries started assessing their reserves or had built experimental production plants, while others had phased out their oil shale industry.<a href="#cite_note-wec_103-9">[9]</a> Oil shale serves for oil production in Estonia, Brazil, and China; for power generation in Estonia, China, and Germany; for cement production in Estonia, Germany, and China; and for use in chemical industries in China, Estonia, and Russia.<a href="#cite_note-wec_103-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-fushun2-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-eu-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-jordan2-53">[53]</a> As of 2009<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oil_shale&action=edit">[update]</a>, 80% of oil shale used globally is <a href="/wiki/Oil_shale_in_Estonia" title="Oil shale in Estonia">extracted in Estonia</a>, mainly because Estonia uses several <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_power_station" title="Fossil fuel power station">oil-shale-fired power plants</a>,<a href="#cite_note-eu-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> which has an installed capacity of 2,967 <a href="/wiki/Megawatt" class="mw-redirect" title="Megawatt">megawatts</a> (MW). By comparison, China's oil shale power plants have an installed capacity of 12 MW, and Germany's have 9.9 MW.<a href="#cite_note-symposium-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-qian3-55">[55]</a> A 470 MW <a href="/wiki/Attarat_Power_Plant" title="Attarat Power Plant">oil shale power plant in Jordan</a> is under construction as of 2020.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Israel, Romania and Russia have in the past run power plants fired by oil shale but have shut them down or switched to other fuel sources such as <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-wec_103-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-symposium-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-globes220311-57">[57]</a> Other countries, such as Egypt, have had plans to construct power plants fired by oil shale, while Canada and Turkey had plans to burn oil shale along with coal for power generation.<a href="#cite_note-symposium-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jordan-58">[58]</a> Oil shale serves as the main fuel for power generation only in Estonia, where 90.3% of country's electrical generation in 2016 was produced from oil shale.<a href="#cite_note-yearbook2016-59">[59]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/World_Energy_Council" title="World Energy Council">World Energy Council</a>, in 2008 the total production of shale oil from oil shale was 930,000 tonnes, equal to 17,700 barrels per day (2,810 m3/d), of which China produced 375,000 tonnes, Estonia 355,000 tonnes, and Brazil 200,000 tonnes.<a href="#cite_note-wec_101-60">[60]</a> In comparison, production of the conventional oil and <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas_liquids" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural gas liquids">natural gas liquids</a> in 2008 amounted 3.95 billion tonnes or 82.1 million barrels per day (13.1×10<s style="display:none">^</s>6 m3/d).<a href="#cite_note-wec_59-61">[61]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Extraction_and_processing">Extraction and processing</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_shale&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Extraction and processing">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Shale_oil_extraction" title="Shale oil extraction">Shale oil extraction</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oil_shale_extraction_overview.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A vertical flowchart begins with an oil shale deposit and follows two major branches. Conventional ex situ processes, shown on the right, proceed through mining, crushing, and retorting. Spent shale output is noted. In situ process flows are shown in the left branch of the flowchart. The deposit may or may not be fractured; in either case, the deposit is retorted and the oil is recovered. The two major branches converge at the bottom of the chart, indicating that extraction is followed by refining, which involves thermal and chemical treatment and hydrogenation, yielding liquid fuels and useful byproducts." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Oil_shale_extraction_overview.png/220px-Oil_shale_extraction_overview.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Oil_shale_extraction_overview.png/330px-Oil_shale_extraction_overview.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Oil_shale_extraction_overview.png/440px-Oil_shale_extraction_overview.png 2x" data-file-width="1352" data-file-height="883" /></a><figcaption>Overview of shale oil extraction</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:VKG_Ojamaa_kaevandus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/VKG_Ojamaa_kaevandus.jpg/220px-VKG_Ojamaa_kaevandus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/VKG_Ojamaa_kaevandus.jpg/330px-VKG_Ojamaa_kaevandus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/VKG_Ojamaa_kaevandus.jpg/440px-VKG_Ojamaa_kaevandus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3500" data-file-height="2249" /></a><figcaption>Mining of oil shale. <a href="/wiki/Viru_Keemia_Grupp" title="Viru Keemia Grupp">VKG</a> <a href="/wiki/Ojamaa" title="Ojamaa">Ojamaa</a>.</figcaption></figure> Most exploitation of oil shale involves mining followed by shipping elsewhere, after which the shale is burned directly to generate electricity or undertakes further processing. The most common methods of mining involve <a href="/wiki/Open-pit_mining" title="Open-pit mining">open-pit mining</a> and <a href="/wiki/Surface_mining" title="Surface mining">strip mining</a>. These procedures remove most of the overlying material to expose the deposits of oil shale and become practical when the deposits occur near the surface. <a href="/wiki/Underground_mining_(soft_rock)" class="mw-redirect" title="Underground mining (soft rock)">Underground mining of oil shale</a>, which removes less of the overlying material, employs the <a href="/wiki/Room_and_pillar_mining" title="Room and pillar mining">room-and-pillar method</a>.<a href="#cite_note-rand-62">[62]</a> The extraction of the useful components of oil shale usually takes place above ground (ex-situ processing), although several newer technologies perform this underground (on-site or <a href="/wiki/In_situ" title="In situ">in-situ</a> processing).<a href="#cite_note-AICHE-63">[63]</a> In either case, the chemical process of <a href="/wiki/Pyrolysis" title="Pyrolysis">pyrolysis</a> converts the kerogen in the oil shale to shale oil (<a href="/wiki/Synthetic_crude" title="Synthetic crude">synthetic crude</a> oil) and oil shale gas. Most conversion technologies involve heating shale in the absence of oxygen to a temperature at which kerogen decomposes (pyrolyses) into gas, condensable oil, and a solid residue. This usually takes place between 450 <a href="/wiki/Celsius" title="Celsius">°C</a> (842 <a href="/wiki/Fahrenheit" title="Fahrenheit">°F</a>) and 500 <a href="/wiki/Celsius" title="Celsius">°C</a> (932 <a href="/wiki/Fahrenheit" title="Fahrenheit">°F</a>).<a href="#cite_note-csm-10">[10]</a> The process of decomposition begins at relatively low temperatures (300 °C or 572 °F) but proceeds more rapidly and more completely at higher temperatures.<a href="#cite_note-koel-64">[64]</a> In-situ processing involves heating the oil shale underground. Such technologies can potentially extract more oil from a given area of land than ex-situ processes, since they can access the material at greater depths than surface mines can. Several companies have patented methods for in-situ <a href="/wiki/Retort" title="Retort">retorting</a>. However, most of these methods remain in the experimental phase. Two in-situ processes could be used: true in-situ processing does not involve mining the oil shale, while modified in-situ processing involves removing part of the oil shale and bringing it to the surface for modified in-situ retorting in order to create permeability for gas flow in a rubble chimney. Explosives rubblize the oil-shale deposit.<a href="#cite_note-fossilenergy-65">[65]</a> Hundreds of patents for oil shale retorting technologies exist;<a href="#cite_note-patent-66">[66]</a> however, only a few dozen have undergone testing. By 2006, only four technologies remained in commercial use: <a href="/wiki/Kiviter_process" title="Kiviter process">Kiviter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galoter_process" title="Galoter process">Galoter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fushun_process" title="Fushun process">Fushun</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Petrosix" title="Petrosix">Petrosix</a>.<a href="#cite_note-qian-67">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications_and_products">Applications and products</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_shale&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Applications and products">edit</a>]</div> Oil shale is utilized as a fuel for thermal power-plants, burning it (like coal) to drive <a href="/wiki/Steam_turbine" title="Steam turbine">steam turbines</a>; some of these plants <a href="/wiki/Cogeneration" title="Cogeneration">employ the resulting heat</a> for <a href="/wiki/District_heating" title="District heating">district heating</a> of homes and businesses. In addition to its use as a fuel, oil shale may also serve in the production of specialty <a href="/wiki/Carbon_fiber_reinforced_polymer" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon fiber reinforced polymer">carbon fibers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adsorption" title="Adsorption">adsorbent carbons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbon_black" title="Carbon black">carbon black</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phenols" title="Phenols">phenols</a>, resins, glues, tanning agents, mastic, road bitumen, cement, bricks, construction and decorative blocks, soil-additives, fertilizers, <a href="/wiki/Mineral_wool" title="Mineral wool">rock-wool</a> insulation, glass, and pharmaceutical products.<a href="#cite_note-eu-52">[52]</a> However, oil shale use for production of these items remains small or only in experimental development.<a href="#cite_note-dyni-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-wec_98-68">[68]</a> Some oil shales yield <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aluminium_oxide" title="Aluminium oxide">alumina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soda_ash" class="mw-redirect" title="Soda ash">soda ash</a>, uranium, and <a href="/wiki/Nahcolite" title="Nahcolite">nahcolite</a> as shale-oil extraction byproducts. Between 1946 and 1952, a marine type of <a href="/wiki/Basidiolichen" title="Basidiolichen">Dictyonema</a> shale served for uranium production in <a href="/wiki/Sillam%C3%A4e" title="Sillamäe">Sillamäe</a>, Estonia, and between 1950 and 1989 Sweden used <a href="/wiki/Alum" title="Alum">alum</a> shale for the same purposes.<a href="#cite_note-dyni-1">[1]</a> Oil shale gas has served as a substitute for <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a>, but as of 2009<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oil_shale&action=edit">[update]</a>, producing oil shale gas as a natural-gas substitute remained economically infeasible.<a href="#cite_note-proceedings-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-ttu-70">[70]</a> The shale oil derived from oil shale does not directly substitute for crude oil in all applications. It may contain higher concentrations of <a href="/wiki/Alkene" title="Alkene">olefins</a>, oxygen, and nitrogen than conventional crude oil.<a href="#cite_note-andrews-49">[49]</a> Some shale oils may have higher sulfur or <a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a> content. By comparison with <a href="/wiki/West_Texas_Intermediate" title="West Texas Intermediate">West Texas Intermediate</a>, the benchmark standard for crude oil in the <a href="/wiki/Futures_contract" title="Futures contract">futures-contract</a> market, the Green River shale oil sulfur content ranges from near 0% to 4.9% (in average 0.76%), where West Texas Intermediate's sulfur content has a maximum of 0.42%.<a href="#cite_note-dyni2-71">[71]</a> The sulfur content in shale oil from Jordan's oil shales may be as high as 9.5%.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> The arsenic content, for example, becomes an issue for Green River formation oil shale. The higher concentrations of these materials means that the oil must undergo considerable upgrading (<a href="/wiki/Hydrodesulfurization" title="Hydrodesulfurization">hydrotreating</a>) before serving as <a href="/wiki/Oil_refinery" title="Oil refinery">oil-refinery</a> feedstock.<a href="#cite_note-lee_6-73">[73]</a> Above-ground retorting processes tended to yield a lower <a href="/wiki/API_gravity" title="API gravity">API gravity</a> shale oil than the in situ processes. Shale oil serves best for producing middle-<a href="/wiki/Distillation" title="Distillation">distillates</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Kerosene" title="Kerosene">kerosene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jet_fuel" title="Jet fuel">jet fuel</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Diesel_fuel" title="Diesel fuel">diesel fuel</a>. Worldwide demand for these middle distillates, particularly for diesel fuels, increased rapidly in the 1990s and 2000s.<a href="#cite_note-andrews-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> However, appropriate refining processes equivalent to <a href="/wiki/Cracking_(chemistry)" title="Cracking (chemistry)">hydrocracking</a> can transform shale oil into a lighter-range hydrocarbon (<a href="/wiki/Gasoline" title="Gasoline">gasoline</a>).<a href="#cite_note-andrews-49">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economics">Economics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_shale&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Economics">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oil_shale_-_from_research_to_reality_03._Enefit280_plant,_view_of_the_plant.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Oil_shale_-_from_research_to_reality_03._Enefit280_plant%2C_view_of_the_plant.jpg/220px-Oil_shale_-_from_research_to_reality_03._Enefit280_plant%2C_view_of_the_plant.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Oil_shale_-_from_research_to_reality_03._Enefit280_plant%2C_view_of_the_plant.jpg/330px-Oil_shale_-_from_research_to_reality_03._Enefit280_plant%2C_view_of_the_plant.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Oil_shale_-_from_research_to_reality_03._Enefit280_plant%2C_view_of_the_plant.jpg/440px-Oil_shale_-_from_research_to_reality_03._Enefit280_plant%2C_view_of_the_plant.jpg 2x" data-file-width="17056" data-file-height="8528" /></a><figcaption>360° panoramic view of a Enefit280 plant in <a href="/wiki/Estonia" title="Estonia">Estonia</a>, that processes 280 tonnes of oil shale in an hour</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Oil_shale_economics" title="Oil shale economics">Oil shale economics</a></div> The various attempts to develop oil shale deposits have succeeded only when the cost of shale-oil production in a given region comes in below the price of crude oil or its other substitutes (<a href="/wiki/Break-even_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Break-even (economics)">break-even price</a>). According to a 2005 survey, conducted by the <a href="/wiki/RAND_Corporation" title="RAND Corporation">RAND Corporation</a>, the cost of producing a barrel of oil at a surface retorting complex in the United States (comprising a mine, retorting plant, <a href="/wiki/Upgrader" title="Upgrader">upgrading plant</a>, supporting utilities, and spent shale reclamation), would range between <a href="/wiki/US_dollars" class="mw-redirect" title="US dollars">US$</a>70–95 ($440–600/m3, adjusted to 2005 values). This estimate considers varying levels of kerogen quality and extraction efficiency. In order to run a profitable operation, the price of crude oil would need to remain above these levels. The analysis also discussed the expectation that processing costs would drop after the establishment of the complex. The hypothetical unit would see a cost reduction of 35–70% after producing its first 500 million barrels (79 million cubic metres). Assuming an increase in output of 25 thousand barrels per day (4.0×10<s style="display:none">^</s>3 m3/d) during each year after the start of commercial production, RAND predicted the costs would decline to $35–48 per barrel ($220–300/m3) within 12 years. After achieving the milestone of 1 billion barrels (160 million cubic metres), its costs would decline further to $30–40 per barrel ($190–250/m3).<a href="#cite_note-eu-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-rand-62">[62]</a> In 2010, the <a href="/wiki/International_Energy_Agency" title="International Energy Agency">International Energy Agency</a> estimated, based on the various pilot projects, that investment and operating costs would be similar to those of <a href="/wiki/Athabasca_oil_sands" title="Athabasca oil sands">Canadian oil sands</a>, that means would be economic at prices above $60 per barrel at current costs. This figure does not account <a href="/wiki/Carbon_pricing" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon pricing">carbon pricing</a>, which will add additional cost.<a href="#cite_note-weo2010_165-27">[27]</a> According to the New Policies Scenario introduced in its <a href="/wiki/World_Energy_Outlook" title="World Energy Outlook">World Energy Outlook 2010</a>, a price of $50 per tonne of emitted CO2 adds additional $7.50 cost per barrel of shale oil.<a href="#cite_note-weo2010_165-27">[27]</a> As of November 2021, the price of tonne of CO2 exceeded $60. A 1972 publication in the journal Pétrole Informations (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0755-561X">0755-561X</a>) compared shale-based oil production unfavorably with <a href="/wiki/Coal_liquefaction" title="Coal liquefaction">coal liquefaction</a>. The article portrayed coal liquefaction as less expensive, generating more oil, and creating fewer environmental impacts than extraction from oil shale. It cited a conversion ratio of 650 liters (170 U.S. gal; 140 imp gal) of oil per one <a href="/wiki/Ton" title="Ton">ton</a> of coal, as against 150 liters (40 U.S. gal; 33 imp gal) of shale oil per one ton of oil shale.<a href="#cite_note-laherrere-41">[41]</a> A critical measure of the viability of oil shale as an energy source lies in the ratio of the energy produced by the shale to the energy used in its mining and processing, a ratio known as "<a href="/wiki/Energy_return_on_investment" title="Energy return on investment">energy return on investment</a>" (EROI). A 1984 study estimated the EROI of the various known oil-shale deposits as varying between 0.7–13.3,<a href="#cite_note-science2-75">[75]</a> although known oil-shale extraction development projects assert an EROI between 3 and 10. According to the World Energy Outlook 2010, the EROI of ex-situ processing is typically 4 to 5 while of in-situ processing it may be even as low as 2. However, according to the IEA most of used energy can be provided by burning the spent shale or oil-shale gas.<a href="#cite_note-weo2010_165-27">[27]</a> To increase efficiency when retorting oil shale, researchers have proposed and tested several co-pyrolysis processes.<a href="#cite_note-co-pyrolisis2-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-veski1-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-Morocco-78">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Environmental_considerations">Environmental considerations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_shale&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Environmental considerations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_oil_shale_industry" title="Environmental impact of the oil shale industry">Environmental impact of the oil shale industry</a></div> Mining oil shale involves numerous environmental impacts, more pronounced in surface mining than in underground mining.<a href="#cite_note-mittal-79">[79]</a> These include acid drainage induced by the sudden rapid exposure and subsequent oxidation of formerly buried materials; the introduction of metals including <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> into surface-water and groundwater; increased <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a>, sulfur-gas emissions; and air pollution caused by the production of <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_particulate_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Atmospheric particulate matter">particulates</a> during processing, transport, and support activities.<a href="#cite_note-Burnham-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-openpitimpacts-12">[12]</a> Oil-shale extraction can damage the biological and recreational value of land and the ecosystem in the mining area. Combustion and thermal processing generate waste material. In addition, the atmospheric emissions from oil shale processing and combustion include <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gas</a>. Environmentalists oppose production and usage of oil shale, as it creates even more greenhouse gases than conventional fossil fuels.<a href="#cite_note-nrdc-81">[81]</a> Experimental in situ conversion processes and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">carbon capture and storage</a> technologies may reduce some of these concerns in the future, but at the same time they may cause other problems, including <a href="/wiki/Groundwater_pollution" title="Groundwater pollution">groundwater pollution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BartisBoston-82">[82]</a> Among the water contaminants commonly associated with oil shale processing are oxygen and nitrogen heterocyclic hydrocarbons. Commonly detected examples include <a href="/wiki/Quinoline" title="Quinoline">quinoline</a> derivatives, <a href="/wiki/Pyridine" title="Pyridine">pyridine</a>, and various alkyl homologues of pyridine, such as <a href="/wiki/Picoline" title="Picoline">picoline</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lutidine" title="Lutidine">lutidine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> Water concerns are sensitive issues in arid regions, such as the western U.S. and Israel's <a href="/wiki/Negev" title="Negev">Negev Desert</a>, where plans exist to expand oil-shale extraction despite a water shortage.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> Depending on technology, above-ground retorting uses between one and five barrels of water per barrel of produced shale-oil.<a href="#cite_note-rand-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-BLM2008-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-water-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-Al-Ayed-87">[87]</a> A 2008 programmatic <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_statement" title="Environmental impact statement">environmental impact statement</a> issued by the U.S. <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Land_Management" title="Bureau of Land Management">Bureau of Land Management</a> stated that surface mining and retort operations produce 2 to 10 U.S. gallons (7.6 to 37.9 L; 1.7 to 8.3 imp gal) of waste water per 1 short ton (0.91 t) of processed oil shale.<a href="#cite_note-BLM2008-85">[85]</a> In situ processing, according to one estimate, uses about one-tenth as much water.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> <a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmental</a> activists, including members of <a href="/wiki/Greenpeace" title="Greenpeace">Greenpeace</a>, have organized strong protests against the oil shale industry. In one result, <a href="/wiki/Queensland_Energy_Resources" title="Queensland Energy Resources">Queensland Energy Resources</a> put the proposed <a href="/wiki/Stuart_Oil_Shale_Project" title="Stuart Oil Shale Project">Stuart Oil Shale Project</a> in Australia on hold in 2004.<a href="#cite_note-Burnham-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Extraterrestrial_oil_shale">Extraterrestrial oil shale</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_shale&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Extraterrestrial oil shale">edit</a>]</div> Some comets contain massive amounts of an organic material almost identical to high grade oil shale, the equivalent of cubic kilometers of such mixed with other material;<a href="#cite_note-IdahoNationalLab-90">[90]</a> for instance, corresponding hydrocarbons were detected in a probe fly-by through the tail of <a href="/wiki/Halley%27s_Comet" title="Halley's Comet">Halley's Comet</a> in 1986.<a href="#cite_note-Huebner1990-91">[91]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_shale&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Crystal_energy.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg/29px-Crystal_energy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="29" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg/44px-Crystal_energy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg/59px-Crystal_energy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="124" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Energy" title="Portal:Energy">Energy portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png/28px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png/42px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png/56px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png 2x" data-file-width="2790" data-file-height="2776" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Earth_sciences" title="Portal:Earth sciences">Earth sciences portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Core_Research_Center" title="Core Research Center">Core Research Center</a> – U.S. Geological Survey facility in Colorado – a United States Geological Survey facility dedicated to preserving valuable rock-samples threatened with disposal or destruction – including oil shales</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kukersite" title="Kukersite">Kukersite</a> – Light-brown marine type oil shale of Ordovician age – a well-analyzed marine oil shale found in the Baltic Sea basin</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitigation_of_peak_oil" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitigation of peak oil">Mitigation of peak oil</a> – Gradual reduction of the use and production of fossil fuelsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – discussion of attempts to delay and minimize the impact of "<a href="/wiki/Peak_oil" title="Peak oil">peak oil</a>" (the point in time of maximum global petroleum production), including the development of unconventional oil resources</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_reserves" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil reserves">Oil reserves</a> – Industry concept of crude oil and natural gas reserves and resourcesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – discussion of global crude-oil supplies</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_sands" title="Oil sands">Oil sands</a> – Type of unconventional oil deposit</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tasmanite" title="Tasmanite">Tasmanite</a> – Sedimentary rock – a marine oil shale found in Tasmania</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torbanite" title="Torbanite">Torbanite</a> – Type of fine-grained black oil shale – a lacustrine oil shale found in Scotland</li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_energy_consumption" class="mw-redirect" title="World energy consumption">World energy consumption</a> – Global production and usage of energyPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spent_shale" title="Spent shale">Spent shale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Les_T%C3%A9lots_Mine" title="Les Télots Mine">Les Télots Mine</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_shale&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 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CRC Critical Reviews in Environmental Control. 19(4): 309–340. </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpeckman2008" class="citation news cs1">Speckman, Stephen (22 March 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101116001214/http://www.deseretnews.com/article/695263708/Oil-shale-rush-is-sparking-concern.html">"Oil-shale 'rush' is sparking concern"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Deseret_Morning_News" class="mw-redirect" title="Deseret Morning News">Deseret Morning News</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.deseretnews.com/article/695263708/Oil-shale-rush-is-sparking-concern.html">the original</a> on 16 November 2010. Retrieved 6 May 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Deseret+Morning+News&rft.atitle=Oil-shale+%27rush%27+is+sparking+concern&rft.date=2008-03-22&rft.aulast=Speckman&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.deseretnews.com%2Farticle%2F695263708%2FOil-shale-rush-is-sparking-concern.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+shale" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-BLM2008-85">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BLM2008_85-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BLM2008_85-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100527214525/http://ostseis.anl.gov/documents/fpeis/vol1/OSTS_FPEIS_Vol1_Ch4.pdf">"Chapter 4. Effects of Oil Shale Technologies"</a> (PDF). 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U.S. Water News Online. July 2007. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uswaternews.com/archives/arcsupply/7critchar7.html">the original</a> on 18 June 2008. 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World Oil Magazine. <a href="/wiki/Gulf_Publishing_Company" title="Gulf Publishing Company">Gulf Publishing Company</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldoil.com/magazine/MAGAZINE_DETAIL.asp?ART_ID=2658&MONTH_YEAR=Aug-2005">the original</a> on 9 November 2006. Retrieved 1 April 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=World+Oil+Magazine&rft.atitle=Hopes+for+shale+oil+are+revived&rft.date=2005-08&rft.aulast=Fischer&rft.aufirst=Perry+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldoil.com%2Fmagazine%2FMAGAZINE_DETAIL.asp%3FART_ID%3D2658%26MONTH_YEAR%3DAug-2005&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+shale" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2004-07-22/greenpeace-happy-with-part-closure-of-shale-oil/2013172">"Greenpeace happy with part closure of shale oil plant"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Australian_Broadcasting_Corporation" title="Australian Broadcasting Corporation">Australian Broadcasting Corporation</a>. 22 July 2004. Retrieved 19 May 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Greenpeace+happy+with+part+closure+of+shale+oil+plant&rft.pub=Australian+Broadcasting+Corporation&rft.date=2004-07-22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.abc.net.au%2Fnews%2F2004-07-22%2Fgreenpeace-happy-with-part-closure-of-shale-oil%2F2013172&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+shale" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-IdahoNationalLab-90"><a href="#cite_ref-IdahoNationalLab_90-0">^</a> Dr. A. Zuppero, U.S. Department of Energy, Idaho National Engineering Laboratory. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.neofuel.com/zuppero-1995-water-ice-nearly-everywhere-114647.pdf">Discovery Of Water Ice Nearly Everywhere In The Solar System</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Huebner1990-91"><a href="#cite_ref-Huebner1990_91-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuebner1990" class="citation book cs1">Huebner, Walter F., ed. (1990). Physics and Chemistry of Comets. Springer-Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-74805-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-642-74805-9"><bdi>978-3-642-74805-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Physics+and+Chemistry+of+Comets&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-3-642-74805-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+shale" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_shale&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="yen" class="citation book cs1">Cane, R.F. 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CRC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-4615-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-4615-6"><bdi>978-0-8493-4615-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oil+Shale+Technology&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-8493-4615-6&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Sunggyu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DN0wMCusO6yIC%26pg%3DPA10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+shale" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="mushrush" class="citation book cs1">Mushrush, George (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kTClrgGyc5oC&pg=PA39">Petroleum Products: Instability And Incompatibility</a>. Applied energy technology. <a href="/wiki/CRC_Press" title="CRC Press">CRC Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781560322979" title="Special:BookSources/9781560322979"><bdi>9781560322979</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Petroleum+Products%3A+Instability+And+Incompatibility&rft.series=Applied+energy+technology&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=9781560322979&rft.aulast=Mushrush&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkTClrgGyc5oC%26pg%3DPA39&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+shale" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="vankrevelen" class="citation book cs1">van Krevelen, Dirk Willem (1993). Coal--typology, physics, chemistry, constitution. Coal Science and Technology Series (3 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Elsevier" title="Elsevier">Elsevier</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-444-89586-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-444-89586-8"><bdi>978-0-444-89586-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Coal--typology%2C+physics%2C+chemistry%2C+constitution&rft.series=Coal+Science+and+Technology+Series&rft.edition=3&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-444-89586-8&rft.aulast=van+Krevelen&rft.aufirst=Dirk+Willem&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+shale" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="wec2016" class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldenergy.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/World-Energy-Resources-Full-report-2016.10.03.pdf">World energy resources. Oil 2016</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/World_Energy_Council" title="World Energy Council">World Energy Council</a>. 2016. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-946121-62-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-946121-62-5"><bdi>978-0-946121-62-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+energy+resources.+Oil+2016&rft.pub=World+Energy+Council&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-946121-62-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldenergy.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2016%2F10%2FWorld-Energy-Resources-Full-report-2016.10.03.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+shale" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_shale&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style 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ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Oil_shale" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Oil shale">Oil shale</a>.</div></div> </div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of the 1905 <a href="/wiki/New_International_Encyclopedia" class="mw-redirect" title="New International Encyclopedia">New International Encyclopedia</a> article "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_International_Encyclop%C3%A6dia/Bituminous_Shales" class="extiw" title="s:The New International Encyclopædia/Bituminous Shales">Bituminous Shales</a>".</div></div> </div></div></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kirj.ee/oilshale/">"Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal"</a>. Bulletin des Sciences. Estonian Academy Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0208-189X">0208-189X</a>. Retrieved 22 April 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+des+Sciences&rft.atitle=Oil+Shale.+A+Scientific-Technical+Journal&rft.issn=0208-189X&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kirj.ee%2Foilshale%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+shale" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output 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style="width:1%;text-align:left; font-weight:normal;">Natural gas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_natural_gas_consumption" title="List of countries by natural gas consumption">Consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_natural_gas_production" title="List of countries by natural gas production">Production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_natural_gas_proven_reserves" title="List of countries by natural gas proven reserves">Reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_natural_gas_imports" title="List of countries by natural gas imports">Imports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_natural_gas_exports" title="List of countries by natural gas exports">Exports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_gas_prices" title="Natural gas prices">Price</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left; font-weight:normal;">Petroleum</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_oil_consumption" title="List of countries by oil consumption">Consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_oil_production" title="List of countries by oil production">Production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_proven_oil_reserves" title="List of countries by proven oil reserves">Reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_oil_imports" title="List of countries by oil imports">Imports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_oil_exports" title="List of countries by oil exports">Exports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posted_oil_price" title="Posted oil price">Posted oil price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price_of_oil" title="Price of oil">Price</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gasoline_and_diesel_usage_and_pricing" title="Gasoline and diesel usage and pricing">of gasoline and diesel</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbon_exploration" title="Hydrocarbon exploration">Exploration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Core_sample" title="Core sample">Core sampling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_geophysics" title="Exploration geophysics">Geophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_asset_modelling" title="Integrated asset modelling">Integrated asset modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_engineering" title="Petroleum engineering">Petroleum engineering</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reservoir_simulation" title="Reservoir simulation">Reservoir simulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reservoir_modeling" title="Reservoir modeling">Reservoir modeling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_geology" title="Petroleum geology">Petroleum geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrophysics" title="Petrophysics">Petrophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflection_seismology" title="Reflection seismology">Reflection seismology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seismic_inversion" title="Seismic inversion">Seismic inversion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seismic_source" title="Seismic source">Seismic source</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Oil_well" title="Oil well">Drilling</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blowout_(well_drilling)" title="Blowout (well drilling)">Blowout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Completion_(oil_and_gas_wells)" title="Completion (oil and gas wells)">Completion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Squeeze_job" title="Squeeze job">Squeeze job</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_sticking" title="Differential sticking">Differential sticking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Directional_drilling" title="Directional drilling">Directional drilling</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geosteering" title="Geosteering">Geosteering</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drill_stem_test" title="Drill stem test">Drill stem test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drilling_engineering" title="Drilling engineering">Drilling engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drilling_fluid" title="Drilling fluid">Drilling fluid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drilling_fluid_invasion" title="Drilling fluid invasion">invasion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lost_circulation" title="Lost circulation">Lost circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Measurement_while_drilling" title="Measurement while drilling">Measurement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shale_oil_extraction" title="Shale oil extraction">Shale oil extraction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fredrik_Ljungstr%C3%B6m#Shale_oil_extraction" title="Fredrik Ljungström">Ljungström method</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tracer_use_in_the_oil_industry" title="Tracer use in the oil industry">Tracers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underbalanced_drilling" title="Underbalanced drilling">Underbalanced drilling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Well_logging" title="Well logging">Well logging</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Extraction_of_petroleum" title="Extraction of petroleum">Production</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_fiscal_regime" title="Petroleum fiscal regime">Petroleum fiscal regime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_licensing" title="Petroleum licensing">Concessions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Production_sharing_agreement" title="Production sharing agreement">Production sharing agreements</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_lift" title="Artificial lift">Artificial lift</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_lift" title="Gas lift">Gas lift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumpjack" title="Pumpjack">Pumpjack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submersible_pump" title="Submersible pump">Submersible pump (ESP)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downstream_(petroleum_industry)" title="Downstream (petroleum industry)">Downstream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enhanced_oil_recovery" title="Enhanced oil recovery">Enhanced oil recovery (EOR)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_reinjection" title="Gas reinjection">Gas reinjection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steam_injection_(oil_industry)" title="Steam injection (oil industry)">Steam injection</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midstream" title="Midstream">Midstream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_product" title="Petroleum product">Petroleum product</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pipeline" title="Pipeline">Pipeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_refinery" title="Oil refinery">Refining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upstream_(petroleum_industry)" title="Upstream (petroleum industry)">Upstream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_injection_(oil_production)" title="Water injection (oil production)">Water injection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Well_intervention" title="Well intervention">Well intervention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christmas_tree_(oil_well)" title="Christmas tree (oil well)">XT</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_petroleum_industry" title="History of the petroleum industry">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1967_Oil_Embargo" title="1967 Oil Embargo">1967 Oil Embargo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_oil_crisis" title="1973 oil crisis">1973 oil crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1979_oil_crisis" title="1979 oil crisis">1979 oil crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980s_oil_glut" title="1980s oil glut">1980s oil glut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1990_oil_price_shock" title="1990 oil price shock">1990 oil price shock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2000s_energy_crisis" title="2000s energy crisis">2000s energy crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2010s_oil_glut" title="2010s oil glut">2010s oil glut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_Russia%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabia_oil_price_war" title="2020 Russia–Saudi Arabia oil price war">2020 Russia–Saudi Arabia oil price war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalization_of_oil_supplies" title="Nationalization of oil supplies">Nationalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_Exporting_Countries_Forum" title="Gas Exporting Countries Forum">GECF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OPEC" title="OPEC">OPEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Sisters_(oil_companies)" class="mw-redirect" title="Seven Sisters (oil companies)">Seven Sisters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Oil" title="Standard Oil">Standard Oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_petroleum_industry_in_Canada" title="History of the petroleum industry in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_petroleum_industry_in_France" title="History of the petroleum industry in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_oil_industry_in_India" title="History of the oil industry in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_Iraq" title="Petroleum industry in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_petroleum_industry_in_Norway" title="History of the petroleum industry in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_oil_industry_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="History of the oil industry in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_petroleum_industry_in_the_United_States" title="History of the petroleum industry in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Venezuelan_oil_industry" title="History of the Venezuelan oil industry">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Provinces and fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_natural_gas_fields" title="List of natural gas fields">List of natural gas fields</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_oil_fields" title="List of oil fields">List of oil fields</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Midlands_Oil_Province" title="East Midlands Oil Province">East Midlands Oil Province</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Texas_Oil_Field" title="East Texas Oil Field">East Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf of Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niger_Delta#Nigerian_oil" title="Niger Delta">Niger Delta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_oil" title="North Sea oil">North Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permian_Basin_(North_America)" title="Permian Basin (North America)">Permian Basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prudhoe_Bay_Oil_Field" title="Prudhoe Bay Oil Field">Prudhoe Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_reserves_in_Russia" title="Oil reserves in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_reserves_in_Venezuela" title="Oil reserves in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Canadian_Sedimentary_Basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin">Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_abbreviations_in_oil_and_gas_exploration_and_production" title="List of abbreviations in oil and gas exploration and production">Abbreviations</a></li> <li>Classification <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sweet_crude_oil" title="Sweet crude oil">sweet oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sour_crude_oil" title="Sour crude oil">sour oil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_shale_gas" title="Oil shale gas">Oil shale gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orphan_wells" title="Orphan wells">Orphan wells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_oil" title="Peak oil">Peak oil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_phase-out" title="Fossil fuel phase-out">fossil fuel phase-out</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predicting_the_timing_of_peak_oil" title="Predicting the timing of peak oil">timing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrocurrency" title="Petrocurrency">Petrocurrency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrodollar_recycling" title="Petrodollar recycling">Petrodollar recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrofiction" title="Petrofiction">Petrofiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shale_band" title="Shale band">Shale band</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shale_gas" title="Shale gas">Shale gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swing_producer" title="Swing producer">Swing producer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unconventional_(oil_and_gas)_reservoir" title="Unconventional (oil and gas) reservoir">Unconventional (oil and gas) reservoir</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_crude_oil" title="Heavy crude oil">heavy crude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_sands" title="Oil sands">oil sands</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">oil shale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tight_oil" title="Tight oil">tight oil</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Companies and organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Major <a href="/wiki/List_of_oil_exploration_and_production_companies" title="List of oil exploration and production companies">petroleum companies</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Big_Oil" title="Big Oil">Supermajors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BP" title="BP">BP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chevron_Corporation" title="Chevron Corporation">Chevron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eni" title="Eni">Eni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ExxonMobil" title="ExxonMobil">ExxonMobil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shell_plc" title="Shell plc">Shell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TotalEnergies" title="TotalEnergies">TotalEnergies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left; font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/National_oil_company" title="National oil company">National oil companies</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Dhabi_National_Oil_Company" title="Abu Dhabi National Oil Company">Abu Dhabi National Oil Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANCAP_(Uruguay)" title="ANCAP (Uruguay)">ANCAP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bharat_Petroleum" title="Bharat Petroleum">Bharat Petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_National_Offshore_Oil_Corporation" title="China National Offshore Oil Corporation">China National Offshore Oil Corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_National_Petroleum_Corporation" title="China National Petroleum Corporation">China National Petroleum Corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecopetrol" title="Ecopetrol">Ecopetrol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equinor" title="Equinor">Equinor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gazprom" title="Gazprom">Gazprom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindustan_Petroleum" title="Hindustan Petroleum">Hindustan Petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Oil_Corporation" title="Indian Oil Corporation">Indian Oil Corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_National_Oil_Company" title="Iraq National Oil Company">Iraq National Oil Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KazMunayGas" title="KazMunayGas">KazMunayGas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuwait_Petroleum_Corporation" title="Kuwait Petroleum Corporation">Kuwait Petroleum Corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grupa_Lotos" title="Grupa Lotos">Lotos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naftogaz" title="Naftogaz">Naftogaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Iranian_Oil_Company" title="National Iranian Oil Company">National Iranian Oil Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Iranian_South_Oil_Company" title="National Iranian South Oil Company">National Iranian South Oil Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NNPC_Limited" title="NNPC Limited">NNPC Limited</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_%26_Gas_Development_Company" title="Oil & Gas Development Company">Oil & Gas Development Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_and_Natural_Gas_Corporation" title="Oil and Natural Gas Corporation">Oil and Natural Gas Corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orlen" title="Orlen">Orlen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PDVSA" title="PDVSA">PDVSA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pemex" title="Pemex">Pemex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pertamina" title="Pertamina">Pertamina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrobangla" title="Petrobangla">Petrobangla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrobras" title="Petrobras">Petrobras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PetroChina" title="PetroChina">PetroChina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petronas" title="Petronas">Petronas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrovietnam" title="Petrovietnam">Petrovietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PTT_Public_Company_Limited" title="PTT Public Company Limited">PTT Public Company Limited</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QatarEnergy" title="QatarEnergy">QatarEnergy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosneft" title="Rosneft">Rosneft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saudi_Aramco" title="Saudi Aramco">Saudi Aramco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinopec" title="Sinopec">Sinopec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SOCAR" title="SOCAR">SOCAR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonangol_Group" title="Sonangol Group">Sonangol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonatrach" title="Sonatrach">Sonatrach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TPAO" title="TPAO">TPAO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/YPF" title="YPF">YPF</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Energy_trading" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy trading">Energy trading</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enron" title="Enron">Enron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glencore" title="Glencore">Glencore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunvor" title="Gunvor">Gunvor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercuria" title="Mercuria">Mercuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naftiran_Intertrade" title="Naftiran Intertrade">Naftiran Intertrade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trafigura" title="Trafigura">Trafigura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitol" title="Vitol">Vitol</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left; font-weight:normal;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/APA_Corporation" title="APA Corporation">APA Corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cenovus_Energy" title="Cenovus Energy">Cenovus Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cepsa" title="Cepsa">Cepsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ConocoPhillips" title="ConocoPhillips">ConocoPhillips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devon_Energy" title="Devon Energy">Devon Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eneos_Holdings" title="Eneos Holdings">Eneos Holdings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galp_Energia" title="Galp Energia">Galp Energia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hess_Corporation" title="Hess Corporation">Hess Corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Husky_Energy" title="Husky Energy">Husky Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Oil" title="Imperial Oil">Imperial Oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lukoil" title="Lukoil">Lukoil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marathon_Oil" title="Marathon Oil">Marathon Oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marathon_Petroleum" title="Marathon Petroleum">Marathon Petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occidental_Petroleum" title="Occidental Petroleum">Occidental Petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OMV" title="OMV">OMV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phillips_66" title="Phillips 66">Phillips 66</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_Harcourt_Refining_Company" title="Port Harcourt Refining Company">Port Harcourt Refining Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reliance_Industries" title="Reliance Industries">Reliance Industries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repsol" title="Repsol">Repsol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suncor_Energy" title="Suncor Energy">Suncor Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunoco" title="Sunoco">Sunoco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surgutneftegas" title="Surgutneftegas">Surgutneftegas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TechnipFMC" title="TechnipFMC">TechnipFMC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TNK-BP" title="TNK-BP">TNK-BP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tullow_Oil" title="Tullow Oil">Tullow Oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCpra%C5%9F" title="Tüpraş">Tüpraş</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valero_Energy" title="Valero Energy">Valero Energy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Major <a href="/wiki/List_of_oilfield_service_companies" title="List of oilfield service companies">services companies</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amec_Foster_Wheeler" title="Amec Foster Wheeler">Amec Foster Wheeler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baker_Hughes" title="Baker Hughes">Baker Hughes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cameron_International" title="Cameron International">Cameron International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CGG_(company)" title="CGG (company)">CGG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CH2M" title="CH2M">CH2M</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Bridge_%26_Iron_Company" title="Chicago Bridge & Iron Company">Chicago Bridge & Iron Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Oilfield_Services" title="China Oilfield Services">China Oilfield Services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enbridge" title="Enbridge">Enbridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GE_Power" title="GE Power">GE Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halliburton" title="Halliburton">Halliburton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabors_Industries" title="Nabors Industries">Nabors Industries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naftiran_Intertrade" title="Naftiran Intertrade">Naftiran Intertrade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NOV_Inc." title="NOV Inc.">NOV Inc.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrofac" title="Petrofac">Petrofac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saipem" title="Saipem">Saipem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schlumberger" title="Schlumberger">Schlumberger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snam" title="Snam">Snam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsea_7" title="Subsea 7">Subsea 7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TC_Energy" title="TC Energy">TC Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transocean" title="Transocean">Transocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valaris_Limited" title="Valaris Limited">Valaris Limited</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weatherford_International" title="Weatherford International">Weatherford International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wood_Group" title="John Wood Group">John Wood Group</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Petroleum_Institute" title="American Petroleum Institute">American Petroleum Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_petroleum_companies" title="Canadian petroleum companies">Canadian petroleum companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercontinental_Exchange_Futures" title="Intercontinental Exchange Futures">Intercontinental Exchange Futures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_of_Oil_%26_Gas_Producers" title="International Association of Oil & Gas Producers">International Association of Oil & Gas Producers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Energy_Agency" title="International Energy Agency">International Energy Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_Petroleum_Engineers" title="Society of Petroleum Engineers">Society of Petroleum Engineers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Petroleum_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="World Petroleum Council">World Petroleum Council</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Petroleum_industry" title="Category:Petroleum industry">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Types_of_rocks" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Rock_type" title="Template:Rock type"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Rock_type" title="Template talk:Rock type"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Rock_type" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Rock type"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Types_of_rocks" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Types of rocks</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Igneous_rock" title="Igneous rock">Igneous rock</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adakite" title="Adakite">Adakite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andesite" title="Andesite">Andesite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alkali_feldspar_granite" title="Alkali feldspar granite">Alkali feldspar granite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anorthosite" title="Anorthosite">Anorthosite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aplite" title="Aplite">Aplite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basalt" title="Basalt">Basalt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alkali_basalt" title="Alkali basalt">Alkali basalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picrite_basalt" title="Picrite basalt">Picrite basalt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basaltic_trachyandesite" class="mw-redirect" title="Basaltic trachyandesite">Basaltic trachyandesite</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mugearite" title="Mugearite">Mugearite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoshonite" title="Shoshonite">Shoshonite</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basanite" title="Basanite">Basanite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blairmorite" title="Blairmorite">Blairmorite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boninite" title="Boninite">Boninite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonatite" title="Carbonatite">Carbonatite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charnockite" title="Charnockite">Charnockite</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enderbite" title="Enderbite">Enderbite</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dacite" title="Dacite">Dacite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diabase" title="Diabase">Diabase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diorite" title="Diorite">Diorite</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonite" title="Napoleonite">Napoleonite</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunite" title="Dunite">Dunite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essexite" title="Essexite">Essexite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foidolite" title="Foidolite">Foidolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabbro" title="Gabbro">Gabbro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granite" title="Granite">Granite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granodiorite" title="Granodiorite">Granodiorite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granophyre" title="Granophyre">Granophyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harzburgite" title="Harzburgite">Harzburgite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hornblendite" title="Hornblendite">Hornblendite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyaloclastite" title="Hyaloclastite">Hyaloclastite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandite" title="Icelandite">Icelandite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignimbrite" title="Ignimbrite">Ignimbrite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ijolite" title="Ijolite">Ijolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kimberlite" title="Kimberlite">Kimberlite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Komatiite" title="Komatiite">Komatiite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamproite" title="Lamproite">Lamproite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamprophyre" title="Lamprophyre">Lamprophyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latite" title="Latite">Latite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lherzolite" title="Lherzolite">Lherzolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monzogranite" title="Monzogranite">Monzogranite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monzonite" title="Monzonite">Monzonite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepheline_syenite" title="Nepheline syenite">Nepheline syenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nephelinite" title="Nephelinite">Nephelinite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norite" title="Norite">Norite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obsidian" title="Obsidian">Obsidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pegmatite" title="Pegmatite">Pegmatite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peridotite" title="Peridotite">Peridotite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonolite" title="Phonolite">Phonolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonotephrite" title="Phonotephrite">Phonotephrite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(geology)" title="Porphyry (geology)">Porphyry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumice" title="Pumice">Pumice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyroxenite" title="Pyroxenite">Pyroxenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quartz_diorite" title="Quartz diorite">Quartz diorite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quartz_monzonite" title="Quartz monzonite">Quartz monzonite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quartzolite" title="Quartzolite">Quartzolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhyodacite" title="Rhyodacite">Rhyodacite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhyolite" title="Rhyolite">Rhyolite</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comendite" title="Comendite">Comendite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantellerite" title="Pantellerite">Pantellerite</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scoria" title="Scoria">Scoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shonkinite" title="Shonkinite">Shonkinite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovite" title="Sovite">Sovite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syenite" title="Syenite">Syenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tachylyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Tachylyte">Tachylyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tephriphonolite" title="Tephriphonolite">Tephriphonolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tephrite" title="Tephrite">Tephrite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonalite" title="Tonalite">Tonalite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trachyandesite" title="Trachyandesite">Trachyandesite</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benmoreite" title="Benmoreite">Benmoreite</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trachybasalt" title="Trachybasalt">Trachybasalt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiite" title="Hawaiite">Hawaiite</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trachyte" title="Trachyte">Trachyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Troctolite" title="Troctolite">Troctolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trondhjemite" title="Trondhjemite">Trondhjemite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuff" title="Tuff">Tuff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Websterite" title="Websterite">Websterite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wehrlite" title="Wehrlite">Wehrlite</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_rock" title="Sedimentary rock">Sedimentary rock</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argillite" title="Argillite">Argillite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arkose" title="Arkose">Arkose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banded_iron_formation" title="Banded iron formation">Banded iron formation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breccia" title="Breccia">Breccia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcarenite" title="Calcarenite">Calcarenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalk" title="Chalk">Chalk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chert" title="Chert">Chert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claystone" class="mw-redirect" title="Claystone">Claystone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">Coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conglomerate_(geology)" title="Conglomerate (geology)">Conglomerate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coquina" title="Coquina">Coquina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diamictite" title="Diamictite">Diamictite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diatomite" class="mw-redirect" title="Diatomite">Diatomite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolomite_(rock)" title="Dolomite (rock)">Dolomite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evaporite" title="Evaporite">Evaporite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flint" title="Flint">Flint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geyserite" title="Geyserite">Geyserite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greywacke" title="Greywacke">Greywacke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gritstone" title="Gritstone">Gritstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itacolumite" title="Itacolumite">Itacolumite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaspillite" title="Jaspillite">Jaspillite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laterite" title="Laterite">Laterite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lignite" title="Lignite">Lignite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">Limestone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lumachelle" title="Lumachelle">Lumachelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marl" title="Marl">Marl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudstone" title="Mudstone">Mudstone</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Oil shale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oolite" title="Oolite">Oolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosphorite" title="Phosphorite">Phosphorite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandstone" title="Sandstone">Sandstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shale" title="Shale">Shale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siltstone" title="Siltstone">Siltstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvinite" title="Sylvinite">Sylvinite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tillite" class="mw-redirect" title="Tillite">Tillite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Travertine" title="Travertine">Travertine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tufa" title="Tufa">Tufa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turbidite" title="Turbidite">Turbidite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varve" title="Varve">Varve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wackestone" title="Wackestone">Wackestone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Metamorphic_rock" title="Metamorphic rock">Metamorphic rock</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthracite" title="Anthracite">Anthracite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amphibolite" title="Amphibolite">Amphibolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blueschist" title="Blueschist">Blueschist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cataclasite" title="Cataclasite">Cataclasite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eclogite" title="Eclogite">Eclogite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gneiss" title="Gneiss">Gneiss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granulite" title="Granulite">Granulite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenschist" title="Greenschist">Greenschist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hornfels" title="Hornfels">Hornfels</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calcflinta" title="Calcflinta">Calcflinta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itabirite" title="Itabirite">Itabirite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litchfieldite" title="Litchfieldite">Litchfieldite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marble" title="Marble">Marble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migmatite" title="Migmatite">Migmatite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mylonite" title="Mylonite">Mylonite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapelite" class="mw-redirect" title="Metapelite">Metapelite</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metapsammite&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Metapsammite (page does not exist)">Metapsammite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phyllite" title="Phyllite">Phyllite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudotachylite" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudotachylite">Pseudotachylite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quartzite" title="Quartzite">Quartzite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schist" title="Schist">Schist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serpentinite" title="Serpentinite">Serpentinite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skarn" title="Skarn">Skarn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slate" title="Slate">Slate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suevite" title="Suevite">Suevite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talc_carbonate" title="Talc carbonate">Talc carbonate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soapstone" title="Soapstone">Soapstone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tectonite" title="Tectonite">Tectonite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whiteschist" title="Whiteschist">Whiteschist</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Specific varieties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adamellite" class="mw-redirect" title="Adamellite">Adamellite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appinite" title="Appinite">Appinite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aphanite" title="Aphanite">Aphanite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borolanite" title="Borolanite">Borolanite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larvikite" title="Larvikite">Blue Granite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidosite" title="Epidosite">Epidosite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felsite" title="Felsite">Felsite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flint" title="Flint">Flint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganister" title="Ganister">Ganister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gossan" title="Gossan">Gossan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyaloclastite" title="Hyaloclastite">Hyaloclastite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ijolite" title="Ijolite">Ijolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jadeitite" title="Jadeitite">Jadeitite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jasperoid" title="Jasperoid">Jasperoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenyte" title="Kenyte">Kenyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lapis_lazuli" title="Lapis lazuli">Lapis lazuli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larvikite" title="Larvikite">Larvikite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litchfieldite" title="Litchfieldite">Litchfieldite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Llanite" title="Llanite">Llanite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxullianite" title="Luxullianite">Luxullianite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangerite" title="Mangerite">Mangerite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novaculite" title="Novaculite">Novaculite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietersite" title="Pietersite">Pietersite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrolite" title="Pyrolite">Pyrolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapakivi_granite" title="Rapakivi granite">Rapakivi granite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhomb_porphyry" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhomb porphyry">Rhomb porphyry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodingite" title="Rodingite">Rodingite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shonkinite" title="Shonkinite">Shonkinite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taconite" title="Taconite">Taconite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tachylite" title="Tachylite">Tachylite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teschenite" title="Teschenite">Teschenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theralite" title="Theralite">Theralite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unakite" title="Unakite">Unakite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variolite" title="Variolite">Variolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wad_(mineral)" title="Wad (mineral)">Wad</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output 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.portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" 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