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</a> <ul id="toc-The_term_shamanism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Role_in_society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_in_society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Role in society </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Role_in_society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Attestations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Attestations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Attestations </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Attestations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Attestations subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Attestations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Roman_Era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman_Era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Roman Era </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman_Era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Albruna" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Albruna"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.1 Albruna </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Albruna-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Veleda" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Veleda"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.2 Veleda </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Veleda-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ganna" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ganna"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.3 Ganna </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ganna-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Waluburg" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Waluburg"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.4 Waluburg </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Waluburg-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Early Middle Ages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gambara" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gambara"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1 Gambara </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gambara-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Haliurunas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Haliurunas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.2 Haliurunas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Haliurunas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-North_Germanic_corpus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_Germanic_corpus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 North Germanic corpus </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_Germanic_corpus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Olga_of_Kiev" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Olga_of_Kiev"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Olga of Kiev </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Olga_of_Kiev-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Archaeological_Record" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Archaeological_Record"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Archaeological Record </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Archaeological_Record-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Activities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Activities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Activities </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Activities-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Activities subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Activities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Chanting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chanting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Chanting </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chanting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Summoning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Summoning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Summoning </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Summoning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prophesying" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prophesying"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Prophesying </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prophesying-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Attributes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Attributes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Attributes </div> </a> <button 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vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cats"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Cats </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cats-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Christianity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christianity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Christianity </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Christianity-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Christianity subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Christianity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Late_Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Late Middle Ages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Witch-hunts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Witch-hunts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Witch-hunts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Witch-hunts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_influence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_influence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Modern influence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_influence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" 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Available in 26 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-26" aria-hidden="true" > 26 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sieneres_(Germaans)" title="Sieneres (Germaans) – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Sieneres (Germaans)" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%8C%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Вьолва – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Вьолва" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volva" title="Volva – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Volva" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%B8lve" title="Vølve – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Vølve" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%B6lva" title="Völva – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Völva" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%B6lva" title="Völva – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Völva" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%B6lva" title="Völva – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Völva" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%D8%A7" title="ولوا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ولوا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%B6lva" title="Völva – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Völva" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%B6lva" title="Völva – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Völva" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B3%BC%EB%B0%94" title="볼바 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="볼바" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%B6lva" title="Völva – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Völva" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C7%ABlva" title="Vǫlva – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Vǫlva" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voeulva" title="Voeulva – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Voeulva" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volva_(mythologie)" title="Volva (mythologie) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Volva (mythologie)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%B4%E3%82%A9%E3%83%AB%E3%83%B4%E3%82%A1" title="ヴォルヴァ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ヴォルヴァ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volve" title="Volve – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Volve" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volve" title="Volve – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Volve" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%B6lva" title="Völva – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Völva" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%91%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Вёльва – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Вёльва" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vala_(Edda)" title="Vala (Edda) – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Vala (Edda)" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%B6lva" title="Völva – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Völva" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%B6lva" title="Völva – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Völva" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Вельва – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Вельва" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C7%ABlva" title="Vǫlva – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="Vǫlva" data-language-autonym="粵語" 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free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=V%C3%B6lva&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Völva">Völva</a>)</div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Woman said to foretell future events and perform sorcery</div> In <a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic paganism</a>, a seeress is a woman said to have the ability to <a href="/wiki/Divination" title="Divination">foretell future events</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magic_(supernatural)" title="Magic (supernatural)">perform sorcery</a>. They are also referred to with many other names meaning "prophetess", "staff bearer" and "sorceress", and they are frequently called witches both in early sources and in modern scholarship. In <a href="/wiki/Norse_mythology" title="Norse mythology">Norse mythology</a> the seeress is usually referred to as völva or vala. Seeresses were an expression of the pre-Christian <a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">shamanic</a> traditions of Europe, and they held an authoritative position in <a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_culture" title="Early Germanic culture">Germanic society</a>. Mentions of Germanic seeresses occur as early as the Roman era, when, for example, they at times led armed resistance against Roman rule and acted as envoys to Rome. After the Roman Era, seeresses occur in records among the <a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_people" class="mw-redirect" title="North Germanic people">North Germanic people</a>, where they form a reoccurring motif in <a href="/wiki/Norse_mythology" title="Norse mythology">Norse mythology</a>. Both the classical and the Norse accounts imply that they used wands, and describe them as sitting on raised platforms during <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9ance" title="Séance">séances</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Glosecki1989-1">[1]</a> Ancient Roman and Greek literature records the name of several Germanic seeresses, including <a href="/wiki/Albruna" title="Albruna">Albruna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Veleda" title="Veleda">Veleda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ganna_(seeress)" title="Ganna (seeress)">Ganna</a>, and, by way of an archaeological find, <a href="/wiki/Waluburg" title="Waluburg">Waluburg</a>. Norse mythology mentions several seeresses, some of them by name, including Heimlaug völva, <a href="/wiki/%C3%9Eorbj%C3%B6rg_l%C3%ADtilv%C3%B6lva" class="mw-redirect" title="Þorbjörg lítilvölva">Þorbjörg lítilvölva</a>, Þordís spákona, and Þuríðr Sundafyllir. In North Germanic religion, the goddess <a href="/wiki/Freyja" title="Freyja">Freyja</a> has a particular association with seeresses, and there are indications that the Viking princess and <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Rus'</a> saint, <a href="/wiki/Olga_of_Kiev" title="Olga of Kiev">Olga of Kiev</a>, was one such, serving as a "priestess of Freyja" among the Scandinavian elite in Kievan Rus' before they converted to Christianity. Archaeologists have identified several graves that appear to be the remains of Scandinavian seeresses. These graves contain objects such as <a href="/wiki/Wand" title="Wand">wands</a>, seeds with hallucinogenic and aphrodisiac properties, and a variety of items indicating high status. Societal beliefs about the practices and abilities of seeresses would contribute to the development of the European concept of "witches", because their practices survived Christianization, although the practitioners became marginalized, and evolved into north European mediaeval witchcraft. Germanic seeresses are mentioned in popular culture in a variety of contexts. In <a href="/wiki/Germanic_Heathenry" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic Heathenry">Germanic Heathenry</a>, a modern practice of Germanic pagan religion, seeresses once again play a role. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Names_and_terminology">Names and terminology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Seeress_(Germanic)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Names and terminology">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vell%C3%A9da_jardin_luxembourg.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Vell%C3%A9da_jardin_luxembourg.JPG/150px-Vell%C3%A9da_jardin_luxembourg.JPG" decoding="async" width="150" height="361" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Vell%C3%A9da_jardin_luxembourg.JPG/225px-Vell%C3%A9da_jardin_luxembourg.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Vell%C3%A9da_jardin_luxembourg.JPG/300px-Vell%C3%A9da_jardin_luxembourg.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1093" data-file-height="2634" /></a><figcaption>Sculpture of the Germanic seeress Veleda, by Hippolyte Maindron, 1844, in <a href="/wiki/Jardin_du_Luxembourg" title="Jardin du Luxembourg">Jardin du Luxembourg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>.</figcaption></figure> Aside from the names of individuals, Roman era accounts do not contain information about how the early <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic peoples</a> referred to them, but sixth century Goth scholar <a href="/wiki/Jordanes" title="Jordanes">Jordanes</a> reported in his <a href="/wiki/Getica" title="Getica">Getica</a> that the early Goths had called their seeresses haliurunnae (Goth-Latin).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacLeodMees20065-2">[2]</a> The word also appears in Old English (OE), hellerune ("seeress" or "witch") and in Old High German (OHG) as hellirûna ("necromancy") and hellirunari ("necromancer"),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Vries1970322f-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDowden2000253-4">[4]</a> and from these forms an earlier <a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a> form *χalja-rūnō(n) has been reconstructed,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrel2003155-5">[5]</a> in which the first element is *χaljō, i.e. <a href="/wiki/Hel_(location)" title="Hel (location)">Hel, the abode of the dead</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrel2003155f-6">[6]</a> and the second is *rūnō ("mystery, secret").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrel2003155,_310-7">[7]</a> At this time the word *rūnō still referred to chanting and not to letters (<a href="/wiki/Runes" class="mw-redirect" title="Runes">rune</a>),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDowden2000253-4">[4]</a> and in the sense "incantation" it was probably borrowed from Proto-Germanic into <a href="/wiki/Proto-Finnic_language" title="Proto-Finnic language">Finnish</a> where runo means "poem".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKoch2020137-8">[8]</a> In OE, hellerune ("seeress" or "witch"), or helrūne, has the synonym <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/h%C3%A6gtesse" class="extiw" title="wikt:hægtesse">hægtesse</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamico1984212-9">[9]</a> a term that is also found in Old Dutch, haghetisse ("witch")<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrel2003149f-10">[10]</a> and in OHG hagazussa,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitchell2011250-11">[11]</a> hagzussa or <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hagzissa" class="extiw" title="wikt:hagzissa">hagzissa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKluge2011414f-12">[12]</a> These West Germanic forms are probably derived from a Proto-Germanic word with positive connotations, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/hagaz" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/hagaz">*χaʒaz</a>, from which are also derived Old Norse (ON) hagr ("skillful") and Middle High German (MHG) be-hac ("of pleasure").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrel2003149f-10">[10]</a> However, it is sometimes proposed that the first element is a term corresponding to Swedish hage ("wooded paddock") in the <a href="/wiki/Metonymy" title="Metonymy">sense</a> of "fence",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrömbäck2000234-13">[13]</a> i.e. PGmc *χaʒōn ("pasture", "enclosure"), from whence also English <a href="/wiki/Hedge" title="Hedge">hedge</a> (through *χaʒjaz).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrel2003150-14">[14]</a> In that case it would be etymologically related to ON túnriða and OHG zûnrite ("fence rider"), where tún/zûn does not refer to an enclosure but <a href="/wiki/Metonymy" title="Metonymy">metonymically</a> to the fence surrounding it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrömbäck2000234-13">[13]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Westrogothic_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Westrogothic law">Westrogothic law</a> , it was a punishable offence to accuse a woman of having ridden a fence-gate, in the appearance (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hamr" class="extiw" title="wikt:hamr">hamr</a>) of a troll.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrömbäck2000234f-15">[15]</a> <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Kluge" title="Friedrich Kluge">Kluge</a> reconstructs the PGmc form as <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/hagatusj%C5%8D" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/hagatusjō">*haga-tusjō</a>, where the last element *tusjō could mean "spirit", from PIE *<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/d%CA%B0wes-" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/dʰwes-">dhwes</a>-.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKluge2011414f-12">[12]</a> The various names in North Germanic sources may give the impression that there were two types of sorceress, the staff-bearers, or seeresses (vǫlva), and the women who were named for performing magic (seiðkona). However, there is little that the scholar could use to differentiate them, if such a distinction ever existed, and the two types of names are often used synonymously and about the same women.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice201972ff-16">[16]</a> The term vǫlva means "staff bearer" and is related etymologically to the names of the early Germanic seeresses <a href="/wiki/Ganna_(seeress)" title="Ganna (seeress)">Ganna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gambara_(Lombard)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gambara (Lombard)">Gambara</a> and <a href="/wiki/Waluburg" title="Waluburg">Waluburg</a>. The use of <a href="/wiki/Wand" title="Wand">wands</a> in divination and clairvoyance appears to have lived on from the classical era into the <a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a>. The name vǫlva and derivations of the name appear 23 times in the sources, and seiðkona ("seiðr woman/wife") appears eight times; the two terms are often used interchangeably.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice201972ff-16">[16]</a> The second most common term is spákona ("prophecy woman/wife") with the variants spákerling ("old prophecy woman") and spámey ("prophecy maiden"), which appears 22 times, again interchangeably with vǫlva and seiðkona to refer to the same woman.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice201975f-17">[17]</a> There is also the name vísendakona ("knowing woman"), which appears eight times in the sources. <a href="/wiki/%C3%9Eorbj%C3%B6rg_L%C3%ADtilv%C3%B6lva" title="Þorbjörg Lítilvölva">Þorbiorg</a> in <a href="/wiki/Eir%C3%ADks_saga_rau%C3%B0a" class="mw-redirect" title="Eiríks saga rauða">Eiríks saga rauða</a> is called both a vísendakona, vǫlva and a spákona. It is possible that the names once had different meanings, but at the time of the saga's composition, they were no longer distinguished in meaning, just as the words sorceress and witch are interchangeable in modern popular language. There are also five instances of a group of rarer names having the element <a href="/wiki/Galdr" title="Galdr">galdr</a> ("incantation"), with the names galdrakonur ("galdr women"), galdrakerling ("old galdr woman") and galdrasnót ("galdr lady"). In addition there is the word galdrakind ("galdr creature") with negative connotations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice201976-18">[18]</a> There is also the reconstructed word *vitka which may be connected to the <a href="/wiki/Wecha" class="mw-redirect" title="Wecha">Wecha</a> in <a href="/wiki/Gesta_Danorum" title="Gesta Danorum">Gesta Danorum</a>, book III and refer to a kind of sorceress. It seems to be the feminine form of vitki ("<a href="/wiki/Sorcerer_(supernatural)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sorcerer (supernatural)">sorcerer</a>"), and it is only attested from <a href="/wiki/Lokasenna" title="Lokasenna">Lokasenna</a> 24, where <a href="/wiki/Loki" title="Loki">Loki</a> accuses <a href="/wiki/Odin" title="Odin">Odin</a> of having travelled around the world vitka líki (in the "guise of a vitka").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice201976-18">[18]</a> The personal name <a href="/wiki/Hei%C3%B0r" title="Heiðr">Heiðr</a> appears 66 times as a word for sorceress in the prose sources. It appears twice in the <a href="/wiki/Poetic_Edda" title="Poetic Edda">Poetic Edda</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Hyndlulj%C3%B3%C3%B0" title="Hyndluljóð">Hyndluljóð</a> and in <a href="/wiki/V%C3%B6lusp%C3%A1" title="Völuspá">Vǫluspá</a>, where it is a name assumed by <a href="/wiki/Gullveig" title="Gullveig">Gullveig</a> in connection with the <a href="/wiki/%C3%86sir%E2%80%93Vanir_War" title="Æsir–Vanir War">War of the Gods</a>. In a study by McKinnell of <a href="/wiki/Norse_saga" class="mw-redirect" title="Norse saga">Norse sagas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Landn%C3%A1mab%C3%B3k" title="Landnámabók">Landnámabók</a>, there is only one instance of a woman named Heiðr who does not act as a seeress. The name has been connected to <a href="/wiki/Heath" title="Heath">heath</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">heathen</a>, but it has also been explained with meanings that connote "radiance and golden light, honour and payment".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice201976f-19">[19]</a> Lastly, there is the term fjolkyngiskona that only meant "sorceress", and a number of derogatory names that correspond to "witch" with many negative connotations, and these terms include skass ("ogress"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECleasbyVigfússon1874539f-20">[20]</a>), flagð(kona) ("ogress"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECleasbyVigfússon1874159-21">[21]</a>), gýgr ("ogress"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECleasbyVigfússon1874222-22">[22]</a>), fála ("Giantess"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECleasbyVigfússon1874146-23">[23]</a>), hála and fordæða ("evil doer"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECleasbyVigfússon1874164-24">[24]</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice201976f-19">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_term_shamanism">The term shamanism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Seeress_(Germanic)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: The term shamanism">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Shamanism#Definitions" title="Shamanism">Shamanism § Definitions</a></div> There has long been an academic debate on whether the seeresses' practice should be regarded as shamanism. However, this does not pertain to the concept of shamanism in a wider definition (see e.g. the definitions of the <a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">OED</a>), but rather to what degree similarities can be found between what is preserved about them in Old Norse literature and the shamanism of northern Eurasia in a more restricted sense. The majority of scholars support the "shamanic interpretation, and the presence of ecstatic rituals" (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Hilda_Ellis_Davidson" title="Hilda Ellis Davidson">Ellis Davidson</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C3%85ke_Ohlmarks" title="Åke Ohlmarks">Ohlmarks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hermann_P%C3%A1lsson" title="Hermann Pálsson">Pálsson</a>, Meulengracht Sørensen, <a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Turville-Petre" title="Gabriel Turville-Petre">Turville-Petre</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jan_de_Vries_(philologist)" title="Jan de Vries (philologist)">de Vries</a>), while a minority is skeptical (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Sophus_Bugge" title="Sophus Bugge">Bugge</a>, Dillmann, <a href="/wiki/Georges_Dum%C3%A9zil" title="Georges Dumézil">Dumézil</a>, Näsström and Schjødt), but there are divergent opinions within the two camps.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice2019260-25">[25]</a> Clive Tolley, who is among the sceptics, writes that if shamanism is defined as "tundra shamanism" as represented by the Sámi of Scandinavia and as defined by <a href="/wiki/Edward_Vajda" title="Edward Vajda">Edward Vajda</a>, then the differences are too great. He allies himself with the position of Ohlmarks, who was familiar with a wide range shamanism and rejected it in 1939, in a debate with <a href="/wiki/Dag_Str%C3%B6mb%C3%A4ck" title="Dag Strömbäck">Dag Strömbäck</a> who found similarities with Sámi practices. However, Tolley concedes that if shamanism is defined in line with the words of <a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%85ke_Hultkrantz" class="extiw" title="sv:Åke Hultkrantz">Åke Hultkrantz</a> (1993) as "[...] direct contact with spiritual beings and guardian spirits, together with the mediating role played by a shaman in a ritual setting [...] The presence of guardian spirits during the trance and following shamanic actions [...]" then it is correct to define their practices as "broadly shamanic". However, he considers that in this case shamanism also includes traditional practices from a large part of Europe, such as the <a href="/wiki/European_witchcraft" title="European witchcraft">witchcraft of medieval Europe</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sibyl" title="Sibyl">practices of ancient Greece</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETolley2009588-26">[26]</a> An opposing view is held by <a href="/wiki/Neil_Price_(archaeologist)" title="Neil Price (archaeologist)">Neil Price</a>, who has studied circumpolar shamanism, and argues that he finds enough similarities to define the North Germanic seeresses as shamans also in the stricter sense.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice2019-27">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Role_in_society">Role in society</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Seeress_(Germanic)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Role in society">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nornorna_vid_Urdarbrunnen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/08/Nornorna_vid_Urdarbrunnen.jpg/220px-Nornorna_vid_Urdarbrunnen.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/08/Nornorna_vid_Urdarbrunnen.jpg/330px-Nornorna_vid_Urdarbrunnen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/08/Nornorna_vid_Urdarbrunnen.jpg/440px-Nornorna_vid_Urdarbrunnen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1238" /></a><figcaption>The fate of men was always in the hands of female powers. An illustration of the Norns who spin the threads of <a href="/wiki/Destiny" title="Destiny">fate</a> at the foot of <a href="/wiki/Yggdrasil" title="Yggdrasil">Yggdrasil</a>, the tree of the world. Beneath them is the well <a href="/wiki/Ur%C3%B0arbrunnr" title="Urðarbrunnr">Urðarbrunnr</a> with the two swans that have engendered all the swans in the world.</figcaption></figure> Fate is central in Germanic literature and mythology, and men's destiny is inextricably linked to supernatural women and seeresses. Morris comments that the importance of fate can not be overstressed, and the seeresses were feared and revered by gods and mortals alike. Even the god <a href="/wiki/Odin" title="Odin">Odin</a> himself consulted them. The <a href="/wiki/Norns" title="Norns">Norns</a> are an example of the link between women and fate, which was elevated in Germanic society, and the association was incarnated by the seeresses.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorris199130-28">[28]</a> The political role that the seeresses played was always present when the Romans were dealing with the Germanic tribes, and the Romans had to take their opinion into account.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimek2020280-29">[29]</a> Ganna's political influence was so considerable that she was taken to Rome together with <a href="/wiki/Masyas" title="Masyas">Masyos</a>, the king of her tribe, where they had an audience with the Roman emperor <a href="/wiki/Domitian" title="Domitian">Domitian</a> and were treated with honours, after which they returned home.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimek2020279-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimek199699-31">[31]</a> The Roman historian <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a>, who appears to have met Ganna and to have been informed by her of most of what we know of early Germanic religion,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELincoln198645―50-32">[32]</a> wrote: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">... they believe that there resides in women an element of holiness and a gift of prophecy ...<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorris199130-28">[28]</a></blockquote> Another telling account by Tacitus about their power was a statement by the <a href="/wiki/Batavi_(Germanic_tribe)" title="Batavi (Germanic tribe)">Batavian tribe</a> to the Romans: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">... and if we must choose between masters, then we may more honorably bear with the Emperors of Rome, than with the women of the German[ic]s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorris199130-28">[28]</a></blockquote> However, the seeresses do not appear to have been just any women, but were those who occupied a special office.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEnright1996210-33">[33]</a> Both <a href="/wiki/Eugen_Mogk" title="Eugen Mogk">Mogk</a> and Sundqvist have commented that although the seeresses were referred to as "priestesses" by the Romans, they probably should not be so labelled in a strict sense.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESundqvist200282-34">[34]</a> As for the later North Germanic version, Näsström writes that the völva did not perform any sacrifices, but her roles as a prophetess and as a sorceress were still important aspects of the spiritual life of her society.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENäsström2002106-35">[35]</a> Price comments that Katherine Morris has usefully defined these women: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">[...] magic was manipulative, practical, and achieved immediately. The sorceress changed the weather, cast spells, or controlled things outside of herself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorris1991173-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice201972-37">[37]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Attestations">Attestations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Seeress_(Germanic)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Attestations">edit</a>]</div> Germanic seeresses are first described by the Romans, who discuss the role seeresses played in Germanic society. A gap in the historical record occurs until the North Germanic record began over a millennium later, when the Old Norse sagas frequently mention seeresses among the North Germanic peoples. It is noteworthy that Veleda, who prophesied in a high tower in the first century, finds an echo in the thirteenth-century account of Þorbjörg lítilvölva who prophesied from a raised platform in Eiríks saga rauða.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrchard1997174-38">[38]</a> <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Simek" title="Rudolf Simek">Simek</a> comments that the saga's account of Þorbjörg's raised platform and her wand conveys authentic practices from Germanic paganism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimek2007326-39">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roman_Era">Roman Era</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Seeress_(Germanic)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Roman Era">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lune_Grand_Palais_-_Velleda._Effet_de_lune_-_Jules_Lenepveu_-_without_border.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Lune_Grand_Palais_-_Velleda._Effet_de_lune_-_Jules_Lenepveu_-_without_border.jpg/220px-Lune_Grand_Palais_-_Velleda._Effet_de_lune_-_Jules_Lenepveu_-_without_border.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="375" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Lune_Grand_Palais_-_Velleda._Effet_de_lune_-_Jules_Lenepveu_-_without_border.jpg/330px-Lune_Grand_Palais_-_Velleda._Effet_de_lune_-_Jules_Lenepveu_-_without_border.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Lune_Grand_Palais_-_Velleda._Effet_de_lune_-_Jules_Lenepveu_-_without_border.jpg/440px-Lune_Grand_Palais_-_Velleda._Effet_de_lune_-_Jules_Lenepveu_-_without_border.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2198" data-file-height="3745" /></a><figcaption>The seeress Veleda as painted by <a href="/wiki/Jules_Eug%C3%A8ne_Lenepveu" class="mw-redirect" title="Jules Eugène Lenepveu">Jules Eugène Lenepveu</a>, 1883</figcaption></figure> In his ethnography of the ancient Germanic peoples, Germania, Tacitus expounds on some of these points. In chapter eight, he reports the following about women in then-contemporary Germanic society and the role of seeresses: <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Birley" title="Anthony Birley">A. R. Birley</a> translation (1999):</dd></dl> <blockquote> <dl><dd>It is recorded that some armies that were already wavering and on the point of collapse have been rallied by women pleading steadfastly, blocking their path with bared breasts, and reminding their men how near they themselves are to being taken captive. This they fear by a long way more desperately for their women than for themselves. Indeed, peoples who are ordered to include girls of noble family among their hostages are thereby placed under a more effective restraint. They even believe that there is something holy and an element of the prophetic in women, hence they neither scorn their advice nor ignore their predictions. Under the <a href="/wiki/Vespasian" title="Vespasian">Deified Vespasian</a> we witnessed how Veleda was long regarded by many of them as a divine being; and in former times, too, they revered Albruna and a number of other women, not through servile flattery nor as if they had to make goddesses out of them.<a href="#cite_note-BIRLEY-1999-41-40">[40]</a></dd></dl> </blockquote> Writing also in the first century AD, Greek geographer and historian <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a> records the following about the <a href="/wiki/Cimbri" title="Cimbri">Cimbri</a>, a Germanic people, in chapter 2.3 of volume seven of his encyclopedia <a href="/wiki/Geographica" title="Geographica">Geographica</a>: <dl><dd>Horace Leonard Jones translation (1924):</dd></dl> <blockquote> <dl><dd>Writers report a custom of the Cimbri to this effect: Their wives, who would accompany them on their expeditions, were attended by priestesses who were seers; these were grey-haired, clad in white, with flaxen cloaks fastened on with clasps, girt with girdles of bronze, and bare-footed; now sword in hand these priestesses would meet with the prisoners of war throughout the camp, and having first crowned them with wreaths would lead them to a brazen vessel of about twenty <a href="/wiki/Amphora" title="Amphora">amphorae</a>; and they had a raised platform which the priestess would mount, and then, bending over the kettle, would cut the throat of each prisoner after he had been lifted up; and from the blood that poured forth into the vessel some of the priestesses would draw a prophecy, while still others would split open the body and from an inspection of the entrails would utter a prophecy of victory for their own people; and during the battles they would beat on the hides that were stretched over the wicker-bodies of the wagons and in this way produce an unearthly noise.<a href="#cite_note-JONES-1924-169-172-41">[41]</a></dd></dl> </blockquote> Writing in the second century <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">CE</a>, Roman historian <a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a> describes in chapter 50 of his <a href="/wiki/Roman_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman History">Roman History</a> an encounter between <a href="/wiki/Nero_Claudius_Drusus" title="Nero Claudius Drusus">Nero Claudius Drusus</a> and a woman with supernatural abilities among the <a href="/wiki/Cherusci" title="Cherusci">Cherusci</a>, a Germanic people. According to Diorites Cassius, the woman foresees Drusus's death, and he dies soon thereafter: <dl><dd>Herbert Baldwin Foster and Earnest Cary translation (1917):</dd></dl> <blockquote> <dl><dd>The events related happened in the consulship of <a href="/wiki/Iullus_Antonius" title="Iullus Antonius">Iullus Antonius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fabius_Maximus" class="mw-redirect" title="Fabius Maximus">Fabius Maximus</a>. In the following year Drusus became consul with <a href="/wiki/Titus_Quinctius_Crispinus_Sulpicianus" title="Titus Quinctius Crispinus Sulpicianus">Titus Crispinus</a>, and omens occurred that were anything but favourable to him. Many buildings were destroyed by storm and by thunderbolts, among them any temples; even that of <a href="/wiki/Jupiter_Capitolinus" class="mw-redirect" title="Jupiter Capitolinus">Jupiter Capitolinus</a> and the gods worshipped with him was injured. Drusus, however, paid no heed to any of these things, but invaded the country of the <a href="/wiki/Chatti" title="Chatti">Chatti</a> and advanced as far as that of the <a href="/wiki/Suebi" title="Suebi">Suebi</a>, conquering with difficulty the territory traversed and defeating the forces that attacked him only after considerable bloodshed. From there he proceeded to the country of the Cherusci, and crossing the <a href="/wiki/Visurgis" class="mw-redirect" title="Visurgis">Visurgis</a>, advanced as far as the <a href="/wiki/Elbe" title="Elbe">Albis</a>, pillaging everything on his way.</dd> <dd></dd> <dd>The Albis rises in the <a href="/wiki/Giant_Mountains" title="Giant Mountains">Vandalic Mountains</a>, and empties, a mighty river, into the northern ocean. Drusus undertook to cross this river, but failing in the attempt, set up trophies and withdrew. For a woman of superhuman size met him and said: "Whither, pray, art thou hastening, insatiable Drusus? It is not fated that thou shalt look upon all these lands. But depart; for the end alike of thy labours and of thy life is already at hand".</dd> <dd></dd> <dd>It is indeed marvellous that such a voice should have come to any man from the Deity, yet I cannot discredit the tale; for Drusus immediately departed, and as he was returning in haste, died on the way of some disease before reaching the <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</a>. And I find confirmation of the story in these incidents: wolves were prowling about the camp and howling just before his death; two youths were seen riding through the midst of the camp; a sound as of women lamenting was heard; and there were shooting stars in the sky. So much for these events.<a href="#cite_note-CARY-1917-378-381-42">[42]</a></dd></dl> </blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Albruna">Albruna</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Seeress_(Germanic)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Albruna">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Albruna" title="Albruna">Albruna</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Veleda">Veleda</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Seeress_(Germanic)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Veleda">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Veleda" title="Veleda">Veleda</a></div> In the first and second centuries <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">CE</a>, Greek and Roman authors—such as Greek historian <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a>, Roman senator <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a>, and Roman historian <a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a>—wrote about the ancient Germanic peoples, and made note of the role of seeresses in Germanic society. Tacitus mentions Germanic seeresses in book 4 of his first century CE <a href="/wiki/Histories_(Tacitus)" title="Histories (Tacitus)">Histories</a>. <blockquote> <dl><dd>The legionary commander <a href="/w/index.php?title=Munius_Lupercus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Munius Lupercus (page does not exist)">Munius Lupercus</a> was sent along with other presents to Veleda, an unmarried woman who enjoyed wide influence over the tribe of the <a href="/wiki/Bructeri" title="Bructeri">Bructeri</a>. The Germans traditionally regard many of the female sex as prophetic, and indeed, by an excess of superstition, as divine. This was a case in point. Veleda's prestige stood high, for she had foretold the German successes and the extermination of the legions. But Lupercus was put to death before he reached her.<a href="#cite_note-WELLESLEY-1964-1972-247-43">[43]</a></dd></dl> </blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ganna">Ganna</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Seeress_(Germanic)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Ganna">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ganna_(seeress)" title="Ganna (seeress)">Ganna (seeress)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Semnonen_Hain_by_Emil_Doepler.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Semnonen_Hain_by_Emil_Doepler.jpg/220px-Semnonen_Hain_by_Emil_Doepler.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Semnonen_Hain_by_Emil_Doepler.jpg/330px-Semnonen_Hain_by_Emil_Doepler.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Semnonen_Hain_by_Emil_Doepler.jpg/440px-Semnonen_Hain_by_Emil_Doepler.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1876" data-file-height="1164" /></a><figcaption>It appears to have been Ganna herself, and her king Masyos, who informed Tacitus of the Semnoni religious practices. An illustration of the Semnoni sacred grove, which is identified with the <a href="/wiki/Grove_of_Fetters" title="Grove of Fetters">Grove of Fetters</a> in <a href="/wiki/Germanic_heroic_legend" title="Germanic heroic legend">Scandinavian heroic legend</a>.</figcaption></figure> A seeress named Ganna is mentioned by the Roman historiographer <a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a> in the early 3rd century. The context is the campaign east of the Rhine by Emperor <a href="/wiki/Domitian" title="Domitian">Domitian</a> in the 80s of the 1st century CE. Ganna belonged to a tribe called the <a href="/wiki/Semnones" title="Semnones">Semnones</a> who were settled east of the river <a href="/wiki/Elbe" title="Elbe">Elbe</a>, and she appears to have been active in the second half of the 1st century, after Veleda's time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimek2020279-30">[30]</a> Ganna's political influence was considerable enough that she was taken to Rome together with <a href="/wiki/Masyas" title="Masyas">Masyos</a>, the king of her tribe, where they had an audience with the Roman emperor and were treated with honours, after which they returned home.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimek2020279-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimek199699-31">[31]</a> This probably happened in 86 AD, the year after his final war with the <a href="/wiki/Chatti" title="Chatti">Chatti</a>, when he made a treaty with the <a href="/wiki/Cherusci" title="Cherusci">Cherusci</a>, who were settled between the rivers <a href="/wiki/Weser" title="Weser">Weser</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Elbe" title="Elbe">Elbe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimek2020279-30">[30]</a> During their stay in Rome, Ganna and Masyos appear also to have met with the Roman historian <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a> who reports that he discussed the Semnoni religious practices with informants from that tribe, who considered themselves the noblest of the Suebi. <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Lincoln" title="Bruce Lincoln">Bruce Lincoln</a> (1986) discusses Tacitus' meeting with Ganna and what the Roman historian learnt of the mythological traditions of the early Germanic tribes, and of the Semnoni's ancestral relationships with the other tribes from Ing (<a href="/wiki/Yngvi" title="Yngvi">Yngvi</a>), Ist and Irmin (<a href="/wiki/Odin" title="Odin">Odin</a>), the sons of <a href="/wiki/Mannus" title="Mannus">Mannus</a>, the son of <a href="/wiki/Tuisto" title="Tuisto">Tuisto</a>. The Semnoni reenacted the "horrific origins" of their nation with a human sacrifice, with each victim representing Tuisto (the "twin") and being cut up to repeat the "acts of creation", which can be compared to how Odin and his brothers cut up the body of the primordial giant <a href="/wiki/Ymir" title="Ymir">Ymir</a> (the "twin"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Vries2000678-44">[44]</a>) to form the world in <a href="/wiki/Norse_mythology" title="Norse mythology">Norse mythology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELincoln198645–50-45">[45]</a> <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Simek" title="Rudolf Simek">Rudolf Simek</a> notes that Tacitus also learnt that the Semnoni performed their rites at a <a href="/wiki/Holy_grove" class="mw-redirect" title="Holy grove">holy grove</a> that was the cradle of the tribe's inception, and that could only be entered when they were fettered. The god who was worshiped was probably Odin, and being fettered may have been an imitation of <a href="/wiki/H%C3%A1vam%C3%A1l#Rúnatal" title="Hávamál">Odin's self-sacrifice</a>. This grove has for a long time been identified with the <a href="/wiki/Grove_of_Fetters" title="Grove of Fetters">Grove of Fetters</a>, where <a href="/wiki/Helgi_Hundingsbane" title="Helgi Hundingsbane">the hero</a> was sacrificed to Odin in the <a href="/wiki/Poetic_Edda" title="Poetic Edda">Eddic poem</a>, <a href="/wiki/Helgakvi%C3%B0a_Hundingsbana_II" title="Helgakviða Hundingsbana II">Helgakviða Hundingsbana II</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimek1996280-46">[46]</a> It is notable that Ganna is not referred to as a sibylla, but as a theiázousa in Greek, which means "someone making prophesies".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimek2020279-30">[30]</a> Her name Ganna is usually interpreted as Proto-Germanic Gan-no and compared with Old Norse gandr in the meaning "magical staff" (for the meanings of gan- and gandr, see the <a href="#Projection">section on magical Projection</a>); Ganna would mean the "one who carries the magical staff" or "she who controls the magical staff" or something similar. Her name is thus grouped with other seeresses with staff names, like Gambara ("wand-bearer") and Waluburg from walu-, "staff" (ON vǫlr), and the same word is found in the name of North Germanic seeresses, the vǫlur.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEnright1996186f-47">[47]</a> <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Simek" title="Rudolf Simek">Simek</a> analyses gandr as a "magic staff" and the "insignia of her calling", but in a later work he adds that it meant "magic object or being" and instead of referring to a wand as her tool or insignia, her name may instead have been a reference to her function among the Germanic tribes (like Veleda's name).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimek2020279-30">[30]</a> Sundqvist suggests that the name may have referred instead to her abilities,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESundqvist2020747-48">[48]</a> like de Vries who connects her name directly to the <a href="/wiki/Apophony#Indo-European_linguistics" title="Apophony">ablaut grade</a> ginn- ("magical ability"),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Vries1970321-49">[49]</a> also treated further down in the <a href="#Projection">section on magical Projection</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Waluburg">Waluburg</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Seeress_(Germanic)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Waluburg">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Waluburg" title="Waluburg">Waluburg</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nile_First_Cataract_R03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Nile_First_Cataract_R03.jpg/220px-Nile_First_Cataract_R03.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Nile_First_Cataract_R03.jpg/330px-Nile_First_Cataract_R03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Nile_First_Cataract_R03.jpg/440px-Nile_First_Cataract_R03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3842" data-file-height="2552" /></a><figcaption>The swirls of the First Cataract. Using them for prophesying may have been the reason why she was sent there.</figcaption></figure> Dating from the second century CE, an <a href="/wiki/Ostracon" title="Ostracon">ostracon</a> with a Greek inscription reading Waluburg. Se[m]noni Sibylla (Greek 'Waluburg, <a href="/wiki/Sibyl" title="Sibyl">sibyl</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Semnones" title="Semnones">Semnones</a>') was discovered in the early twentieth century on <a href="/wiki/Elephantine" title="Elephantine">Elephantine</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egyptian</a> island. The name occurs among a list of Roman and Graeco-Egyptian soldier names, perhaps indicating its use as a <a href="/wiki/Payroll" title="Payroll">payroll</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimek1996370f-50">[50]</a> The first element *Walu- is probably Proto-Germanic *waluz 'staff', which could be a reference to the seeresses' insignia, the magic staff, and which connects her name semantically to that of her fellow tribeswoman, the seeress <a href="/wiki/Ganna_(seeress)" title="Ganna (seeress)">Ganna</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimek2020280-29">[29]</a> who probably taught her <a href="/wiki/Sei%C3%B0r" title="Seiðr">the craft</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReinachJullian1920105f-51">[51]</a> and who had an audience with emperor <a href="/wiki/Domitian" title="Domitian">Domitian</a> in Rome.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimek2020279-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimek199699-31">[31]</a> In the same way, her name may also be connected to the name of another Germanic seeress, <a href="/wiki/Gambara_(seeress)" title="Gambara (seeress)">Gambara</a>, which can be interpreted as 'staff bearer' (*gand-bera<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESundqvist2020747-48">[48]</a> or *gand-bara<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEnright1996187-52">[52]</a>), see <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Projection">gandr</a>. The staffs are also reflected in the North Germanic word for seeress, vǫlva 'staff bearer'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorris199131f-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEnright1996186f-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice201972-37">[37]</a> In North Germanic accounts, the seeresses were always equipped with a staff, a vǫlr,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorris199132-54">[54]</a> from the same Proto-Germanic root *waluz.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrel2003445-55">[55]</a> Schubart proposes that she may have been a war prisoner accompanying a Roman soldier in his career that led to him being stationed in Egypt at the <a href="/wiki/Cataracts_of_the_Nile" title="Cataracts of the Nile">first cataract</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchubart19179f-56">[56]</a> <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Simek" title="Rudolf Simek">Simek</a> considers her to have been deported by the Roman authorities, and he writes that it is uncertain how she arrived at Elephantine, but it is not surprising considering the significant and obvious influence that the Germanic seeresses wielded politically.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimek2020279f-57">[57]</a> <a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandria" title="Clement of Alexandria">Clement of Alexandria</a> who lived in Egypt at the same time as Waluburg, and the earlier <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>, mentioned that the Germanic seeresses also could predict the future while studying the eddies, the whirling and the splashing of currents,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorris199132-54">[54]</a> and Schubart suggests that this is the reason why Waluburg found herself at the swirling waters of the First Cataract of the Nile.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchubart19179f-56">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Middle_Ages">Early Middle Ages</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Seeress_(Germanic)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Early Middle Ages">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gambara">Gambara</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Seeress_(Germanic)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Gambara">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gambara_(seeress)" title="Gambara (seeress)">Gambara (seeress)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Frigg_and_Odin_in_Gr%C3%ADmnism%C3%A1l_by_Fr%C3%B8lich.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Frigg_and_Odin_in_Gr%C3%ADmnism%C3%A1l_by_Fr%C3%B8lich.jpg/220px-Frigg_and_Odin_in_Gr%C3%ADmnism%C3%A1l_by_Fr%C3%B8lich.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Frigg_and_Odin_in_Gr%C3%ADmnism%C3%A1l_by_Fr%C3%B8lich.jpg/330px-Frigg_and_Odin_in_Gr%C3%ADmnism%C3%A1l_by_Fr%C3%B8lich.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Frigg_and_Odin_in_Gr%C3%ADmnism%C3%A1l_by_Fr%C3%B8lich.jpg/440px-Frigg_and_Odin_in_Gr%C3%ADmnism%C3%A1l_by_Fr%C3%B8lich.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1127" data-file-height="834" /></a><figcaption>Frigg and Odin wagering against each other upon Hliðskjálf in Grímnismál (1895) by <a href="/wiki/Lorenz_Fr%C3%B8lich" title="Lorenz Frølich">Lorenz Frølich</a>, in a parallel with how she tricked Odin at his window in the Lombard myth.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Origo_Gentis_Langobardorum" title="Origo Gentis Langobardorum">Origo Gentis Langobardorum</a> (Origin of the Lombard/Langobard people), a seventh-century Latin account, and the <a href="/wiki/Historia_Langobardorum" class="mw-redirect" title="Historia Langobardorum">Historia Langobardorum</a> (History of the Lombard/Langobards), from the 8th c., relate the legend that before, or after, the <a href="/wiki/Lombards" title="Lombards">Langobard people</a>, then known as the Winnili, emigrated from <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a>, led by the brothers Ibor and Agio, their neighbours, the Vandals, demanded that they pay tribute, but their mother Gambara advised them not to. Before the battle, the Vandals called on <a href="/wiki/Odin" title="Odin">Odin</a> (Godan<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJanson201816-58">[58]</a>) to give them victory, but Gambara invoked Odin's wife <a href="/wiki/Frigg" title="Frigg">Frigg</a> (Frea) instead.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamplonius201387-59">[59]</a> Frigg advised them to trick Odin, by having the Winnili women spread their hair in front of their faces so as to look bearded and stand before the window from which Odin looked down on Earth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamplonius201387f-60">[60]</a> Odin was embarrassed and asked who the "long-beards" (longobarbae<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJanson201816-58">[58]</a>) were, and thus naming them he became their godfather and had to grant them victory.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamplonius201388-61">[61]</a> Gambara is called phitonissa in Latin which means "priestess" or "sorceress", and in the <a href="/wiki/Historia_Langobardorum_codicis_Gothani" title="Historia Langobardorum codicis Gothani">Chronicum Gothanum</a>, she is also specifically called sibylla, i.e. "seeress".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamplonius201388-61">[61]</a> <a href="/wiki/Walter_Pohl" title="Walter Pohl">Pohl</a> comments that Gambara lived in a world and era where prophecy was important, and not being a virgin like Veleda, she combined the roles of priestess, wise woman, mother and queen.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2006149-62">[62]</a> Her name may mean "wand-bearer" (*gand-bera<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESundqvist2020747-48">[48]</a> or *gand-bara<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEnright1996187-52">[52]</a>) with the same meaning as Old Norse vǫlva,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamplonius201388-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEnright1996187-52">[52]</a> while the name of her son Ibor means "boar", the animal sacred to the Norse god Freyr, the god of fertility and the main god of the Vanir clan of the gods.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamplonius201388-61">[61]</a> <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Hauck_(Medi%C3%A4vist)" class="extiw" title="de:Karl Hauck (Mediävist)">Hauck</a> argues that the legend goes back to a time when the early Lombards primarily worshiped the mother goddess Freyja, as part of the Scandinavian <a href="/wiki/Vanir" title="Vanir">Vanir</a> worship,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJarnut1998-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHauck1955186–223-64">[64]</a> and he adds that a Lombard counterpart of <a href="/wiki/Gamla_Uppsala" title="Gamla Uppsala">Uppsala</a> has been discovered in <a href="/wiki/%C5%BDur%C3%A1%C5%88" title="Žuráň">Žuráň</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Brno" title="Brno">Brno</a> in the modern day <a href="/wiki/Czech_Republic" title="Czech Republic">Czech republic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHauck1955187-65">[65]</a> In Lombard, Odin and Frigg were called Godan and Frea, while they were called Uodan and Friia in Old High German and Woden and Frig in Old English.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcKinnell200513-66">[66]</a> The window from which Odin looked down on earth recalls the <a href="/wiki/Hli%C3%B0skj%C3%A1lf" class="mw-redirect" title="Hliðskjálf">Hliðskjálf</a> of Norse mythology,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamplonius201388-61">[61]</a> from where he could see everything,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHermann202061-67">[67]</a> and where Frigg also conspires against Odin in the poem <a href="/wiki/Gr%C3%ADmnism%C3%A1l" title="Grímnismál">Grímnismál</a>, in a parallel with the Lombard myth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrundy199665-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMazo2016243-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindow2001129,_176-70">[70]</a> Frigg's infidelity and connection with prophecy normally belong to Freyja, and her association with magic (seiðr), but there are many similarities between them,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindow2001129-71">[71]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frigg_and_Freyja_common_origin_hypothesis" title="Frigg and Freyja common origin hypothesis">Freyja and Frigg may originally have been the same goddess</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindow2001129-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrundy199665f-72">[72]</a> Scholars may identify Frea as Frigg/Freyja,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKovalev2012506-73">[73]</a> or simply as Freyja.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoulke197416-74">[74]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Haliurunas">Haliurunas</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Seeress_(Germanic)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Haliurunas">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Haliurunas" title="Haliurunas">Haliurunas</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png/220px-Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png/330px-Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png/440px-Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png 2x" data-file-width="1954" data-file-height="1382" /></a><figcaption>The banishment took when the Goths had settled north of the Black Sea.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Getica" title="Getica">Getica</a>, a 6th century work on the history of the Goths, reports that the early Goths had called their seeresses haliurunas (or haliurunnae, etc.) (Goth-Latin).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacLeodMees20065-2">[2]</a> They were in the words of Wolfram "women who engaged in magic with the world of the dead", and they were banished from their tribe by Filimer who was the last pre-<a href="/wiki/Amal_dynasty" title="Amal dynasty">Amal dynasty</a> king of the migrating Goths.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolfram200659-75">[75]</a> They found refuge in the wilderness where they were impregnated by unclean spirits from the Steppe, and engendered the Huns, which <a href="/wiki/Walter_Pohl" title="Walter Pohl">Pohl</a> compares with the origin of the <a href="/wiki/Sarmatians" title="Sarmatians">Sarmatians</a> as presented by <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohl2006142-76">[76]</a> The account serves as an explanation for the origins of the Huns.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHultgård2005-77">[77]</a> The account may be based on a historic event when Filimer banished his seeresses as scapegoats for a defeat when their prophesy had proved wrong,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEnright199665f-78">[78]</a> They may also have represented the conservative faction and resisted change. This change may have been the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Amal_dynasty" title="Amal dynasty">Amal clan</a> and their claims of ancestry from the anses (the <a href="/wiki/Aesir" class="mw-redirect" title="Aesir">Aesir</a> clan of gods). As in the case of the early Lombards, this would have taken place after a decisive victory that saved a tribe whose existence had been threatened by enemies. <a href="/wiki/Odin" title="Odin">Odin</a> was still a new god, and the Goths worshiped instead the "old" god <a href="/wiki/Gaut" title="Gaut">Gaut</a> who was made the Scandinavian great-grandfather of Amal, the founder of the new ruling clan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolfram200660-79">[79]</a> Wagner argues that the demonization of both the women and the Huns shows that the account was written in a Christian context.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner1999138-80">[80]</a> Morris (1991) comments that it was a precedent for future Christian tradition, where demonic women have intercourse with the Devil or with demons. In the Anglo-Saxon <a href="/wiki/Bald%27s_Leechbook" title="Bald's Leechbook">Leechbook</a> from the 10th century, there is a prescription for a salve against "women with whom the Devil has sexual intercourse," and in the 11th century, there appeared the idea that witches and heretics had sexual orgies during their meetings at night.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorris1991148f-81">[81]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="North_Germanic_corpus">North Germanic corpus</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Seeress_(Germanic)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: North Germanic corpus">edit</a>]</div> Few records of myths among the Germanic peoples survive to modern times. The North Germanic record is an exception, containing the vast majority of material that survives about the mythology of the Germanic peoples. These sources mention numerous seeresses among the North Germanic peoples, including the following: <table class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size: 90%; width: 100%"> <tbody><tr> <th>Seeress name (<a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a>) </th> <th>Attestations </th> <th class="unsortable">Notes </th></tr> <tr> <td>Heimlaug <a href="/wiki/V%C3%B6lva" class="mw-redirect" title="Völva">völva</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gull-%C3%9E%C3%B3ris_saga" title="Gull-Þóris saga">Gull-Þóris saga</a> </td> <td>In Gull-Þóris saga, Heimlaug assists the saga protagonist by way of prophecy. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Heiðr </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hr%C3%B3lfs_saga_kraka" title="Hrólfs saga kraka">Hrólfs saga kraka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Landn%C3%A1mab%C3%B3k" title="Landnámabók">Landnámabók</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C3%96rvar-Odds_saga" class="mw-redirect" title="Örvar-Odds saga">Örvar-Odds saga</a> </td> <td>Various seeresses by the name of Heiðr occur in the Old Norse corpus, including <a href="/wiki/Gullveig" title="Gullveig">Gullveig</a>, who scholars generally consider to be another name for the goddess <a href="/wiki/Freyja" title="Freyja">Freyja</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/%C3%9Eorbj%C3%B6rg_l%C3%ADtilv%C3%B6lva" class="mw-redirect" title="Þorbjörg lítilvölva">Þorbjörg lítilvölva</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Eir%C3%ADks_saga_rau%C3%B0a" class="mw-redirect" title="Eiríks saga rauða">Eiríks saga rauða</a> </td> <td>In Eiríks saga rauða, Þorbjörg lítilvölva travels to Scandinavian farms in Greenland and predicts the future. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Þordís spákona </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Vatnsd%C3%A6la_saga" title="Vatnsdæla saga">Vatnsdæla saga</a>, <a href="/wiki/Korm%C3%A1ks_saga" title="Kormáks saga">Kormáks saga</a> </td> <td>Tenth century Icelandic seeress and regional leader<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Þoríðr spákona </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Landn%C3%A1mab%C3%B3k" title="Landnámabók">Landnámabók</a> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Þuríðr sundafyllir </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Landn%C3%A1mab%C3%B3k" title="Landnámabók">Landnámabók</a> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Unnamed seeresses </td> <td><a href="/wiki/V%C3%B6lusp%C3%A1" title="Völuspá">Völuspá</a>, <a href="/wiki/V%C3%B6lusp%C3%A1_hin_skamma" title="Völuspá hin skamma">Völuspá hin skamma</a> </td> <td>Unnamed seeresses occur in various contexts in the Old Norse corpus. For example, as its name implies, the poem <a href="/wiki/V%C3%B6lusp%C3%A1" title="Völuspá">Völuspá</a> ('the foretelling of the seeress') consists of an undead seeress reciting information about the past and future to the god <a href="/wiki/Odin" title="Odin">Odin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamplonius2001185-83">[83]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <a href="/wiki/Eir%C3%ADks_saga_rau%C3%B0a" class="mw-redirect" title="Eiríks saga rauða">Eiríks saga rauða</a> provides a particularly detailed account of the appearance and activities of a seeress. For example, regarding the seeress <a href="/wiki/%C3%9Eorbj%C3%B6rg_L%C3%ADtilv%C3%B6lva" title="Þorbjörg Lítilvölva">Þorbjörg Lítilvölva</a>: <blockquote> A high seat was set for her, complete with a cushion. This was to be stuffed with chicken feathers. When she arrived one evening, along with the man who had been sent to fetch her, she was wearing a black mantle with a strap, which was adorned with precious stones right down to the hem. About her neck she wore a string of glass beads and on her head a hood of black lambskin lined with white catskin. She bore a staff with a knob at the top, adorned with brass set with stones on top. About her waist she had a linked charm belt with a large purse. In it she kept the charms which she needed for her predictions. She wore calfskin boots lined with fur, with long, sturdy laces and large pewter knobs on the ends. On her hands she wore gloves of catskin, white and lined with fur. When she entered, everyone was supposed to offer her respectful greetings, and she responded by according to how the person appealed to her. Farmer Thorkel took the wise woman by the hand and led her to the seat which had been prepared for her. He then asked her to survey his flock, servants and buildings. She had little to say about all of it. That evening tables were set up and food prepared for the seeress. A porridge of kid's milk was made for her and as meat she was given the hearts of all the animals available there. She had a spoon of brass and a knife with an ivory shaft, its two halves clasped with bronze bands, and the point of which had broken off.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKunz2000653–674-84">[84]</a> </blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Olga_of_Kiev">Olga of Kiev</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Seeress_(Germanic)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Olga of Kiev">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Olga_of_Kiev" title="Olga of Kiev">Olga of Kiev</a></div> There are indications that <a href="/wiki/Olga_of_Kiev" title="Olga of Kiev">Olga of Kiev</a> may have served as a Völva, and as a "priestess of Freyja", before converting to Christianity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKovalev2012506-73">[73]</a> In the Primary Chronicle, she is described by the noblemen as the "wisest of all women", where wise has several meanings and her reputation as being wise goes back to her pre-conversion years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKovalev2012503f-85">[85]</a> Her wisdom is also reported by <a href="/wiki/%C3%93l%C3%A1fs_saga_Tryggvasonar#Oddr_Snorrason" title="Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar">Óláfs saga Tryggvassonar</a>, where she is called Allogia and mistaken for <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_the_Great" title="Vladimir the Great">Vladimir the Great</a>'s old mother, although she was his grand-mother. There she is described as "very wise" and her main function at the court was as a prophetess, one whose predictions also came true. When the king of <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a> celebrated <a href="/wiki/Yule" title="Yule">Yule</a>, he asked her to predict the future and to do so she was carried to him on a chair which recalls the elevated platforms of the seeresses. Although he may not have transmitted a historical event, <a href="/wiki/Oddr_Snorrason" title="Oddr Snorrason">Oddr Snorrason</a>, who wrote the saga in the 12th c., clearly identified Olga as a völva.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKovalev2012504f-86">[86]</a> Olga is strongly associated with birds in the sources,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKovalev2012508f-87">[87]</a> which also was true of the goddess Freyja, the goddess of magic (seiðr).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKovalev2012510f-88">[88]</a> The goddess was popular among Scandinavian women in general, and especially among aristocratic women who profited from corollary authority and power. Older scholarship believed that the aristocratic Norse women passively waited at home for their husbands, but the modern view is that they actively took part in warfare from home with seiðr, a magic reflected in the Norse poem <a href="/wiki/Darra%C3%B0arlj%C3%B3%C3%B0" title="Darraðarljóð">Darraðarljóð</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Harrisonsvensson-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKovalev2012506-73">[73]</a> Consequently, Olga may have been regarded as a high priestess of Freyja, a status which would not only have appealed to her Scandinavian kinsmen but also to her Slavic subjects who would have identified Freyja with the Slavic goddess <a href="/wiki/Mokosh" title="Mokosh">Mokosh</a>, who was represented as the only goddess among the six raised idols in Kiev.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKovalev2012510f,_513-90">[90]</a> In 2008, a Scandinavian <a href="/wiki/Chamber_tomb" title="Chamber tomb">chamber grave</a> called N°6 was excavated in <a href="/wiki/Pskov" title="Pskov">Pskov</a>, where Olga was born. It was a <a href="/wiki/Syncretism" title="Syncretism">syncretic</a> grave containing elements from <a href="/wiki/Norse_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Norse religion">Norse paganism</a> and from <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Christianity</a>; it has been dated to c. 960. It contained an object called a jartegn, a token given to officials by Scandinavian kings and Rus' rulers, indicating that the buried man had political influence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKovalev2012461f-91">[91]</a> On the <a href="/wiki/Obverse_and_reverse" title="Obverse and reverse">front</a> side it has a <a href="/wiki/Bident" title="Bident">bident</a>, which later evolved into a trident and was a symbol of the <a href="/wiki/Rurik_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Rurik dynasty">Rurik dynasty</a>. Above the bident there is a key, and keys were a symbol of the Scandinavian mistress, as Scandinavian women carried the keys of the homestead; Kovalev (2012) argues that the key was also a symbol of Freyja.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKovalev2012478ff-92">[92]</a> According to Kovalev, during her regency, before <a href="/wiki/Sviatoslav_I" title="Sviatoslav I">Sviatoslav I</a> came of age, Olga may have chosen to add the key to the seal of the ruler of Kievan Rus', the key being a symbol whose significance would have been understood all over northern Europe, not only as the symbol of a woman who has authority, but also as a symbol of guardianship.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKovalev2012483-93">[93]</a> On the reverse side the jartegn has the image of a falcon, a bird not only associated with the Swedish and Rus' elite of the Viking Age, but also especially associated with the goddesses Freyja and <a href="/wiki/Frigg" title="Frigg">Frigg</a>, who can transform themselves into falcons.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKovalev2012489–491ff-94">[94]</a>). The falcon also appears to wear a cloak of the type worn by Scandinavian women.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKovalev2012467-95">[95]</a> There is a cross above the falcon; coins bearing the falcon and the cross are dated to Olga's time in the 950s and the 960s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKovalev2012469-96">[96]</a> Images of women with a bird's head have also been found on the Norwegian 9th c. <a href="/wiki/Oseberg_tapestry_fragments" title="Oseberg tapestry fragments">Oseberg tapestry fragments</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice2019280-97">[97]</a> and the women have been identified as priestesses of Freyja wearing bird masks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENäsström2009181-98">[98]</a> Several scholars consider the woman who was buried with the tapestry to have been a völva.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice2019115ff-99">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Archaeological_Record">Archaeological Record</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Seeress_(Germanic)&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Archaeological Record">edit</a>]</div> The archaeological record for Viking Age society features a variety of graves that are identified as those of North Germanic seeresses. A notable example occurs at <a href="/wiki/Fyrkat" title="Fyrkat">Fyrkat</a>, in the northern <a href="/wiki/Jutland" title="Jutland">Jutland</a> region of <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a>. Fyrkat is the site of a former <a href="/wiki/Viking_ring_fortress" title="Viking ring fortress">Viking Age ring fortress</a>; the cemetery section of the site contains, among about 30 others, the grave of a woman buried within a horse-drawn carriage and wearing a red and blue dress embroidered with gold thread, all signs of high status. While the grave contains items commonly found in female Viking Age graves such as scissors and spindle whorls, it also contains a variety of other rare and exotic items. For example, the woman wore silver toe rings (otherwise unknown in the Scandinavian record) and her burial contained two bronze bowls originating from Central Asia.<a href="#cite_note-NATIONAL-MUSEUM-OF-DENMARK-FYRKAT-100">[100]</a> The grave also contained a small purse with seeds from <a href="/wiki/Henbane" class="mw-redirect" title="Henbane">henbane</a>, a poisonous plant, inside it, and a partially disintegrated metal wand, used by seeresses in the Old Norse record. According to the <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Denmark" title="National Museum of Denmark">National Museum of Denmark</a>: <blockquote> <dl><dd>If these seeds are thrown onto a fire, a mildly hallucinogenic smoke is produced. Taken in the right quantities, they can produce hallucinations and euphoric states. Henbane was often used by the witches of later periods. It could be used as a "witch's salve" to produce a psychedelic effect, if the magic practitioners rubbed it into their skin. Did the woman from Fyrkat do this? In her belt buckle was white lead, which was sometimes used as an ingredient in skin ointment.<a href="#cite_note-NATIONAL-MUSEUM-OF-DENMARK-FYRKAT-100">[100]</a></dd></dl> </blockquote> Henbane's aphrodisiac properties may have also been relevant to its use by the seeress.<a href="#cite_note-NATIONAL-MUSEUM-OF-DENMARK-SEERESS-GRAVES-101">[101]</a> At the feet of the corpse was a small box, called a box brooch and originating from the Swedish island of <a href="/wiki/Gotland" title="Gotland">Gotland</a>, which contained <a href="/wiki/Owl" title="Owl">owl</a> <a href="/wiki/Pellet_(ornithology)" title="Pellet (ornithology)">pellets</a> and bird bones. The grave also contained amulets shaped like a chair, potentially a reflection of the long-standing association of seeresses and chairs (as described in Strabo's Geographica from the first century CE, discussed above).<a href="#cite_note-NATIONAL-MUSEUM-OF-DENMARK-FYRKAT-100">[100]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Finds_from_a_priestess%27_grave.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Finds_from_a_priestess%27_grave.jpg/220px-Finds_from_a_priestess%27_grave.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Finds_from_a_priestess%27_grave.jpg/330px-Finds_from_a_priestess%27_grave.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Finds_from_a_priestess%27_grave.jpg/440px-Finds_from_a_priestess%27_grave.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1932" data-file-height="1243" /></a><figcaption>Items discovered in the Öland gravesite</figcaption></figure> A <a href="/wiki/Ship_setting" class="mw-redirect" title="Ship setting">ship setting</a> grave in <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6pingsvik" title="Köpingsvik">Köpingsvik</a>, a location on the Swedish island of <a href="/wiki/%C3%96land" title="Öland">Öland</a>, also appears to have contained a seeress. The woman was buried wrapped in <a href="/wiki/Bear" title="Bear">bear</a> fur with a variety of notable grave goods: the grave contained a bronze-ornamented staff with a small house atop it, a jug made in Central Asia, and a bronze cauldron <a href="/wiki/Metalsmith" title="Metalsmith">smithed</a> in Western Europe. The grave contained animals and humans, perhaps sacrificed.<a href="#cite_note-NATIONAL-MUSEUM-OF-DENMARK-SEERESS-GRAVES-101">[101]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Oseberg_ship_burial" class="mw-redirect" title="Oseberg ship burial">Oseberg ship burial</a> also may have contained a seeress. The ship contained the remains of two people, one a woman of elevated status and the other possibly a <a href="/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">slave</a>. Along with a variety of other objects, the grave contained a purse containing <a href="/wiki/Cannabis" title="Cannabis">cannabis</a> seeds and a wooden wand.<a href="#cite_note-NATIONAL-MUSEUM-OF-DENMARK-SEERESS-GRAVES-101">[101]</a> Another notable grave containing what has been identified as the remains of a seeress was excavated by archaeologists in <a href="/wiki/Hagebyh%C3%B6ga" class="mw-redirect" title="Hagebyhöga">Hagebyhöga</a> in <a href="/wiki/%C3%96sterg%C3%B6tland" title="Östergötland">Östergötland</a>, Sweden. The grave contained female human remains interred with an iron wand or staff, a carriage, horses, and Arabic bronze jugs. The grave also contained a small silver figurine of a woman with a large necklace, which has been interpreted by archaeologists as representing the goddess <a href="/wiki/Freyja" title="Freyja">Freyja</a>, a deity strongly associated with seiðr, death, and sex.<a href="#cite_note-NATIONAL-MUSEUM-OF-DENMARK-SEERESS-GRAVES-101">[101]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Activities">Activities</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Seeress_(Germanic)&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Activities">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Sei%C3%B0r" title="Seiðr">Seiðr</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">Shamanism</a></div> In Scandinavian sources, seeresses work as diviners using a practice called <a href="/wiki/Sei%C3%B0r" title="Seiðr">seiðr</a> on a ritual platform called seiðhjallr (see below), which is associated with <a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">shamanism</a>. They also take part in other activities, but they do not appear to perform sacrifices. They are described as ritual specialists travelling from settlement to settlement, sometimes with a group of followers, and late sources tell that they received payment for their services.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESundqvist2020774-102">[102]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chanting">Chanting</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Seeress_(Germanic)&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Chanting">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Galdr" title="Galdr">Galdr</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chant#Chant_as_a_spiritual_practice" title="Chant">Chant § Chant as a spiritual practice</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Groa%27s_Incantation.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Groa%27s_Incantation.jpg/300px-Groa%27s_Incantation.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Groa%27s_Incantation.jpg/450px-Groa%27s_Incantation.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Groa%27s_Incantation.jpg/600px-Groa%27s_Incantation.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1764" data-file-height="1304" /></a><figcaption>Groa chanting protective spells, illustration by <a href="/wiki/W._G._Collingwood" title="W. G. Collingwood">W. G. Collingwood</a></figcaption></figure> In the Roman era, the Germanic word for chanting was similar to the reconstructed Proto-Germanic form *ʒalđran, which later evolved into Old Norse galdr ("song, charm; witchcraft, sorcery"), OHG galtar ("incantation, charm") and Old English ʒealdor with the same meaning,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrel2003124-103">[103]</a> also rendered as galdor ("sound, song, incantation, spell, enchantment").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitchell2020655-104">[104]</a> It is derived from *ʒalanan, which became ON gala ("to crow, sing"), OHG galan ("to incantate") and OE ʒalan ("to sing").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrel2003123f-105">[105]</a> It is related to the English <a href="/wiki/Common_nightingale" title="Common nightingale">nightingale</a> and yell, to Latin gallus ("cock") and it appears in ON gylfra ("witch").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitchell2020655-104">[104]</a> The many uses of chanting are revealed in the words that are derived from galdr, such as galdrabók ("book of magic"), galdrasmiðja ("objects used for magic"), galdravél ("a magic device"), galdrahríð ("magic storm"), galdrastafir ("magical characters") and valgaldr (a kind of Odinic necromancy).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitchell2020655f-106">[106]</a> The modern Swedish word galen ("crazy", literally "having been chanted") is derived from the word for this practice.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitchell2020657-107">[107]</a> Other names for the songs are varðlok(k)ur and seiðlæti, where the latter simply means "seiðr songs". The former term is more complex, and scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Richard_Cleasby" title="Richard Cleasby">Cleasby</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gu%C3%B0brandur_Vigf%C3%BAsson" title="Guðbrandur Vigfússon">Vigfússon</a>, Tolley, <a href="/wiki/Dag_Str%C3%B6mb%C3%A4ck" title="Dag Strömbäck">Strömbäck</a> and Price have derived it from vǫrðr ("guard, protector").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrömbäck2000124f-108">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECleasbyVigfússon1874679f-109">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETolley199561-110">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice2019170-111">[111]</a> Several scholars have also compared it to the Scotting dialect word <a href="/wiki/Warlock" title="Warlock">warlock</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice2019170-111">[111]</a> and scholars such as Cleasby, Vigfússon and Strömbäck consider it to be the origin of the Scottish word.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrömbäck2000125-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECleasbyVigfússon1874679f-109">[109]</a> Katherine Morris translates the word as "warlock-song".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorris199143-113">[113]</a> In Eiríks saga rauða, the songs are said to be sung or spoken by the seeresses' followers, but at the same time there is only one woman who knows them and sings them. Price argues that since the name appears with two spellings (depending on the manuscript), it is possible to interpret the name in two ways, either by referring to loka ("fastening") or lokka ("lure"). He interprets the spelling varðlokkur as meaning "to lure the spirits", and varðlokur as meaning "locking the spirits under the seeress' power". In this way the term can be simultaneously interpreted as attracting the spirits and locking them under the summoner's power, and probably also securing them as protection against hostile entities. In the poem <a href="/wiki/Gr%C3%B3galdr" title="Grógaldr">Grógaldr</a>, urðarlokkur, the <a href="/wiki/Norns" title="Norns">norn</a> of fate <a href="/wiki/Ur%C3%B0r" title="Urðr">Urðr</a>'s lokkur, are said to protect a person on all sides, and they are also likely bound to that individual.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice2019170-111">[111]</a> Tolley points out that the form urðarlok(k)ur for these protective spells is probably a <a href="/wiki/Folk_etymology" title="Folk etymology">reinterperation</a> of an older vǫrðlokur ("ward spells"), or more likely another possible form with the same meaning, varðarlokur ("spells of warding").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETolley199561,_note_10-114">[114]</a> The chants appear to have been sung with a high pitch, and they are reported to have been pleasing to the ear. In the <a href="/wiki/Laxd%C3%A6la_saga" title="Laxdæla saga">Laxdœla saga</a>, the sweetness of a chant (seiðlæti) lures a boy to his death, as intended, and a pleasing sound would also have been understood as attracting spirits to the summoner. Price suggests that the nearest equivalent to these high pitched and pleasing chants are the <a href="/wiki/Kulning" title="Kulning">traditional Swedish herding calls</a> (lockrop in modern Swedish, which still contains the linguistic element lokk-).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice2019170-111">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Summoning">Summoning</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Seeress_(Germanic)&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Summoning">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rune_stone_dr_284_of_the_hunnestad_monument_in_lund_sweden_2008_(cropped).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Rune_stone_dr_284_of_the_hunnestad_monument_in_lund_sweden_2008_%28cropped%29.JPG/220px-Rune_stone_dr_284_of_the_hunnestad_monument_in_lund_sweden_2008_%28cropped%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="308" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Rune_stone_dr_284_of_the_hunnestad_monument_in_lund_sweden_2008_%28cropped%29.JPG/330px-Rune_stone_dr_284_of_the_hunnestad_monument_in_lund_sweden_2008_%28cropped%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Rune_stone_dr_284_of_the_hunnestad_monument_in_lund_sweden_2008_%28cropped%29.JPG/440px-Rune_stone_dr_284_of_the_hunnestad_monument_in_lund_sweden_2008_%28cropped%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1482" data-file-height="2074" /></a><figcaption>Both the sorcerer and supernatural creatures could ride spirits, gandir, in the form of animals, such as the wolf.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Schleswig_Cathedral_fresco_of_woman_on_besom.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Schleswig_Cathedral_fresco_of_woman_on_besom.jpg/220px-Schleswig_Cathedral_fresco_of_woman_on_besom.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Schleswig_Cathedral_fresco_of_woman_on_besom.jpg/330px-Schleswig_Cathedral_fresco_of_woman_on_besom.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Schleswig_Cathedral_fresco_of_woman_on_besom.jpg/440px-Schleswig_Cathedral_fresco_of_woman_on_besom.jpg 2x" data-file-width="462" data-file-height="393" /></a><figcaption>An illustration of one of the meanings of gandreið, a painting in the <a href="/wiki/Schleswig_Cathedral" title="Schleswig Cathedral">Schleswig Cathedral</a>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Astral_projection" title="Astral projection">Astral projection</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clairvoyance" title="Clairvoyance">Clairvoyance</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Flying_ointment#Body_in_coma_and_riding_on_beasts" title="Flying ointment">Flying ointment § Body in coma and riding on beasts</a></div> While the varðlok(k)ur (mentioned above) attracted protective spirits that provided information to the enchantress, there were animal spirits that were sent out to collect information for her, and to perform other tasks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETolley199572-115">[115]</a> Consequently, the task of the sorceress was to control spirits,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcKinnell200597-116">[116]</a> and the name that appears to have been used for these spirits and for several other aspects in sorcery is gandr (pl. gandir); the relationship between the extended meanings of gandr is complex and a matter of discussion among scholars.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice2019133-117">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrömbäck2000221-118">[118]</a> The original meaning appears to be "something which is connected with the soul of the magician and can be sent out from him or her in sleep or <a href="/wiki/Ecstasy_(emotion)" title="Ecstasy (emotion)">ecstasy</a>".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrömbäck2000221-118">[118]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Jan_de_Vries_(philologist)" title="Jan de Vries (philologist)">de Vries</a>, the origin of gandr is a word gan- meaning "magic", of which there was an <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut#Ablaut_and_vowel_gradation" title="Indo-European ablaut">ablaut grade</a> gin- (in English there is still a semantic relationship between the ablaut grades swam and swim, and sat and sit) that may be found in the name of the primordial chasm <a href="/wiki/Ginnungagap" title="Ginnungagap">Ginnungagap</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETolley199567-119">[119]</a> ("space filled with magic powers"),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindow2001141-120">[120]</a> and on the migration age <a href="/wiki/Bj%C3%B6rketorp_Runestone" title="Björketorp Runestone">Björketorp</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stentoften_Runestone" title="Stentoften Runestone">Stentoften runestones</a>, it appears in the sense "magically powerful" in <a href="/wiki/Proto-Norse_language" title="Proto-Norse language">Proto-Norse</a> ginnarunaʀ ("powerful runes").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJansson198724-121">[121]</a> It was also used as an intensifier in the compounds ginnregin ("great powers", i.e. the gods) and ginnheilagr ("extremely holy").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindow2001141-120">[120]</a> As a noun it meant "falsehood" and "deception",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindow2001141-120">[120]</a> while the verb ginna meant "to dupe or to fool someone".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECleasbyVigfússon1874200-122">[122]</a> The gan- ablaut grade was combined with the suffix -đra-, the same as in galdr, from gala, "chant" (see <a href="#Chanting">section on Chanting, above</a>). Tolley argues that the original meaning cannot have included "staff", but rather that it would have meant "sorcerer spirit" from which would have been derived the additional meanings "wand", "wolf" and "serpent" (<a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6rmungandr" title="Jörmungandr">Jörmungandr</a>). The "sorcerer's spirit" (gandr) could be summoned or sent out to gather information; this spirit is in animal form, but possibly not always.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETolley199567-119">[119]</a> The extension to the meanings "wolf" and "serpent" is due to the fact that spirits had animal form, and the term gandreið originally meant the ride of a sorcerer on a spirit in animal form such as that of a wolf. Supernatural creatures could also use wolves as steeds; later the term came to refer to the sorcerer riding on a staff.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETolley199567f-123">[123]</a> In Old Norse sources, the noun gandreið and the verb renna gand (or renna gǫndum) can refer to going out to gather information in a <a href="/wiki/Astral_body" title="Astral body">non-corporeal sense</a>, but it can also refer to magically flying on a staff in a physical sense.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitchell2011132-124">[124]</a> Price disagrees with Tolley's argument that "staff" was not part of the original meaning of gandr and suggests that the staff/wand (gandr or gǫndull) was part of the ritual of summoning and releasing the gandir ("spirits") for the purpose of clairvoyance or prophesy, and sometimes in order to harm people. The use of the staff may have implied <a href="/wiki/Sex_magic" title="Sex magic">sexual magic</a> and sexual acts while it was used, and the staff was possibly also ridden in order to hurt enemies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice2019136-125">[125]</a> Some examples of aggressive projection are also preserved in <a href="/wiki/Old_English_literature" title="Old English literature">Old English poems</a>, such as the "<a href="/wiki/Nine_Herbs_Charm" title="Nine Herbs Charm">Nine Herbs Charm</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Against_a_Dwarf" class="mw-redirect" title="Against a Dwarf">Against a Dwarf</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/Wi%C3%B0_f%C3%A6rstice" title="Wið færstice">Wið færstice</a>". Especially the last poem contains many Germanic pagan elements that are also found in Old Norse sources, such as sorceresses (hægtessan), <a href="/wiki/Elf" title="Elf">elves</a> (ylfa), <a href="/wiki/%C3%86sir" title="Æsir">Æsir</a> gods (esa), the magic of smiths, and the presence of women that are like Valkyries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice2019293f-126">[126]</a> During the eighth decade of the first century, the <a href="/wiki/Semnones" title="Semnones">Semnonian</a> seeress Ganna succeeded the <a href="/wiki/Bructeri" title="Bructeri">Bructerian</a> seeress Veleda as the leader of an alliance of Germanic tribes when the latter had been captured and deported by the Romans. Her name "Ganna" is usually linked to the ON word gandr – <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Simek" title="Rudolf Simek">Simek</a> comments that instead of being a reference to a wand as her tool or insignia, her name may be a reference to her function among the Germanic tribes (like Veleda's name).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimek2020279-30">[30]</a> Sundqvist also comments that the name may have referred instead to her abilities,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESundqvist2020747-48">[48]</a> like de Vries who connects her name directly to the grade gin(n)- (see above).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Vries1970321-49">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prophesying">Prophesying</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Seeress_(Germanic)&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Prophesying">edit</a>]</div> There are two ways in which the seeress conveys the acquired information to the audience. One of them is by having a seizure during the trance and gasping for air with a wide open mouth (Hrólfs saga kraka and Hauks þáttr hábrókar). She delivers her prophesy during the trance, and it may be said that a song appears from elsewhere in her mouth (Ǫrvar-Odds saga and Hrólfs saga kraka).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcKinnell200597f-127">[127]</a> In Hrólfs saga kraka, it is in the beginning of the trance that she breathes in, and Tolley considers that this may represent a breathing in of spirits rather than her letting out her soul.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETolley199558-128">[128]</a> Price comments that as far as textual criticism is concerned, this detail can not have been borrowed from those of the neighbouring Fenno-Ugric peoples, because the closest practitioners are the <a href="/wiki/Yukaghir_people" title="Yukaghir people">Yukaghir people</a> on the other side of Eurasia, whose practices were inaccessible for the saga writers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice2019172-129">[129]</a> The other situation occurs when the seeress has returned from her trance and tells about it while awake (Eiríks saga rauða and Vatnsdœla saga).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcKinnell200597f-127">[127]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Attributes">Attributes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Seeress_(Germanic)&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Attributes">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wands">Wands</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Seeress_(Germanic)&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Wands">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Platforms">Platforms</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Seeress_(Germanic)&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Platforms">edit</a>]</div> There appears to be a continuity between elements such as the first century <a href="/wiki/Bructeri" title="Bructeri">Bructerian</a> seeress Veleda's tower and the seiðhjallr that played an important role in Scandinavian sources.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimek1996279-130">[130]</a> The word seiðhjallr means "incantation scaffold", for performing magic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitchell2020655-104">[104]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hallucinogens">Hallucinogens</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Seeress_(Germanic)&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Hallucinogens">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/European_witchcraft#Hallucinogens_and_witchcraft" title="European witchcraft">European witchcraft § Hallucinogens and witchcraft</a></div> The notion of ecstatic experience induced or complemented by the use of intoxicants in the context of Nordic pagan religion is not new, and there have been several attempts to reconstruct such practices. Little evidence to confirm the Viking Age ingestion of hallucinogens such as psilocybin mushrooms or other entheogens has been found, with the exception of two archaeological finds:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice2019168–169-131">[131]</a> Several hundred seeds of henbane were found in grave 4 at Fyrkat. Their presence in the grave is likely significant, and the herb's <a href="/wiki/Deliriant" title="Deliriant">deliriant</a> properties suggest aspects of the rituals that might have been performed with it. There are many medieval accounts describing henbane's use as an ingredient in witches' ointments, used when a sorceress wished to change physical form. Henbane contains the psychoactive drug <a href="/wiki/Scopolamine" title="Scopolamine">scopolamine</a>, and when consumed as a tea, or when its juice is made into a topical salve and rubbed into the skin, especially around the armpits and chest, hallucinations can be experienced. A strong sensation of flight is often felt, which remains vivid for several hours.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice2019168–169-131">[131]</a> Bilsenkraut, the German name of henbane, is derived from the Indo-European bhelena; according to some sources, it originally meant "plant of madness". The proto-Germanic bil seems to have meant "vision, hallucination" or "magical power."<a href="#cite_note-Metzner2001-132">[132]</a> Four seeds of the mind-altering plant <a href="/wiki/Cannabis_sativa" title="Cannabis sativa">cannabis sativa</a> were found in the Oseberg ship burial, among the piles of pillows thrown into the prow of the ship when the grave was robbed. A single seed of cannabis was also found embedded in a clump of decayed leather, bound by a thin woollen cord, apparently the remains of a small leather pouch with a draw-string; it is possible that all the seeds were originally contained in this bag. The pouch was too small to hold enough seeds for planting, suggesting that they might have had symbolic significance,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice2019168–169-131">[131]</a> and could have been connected with the higher status woman's religious functions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClarkeMerlin2016259–260-133">[133]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cats">Cats</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Seeress_(Germanic)&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Cats">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oseberg_Wagon_detail_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Oseberg_Wagon_detail_2.jpg/220px-Oseberg_Wagon_detail_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Oseberg_Wagon_detail_2.jpg/330px-Oseberg_Wagon_detail_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Oseberg_Wagon_detail_2.jpg/440px-Oseberg_Wagon_detail_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1793" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>The Oseberg wagon was decorated with nine cats.</figcaption></figure> All over the world cats are often linked to magical practices, and the goddess Freyja, who was the first divinity reported to have practiced magic, was associated with cats.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchjødt2020790,_note_8-134">[134]</a> Cats and catskins appear to have been important symbols for the seeresses. In <a href="/wiki/Eir%C3%ADks_saga_rau%C3%B0a" class="mw-redirect" title="Eiríks saga rauða">Eiríks saga rauða</a>, the account of <a href="/wiki/%C3%9Eorbj%C3%B6rg_l%C3%ADtilv%C3%B6lva" class="mw-redirect" title="Þorbjörg lítilvölva">Þorbjörg lítilvölva</a> tells that her ritual dress had a black lambskin hood that was lined with white catskin and on her hands she wore catskin gloves.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchjødt2020788-135">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESundqvist2020774f,_778f-136">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice201941,_127-137">[137]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hilda_Ellis_Davidson" title="Hilda Ellis Davidson">Ellis Davidson</a> argues that the catskin represents the seeresses' helping animal spirits (see the section on <a href="#Projection">magical projection, above</a>),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis_Davidson1964120-138">[138]</a> and Price connects these cat spirits with the cats that pull Freyja's wagon.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice201969-139">[139]</a> The most opulent female grave from the Viking Age is the extremely rich Oseberg ship burial from the first half of the 9th c. that contained two women. Although previously considered to be the grave of a queen, several scholars, such as <a href="/wiki/Anne_Stine_Ingstad" title="Anne Stine Ingstad">Stine Ingstad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neil_Price_(archaeologist)" title="Neil Price (archaeologist)">Neil Price</a> and Leszek Gardeła note that the finds indicate that it was instead the grave of a seeress. In addition to a staff and cannabis it contained a chest with catskins,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESundqvist2020778-140">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice2019115ff-99">[99]</a> and a wagon that had one end decorated with nine cats (<a href="/wiki/Numbers_in_Norse_mythology#nine" class="mw-redirect" title="Numbers in Norse mythology">a significant number</a>), animals sacred to Freyja ,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice2019115-141">[141]</a> which suggests that it was a reference to the goddess whose wagon is pulled by cats, according to <a href="/wiki/Gylfaginning" title="Gylfaginning">Gylfaginning</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sk%C3%A1ldskaparm%C3%A1l" title="Skáldskaparmál">Skáldskaparmál</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEÁsdísardóttir20201278f,_1283,_1287,_1294-142">[142]</a> About 50 graves from <a href="/wiki/Medelpad" title="Medelpad">Medelpad</a>, the <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A4laren_Valley" title="Mälaren Valley">Mälaren Valley</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gotland" title="Gotland">Gotland</a>, most of which are identified as the graves of wealthy women, contain <a href="/wiki/Eurasian_lynx" title="Eurasian lynx">lynx skins</a>; it has been argued that these powerful women had a special connection with the goddess Freyja.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEÁsdísardóttir20201294f-143">[143]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Christianity">Christianity</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Seeress_(Germanic)&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Christianity">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_magic#Medieval_views" title="Christian views on magic">Christian views on magic § Medieval views</a>, and <a href="/wiki/European_witchcraft#Christianization_and_Early_Middle_Ages" title="European witchcraft">European witchcraft § Christianization and Early Middle Ages</a></div> The seeresses rarely appear in the earliest Scandinavian written sources, such as runestones and skaldic poetry, and they do not appear in place names which suggests a marginal position in society; older research has cast them in a negative light.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESundqvist2020777-144">[144]</a> <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Simek" title="Rudolf Simek">Simek</a> comments that all our sources on Germanic seeresses have passed through the filter of Roman and Christian interpretations. The Romans interpreted them as similar to their <a href="/wiki/Augur" title="Augur">augurs</a>, while the Christian writers considered them to be "more or less witches".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimek1996279-130">[130]</a> In sources from the Christian era, their rituals are described as suspicious and sometimes evil. This attitude can even be seen in some Eddic lays, and in the <a href="/wiki/Ynglinga_saga" title="Ynglinga saga">Ynglinga saga</a>, <a href="/wiki/Snorri_Sturluson" title="Snorri Sturluson">Snorri Sturluson</a> writes that their practice was so evil that "manly men considered it too shameful to practise it, and so it was taught to priestesses".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESundqvist2020775f-145">[145]</a> It is possible that the Christian scribes wanted to minimize and deprecate them and their rites and turn them into an oddity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESundqvist2020777-144">[144]</a> <a href="/wiki/Neil_Price_(archaeologist)" title="Neil Price (archaeologist)">Price</a> comments that the associations with Freyja and the Vanir gods lingered for a long time in Christian medieval Scandinavia, but the Viking Age views were replaced by negative views influenced by Christian attitudes towards female sexuality as something dangerous that had to be contained. This was related to the same fears that later led to <a href="/wiki/Witch-hunt" class="mw-redirect" title="Witch-hunt">witchcraft hysteria</a>, manifested as what Ellis Davidson referred to as "the sinister light which played round [Freyja's] cult for the story-tellers of a Christian age".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis_Davidson1964123-146">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice201969-139">[139]</a> Modern archaeological finds, however, do not confirm that the North Germanic seeresses had a marginal position at the bottom of society as depicted by older scholarship and Christian sources, but instead they suggest the contrary.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESundqvist2020777-144">[144]</a> The seeresses have been cast in a new light by a recent detailed analysis of <a href="/wiki/Landn%C3%A1mab%C3%B3k" title="Landnámabók">Landnámabók</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Sagas_of_Icelanders" title="Sagas of Icelanders">Íslendingasögur</a> and the <a href="/wiki/%C3%9E%C3%A1ttr#Íslendinga_þættir" title="Þáttr">Íslendingaþættir</a>, which point out that the practitioners of magic were respected and well integrated in society. They were often connected to the highest echelons of society, they were free and they owned land. In a Norwegian setting they usually belong to Norwegian families, and in Iceland they do not live in caves or on islands, but in settlements with other people. Nor are they described as perverted or as sexual deviants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESundqvist2020777-144">[144]</a> Moreover, archaeological studies from Norway and Sweden, such as that of the Oseberg burial, show that they belonged to the highest elite and were part of aristocratic society.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESundqvist2020778f-147">[147]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_Middle_Ages">Late Middle Ages</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Seeress_(Germanic)&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Late Middle Ages">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/European_witchcraft" title="European witchcraft">European witchcraft</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medieval_women%27s_mysticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval women's mysticism">Medieval women's mysticism</a></div> The seeress tradition did not disappear, at least not during the Middle Ages. Mitchell writes in his book Witchcraft and Magic in the Nordic Middle Ages (2011) that not even the most triumphalist Christian, nor even the most sceptic scholar, can deny the continued survival of the practices of these women. However, it is also clear that during centuries of transmission, their practices changed through external influences, and evolved.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitchell201110f-148">[148]</a> Attitudes also changed and sorcery was increasingly considered to be witchcraft during the Middle Ages, and by the 15th century society appears no longer to have distinguished between sorcesses and healers such as midwives and wise women. The witch was inherently evil, she could fly to the sabbath and have intercourse with the devil, and she ate infants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorris1991174ff-149">[149]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Witch-hunts">Witch-hunts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Seeress_(Germanic)&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Witch-hunts">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Witch-hunt" class="mw-redirect" title="Witch-hunt">Witch-hunt</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Malleus_maleficarum,_K%C3%B6ln_1520,_Titelseite.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Malleus_maleficarum%2C_K%C3%B6ln_1520%2C_Titelseite.jpg/220px-Malleus_maleficarum%2C_K%C3%B6ln_1520%2C_Titelseite.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Malleus_maleficarum%2C_K%C3%B6ln_1520%2C_Titelseite.jpg/330px-Malleus_maleficarum%2C_K%C3%B6ln_1520%2C_Titelseite.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Malleus_maleficarum%2C_K%C3%B6ln_1520%2C_Titelseite.jpg/440px-Malleus_maleficarum%2C_K%C3%B6ln_1520%2C_Titelseite.jpg 2x" data-file-width="455" data-file-height="365" /></a><figcaption>Malleus maleficarum</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Malleus_Maleficarum" title="Malleus Maleficarum">Malleus Maleficarum</a> extended the concept of "witch" to more women, and concepts that used to be separate – folklore and witchcraft - merged with the concept of heresy. Morris argues that without this book there would probably never have been witch-hunts, and that the printing press helped spread the notion of diabolical witchcraft from the ecclesiastical elite to a larger part of the population. This was also the time of the revival of "<a href="/wiki/Renaissance_magic" title="Renaissance magic">high magic</a>" during the renaissance, but the Church did not separate the two and persecuted both the "<a href="/wiki/Low_magic" class="mw-redirect" title="Low magic">low magic</a>" and "high magic" as heresy. About eighty per cent of those accused of witchcraft were women, and the accusations included Devil worship, having <a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_Christian_demonology" title="Sexuality in Christian demonology">sex with the Devil</a>, sex both oral and anal, incest and cannibalism of infants. Morris comments that the accusations reveal more about the inquisitors than about the women who were accused. The accusations were characterized by ecclesiastical attitudes towards female sexuality, and it is notable that the practices they were accused of were preventive to procreation. Morris argues that the evolution from Germanic pagan seeresses to witches during the witch-hunts is a case study in how attitudes towards magic were affected by the change of religion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorris1991174ff-149">[149]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_influence">Modern influence</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Seeress_(Germanic)&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Modern influence">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Heathenry_(new_religious_movement)" title="Heathenry (new religious movement)">Heathenry (new religious movement)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Modern_paganism_and_New_Age" title="Modern paganism and New Age">Modern paganism and New Age</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Faroe_stamp_428_The_Prophet.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Faroe_stamp_428_The_Prophet.jpg/150px-Faroe_stamp_428_The_Prophet.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Faroe_stamp_428_The_Prophet.jpg/225px-Faroe_stamp_428_The_Prophet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Faroe_stamp_428_The_Prophet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="244" data-file-height="360" /></a><figcaption>Faroe Islands stamp issued in 2003, depicting the Völuspá (Prophet)</figcaption></figure> The concept of the Germanic seeress has had influence in a variety of areas of popular culture. For example, in 1965, the Icelandic scholar <a href="/wiki/Sigur%C3%B0ur_Nordal" title="Sigurður Nordal">Sigurður Nordal</a> coined the <a href="/wiki/Icelandic_language" title="Icelandic language">Icelandic language</a> term for <a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">computer</a>—<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/t%C3%B6lva" class="extiw" title="wikt:tölva">tölva</a>— by <a href="/wiki/Blend_word" title="Blend word">blending</a> the words tala (number) and völva.<a href="#cite_note-TÖLVA-ZHANG-150">[150]</a> The seeress Veleda has inspired a number of artworks, including German writer <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_de_la_Motte_Fouqu%C3%A9" title="Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué">Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué</a>'s 1818 novel Welleda und Ganna, an 1844 marble statue by French sculptor Hippolyte Maindron, an illustration, Veleda, die Prophetin der Brukterer, by K. Sigrist, and Polish-American composer <a href="/wiki/Eduard_Sobolewski" title="Eduard Sobolewski">Eduard Sobolewski</a>'s 1836 opera Velleda.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimek2007357-151">[151]</a> Practitioners of <a href="/wiki/Germanic_Heathenry" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic Heathenry">Germanic Heathenry</a>, the modern revival of Germanic paganism, seek to revive the concept of the Germanic seeress.<a href="#cite_note-SEERESS-REVIVAL-152">[152]</a> The asteroid <a href="/wiki/131_Vala" title="131 Vala">131 Vala</a> is named for the ancient Norse vǫlva.<a href="#cite_note-Schmadel-153">[153]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Seeress_(Germanic)&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6ndul" title="Göndul">Göndul</a>, a name meaning 'wand-wielder' applied to a valkyrie in the Old Norse corpus and later appearing in a 14th-century charm used as evidence in a Norwegian witchcraft trial</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norse_cosmology" title="Norse cosmology">Norse cosmology</a>, the cosmology of the North Germanic peoples</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Seeress_(Germanic)&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Glosecki1989-1"><a href="#cite_ref-Glosecki1989_1-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGlosecki1989" class="citation book cs1">Glosecki, Stephen O. (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/shamanismoldengl0000glos/page/96/mode/2up">Shamanism and Old English poetry</a>. New York : Garland. p. 97. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8240-5952-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8240-5952-1"><bdi>978-0-8240-5952-1</bdi></a>. <q>The etymology of seiðr, however, suggests indigenous development, perhaps retention of Indo-European practice. The mysterious term is cognate with French séance, Latin sedere, Old English sittan, and thus with the large group of terms based on the Indo-European root *sed. A seiðr, then, was literally a séance—a "sitting" to commune with the spirits.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shamanism+and+Old+English+poetry&rft.pages=97&rft.pub=New+York+%3A+Garland&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-8240-5952-1&rft.aulast=Glosecki&rft.aufirst=Stephen+O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fshamanismoldengl0000glos%2Fpage%2F96%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeeress+%28Germanic%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacLeodMees20065-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacLeodMees20065_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacLeodMees20065_2-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMacLeodMees2006">MacLeod & Mees 2006</a>, p. 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Vries1970322f-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Vries1970322f_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFde_Vries1970">de Vries 1970</a>, p. 322f. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDowden2000253-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDowden2000253_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDowden2000253_4-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFDowden2000">Dowden 2000</a>, p. 253. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrel2003155-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrel2003155_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOrel2003">Orel 2003</a>, p. 155. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrel2003155f-6"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrel2003155f_6-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOrel2003">Orel 2003</a>, p. 155f. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrel2003155,_310-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrel2003155,_310_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOrel2003">Orel 2003</a>, pp. 155, 310. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKoch2020137-8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKoch2020137_8-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKoch2020">Koch 2020</a>, p. 137. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamico1984212-9"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamico1984212_9-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDamico1984">Damico 1984</a>, p. 212. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrel2003149f-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrel2003149f_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrel2003149f_10-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFOrel2003">Orel 2003</a>, p. 149f. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitchell2011250-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMitchell2011250_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMitchell2011">Mitchell 2011</a>, p. 250. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKluge2011414f-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKluge2011414f_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKluge2011414f_12-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKluge2011">Kluge 2011</a>, p. 414f. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrömbäck2000234-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrömbäck2000234_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrömbäck2000234_13-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFStrömbäck2000">Strömbäck 2000</a>, p. 234. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrel2003150-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrel2003150_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOrel2003">Orel 2003</a>, p. 150. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrömbäck2000234f-15"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrömbäck2000234f_15-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStrömbäck2000">Strömbäck 2000</a>, p. 234f. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice201972ff-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrice201972ff_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrice201972ff_16-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrice2019">Price 2019</a>, pp. 72ff. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice201975f-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrice201975f_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrice2019">Price 2019</a>, p. 75f. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice201976-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrice201976_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrice201976_18-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrice2019">Price 2019</a>, p. 76. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice201976f-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrice201976f_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrice201976f_19-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrice2019">Price 2019</a>, p. 76f. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECleasbyVigfússon1874539f-20"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECleasbyVigfússon1874539f_20-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCleasbyVigfússon1874">Cleasby & Vigfússon 1874</a>, p. 539f. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECleasbyVigfússon1874159-21"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECleasbyVigfússon1874159_21-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCleasbyVigfússon1874">Cleasby & Vigfússon 1874</a>, p. 159. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECleasbyVigfússon1874222-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECleasbyVigfússon1874222_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCleasbyVigfússon1874">Cleasby & Vigfússon 1874</a>, p. 222. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECleasbyVigfússon1874146-23"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECleasbyVigfússon1874146_23-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCleasbyVigfússon1874">Cleasby & Vigfússon 1874</a>, p. 146. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECleasbyVigfússon1874164-24"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECleasbyVigfússon1874164_24-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCleasbyVigfússon1874">Cleasby & Vigfússon 1874</a>, p. 164. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice2019260-25"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrice2019260_25-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrice2019">Price 2019</a>, p. 260. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETolley2009588-26"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETolley2009588_26-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTolley2009">Tolley 2009</a>, p. 588. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice2019-27"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrice2019_27-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrice2019">Price 2019</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorris199130-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorris199130_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorris199130_28-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorris199130_28-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMorris1991">Morris 1991</a>, p. 30. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESimek2020280-29">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimek2020280_29-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimek2020280_29-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSimek2020">Simek 2020</a>, p. 280. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESimek2020279-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimek2020279_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimek2020279_30-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimek2020279_30-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimek2020279_30-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimek2020279_30-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimek2020279_30-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimek2020279_30-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimek2020279_30-7">h</a> <a href="#CITEREFSimek2020">Simek 2020</a>, p. 279. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESimek199699-31">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimek199699_31-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimek199699_31-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimek199699_31-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFSimek1996">Simek 1996</a>, p. 99. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELincoln198645―50-32"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELincoln198645―50_32-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLincoln1986">Lincoln 1986</a>, p. 45―50. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEnright1996210-33"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEnright1996210_33-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEnright1996">Enright 1996</a>, p. 210. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESundqvist200282-34"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESundqvist200282_34-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSundqvist2002">Sundqvist 2002</a>, p. 82. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENäsström2002106-35"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENäsström2002106_35-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNäsström2002">Näsström 2002</a>, p. 106. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorris1991173-36"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorris1991173_36-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMorris1991">Morris 1991</a>, p. 173. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice201972-37">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrice201972_37-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrice201972_37-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrice2019">Price 2019</a>, p. 72. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrchard1997174-38"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrchard1997174_38-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOrchard1997">Orchard 1997</a>, p. 174. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESimek2007326-39"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimek2007326_39-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSimek2007">Simek 2007</a>, p. 326. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSimek2007 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-BIRLEY-1999-41-40"><a href="#cite_ref-BIRLEY-1999-41_40-0">^</a> Birley (1999: 41). </li> <li id="cite_note-JONES-1924-169-172-41"><a href="#cite_ref-JONES-1924-169-172_41-0">^</a> Jones (1924: 169-172). </li> <li id="cite_note-CARY-1917-378-381-42"><a href="#cite_ref-CARY-1917-378-381_42-0">^</a> Cary (1917: 378-381). </li> <li id="cite_note-WELLESLEY-1964-1972-247-43"><a href="#cite_ref-WELLESLEY-1964-1972-247_43-0">^</a> Wellesley (1964 [1972]: 247). </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Vries2000678-44"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Vries2000678_44-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFde_Vries2000">de Vries 2000</a>, p. 678. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELincoln198645–50-45"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELincoln198645–50_45-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLincoln1986">Lincoln 1986</a>, p. 45–50. </li> <li 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href="#CITEREFCleasbyVigfússon1874">Cleasby & Vigfússon 1874</a>, p. 679f. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETolley199561-110"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETolley199561_110-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTolley1995">Tolley 1995</a>, p. 61. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice2019170-111">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrice2019170_111-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrice2019170_111-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrice2019170_111-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrice2019170_111-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrice2019">Price 2019</a>, p. 170. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrömbäck2000125-112"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrömbäck2000125_112-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStrömbäck2000">Strömbäck 2000</a>, p. 125. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorris199143-113"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorris199143_113-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMorris1991">Morris 1991</a>, p. 43. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETolley199561,_note_10-114"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETolley199561,_note_10_114-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTolley1995">Tolley 1995</a>, p. 61, note 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETolley199572-115"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETolley199572_115-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTolley1995">Tolley 1995</a>, p. 72. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcKinnell200597-116"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcKinnell200597_116-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcKinnell2005">McKinnell 2005</a>, p. 97. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice2019133-117"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrice2019133_117-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrice2019">Price 2019</a>, p. 133. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrömbäck2000221-118">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrömbäck2000221_118-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrömbäck2000221_118-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFStrömbäck2000">Strömbäck 2000</a>, p. 221. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETolley199567-119">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETolley199567_119-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETolley199567_119-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFTolley1995">Tolley 1995</a>, p. 67. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELindow2001141-120">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELindow2001141_120-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELindow2001141_120-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELindow2001141_120-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFLindow2001">Lindow 2001</a>, p. 141. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJansson198724-121"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJansson198724_121-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJansson1987">Jansson 1987</a>, p. 24. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECleasbyVigfússon1874200-122"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECleasbyVigfússon1874200_122-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCleasbyVigfússon1874">Cleasby & Vigfússon 1874</a>, p. 200. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETolley199567f-123"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETolley199567f_123-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTolley1995">Tolley 1995</a>, p. 67f. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitchell2011132-124"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMitchell2011132_124-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMitchell2011">Mitchell 2011</a>, p. 132. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice2019136-125"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrice2019136_125-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrice2019">Price 2019</a>, p. 136. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice2019293f-126"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrice2019293f_126-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrice2019">Price 2019</a>, p. 293f. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcKinnell200597f-127">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcKinnell200597f_127-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcKinnell200597f_127-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcKinnell2005">McKinnell 2005</a>, p. 97f. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETolley199558-128"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETolley199558_128-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTolley1995">Tolley 1995</a>, p. 58. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice2019172-129"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrice2019172_129-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrice2019">Price 2019</a>, p. 172. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESimek1996279-130">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimek1996279_130-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimek1996279_130-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSimek1996">Simek 1996</a>, p. 279. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice2019168–169-131">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrice2019168–169_131-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrice2019168–169_131-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrice2019168–169_131-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrice2019">Price 2019</a>, pp. 168–169. </li> <li id="cite_note-Metzner2001-132"><a href="#cite_ref-Metzner2001_132-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMetzner2001" class="citation book cs1">Metzner, Ralph (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NrlJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT249">The Well of Remembrance: Rediscovering the Earth Wisdom Myths of Northern Europe</a>. Shambhala Publications. p. 249. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8348-2931-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8348-2931-2"><bdi>978-0-8348-2931-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Well+of+Remembrance%3A+Rediscovering+the+Earth+Wisdom+Myths+of+Northern+Europe&rft.pages=249&rft.pub=Shambhala+Publications&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8348-2931-2&rft.aulast=Metzner&rft.aufirst=Ralph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNrlJAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT249&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeeress+%28Germanic%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClarkeMerlin2016259–260-133"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClarkeMerlin2016259–260_133-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFClarkeMerlin2016">Clarke & Merlin 2016</a>, pp. 259–260. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchjødt2020790,_note_8-134"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchjødt2020790,_note_8_134-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchjødt2020">Schjødt 2020</a>, p. 790, note 8. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchjødt2020788-135"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchjødt2020788_135-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchjødt2020">Schjødt 2020</a>, p. 788. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESundqvist2020774f,_778f-136"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESundqvist2020774f,_778f_136-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSundqvist2020">Sundqvist 2020</a>, pp. 774f, 778f. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice201941,_127-137"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrice201941,_127_137-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrice2019">Price 2019</a>, pp. 41, 127. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis_Davidson1964120-138"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllis_Davidson1964120_138-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEllis_Davidson1964">Ellis Davidson 1964</a>, p. 120. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice201969-139">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrice201969_139-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrice201969_139-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrice2019">Price 2019</a>, p. 69. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESundqvist2020778-140"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESundqvist2020778_140-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSundqvist2020">Sundqvist 2020</a>, p. 778. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice2019115-141"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrice2019115_141-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrice2019">Price 2019</a>, p. 115. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEÁsdísardóttir20201278f,_1283,_1287,_1294-142"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEÁsdísardóttir20201278f,_1283,_1287,_1294_142-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFÁsdísardóttir2020">Ásdísardóttir 2020</a>, pp. 1278f, 1283, 1287, 1294. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEÁsdísardóttir20201294f-143"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEÁsdísardóttir20201294f_143-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFÁsdísardóttir2020">Ásdísardóttir 2020</a>, p. 1294f. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESundqvist2020777-144">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESundqvist2020777_144-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESundqvist2020777_144-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESundqvist2020777_144-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESundqvist2020777_144-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFSundqvist2020">Sundqvist 2020</a>, p. 777. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESundqvist2020775f-145"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESundqvist2020775f_145-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSundqvist2020">Sundqvist 2020</a>, p. 775f. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis_Davidson1964123-146"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllis_Davidson1964123_146-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEllis_Davidson1964">Ellis Davidson 1964</a>, p. 123. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESundqvist2020778f-147"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESundqvist2020778f_147-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSundqvist2020">Sundqvist 2020</a>, p. 778f. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitchell201110f-148"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMitchell201110f_148-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMitchell2011">Mitchell 2011</a>, p. 10f. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorris1991174ff-149">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorris1991174ff_149-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorris1991174ff_149-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMorris1991">Morris 1991</a>, p. 174ff. </li> <li id="cite_note-TÖLVA-ZHANG-150"><a href="#cite_ref-TÖLVA-ZHANG_150-0">^</a> Zhang (2015). </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESimek2007357-151"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimek2007357_151-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSimek2007">Simek 2007</a>, p. 357. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSimek2007 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-SEERESS-REVIVAL-152"><a href="#cite_ref-SEERESS-REVIVAL_152-0">^</a> For discussion regarding examples of modern-day seeresses in Germanic Heathenry, see for example discussion throughout Blain 2002. </li> <li id="cite_note-Schmadel-153"><a href="#cite_ref-Schmadel_153-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmadelInternational_Astronomical_Union2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lutz_D._Schmadel" title="Lutz D. Schmadel">Schmadel, Lutz D.</a>; International Astronomical Union (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KWrB1jPCa8AC&pg=PA27">Dictionary of minor planet names</a>. Berlin; New York: <a href="/wiki/Springer-Verlag" class="mw-redirect" title="Springer-Verlag">Springer-Verlag</a>. p. 27. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-00238-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-00238-3"><bdi>978-3-540-00238-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+minor+planet+names&rft.place=Berlin%3B+New+York&rft.pages=27&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-3-540-00238-3&rft.aulast=Schmadel&rft.aufirst=Lutz+D.&rft.au=International+Astronomical+Union&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKWrB1jPCa8AC%26pg%3DPA27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeeress+%28Germanic%29" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Seeress_(Germanic)&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFÁsdísardóttir2020" class="citation book cs1">Ásdísardóttir, Ingunn (2020). "Freyja". In Schjødt, J.P.; Lindow, J.; Andrén, A. (eds.). The Pre-Christian Religions of the North, History and Structures. Vol. III. Brepols. pp. 1273–1302. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-503-57491-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-503-57491-2"><bdi>978-2-503-57491-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Freyja&rft.btitle=The+Pre-Christian+Religions+of+the+North%2C+History+and+Structures&rft.pages=1273-1302&rft.pub=Brepols&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-2-503-57491-2&rft.aulast=%C3%81sd%C3%ADsard%C3%B3ttir&rft.aufirst=Ingunn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeeress+%28Germanic%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Birley, A. R. 1999. Trans. Tacitus, Agricola Germany. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_World%27s_Classics" title="Oxford World's Classics">Oxford World's Classics</a>.</li> <li>Cary, Earnest. 1917. Trans. Dio's Roman History, vol. 6. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/romanhistoryvibo00cass/page/n387">Available at Archive.org</a>.</li> <li>Cary, Earnest. 1927. Trans. Dio's Roman History, vol. 8. Harvard University Press.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClarkeMerlin2016" class="citation book cs1">Clarke, Robert; Merlin, Mark (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bs4hEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA259">Cannabis: Evolution and Ethnobotany</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. pp. 259–260. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-29248-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-29248-2"><bdi>978-0-520-29248-2</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cannabis%3A+Evolution+and+Ethnobotany&rft.pages=259-260&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-520-29248-2&rft.aulast=Clarke&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Merlin%2C+Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dbs4hEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA259&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeeress+%28Germanic%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCleasbyVigfússon1874" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Cleasby" title="Richard Cleasby">Cleasby, R.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Gu%C3%B0brandur_Vigf%C3%BAsson" title="Guðbrandur Vigfússon">Vigfússon, G.</a> (1874). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/icelandicenglish00cleauoft/mode/2up">An Icelandic-English dictionary</a>. Oxford Clarendon Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Icelandic-English+dictionary&rft.pub=Oxford+Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1874&rft.aulast=Cleasby&rft.aufirst=R.&rft.au=Vigf%C3%BAsson%2C+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ficelandicenglish00cleauoft%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeeress+%28Germanic%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDamico1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Helen_Damico" title="Helen Damico">Damico, Helen</a> (1984). Beowulf's Wealhtheow and the Valkyrie Tradition. University of Wisconsin Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-299-09500-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-299-09500-2"><bdi>0-299-09500-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beowulf%27s+Wealhtheow+and+the+Valkyrie+Tradition&rft.pub=University+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=0-299-09500-2&rft.aulast=Damico&rft.aufirst=Helen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeeress+%28Germanic%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDowden2000" class="citation book cs1">Dowden, Ken (2000). European Paganism. The realities of cult from antiquity to the Middle Ages. Routledge, London and New York. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-12034-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-12034-9"><bdi>0-415-12034-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=European+Paganism.+The+realities+of+cult+from+antiquity+to+the+Middle+Ages&rft.pub=Routledge%2C+London+and+New+York&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-415-12034-9&rft.aulast=Dowden&rft.aufirst=Ken&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeeress+%28Germanic%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEllis_Davidson1964" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hilda_Ellis_Davidson" title="Hilda Ellis Davidson">Ellis Davidson, H.R.</a> (1964). Gods and Myths of Northern Europe. 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Four Courts Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85182-188-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-85182-188-0"><bdi>1-85182-188-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lady+with+a+Mead+Cup&rft.pub=Four+Courts+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=1-85182-188-0&rft.aulast=Enright&rft.aufirst=M.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeeress+%28Germanic%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrundy1996" class="citation book cs1">Grundy, Stephan (1996). "Freyja and Frigg". In Billington, Sandra; Green, Miranda (eds.). The Concept of the Goddess. 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Brepols. pp. 643–670. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-503-57491-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-503-57491-2"><bdi>978-2-503-57491-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Magic+and+Religion&rft.btitle=The+Pre-Christian+Religions+of+the+North%2C+History+and+Structures&rft.pages=643-670&rft.pub=Brepols&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-2-503-57491-2&rft.aulast=Mitchell&rft.aufirst=Stephen+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeeress+%28Germanic%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorris1991" class="citation book cs1">Morris, Katherine (1991). Sorceress Or Witch?: The Image of Gender in Medieval Iceland and Northern Europe. University Press of America. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780819182579" title="Special:BookSources/9780819182579"><bdi>9780819182579</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sorceress+Or+Witch%3F%3A+The+Image+of+Gender+in+Medieval+Iceland+and+Northern+Europe&rft.pub=University+Press+of+America&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=9780819182579&rft.aulast=Morris&rft.aufirst=Katherine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeeress+%28Germanic%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNäsström2002" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Näsström, B. M. (2002). Blot, tro och offer i det förkristna Norden [Blot, faith and sacrifice in the pre-Christian Nordic region] (in Swedish). Norstedts. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/91-7297-033-2" title="Special:BookSources/91-7297-033-2"><bdi>91-7297-033-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Blot%2C+tro+och+offer+i+det+f%C3%B6rkristna+Norden&rft.pub=Norstedts&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=91-7297-033-2&rft.aulast=N%C3%A4sstr%C3%B6m&rft.aufirst=B.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeeress+%28Germanic%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNäsström2009" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Näsström, B. M. (2009). Nordiska gudinnor : nytolkningar av den förkristna mytologin [Nordic goddesses: reinterpretations of pre-Christian mythology] (in Swedish). Albert Bonniers Förlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789100122379" title="Special:BookSources/9789100122379"><bdi>9789100122379</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nordiska+gudinnor+%3A+nytolkningar+av+den+f%C3%B6rkristna+mytologin&rft.pub=Albert+Bonniers+F%C3%B6rlag&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9789100122379&rft.aulast=N%C3%A4sstr%C3%B6m&rft.aufirst=B.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeeress+%28Germanic%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOrchard1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Andy_Orchard" title="Andy Orchard">Orchard, Andy</a> (1997). Dictionary of Norse Myth and Legend. London: Cassel. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-304-34520-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-304-34520-2"><bdi>0-304-34520-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Norse+Myth+and+Legend&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Cassel&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-304-34520-2&rft.aulast=Orchard&rft.aufirst=Andy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeeress+%28Germanic%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOrel2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Orel" title="Vladimir Orel">Orel, Vladimir E.</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/handbookofgerman0000orel">A Handbook of Germanic Etymology</a>. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-12875-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-12875-0"><bdi>978-90-04-12875-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Handbook+of+Germanic+Etymology&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-90-04-12875-0&rft.aulast=Orel&rft.aufirst=Vladimir+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhandbookofgerman0000orel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeeress+%28Germanic%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoulke1974" class="citation book cs1">Peters, Edward, ed. (1974). Paul the Deacon, History of the Lombards. Translated by Foulke, William Dudley. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8122-1079-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8122-1079-4"><bdi>0-8122-1079-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Paul+the+Deacon%2C+History+of+the+Lombards&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press%2C+Philadelphia%2C+Pennsylvania&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=0-8122-1079-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeeress+%28Germanic%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPohl2006" class="citation book cs1">Pohl, Walter (2006). "Gender and ethnicity in the early middle ages". In Noble, Thomas F. X. 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Psychology Press. pp. 139―156. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-32742-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-32742-8"><bdi>978-0-415-32742-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gender+and+ethnicity+in+the+early+middle+ages&rft.btitle=From+Roman+Provinces+to+Medieval+Kingdoms&rft.pages=139%E2%80%95156&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-415-32742-8&rft.aulast=Pohl&rft.aufirst=Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXjTI-RGgrUIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeeress+%28Germanic%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrice2019" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Neil_Price_(archaeologist)" title="Neil Price (archaeologist)">Price, Neil</a> (2019). <a href="/wiki/The_Viking_Way_(book)" title="The Viking Way (book)">The Viking Way, Magic and Mind in Late Iron Age Scandinavia</a> (2 ed.). Oxbow Books, Oxford and Philadelphia. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781842172605" title="Special:BookSources/9781842172605"><bdi>9781842172605</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Viking+Way%2C+Magic+and+Mind+in+Late+Iron+Age+Scandinavia&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Oxbow+Books%2C+Oxford+and+Philadelphia&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9781842172605&rft.aulast=Price&rft.aufirst=Neil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeeress+%28Germanic%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReinachJullian1920" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9odore_Reinach" title="Théodore Reinach">Reinach, Théodore</a>; <a href="/wiki/Camille_Jullian" title="Camille Jullian">Jullian, C.</a> (1920). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.persee.fr/doc/rea_0035-2004_1920_num_22_2_2105">"Une sorcière germaine aux bords du Nil"</a>. Revue des Études Anciennes. 22 (2): 104–106. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Frea.1920.2105">10.3406/rea.1920.2105</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revue+des+%C3%89tudes+Anciennes&rft.atitle=Une+sorci%C3%A8re+germaine+aux+bords+du+Nil&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=104-106&rft.date=1920&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Frea.1920.2105&rft.aulast=Reinach&rft.aufirst=Th%C3%A9odore&rft.au=Jullian%2C+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.persee.fr%2Fdoc%2Frea_0035-2004_1920_num_22_2_2105&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeeress+%28Germanic%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSamplonius2001" class="citation book cs1">Samplonius, Kees (2001). "Sibylla borealis: Notes on the Structure of Vǫluspá". In Olsen, Karin E.; Harbus, Antonina; Hofstra, Tette (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cO5ZFvk8JyAC">Germanic Texts and Latin Models: Medieval Reconstructions</a>. Peeters Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-429-0985-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-429-0985-4"><bdi>978-90-429-0985-4</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sibylla+borealis%3A+Notes+on+the+Structure+of+V%C7%ABlusp%C3%A1&rft.btitle=Germanic+Texts+and+Latin+Models%3A+Medieval+Reconstructions&rft.pub=Peeters+Publishers&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-90-429-0985-4&rft.aulast=Samplonius&rft.aufirst=Kees&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcO5ZFvk8JyAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeeress+%28Germanic%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSamplonius2013" class="citation book cs1">Samplonius, Kees (2013) [1995]. "From Veleda to the Völva". 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"Crisis Rituals". In Schjødt, J.P.; Lindow, J.; Andrén, A. (eds.). The Pre-Christian Religions of the North, History and Structures. Vol. II. Brepols. pp. 781–796. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-503-57491-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-503-57491-2"><bdi>978-2-503-57491-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Crisis+Rituals&rft.btitle=The+Pre-Christian+Religions+of+the+North%2C+History+and+Structures&rft.pages=781-796&rft.pub=Brepols&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-2-503-57491-2&rft.aulast=Schj%C3%B8dt&rft.aufirst=Jens+Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeeress+%28Germanic%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchubart1917" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Schubart" title="Wilhelm Schubart">Schubart, W.</a> (1917). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4235200">"Ägyptische Abteilung (Papyrussammlung)"</a> [Egyptian Department (Papyrus Collection)]. Amtliche Berichte aus den Königlichen Kunstsammlungen (in German). 38 (12). Staatliche Museen zu Berlin -- Preußischer Kulturbesitz: 7–12. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4235200">4235200</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Amtliche+Berichte+aus+den+K%C3%B6niglichen+Kunstsammlungen&rft.atitle=%C3%84gyptische+Abteilung+%28Papyrussammlung%29&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=7-12&rft.date=1917&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4235200%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Schubart&rft.aufirst=W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4235200&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeeress+%28Germanic%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimek1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Simek" title="Rudolf Simek">Simek, Rudolf</a> (1996). Dictionary of Northern Mythology. Translated by Hall, Angela. Boydell & Brewer Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780859915137" title="Special:BookSources/9780859915137"><bdi>9780859915137</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Northern+Mythology&rft.pub=Boydell+%26+Brewer+Ltd&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9780859915137&rft.aulast=Simek&rft.aufirst=Rudolf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeeress+%28Germanic%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimek2020" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Simek" title="Rudolf Simek">Simek, Rudolf</a> (2020). "Encounters: Roman". In Schjødt, J.P; Lindow, J.; Andrén, A. (eds.). The Pre-Christian Religions of the North, History and Structures. Vol. I. Brepols. pp. 269–288. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-503-57491-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-503-57491-2"><bdi>978-2-503-57491-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Encounters%3A+Roman&rft.btitle=The+Pre-Christian+Religions+of+the+North%2C+History+and+Structures&rft.pages=269-288&rft.pub=Brepols&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-2-503-57491-2&rft.aulast=Simek&rft.aufirst=Rudolf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeeress+%28Germanic%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrömbäck2000" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Dag_Str%C3%B6mb%C3%A4ck" title="Dag Strömbäck">Strömbäck, Dag</a> (2000). Gidlund, G. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kgaa.bokorder.se/sv-se/article/2955/sejd">Sejd och andra studier i nordisk själsuppfattning</a> [Sejd and other studies in Nordic perception of the soul] (in Swedish). Gidlunds förlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9178443180" title="Special:BookSources/9178443180"><bdi>9178443180</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sejd+och+andra+studier+i+nordisk+sj%C3%A4lsuppfattning&rft.pub=Gidlunds+f%C3%B6rlag&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9178443180&rft.aulast=Str%C3%B6mb%C3%A4ck&rft.aufirst=Dag&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fkgaa.bokorder.se%2Fsv-se%2Farticle%2F2955%2Fsejd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeeress+%28Germanic%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSundqvist2002" class="citation book cs1">Sundqvist, Olof (2002). Freyr's offspring, Rulers and religion in ancient Svea society. <a href="/wiki/Uppsala_universitet" class="mw-redirect" title="Uppsala universitet">Uppsala universitet</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/91-554-5263-9" title="Special:BookSources/91-554-5263-9"><bdi>91-554-5263-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Freyr%27s+offspring%2C+Rulers+and+religion+in+ancient+Svea+society&rft.pub=Uppsala+universitet&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=91-554-5263-9&rft.aulast=Sundqvist&rft.aufirst=Olof&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeeress+%28Germanic%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSundqvist2020" class="citation book cs1">Sundqvist, Olof (2020). "Cultic Leaders and Religious Specialists". In Schjødt, J.P.; Lindow, J.; Andrén, A. (eds.). The Pre-Christian Religions of the North, History and Structures. Vol. II. Brepols. pp. 739–780. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-503-57491-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-503-57491-2"><bdi>978-2-503-57491-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cultic+Leaders+and+Religious+Specialists&rft.btitle=The+Pre-Christian+Religions+of+the+North%2C+History+and+Structures&rft.pages=739-780&rft.pub=Brepols&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-2-503-57491-2&rft.aulast=Sundqvist&rft.aufirst=Olof&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeeress+%28Germanic%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTolley1995" class="citation journal cs1">Tolley, Clive (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.lub.lu.se/anf/article/view/11542">"Vǫrðr and Gandr: Helping Spirits in Norse Magic"</a>. Arkiv för nordisk filologi. 110: 57–75.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Arkiv+f%C3%B6r+nordisk+filologi&rft.atitle=V%C7%ABr%C3%B0r+and+Gandr%3A+Helping+Spirits+in+Norse+Magic&rft.volume=110&rft.pages=57-75&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Tolley&rft.aufirst=Clive&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.lub.lu.se%2Fanf%2Farticle%2Fview%2F11542&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeeress+%28Germanic%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTolley2009" class="citation book cs1">Tolley, Clive (2009). Shamanism in Norse myth and magic. FF communications, no. 296; 297. Vol. 1. Academia Scientiarum Fennica, Helsinki. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9514110283" title="Special:BookSources/978-9514110283"><bdi>978-9514110283</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shamanism+in+Norse+myth+and+magic&rft.series=FF+communications%2C+no.+296%3B+297.&rft.pub=Academia+Scientiarum+Fennica%2C+Helsinki&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-9514110283&rft.aulast=Tolley&rft.aufirst=Clive&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeeress+%28Germanic%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Vries1970" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Jan_de_Vries_(philologist)" title="Jan de Vries (philologist)">de Vries, Jan</a> (1970). Altgermanische Religionsgeschichte [Ancient Germanic religious history] (in German). Vol. I. Berlin: <a href="/wiki/De_Gruyter" title="De Gruyter">De Gruyter</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110865486">10.1515/9783110865486</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-002678-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-002678-8"><bdi>978-3-11-002678-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Altgermanische+Religionsgeschichte&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=1970&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110865486&rft.isbn=978-3-11-002678-8&rft.aulast=de+Vries&rft.aufirst=Jan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeeress+%28Germanic%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Vries2000" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Jan_de_Vries_(linguist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jan de Vries (linguist)">de Vries, Jan</a> (1962). Altnordisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch [Old Norse Etymological Dictionary] (in German) (2000 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90_04_05436_7" title="Special:BookSources/90 04 05436 7"><bdi>90 04 05436 7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Altnordisches+Etymologisches+W%C3%B6rterbuch&rft.edition=2000&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1962&rft.isbn=9004054367&rft.aulast=de+Vries&rft.aufirst=Jan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeeress+%28Germanic%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWagner1999" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Wagner, Norbert (1999). Beck, Heinrich (ed.). Germanenprobleme in heutiger Sicht [Germanic problems in today's perspective]. Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde - Ergänzungsbände (in German). Vol. 1. <a href="/wiki/De_Gruyter" title="De Gruyter">De Gruyter</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110108064" title="Special:BookSources/9783110108064"><bdi>9783110108064</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Germanenprobleme+in+heutiger+Sicht&rft.series=Reallexikon+der+Germanischen+Altertumskunde+-+Erg%C3%A4nzungsb%C3%A4nde&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=9783110108064&rft.aulast=Wagner&rft.aufirst=Norbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeeress+%28Germanic%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Wellesley, Kenneth. 1972 [1964]. Trans. Tacitus, the Histories. <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Classics" title="Penguin Classics">Penguin Classics</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolfram2006" class="citation book cs1">Wolfram, Herwig (2006). "Gothic history as historical ethnography". In Noble, Thomas F. X. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XjTI-RGgrUIC">From Roman Provinces to Medieval Kingdoms</a>. Psychology Press. p. 57―74. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-32742-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-32742-8"><bdi>978-0-415-32742-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gothic+history+as+historical+ethnography&rft.btitle=From+Roman+Provinces+to+Medieval+Kingdoms&rft.pages=57%E2%80%9574&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-415-32742-8&rft.aulast=Wolfram&rft.aufirst=Herwig&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXjTI-RGgrUIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeeress+%28Germanic%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Zhang, Sarah. 2019. "Icelandic Has the Best Words for Technology". <a href="/wiki/Gizmodo" title="Gizmodo">Gizmodo</a>, 5 July 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gizmodo.com/icelandic-has-the-best-words-for-technology-1702697272">Online</a>. Last accessed August 21, 2019.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Seeress_(Germanic)&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Näsström, B. M. (1994). Freyja ― the Great Goddess of the North. Lund Studies in History of Religion. Vol. 5. Department of History of Religions, Lund.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Freyja+%E2%80%95+the+Great+Goddess+of+the+North&rft.series=Lund+Studies+in+History+of+Religion&rft.pub=Department+of+History+of+Religions%2C+Lund&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=N%C3%A4sstr%C3%B6m&rft.aufirst=B.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeeress+%28Germanic%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Pohl, Walter (2018). "Narratives of Origin and Migration in Early Medieval Europe: Problems of Interpretation". The Medieval History Journal. 21 (2): 192–221. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0971945818775460">10.1177/0971945818775460</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:158374863">158374863</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Medieval+History+Journal&rft.atitle=Narratives+of+Origin+and+Migration+in+Early+Medieval+Europe%3A+Problems+of+Interpretation&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=192-221&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0971945818775460&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A158374863%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Pohl&rft.aufirst=Walter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeeress+%28Germanic%29" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Seeress_(Germanic)&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Seeress_(Germanic)" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Seeress (Germanic)">Seeress (Germanic)</a> at Wikimedia Commons <div class="navbox-styles"><style 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:V%C3%B6lvas" title="Template:Völvas"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:V%C3%B6lvas" title="Template talk:Völvas"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:V%C3%B6lvas" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Völvas"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Germanic_seeresses" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Germanic seeresses</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#8FBC81;width:1%">Roman era record</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albruna" title="Albruna">Albruna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cimbrian_seeresses" title="Cimbrian seeresses">Cimbrian seeresses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganna_(seeress)" title="Ganna (seeress)">Ganna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veleda" title="Veleda">Veleda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waluburg" title="Waluburg">Waluburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woman_of_the_Chatti" title="Woman of the Chatti">Woman of the Chatti</a> (alleged)</li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Finds_from_a_priestess%27_grave.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Finds_from_a_priestess%27_grave.jpg/200px-Finds_from_a_priestess%27_grave.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Finds_from_a_priestess%27_grave.jpg/300px-Finds_from_a_priestess%27_grave.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Finds_from_a_priestess%27_grave.jpg/400px-Finds_from_a_priestess%27_grave.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1932" data-file-height="1243" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#8FBC81;width:1%">Early Mediaeval record</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gambara_(seeress)" title="Gambara (seeress)">Gambara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haliurunas" title="Haliurunas">Haliurunas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiota" title="Thiota">Thiota</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#8FBC81;width:1%">North Germanic record</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%9Eorbj%C3%B6rg_L%C3%ADtilv%C3%B6lva" title="Þorbjörg Lítilvölva">Þorbjörg Lítilvölva</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%C3%9Eord%C3%ADs_Sp%C3%A1kona&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Þordís Spákona (page does not exist)">Þordís Spákona</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heimlaug_V%C3%B6lva&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Heimlaug Völva (page does not exist)">Heimlaug Völva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%9Eur%C3%AD%C3%B0r_Sundafyllir" class="mw-redirect" title="Þuríðr Sundafyllir">Þuríðr Sundafyllir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#8FBC81;width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freyja" title="Freyja">Freyja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galdr" title="Galdr">Galdr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sei%C3%B0r" title="Seiðr">Seiðr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wand" title="Wand">Wand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_(etymology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Witch (etymology)">Witch (etymology)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Magic_and_witchcraft" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Witchcraft" title="Template:Witchcraft"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Witchcraft" title="Template talk:Witchcraft"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Witchcraft" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Witchcraft"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Magic_and_witchcraft" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Magic_(supernatural)" title="Magic (supernatural)">Magic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Witchcraft" title="Witchcraft">witchcraft</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Witchcraft_in_Africa" title="Witchcraft in Africa">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azande_witchcraft" title="Azande witchcraft">Azande</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witchcraft_in_Ghana" title="Witchcraft in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_smeller" title="Witch smeller">Witch smeller</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asian_witchcraft" title="Asian witchcraft">Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Witchcraft_in_the_Philippines" title="Witchcraft in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_witchcraft" title="European witchcraft">Europe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Witchcraft_in_Italy" title="Witchcraft in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akelarre" title="Akelarre">Akelarre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benandanti" title="Benandanti">Benandanti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cunning_folk" title="Cunning folk">Cunning folk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_in_the_Greco-Roman_world" title="Magic in the Greco-Roman world">Greece and Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sei%C3%B0r" title="Seiðr">Seiðr</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Völva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch-cult_hypothesis" title="Witch-cult hypothesis">Witch-cult hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witchcraft_in_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="Witchcraft in Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witchcraft_in_early_modern_Britain" title="Witchcraft in early modern Britain">Britain</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witchcraft_in_Latin_America" title="Witchcraft in Latin America">Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witchcraft_in_the_Middle_East" title="Witchcraft in the Middle East">Middle East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witchcraft#Oceania" title="Witchcraft">Oceania</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81kutu" title="Mākutu">Mākutu</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Form</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chaos_magic" title="Chaos magic">Chaos magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorcery_(goetia)" title="Sorcery (goetia)">Goetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoodoo_(spirituality)" title="Hoodoo (spirituality)">Hoodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_European_magic" title="Medieval European magic">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopagan_witchcraft" title="Neopagan witchcraft">Neopagan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wicca" title="Wicca">Wicca</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_magic" title="Renaissance magic">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solitary_practitioner" title="Solitary practitioner">Solitary practitioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warlock" title="Warlock">Warlock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_doctor" title="Witch doctor">Witch doctor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Practices</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apotropaic_magic" title="Apotropaic magic">Apotropaic magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_magic" title="Black magic">Black magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceremonial_magic" title="Ceremonial magic">Ceremonial magic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magical_formula" title="Magical formula">Magical formula</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coven" title="Coven">Coven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curse" title="Curse">Curse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anathema" title="Anathema">Anathema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damnation" title="Damnation">Damnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinx" title="Jinx">Jinx</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demon" title="Demon">Demon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divination" title="Divination">Divination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entheogen" title="Entheogen">Entheogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evocation" title="Evocation">Evocation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familiar" title="Familiar">Familiar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gray_magic" title="Gray magic">Gray magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incantation" title="Incantation">Incantation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinn" title="Jinn">Jinn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Love_magic" title="Love magic">Love magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediumship" title="Mediumship">Mediumship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moon_magic" title="Moon magic">Moon magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necromancy" title="Necromancy">Necromancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occult" title="Occult">Occultism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">Shamanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_shamanism" title="Black shamanism">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_forms_of_shamanism" title="Regional forms of shamanism">Regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_shamanism" title="Yellow shamanism">Yellow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_magic" title="Sex magic">Sex magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigil" title="Sigil">Sigils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kardecist_spiritism" title="Kardecist spiritism">Spiritism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(movement)" title="Spiritualism (movement)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympathetic_magic" title="Sympathetic magic">Sympathetic magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witches%27_Sabbath" title="Witches' Sabbath">Witches' Sabbath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_magic" title="White magic">White magic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Objects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amulet" title="Amulet">Amulet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athame" title="Athame">Athame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broom" title="Broom">Broom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Besom" title="Besom">besom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censer" title="Censer">Censer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloak_of_invisibility" title="Cloak of invisibility">Cloak of invisibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystal_ball" title="Crystal ball">Crystal ball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flying_ointment" title="Flying ointment">Flying ointment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goofer_dust" title="Goofer dust">Goofer dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grimoire" title="Grimoire">Grimoire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incense" title="Incense">Incense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julleuchter" title="Julleuchter">Julleuchter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitchen_witch" title="Kitchen witch">Kitchen witch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Love_magic" title="Love magic">Love charm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_carpet" title="Magic carpet">Magic carpet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_circle" title="Magic circle">Magic circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_ring" title="Magic ring">Magic ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_magical_weapons" title="List of magical weapons">Magical weapons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magic_sword" title="Magic sword">Magic sword</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mojo_(African-American_culture)" title="Mojo (African-American culture)">Mojo bag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nkisi" title="Nkisi">Nkisi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nkondi" title="Nkondi">Nkondi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poppet" title="Poppet">Poppet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potion" title="Potion">Potions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sator_Square" title="Sator Square">Sator Square</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talisman" title="Talisman">Talisman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wand" title="Wand">Wand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_ball" title="Witch ball">Witch ball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch%27s_ladder" title="Witch's ladder">Witch's ladder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Folklore and mythology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agamede" title="Agamede">Agamede</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aradia" title="Aradia">Aradia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baba_Yaga" title="Baba Yaga">Baba Yaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circe" title="Circe">Circe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayan_(witch)" title="Dayan (witch)">Dayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drude" title="Drude">Drude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elbow_witch" title="Elbow witch">Elbow witch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hecate" title="Hecate">Hecate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huld" title="Huld">Huld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalku" title="Kalku">Kalku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medea" title="Medea">Medea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morgan_le_Fay" title="Morgan le Fay">Morgan le Fay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muma_P%C4%83durii" title="Muma Pădurii">Muma Pădurii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nine_sorceresses" title="Nine sorceresses">Nine sorceresses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obayifo" title="Obayifo">Obayifo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pasipha%C3%AB" title="Pasiphaë">Pasiphaë</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebile" title="Sebile">Sebile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorginak" title="Sorginak">Sorginak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spearfinger" title="Spearfinger">Spearfinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Witches" title="Three Witches">Three Witches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witches_of_Benevento" title="Witches of Benevento">Witches of Benevento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_of_Endor" title="Witch of Endor">Witch of Endor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major historic treatises</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Witchcraft_and_divination_in_the_Hebrew_Bible" title="Witchcraft and divination in the Hebrew Bible">Witchcraft and divination in the Old Testament</a> (8th–2nd centuries BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Directorium_Inquisitorum" title="Directorium Inquisitorum">Directorium Inquisitorum</a> (1376)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_maleficis_mulieribus" class="mw-redirect" title="De maleficis mulieribus">De maleficis mulieribus</a> (1440)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formicarius" title="Formicarius">Formicarius</a> (1475)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Summis_desiderantes_affectibus" title="Summis desiderantes affectibus">Summis desiderantes affectibus</a> (1484)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malleus_Maleficarum" title="Malleus Maleficarum">Malleus Maleficarum</a> (1487)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_Lamiis_et_Pythonicis_Mulieribus" class="mw-redirect" title="De Lamiis et Pythonicis Mulieribus">De Lamiis et Pythonicis Mulieribus</a> (1489)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laienspiegel" title="Laienspiegel">Laienspiegel</a> (1509)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_praestigiis_daemonum" title="De praestigiis daemonum">De praestigiis daemonum</a> (1563)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Discoverie_of_Witchcraft" title="The Discoverie of Witchcraft">The Discoverie of Witchcraft</a> (1584)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newes_from_Scotland" title="Newes from Scotland">Newes from Scotland</a> (1591)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Dialogue_Concerning_Witches_and_Witchcrafts" title="A Dialogue Concerning Witches and Witchcrafts">A Dialogue Concerning Witches and Witchcrafts</a> (1593)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daemonolatreiae_libri_tres" title="Daemonolatreiae libri tres">Daemonolatreiae libri tres</a> (1595)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daemonologie" title="Daemonologie">Daemonologie</a> (1597)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magical_Investigations" class="mw-redirect" title="Magical Investigations">Magical Investigations</a> (1599)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compendium_Maleficarum" title="Compendium Maleficarum">Compendium Maleficarum</a> (1608)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Guide_to_Grand-Jury_Men" title="A Guide to Grand-Jury Men">A Guide to Grand-Jury Men</a> (1627)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Discovery_of_Witches" class="mw-redirect" title="The Discovery of Witches">The Discovery of Witches</a> (1647)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trait%C3%A9_sur_les_apparitions_des_esprits_et_sur_les_vampires_ou_les_revenans_de_Hongrie,_de_Moravie,_%26c." title="Traité sur les apparitions des esprits et sur les vampires ou les revenans de Hongrie, de Moravie, &c.">Treatise on the Apparitions of Spirits and on Vampires or Revenants</a> (1751)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Persecution</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_witch_hunts" title="Modern witch hunts">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jamyi_Witch_hiring_controversy" title="Jamyi Witch hiring controversy">Jamyi Witch hiring controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witchcraft_accusations_against_children" title="Witchcraft accusations against children">accusations against children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_hunts_in_India" title="Witch hunts in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_hunts_in_Nepal" title="Witch hunts in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_hunts_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Witch hunts in Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_camp" title="Witch camp">Witch camp</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Witch_trials_in_the_early_modern_period" title="Witch trials in the early modern period">Early Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maryland_Witch_Trials" class="mw-redirect" title="Maryland Witch Trials">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_trials_in_New_York" title="Witch trials in New York">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salem_witch_trials" title="Salem witch trials">Salem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_trials_in_Virginia" title="Witch trials in Virginia">Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eastern Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Witch_trials_in_Hungary" title="Witch trials in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Moravia_witch_trials" title="Northern Moravia witch trials">Northern Moravia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_trials_in_Poland" title="Witch trials in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_trials_in_Russia" title="Witch trials in Russia">Russia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Northern Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Witch_trials_in_Latvia_and_Estonia" title="Witch trials in Latvia and Estonia">Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_trials_in_Denmark" title="Witch trials in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_trials_in_England" title="Witch trials in England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_trials_in_Finland" title="Witch trials in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_trials_in_Iceland" title="Witch trials in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_trials_in_Norway" title="Witch trials in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_trials_in_early_modern_Scotland" title="Witch trials in early modern Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_trials_in_Sweden" title="Witch trials in Sweden">Sweden</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Witch_trials_in_France" title="Witch trials in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_witch_trials" title="Geneva witch trials">Geneva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_trials_in_Italy" title="Witch trials in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_trials_in_Spain" title="Witch trials in Spain">Spain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basque_witch_trials" title="Basque witch trials">Basque</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Classical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Witch_trials_in_the_Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Witch trials in the Holy Roman Empire">Witch trials in the Holy Roman Empire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Witch_hunt" title="Witch hunt">Witch hunt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch%27s_mark" title="Witch's mark">Witch's mark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pricking" title="Pricking">Pricking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_executed_for_witchcraft" title="List of people executed for witchcraft">List of people executed for witchcraft</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In popular culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magic_in_fiction" title="Magic in fiction">Magic in fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fictional_witches" title="List of fictional witches">Witches in fiction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Witch_(word)" title="Witch (word)">Witch (word)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_(archetype)" title="Witch (archetype)">Witch (archetype)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_magic" title="Christian views on magic">Christian views on magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magical_organization" title="Magical organization">Magical organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maleficium_(sorcery)" class="mw-redirect" title="Maleficium (sorcery)">Maleficium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left-hand_path_and_right-hand_path" title="Left-hand path and right-hand path">Left-hand path and right-hand path</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_interpretations_of_witch_trials_in_the_early_modern_period" title="Feminist interpretations of witch trials in the early modern period">Feminist interpretations of witch trials in the early modern period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_religion" title="Folk religion">Folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adept" title="Adept">Adept</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img 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