CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Roman army - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy","wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"0c6e1eca-7a15-4783-8a5b-18c5e9c887bb","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Roman_army","wgTitle":"Roman army","wgCurRevisionId":1283276644,"wgRevisionId":1283276644,"wgArticleId":753281,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases","Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from February 2025","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Use dmy dates from October 2020","Articles containing Latin-language text","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from September 2018","Military of ancient Rome","Disbanded armies"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Roman_army","wgRelevantArticleId":753281,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":30000,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q1114493","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false}; RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.quicksurveys.init","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.22"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg/1200px-Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1680"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg/800px-Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1120"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg/640px-Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="896"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Roman army - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_army"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_army&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_army"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="auth.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Roman_army rootpage-Roman_army skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" title="Main menu" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="n-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages"><span>Special pages</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Roman+army" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Roman+army" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Roman+army" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Roman+army" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Early_Roman_army_(c._550_–_c._300_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Roman_army_(c._550_–_c._300_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Early Roman army (c. 550 – c. 300 BC)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Roman_army_(c._550_–_c._300_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roman_army_of_the_mid-Republic_(c._300_–_107_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman_army_of_the_mid-Republic_(c._300_–_107_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Roman army of the mid-Republic (c. 300 – 107 BC)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman_army_of_the_mid-Republic_(c._300_–_107_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Imperial_Roman_army_(30_BC_–_AD_284)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Imperial_Roman_army_(30_BC_–_AD_284)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Imperial Roman army (30 BC – AD 284)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Imperial_Roman_army_(30_BC_–_AD_284)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_Roman_army/East_Roman_army_(284–641)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_Roman_army/East_Roman_army_(284–641)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Late Roman army/East Roman army (284–641)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_Roman_army/East_Roman_army_(284–641)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Byzantine_army_(641–1081)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Byzantine_army_(641–1081)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Byzantine army (641–1081)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Byzantine_army_(641–1081)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Komnenian_Byzantine_army_(1081–1204)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Komnenian_Byzantine_army_(1081–1204)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Komnenian Byzantine army (1081–1204)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Komnenian_Byzantine_army_(1081–1204)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Palaiologan_Byzantine_army_(1261–1453)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Palaiologan_Byzantine_army_(1261–1453)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Palaiologan Byzantine army (1261–1453)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Palaiologan_Byzantine_army_(1261–1453)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Roman army</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 45 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-45" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">45 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%B4_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A" title="الجيش الروماني – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الجيش الروماني" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex%C3%A9rcitu_romanu" title="Exércitu romanu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Exércitu romanu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%A0%D1%8B%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8D%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%96" title="Войска Рымскай імпэрыі – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Войска Рымскай імпэрыі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Древноримска армия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Древноримска армия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimska_vojska" title="Rimska vojska – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Rimska vojska" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arme_Roma" title="Arme Roma – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Arme Roma" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex%C3%A8rcit_rom%C3%A0" title="Exèrcit romà – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Exèrcit romà" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romerske_h%C3%A6r" title="Romerske hær – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Romerske hær" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vana-Rooma_armee" title="Vana-Rooma armee – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Vana-Rooma armee" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A1%CF%89%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%8A%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82_%CF%83%CF%84%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%84%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Ρωμαϊκός στρατός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ρωμαϊκός στρατός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ej%C3%A9rcito_romano" title="Ejército romano – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ejército romano" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romia_armeo" title="Romia armeo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Romia armeo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erromatar_armada" title="Erromatar armada – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Erromatar armada" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA%D8%B4_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85" title="ارتش روم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ارتش روم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arm%C3%A9e_romaine" title="Armée romaine – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Armée romaine" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romeinske_leger" title="Romeinske leger – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Romeinske leger" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex%C3%A9rcito_romano" title="Exército romano – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Exército romano" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A1%9C%EB%A7%88_%EC%9C%A1%EA%B5%B0" title="로마 육군 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="로마 육군" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%BC%D5%B8%D5%B4%D5%A5%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AF" title="Հռոմեական բանակ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հռոմեական բանակ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimska_vojska" title="Rimska vojska – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Rimska vojska" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angkatan_Darat_Kekaisaran_Romawi" title="Angkatan Darat Kekaisaran Romawi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Angkatan Darat Kekaisaran Romawi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esercito_romano" title="Esercito romano – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Esercito romano" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A6%D7%91%D7%90_%D7%94%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%99" title="הצבא הרומי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הצבא הרומי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="რომაული არმია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="რომაული არმია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exercitus_Romanus" title="Exercitus Romanus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Exercitus Romanus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sen%C4%81s_Romas_armija" title="Senās Romas armija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Senās Romas armija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rom%C4%97n%C5%B3_kariuomen%C4%97" title="Romėnų kariuomenė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Romėnų kariuomenė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esercit_ruman" title="Esercit ruman – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Esercit ruman" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B3mai_hadsereg" title="Római hadsereg – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Római hadsereg" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Римска армија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Римска армија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romeins_leger" title="Romeins leger – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Romeins leger" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%AD%E3%83%BC%E3%83%9E%E8%BB%8D" title="ローマ軍 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ローマ軍" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armia_rzymska" title="Armia rzymska – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Armia rzymska" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armata_roman%C4%83" title="Armata romană – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Armata romană" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Древнеримская армия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Древнеримская армия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Roman army" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%ADmske_vojsko" title="Rímske vojsko – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Rímske vojsko" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimska_vojska" title="Rimska vojska – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Rimska vojska" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%98%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Римска војска – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Римска војска" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimska_vojska" title="Rimska vojska – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Rimska vojska" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiikin_Rooman_armeija" title="Antiikin Rooman armeija – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Antiikin Rooman armeija" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romerska_rikets_milit%C3%A4r" title="Romerska rikets militär – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Romerska rikets militär" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma_ordusu" title="Roma ordusu – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Roma ordusu" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Римська армія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Римська армія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC%E9%99%B8%E8%BB%8D" title="羅馬陸軍 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="羅馬陸軍" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1114493#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Roman_army" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Roman_army"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_army&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_army&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Roman_army"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_army&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_army&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Roman_army" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Roman_army" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_army&oldid=1283276644" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_army&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Roman_army&id=1283276644&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FRoman_army"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FRoman_army"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Roman_army&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_army&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Military_of_ancient_Rome" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1114493" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Army of Roman civilisation (753 BC–1453 AD)</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;"><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886049405">.mw-parser-output .noitalic{font-style:normal}</style><span class="noitalic"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r920966791">.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%}</style><span class="smallcaps">Exercitus Romanus</span></span></i></span></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg/130px-Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="130" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg/195px-Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg/260px-Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="245" data-file-height="343" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption"><i><a href="/wiki/Vexillum" title="Vexillum">Vexillum</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Aquila_(Roman)" title="Aquila (Roman)">aquila</a></i> displaying <a href="/wiki/SPQR" title="SPQR">SPQR</a> (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Senatus Populusque Romanus</i></span>)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Active</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">753 BC</a>–<a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">AD 1453</a></span><br />(2,206 years)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Country</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Roman Kingdom</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a><br /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1116488514">.mw-parser-output .treeview ul{padding:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .treeview li{padding:0;margin:0;list-style-type:none;list-style-image:none}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li{background:url("https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Treeview-grey-line.png")no-repeat 0 -2981px;padding-left:21px;text-indent:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li:last-child{background-position:0 -5971px}.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>.mw-empty-elt:first-child+.emptyline,.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>li:first-child{background-position:0 9px}</style><div class="treeview"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Size</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Legions</a>: 28–50</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Headquarters</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Aquincum" title="Aquincum">Aquincum</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Bonn" title="Bonn">Bonn</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Lauriacum" title="Lauriacum">Lauriacum</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Isca_Augusta" title="Isca Augusta">Isca Augusta</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> <br /><a href="/wiki/Singara" title="Singara">Singara</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Regensburg" title="Regensburg">Regensburg</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Novae_(fortress)" title="Novae (fortress)">Novae</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Busra" class="mw-redirect" title="Busra">Busra</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Motto(s)</th><td class="infobox-data">'Gloria Exercitus' (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">Glory of the Army</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Engagements</th><td class="infobox-data">See: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_external_wars_and_battles" title="List of Roman external wars and battles">list of Roman external wars and battles</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_civil_wars_and_revolts" title="List of Roman civil wars and revolts">list of Roman civil wars and revolts</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Commander-in-chief</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Emperor</a><br />(<i>de facto</i>; 27 BC–AD 1453)<br /><a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Consul</a><br />(<i>de jure</i>; 509 BC–AD 887)<br /><a href="/wiki/King_of_Rome" title="King of Rome">King</a><br />(753–509 BC)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Notable commanders</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Furius_Camillus" title="Marcus Furius Camillus">Marcus Furius Camillus</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Scipio_Africanus" title="Scipio Africanus">Scipio Africanus</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Marius" title="Gaius Marius">Gaius Marius</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Germanicus" title="Germanicus">Germanicus</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Flavius_Stilicho" class="mw-redirect" title="Flavius Stilicho">Flavius Stilicho</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Flavius_Belisarius" class="mw-redirect" title="Flavius Belisarius">Flavius Belisarius</a></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Military unit</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Solidus_Julian-transparent.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Solidus_Julian-transparent.png/170px-Solidus_Julian-transparent.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="77" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Solidus_Julian-transparent.png/255px-Solidus_Julian-transparent.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Solidus_Julian-transparent.png/340px-Solidus_Julian-transparent.png 2x" data-file-width="436" data-file-height="198" /></a><figcaption>Coin showing (obverse) head of the late Roman emperor <a href="/wiki/Julian_the_Apostate" class="mw-redirect" title="Julian the Apostate">Julian</a> (ruled 361–363 AD) wearing <a href="/wiki/Diadem_(personal_wear)" class="mw-redirect" title="Diadem (personal wear)">diadem</a> and (reverse) soldier bearing standard holding kneeling barbarian captive by the hair, legend and Myth <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">VIRTUS EXERCITUS ROMANORUM</i></span> ('Valour of Roman army'). Gold <i><a href="/wiki/Solidus_(coin)" title="Solidus (coin)">solidus</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Sirmium" title="Sirmium">Sirmium</a> mint.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>Roman army</b> (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">exercitus Romanus</i>) served <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">ancient Rome</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Roman_people" title="Roman people">Roman people</a>, enduring through the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Roman Kingdom</a> (753–509 BC), the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> (509–27 BC), and the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> (27 BC–AD 1453), including the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a> (collapsed <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">AD 476/480</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a> (collapsed <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">AD 1453</a>). It is thus a term that broadly spans approximately 2,206 years, during which the force underwent numerous permutations in <a href="/wiki/Size_of_the_Roman_army" title="Size of the Roman army">size</a>, <a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military of ancient Rome">composition</a>, <a href="/wiki/Structural_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Structural history of the Roman military">organization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_military_equipment" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman military equipment">equipment</a> and <a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_the_Roman_military" title="Strategy of the Roman military">tactics</a>, while conserving a core of lasting traditions.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_Roman_army_(c._550_–_c._300_BC)"><span id="Early_Roman_army_.28c._550_.E2.80.93_c._300_BC.29"></span>Early Roman army (c. 550 – c. 300 BC)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_army&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early Roman army (c. 550 – c. 300 BC)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Early_Roman_army" title="Early Roman army">Early Roman army</a></div> <p>Until <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 550 BC</span>, there was no "national" Roman army, but a series of clan-based war-bands which only coalesced into a united force in periods of serious external threat. Around 550 BC, during the period conventionally known as the rule of king <a href="/wiki/Servius_Tullius" title="Servius Tullius">Servius Tullius</a>, it appears that a universal levy of eligible adult male citizens was instituted. This development apparently coincided with the introduction of heavy armour for most of the infantry. Although originally low in numbers, the Roman infantry was extremely effective and developed some influential battle strategies. </p><p>The early Roman army was based on a compulsory levy from adult male citizens which was held at the start of each campaigning season, in those years that war was declared. There were no standing or professional forces. During the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">regal period</a> (to c. 500 BC), the standard levy was probably of 9,000 men, consisting of 6,000 heavily armed infantry (probably Greek-style <a href="/wiki/Hoplites" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoplites">hoplites</a>), plus 2,400 light-armed infantry (<i><a href="/wiki/Rorarii" title="Rorarii">rorarii</a></i>, later called <i><a href="/wiki/Velites" title="Velites">velites</a></i>) and 600 light cavalry (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">equites celeres</i></span>). When the kings were replaced by two annually elected <i><a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">praetores</a></i> in c. 500 BC, the standard levy remained of the same size, but was now divided equally between the praetors, each commanding one <a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">legion</a> of 4,500 men. </p><p>It is likely that the hoplite element was deployed in a Greek-style <a href="/wiki/Phalanx_formation" class="mw-redirect" title="Phalanx formation">phalanx formation</a> in large <a href="/wiki/Pitched_battle" title="Pitched battle">set-piece battles</a>. However, these were relatively rare, with most fighting consisting of small-scale border-raids and skirmishing. In these, the Romans would fight in their basic tactical unit, the <i><a href="/wiki/Centuria" title="Centuria">centuria</a></i> of 100 men. In addition, separate clan-based forces remained in existence until <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 450 BC</span> at least, although they would operate under the Praetors' authority, at least nominally. </p><p>In 493 BC, shortly after the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>, Rome concluded a perpetual treaty of military alliance (the <i><a href="/wiki/Foedus_Cassianum" title="Foedus Cassianum">Foedus Cassianum</a></i>), with the combined other <a href="/wiki/Latins_(Italic_tribe)" title="Latins (Italic tribe)">Latin</a> city-states. The treaty, probably motivated by the need for the Latins to deploy a united defence against incursions by neighbouring hill-tribes, provided for each party to provide an equal force for campaigns under unified command. It remained in force until 358 BC. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Roman_army_of_the_mid-Republic_(c._300_–_107_BC)"><span id="Roman_army_of_the_mid-Republic_.28c._300_.E2.80.93_107_BC.29"></span>Roman army of the mid-Republic (c. 300 – 107 BC)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_army&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Roman army of the mid-Republic (c. 300 – 107 BC)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Roman_army_of_the_mid-Republic" title="Roman army of the mid-Republic">Roman army of the mid-Republic</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Altar_Domitius_Ahenobarbus_Louvre_n3bis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Altar_Domitius_Ahenobarbus_Louvre_n3bis.jpg/250px-Altar_Domitius_Ahenobarbus_Louvre_n3bis.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Altar_Domitius_Ahenobarbus_Louvre_n3bis.jpg/330px-Altar_Domitius_Ahenobarbus_Louvre_n3bis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Altar_Domitius_Ahenobarbus_Louvre_n3bis.jpg/500px-Altar_Domitius_Ahenobarbus_Louvre_n3bis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2025" data-file-height="1392" /></a><figcaption>Levy of the army, detail of the carved <a href="/wiki/Relief" title="Relief">relief</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Altar_of_Domitius_Ahenobarbus" title="Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus">Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus</a>, 122–115 BC.</figcaption></figure> <p>The central feature of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_army_of_the_mid-Republic" title="Roman army of the mid-Republic">Roman army of the mid-Republic</a>, or the Polybian army, was the manipular organization of its battle-line. Instead of a single, large mass (the <a href="/wiki/Phalanx_formation" class="mw-redirect" title="Phalanx formation">phalanx</a>) as in the <a href="/wiki/Early_Roman_army" title="Early Roman army">Early Roman army</a>, the Romans now drew up in three lines consisting of small units (maniples) of 120 men, arrayed in chessboard fashion, giving much greater tactical strength and flexibility. This structure was probably introduced in c. 300 BC during the <a href="/wiki/Samnite_Wars" title="Samnite Wars">Samnite Wars</a>. Also probably dating from this period was the regular accompaniment of each legion by a non-citizen formation of roughly equal size, the <i><a href="/wiki/Ala_(Roman_allied_military_unit)" title="Ala (Roman allied military unit)">ala</a></i>, recruited from Rome's Italian allies, or <i><a href="/wiki/Socii" title="Socii">socii</a></i>. The latter were approximately 150 autonomous states which were bound by a treaty of perpetual military alliance with Rome. Their sole obligation was to supply to the Roman army, on demand, a number of fully equipped troops up to a specified maximum each year. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Second_Punic_War" title="Second Punic War">Second Punic War</a> (218–201 BC) saw the addition of a third element to the existing dual Roman/Italian structure: non-Italian mercenaries with specialist skills lacking in the legions and <i>alae</i>: <a href="/wiki/Numidian_cavalry" title="Numidian cavalry">Numidian light cavalry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cretan_archers" title="Cretan archers">Cretan archers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Balearic_slinger" title="Balearic slinger">Balearic slingers</a>. From this time, these units always accompanied Roman armies. </p><p>The Republican army of this period, like its earlier forebear, did not maintain standing or professional military forces, but levied them, by compulsory conscription, as required for each campaigning season and disbanded thereafter (although formations could be kept in being over winter during major wars). The standard levy was doubled during the <a href="/wiki/Samnite_Wars" title="Samnite Wars">Samnite Wars</a> to four legions (two per consul), for a total of c. 18,000 Roman troops and four allied <i>alae</i> of similar size. Service in the legions was limited to property-owning Roman citizens, normally those known as <i>iuniores</i> (age 16–46). The army's senior officers, including its commanders-in-chief, the Roman consuls, were all elected annually at the People's Assembly. Only <i><a href="/wiki/Equites" title="Equites">equites</a></i> (members of the Roman knightly order) were eligible to serve as senior officers. <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Iuniores</i></span> of the highest social classes (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">equites</i></span> and the First Class of commoners) provided the legion's cavalry, the other classes the legionary infantry. The <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">proletarii</i></span> (those assessed at under 400 <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">drachmae</i></span> wealth) were ineligible for legionary service and were assigned to the fleets as oarsmen. Elders, vagrants, freedmen, slaves and convicts were excluded from the military levy, save in emergencies. </p><p>The legionary cavalry also changed, probably around 300 BC onwards from the light, unarmoured horse of the early army to a heavy force with metal armour (bronze <a href="/wiki/Cuirass" title="Cuirass">cuirasses</a> and, later, chain-mail shirts). Contrary to a long-held view, the cavalry of the mid-Republic was a highly effective force that generally prevailed against strong enemy cavalry forces (both Gallic and Greek) until it was decisively beaten by the Carthaginian general <a href="/wiki/Hannibal" title="Hannibal">Hannibal</a>'s horsemen during the Second Punic War. This was due to Hannibal's greater operational flexibility owing to his Numidian light cavalry. </p><p>The Polybian army's operations during its existence can be divided into three broad phases. (1) The struggle for hegemony over Italy, especially against the Samnite League (338–264 BC); (2) the struggle with <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a> for hegemony in the western Mediterranean Sea (264–201 BC); and (3) the struggle against the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic">Hellenistic</a> monarchies for control of the eastern Mediterranean (201–91 BC). During the earlier phase, the normal size of the levy (including allies) was in the region of 40,000 men (two consular armies of c. 20,000 men each). </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marius_Chiaramonti_Inv1488.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Marius_Chiaramonti_Inv1488.jpg/170px-Marius_Chiaramonti_Inv1488.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Marius_Chiaramonti_Inv1488.jpg/255px-Marius_Chiaramonti_Inv1488.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Marius_Chiaramonti_Inv1488.jpg/340px-Marius_Chiaramonti_Inv1488.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="3400" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Marius" title="Gaius Marius">Gaius Marius</a>, to whom later historians would misattribute <a href="/wiki/Marian_reforms" title="Marian reforms">putative reforms</a> of the Roman army</figcaption></figure> <p>During the latter phase, with lengthy wars of conquest followed by permanent military occupation of overseas provinces, the character of the army necessarily changed from a temporary force based entirely on short-term conscription to a standing army in which the conscripts, whose service was in this period limited by law to six consecutive years, were complemented by large numbers of volunteers who were willing to serve for much longer periods. Many of the volunteers were drawn from the poorest social class, which until the Second Punic War had been excluded from service in the legions by the minimum property requirement: during that war, extreme manpower needs had forced the army to ignore the requirement, and this practice continued thereafter. <a href="/wiki/Maniple_(military_unit)" title="Maniple (military unit)">Maniples</a> were gradually phased out as the main tactical unit, and replaced by the larger <a href="/wiki/Cohort_(military_unit)" title="Cohort (military unit)">cohorts</a> used in the allied <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">alae</i></span></i>, a process probably complete by the time the general <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Marius" title="Gaius Marius">Marius</a> assumed command in 107 BC. (The so-called "<a href="/wiki/Marian_reforms" title="Marian reforms">Marian reforms</a>" of the army hypothesised by some scholars are today seen by other scholars as having evolved earlier and more gradually.) </p><p>In the period after the defeat of Carthage in 201 BC, the army was campaigning exclusively outside Italy, resulting in its men being away from their home plots of land for many years at a stretch. They were assuaged by the large amounts of booty that they shared after victories in the rich eastern theatre. But in Italy, the ever-increasing concentration of public lands in the hands of big landowners, and the consequent displacement of the soldiers' families, led to great unrest and demands for land redistribution. This was successfully achieved, but resulted in the disaffection of Rome's Italian allies, who as non-citizens were excluded from the redistribution. This led to the mass revolt of the <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">socii</i></span></i> and the <a href="/wiki/Social_War_(91%E2%80%9388_BC)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social War (91–88 BC)">Social War</a> (91-88 BC). The result was the grant of Roman citizenship to all Italians and the end of the Polybian army's dual structure: the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">alae</i></span> were abolished and the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">socii</i></span> recruited into the legions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Imperial_Roman_army_(30_BC_–_AD_284)"><span id="Imperial_Roman_army_.2830_BC_.E2.80.93_AD_284.29"></span>Imperial Roman army (30 BC – AD 284)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_army&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Imperial Roman army (30 BC – AD 284)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Roman_army" title="Imperial Roman army">Imperial Roman army</a></div> <p>Under the founder–emperor <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> (ruled 30 BC – 14 AD), the <a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">legions</a>, c. 5,000-strong all-heavy infantry formations recruited from <a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Roman citizens</a> only, were transformed from a mixed conscript and volunteer corps serving an average of 10 years, to all-volunteer units of long-term professionals serving a standard 25-year term (conscription was only decreed in emergencies). In the later 1st century, the size of a legion's First Cohort was doubled, increasing legionary personnel to c. 5,500. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Engineering_corps_traian_s_column_river_crossing.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Engineering_corps_traian_s_column_river_crossing.jpg/220px-Engineering_corps_traian_s_column_river_crossing.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Engineering_corps_traian_s_column_river_crossing.jpg/330px-Engineering_corps_traian_s_column_river_crossing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Engineering_corps_traian_s_column_river_crossing.jpg/440px-Engineering_corps_traian_s_column_river_crossing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3259" data-file-height="2255" /></a><figcaption>Roman auxiliary infantry crossing a river. They can be distinguished by the oval shield (<i><a href="/wiki/Clipeus" title="Clipeus">clipeus</a></i>) they were equipped with, in contrast to the rectangular <i><a href="/wiki/Scutum_(shield)" class="mw-redirect" title="Scutum (shield)">scutum</a></i> carried by legionaries. Panel from <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Column" title="Trajan's Column">Trajan's Column</a>, Rome</figcaption></figure> <p>Alongside the legions, Augustus established the <a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">auxilia</a>, a regular corps of similar numbers to the legions, recruited from the <i><a href="/wiki/Peregrinus_(Roman)" title="Peregrinus (Roman)">peregrini</a></i> (non-citizen inhabitants of the empire – about 90% of the empire's population in the 1st century). As well as comprising large numbers of extra heavy infantry equipped in a similar manner to legionaries, the auxilia provided virtually all the army's cavalry (heavy and light), light infantry, archers and other <a href="/wiki/Immunes" title="Immunes">specialists</a>. The auxilia were organised in c. 500-strong units called <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">cohortes</i></span> (all-infantry), <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">alae</i></span> (all-cavalry) and <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">cohortes equitatae</i></span> (infantry with a cavalry contingent attached). Around 80 AD, a minority of auxiliary regiments were doubled in size. Until about 68 AD, the auxilia were recruited by a mix of conscription and voluntary enlistment. After that time, the auxilia became largely a volunteer corps, with conscription resorted to only in emergencies. Auxiliaries were required to serve a minimum of 25 years, although many served for longer periods. On completion of their minimum term, auxiliaries were awarded Roman citizenship, which carried important legal, fiscal and social advantages. Alongside the regular forces, the army of the <a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a> employed allied native units (called <i><a href="/wiki/Numerus_(Roman_military_unit)" title="Numerus (Roman military unit)">numeri</a></i>) from outside the empire on a mercenary basis. These were led by their own aristocrats and equipped in traditional fashion. Numbers fluctuated according to circumstances and are largely unknown. </p><p>As all-citizen formations, and symbolic guarantors of the dominance of the Italian hegemony,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> legions enjoyed greater social prestige than the auxilia. This was reflected in better pay and benefits. In addition, legionaries were equipped with more expensive and protective armour than auxiliaries. However, in 212, the emperor <a href="/wiki/Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a> granted Roman citizenship to all the empire's inhabitants. At this point, the distinction between legions and auxilia became moot, the latter becoming all-citizen units also. The change was reflected in the disappearance, during the 3rd century, of legionaries' special equipment, and the progressive break-up of legions into cohort-sized units like the auxilia. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MBALyon2018_-_Expo_Claude_-_Relief_Pretoriens_-_cropped_foreground.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/MBALyon2018_-_Expo_Claude_-_Relief_Pretoriens_-_cropped_foreground.jpg/170px-MBALyon2018_-_Expo_Claude_-_Relief_Pretoriens_-_cropped_foreground.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/MBALyon2018_-_Expo_Claude_-_Relief_Pretoriens_-_cropped_foreground.jpg/255px-MBALyon2018_-_Expo_Claude_-_Relief_Pretoriens_-_cropped_foreground.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/MBALyon2018_-_Expo_Claude_-_Relief_Pretoriens_-_cropped_foreground.jpg/340px-MBALyon2018_-_Expo_Claude_-_Relief_Pretoriens_-_cropped_foreground.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3713" data-file-height="4481" /></a><figcaption>Roman relief fragment depicting the <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_Guard" title="Praetorian Guard">Praetorian Guard</a>, c. 50 AD</figcaption></figure> <p>By the end of Augustus' reign, the imperial army numbered some 250,000 men, equally split between legionaries and auxiliaries (25 legions and c. 250 auxiliary regiments). The numbers grew to a peak of about 450,000 by 211 (33 legions and c. 400 auxiliary regiments). By then, auxiliaries outnumbered legionaries substantially. From the peak, numbers probably underwent a steep decline by 270 due to plague and losses during multiple major barbarian invasions. Numbers were restored to their early 2nd-century level of c. 400,000 (but probably not to their 211 peak) under <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a> (r. 284–305). After the empire's borders became settled (on the <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</a>-<a href="/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube</a> line in Europe) by 68, virtually all military units (except the <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_Guard" title="Praetorian Guard">Praetorian Guard</a>) were stationed on or near the borders, in roughly 17 of the 42 <a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">provinces</a> of the empire in the reign of <a href="/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a> (r. 117–138). </p><p>The military chain of command was relatively uniform across the Empire. In each province, the deployed legions' <i><a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">legati</a></i> (legion commanders, who also controlled the auxiliary regiments attached to their legion) reported to the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Legatus_Augusti_pro_praetore" title="Legatus Augusti pro praetore">legatus Augusti pro praetore</a></i></span> (provincial governor), who also headed the civil administration. The governor in turn reported directly to the emperor in Rome. There was no <a href="/wiki/Staff_(military)" title="Staff (military)">army general staff</a> in Rome, but the leading <i><a href="/wiki/Praefectus_praetorio" class="mw-redirect" title="Praefectus praetorio">praefectus praetorio</a></i> (commander of the <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_Guard" title="Praetorian Guard">Praetorian Guard</a>) often acted as the emperor's de facto military chief-of-staff. </p><p>Legionary rankers were relatively well-paid, compared to contemporary common labourers. Compared with their subsistence-level peasant families, they enjoyed considerable disposable income, enhanced by periodic cash bonuses on special occasions such as the accession of a new emperor. In addition, on completion of their term of service, they were given a generous discharge bonus equivalent to 13 years' salary. Auxiliaries were paid much less in the early 1st century, but by 100 AD, the differential had virtually disappeared. Similarly, in the earlier period, auxiliaries appear not to have received cash and discharge bonuses, but probably did so from Hadrian onwards. Junior officers (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">principales</i></span>), the equivalent of <a href="/wiki/Non-commissioned_officer" title="Non-commissioned officer">non-commissioned officers</a> in modern armies, could expect to earn up to twice basic pay. Legionary <a href="/wiki/Centurion" title="Centurion">centurions</a>, the equivalent of mid-level commissioned officers, were organised in an elaborate hierarchy. Usually risen from the ranks, they commanded the legion's tactical sub-units of <i><a href="/wiki/Centuriae" class="mw-redirect" title="Centuriae">centuriae</a></i> (c. 80 men) and <a href="/wiki/Cohort_(military_unit)" title="Cohort (military unit)">cohorts</a> (c. 480 men). They were paid several multiples of basic pay. The most senior centurion, the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Primus_pilus" title="Primus pilus">primus pilus</a></i></span>, was elevated to <a href="/wiki/Equestrian_order" class="mw-redirect" title="Equestrian order">equestrian</a> rank upon completion of his single-year term of office. The senior officers of the army, the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">legati legionis</i></span> (legion commanders), <i><a href="/wiki/Tribunus_militum" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribunus militum">tribuni militum</a></i> (legion staff officers) and the <i><a href="/wiki/Praefectus" title="Praefectus">praefecti</a></i> (commanders of auxiliary regiments) were all of at least equestrian rank. In the 1st and early 2nd centuries, they were mainly Italian aristocrats performing the military component of their <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Cursus_honorum" title="Cursus honorum">cursus honorum</a></i></span> (conventional career path). Later, provincial career officers became predominant. Senior officers were paid very high salaries, multiples of at least 50 times basic. </p><p>A typical Roman army during this period consisted of five to six legions. One legion was made up of ten cohorts. The first cohort had five <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">centuria</i></span> each of 160 soldiers. In the second through tenth cohorts there were six <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">centuria</i></span></i> of 80 men each. These do not include archers, cavalry or officers. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Colonne_trajane_1-43_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Colonne_trajane_1-43_%28cropped%29.jpg/250px-Colonne_trajane_1-43_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Colonne_trajane_1-43_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Colonne_trajane_1-43_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Colonne_trajane_1-43_%28cropped%29.jpg/500px-Colonne_trajane_1-43_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="918" data-file-height="722" /></a><figcaption>Relief scene of Roman legionaries building a road, from <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Column" title="Trajan's Column">Trajan's Column</a>, <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Roman_Civilization" title="Museum of Roman Civilization">Museum of Roman Civilization</a>, Rome</figcaption></figure> <p>Soldiers spent only a fraction of their lives on campaign. Most of their time was spent on routine military duties such as training, patrolling, and maintenance of equipment, etc. Soldiers also played an important role outside the military sphere. They performed the function of a provincial governor's police force. As a large, disciplined and skilled force of fit men, they played a crucial role in the construction of a province's Roman military and civil infrastructure: in addition to constructing forts and fortified defences such as <a href="/wiki/Hadrian%27s_Wall" title="Hadrian's Wall">Hadrian's Wall</a>, they built roads, bridges, ports, public buildings, entire new cities (Roman colonies), and also engaged in large-scale forest clearance and marsh drainage to expand the province's available arable land. </p><p>Soldiers, mostly drawn from polytheistic societies, enjoyed wide freedom of worship in the polytheistic Roman system. They revered their own native deities, Roman deities and the local deities of the provinces in which they served. Only a few religions were banned by the Roman authorities, as being incompatible with the official Roman religion and/or politically subversive, notably <a href="/wiki/Druidism" class="mw-redirect" title="Druidism">Druidism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>. The later <a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a> saw the rise in popularity among the military of Eastern <a href="/wiki/Mystery_cult" class="mw-redirect" title="Mystery cult">mystery cults</a>, generally centred on one deity, and involving secret rituals divulged only to initiates. By far the most popular in the army was <a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a>, an apparently <a href="/wiki/Syncretism" title="Syncretism">syncretist</a> religion which mainly originated in <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Late_Roman_army/East_Roman_army_(284–641)"><span id="Late_Roman_army.2FEast_Roman_army_.28284.E2.80.93641.29"></span>Late Roman army/East Roman army (284–641)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_army&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Late Roman army/East Roman army (284–641)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Late_Roman_army" title="Late Roman army">Late Roman army</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/East_Roman_army" class="mw-redirect" title="East Roman army">East Roman army</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Late_Roman_army" title="Late Roman army">Late Roman army</a> is the term used to denote the military forces of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> from the accession of emperor <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a> in 284 until the Empire's definitive division into Eastern and Western halves in 395. A few decades afterwards, the Western army disintegrated as the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Empire</a> collapsed. The <a href="/wiki/East_Roman_army" class="mw-redirect" title="East Roman army">East Roman army</a>, on the other hand, continued intact and essentially unchanged until its reorganization by <a href="/wiki/Theme_(Byzantine_administrative_unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Theme (Byzantine administrative unit)">themes</a> and transformation into the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_army" title="Byzantine army">Byzantine army</a> in the 7th century. The term <i>late Roman army</i> is often used to include the East Roman army. </p><p>The army of the <a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a> underwent a significant transformation, as a result of the <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">chaotic 3rd century</a>. Unlike the Principate army, the army of the 4th century was heavily dependent on <a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">conscription</a> and its soldiers were more poorly remunerated than in the 2nd century. <a href="/wiki/Barbarian" title="Barbarian">Barbarians</a> from outside the empire probably supplied a much larger proportion of the late army's recruits than in the army of the 1st and 2nd centuries. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:0_Constantinus_I_-_Palazzo_dei_Conservatori_(1)_(cropped).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/0_Constantinus_I_-_Palazzo_dei_Conservatori_%281%29_%28cropped%29.JPG/250px-0_Constantinus_I_-_Palazzo_dei_Conservatori_%281%29_%28cropped%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/0_Constantinus_I_-_Palazzo_dei_Conservatori_%281%29_%28cropped%29.JPG/330px-0_Constantinus_I_-_Palazzo_dei_Conservatori_%281%29_%28cropped%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/0_Constantinus_I_-_Palazzo_dei_Conservatori_%281%29_%28cropped%29.JPG/500px-0_Constantinus_I_-_Palazzo_dei_Conservatori_%281%29_%28cropped%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1720" data-file-height="2676" /></a><figcaption>The emperor <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine I</a>, who divided the army into escort army (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">comitatenses</i></span>) and border (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">limitanei</i></span>) troops, giving the late Roman army the structure described in the <i><a href="/wiki/Notitia_Dignitatum" title="Notitia Dignitatum">Notitia Dignitatum</a></i>. Bust in <a href="/wiki/Musei_Capitolini" class="mw-redirect" title="Musei Capitolini">Musei Capitolini</a>, Rome</figcaption></figure> <p>The size of the 4th-century army is controversial. More dated scholars (e.g. <a href="/wiki/A._H._M._Jones" title="A. H. M. Jones">A. H. M. Jones</a>, writing in the 1960s) estimated the late army as much larger than the Principate army, half the size again or even as much as twice the size. With the benefit of archaeological discoveries of recent decades, many contemporary historians view the late army as no larger than its predecessor: under Diocletian c. 390,000 (the same as under Hadrian almost two centuries earlier) and under <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine</a> no greater, and probably somewhat smaller, than the Principate peak of c. 440,000. The main change in structure was the establishment of large armies that accompanied the emperors (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">comitatus praesentales</i></span>) and were generally based away from the frontiers. Their primary function was to deter <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_usurpers" title="List of Roman usurpers">usurpations</a>. The legions were split up into smaller units comparable in size to the <a href="/wiki/Auxiliaries_(Roman_military)" class="mw-redirect" title="Auxiliaries (Roman military)">auxiliary regiments</a> of the Principate. In parallel, legionary armour and equipment were abandoned in favour of auxiliary equipment. Infantry adopted the more protective equipment of the Principate cavalry. </p><p>The role of cavalry in the late army does not appear to have been enhanced as compared with the army of the Principate. The evidence is that cavalry was much the same proportion of overall army numbers as in the 2nd century and that its tactical role and prestige remained similar. Indeed, the cavalry acquired a reputation for incompetence and cowardice for their role in three major battles in mid-4th century. In contrast, the infantry retained its traditional reputation for excellence. </p><p>The 3rd and 4th centuries saw the upgrading of many existing border forts to make them more defensible, as well as the construction of new forts with much higher defensive specifications. The interpretation of this trend has fuelled an ongoing debate whether the army adopted a <a href="/wiki/Defence-in-depth_(Roman_military)" title="Defence-in-depth (Roman military)">defence-in-depth</a> strategy or continued the same posture of "forward defence" as in the early Principate. Many elements of the late army's defence posture were similar to those associated with forward defence, such as a looser forward location of forts, frequent cross-border operations, and external buffer-zones of allied barbarian tribes. Whatever the defence strategy, it was apparently less successful in preventing barbarian incursions than in the 1st and 2nd centuries. This may have been due to heavier barbarian pressure, and/or to the practice of keeping large armies of the best troops in the interior, depriving the border forces of sufficient support. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Byzantine_army_(641–1081)"><span id="Byzantine_army_.28641.E2.80.931081.29"></span>Byzantine army (641–1081)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_army&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Byzantine army (641–1081)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_army" title="Byzantine army">Byzantine army</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Komnenian_Byzantine_army_(1081–1204)"><span id="Komnenian_Byzantine_army_.281081.E2.80.931204.29"></span>Komnenian Byzantine army (1081–1204)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_army&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Komnenian Byzantine army (1081–1204)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_army_(Komnenian_era)" title="Byzantine army (Komnenian era)">Byzantine army (Komnenian era)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jean_II_Comnene.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Jean_II_Comnene.jpg/170px-Jean_II_Comnene.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Jean_II_Comnene.jpg/255px-Jean_II_Comnene.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Jean_II_Comnene.jpg/340px-Jean_II_Comnene.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1055" data-file-height="1681" /></a><figcaption>Emperor <a href="/wiki/John_II_Komnenos" title="John II Komnenos">John II Komnenos</a>, the most successful commander of the Komnenian army.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Komnenian_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Komnenian period">Komnenian period</a> marked a rebirth of the <a href="/wiki/Komnenian_Byzantine_army" class="mw-redirect" title="Komnenian Byzantine army">Byzantine army</a>. At the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Komnenian_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Komnenian period">Komnenian period</a> in 1081, the Byzantine Empire had been reduced to the smallest territorial extent. Surrounded by enemies, and financially ruined by a long period of civil war, the empire's prospects looked grim. </p><p>At the beginning of the Komnenian period, the Byzantine army was reduced to a shadow of its former self: during the 11th century, decades of peace and neglect had reduced the old <a href="/wiki/Theme_(Byzantine_district)" title="Theme (Byzantine district)">thematic</a> forces, and the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manzikert" title="Battle of Manzikert">Battle of Manzikert</a> in 1071 had destroyed the professional <i><a href="/wiki/Tagma_(military)" title="Tagma (military)">tagmata</a></i>, the core of the Byzantine army. At Manzikert and later at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dyrrhachium_(1081)" title="Battle of Dyrrhachium (1081)">Dyrrhachium</a>, units tracing their lineage for centuries back to <a href="/wiki/Late_Roman_army" title="Late Roman army">Late Roman army</a> were wiped out, and the subsequent loss of <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a> deprived the Empire of its main recruiting ground. In the Balkans, at the same time, the Empire was exposed to invasions by the <a href="/wiki/Normans" title="Normans">Norman</a> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Kingdom of Sicily</a>, and by <a href="/wiki/Pecheneg" class="mw-redirect" title="Pecheneg">Pecheneg</a> raids across the <a href="/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube</a>. </p><p>The Byzantine army's nadir was reached in 1091, when <a href="/wiki/Alexios_I_Komnenos" title="Alexios I Komnenos">Alexios I Komnenos</a> could manage to field only 500 soldiers from the Empire's professional forces. These formed the nucleus of the army, with the addition of the armed retainers of Alexios' relatives and the nobles enrolled in the army and the substantial aid of a large force of allied <a href="/wiki/Cumans" title="Cumans">Cumans</a>, which won the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Levounion" title="Battle of Levounion">Battle of Levounion</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Pechenegs" title="Pechenegs">Pechenegs</a> (Petcheneks or Patzinaks).<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yet, through a combination of skill, determination and years of campaigning, Alexios, John and Manuel Komnenos managed to restore the power of the Byzantine Empire by constructing a new army from scratch. This process should not, however, at least in its earlier phases, be seen as a planned exercise in military restructuring. In particular, Alexios I was often reduced to reacting to events rather than controlling them; the changes he made to the Byzantine army were largely done out of immediate necessity and were pragmatic in nature. </p><p>The new force had a core of units which were both professional and disciplined. It contained formidable guards units such as the <a href="/wiki/Varangians" title="Varangians">Varangians</a>, the <i><a href="/wiki/Immortals_(Byzantine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Immortals (Byzantine)">Athanatoi</a></i>, a unit of heavy cavalry stationed in <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Vardariotai" title="Vardariotai">Vardariotai</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Archontopouloi" title="Archontopouloi">Archontopouloi</a>, recruited by Alexios from the sons of dead Byzantine officers, foreign mercenary regiments, and also units of professional soldiers recruited from the provinces. These provincial troops included <a href="/wiki/Cataphract" title="Cataphract"><i>kataphraktoi</i></a> cavalry from Macedonia, Thessaly and Thrace, and various other provincial forces such as <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond" title="Empire of Trebizond">Trebizond</a> <a href="/wiki/Archery" title="Archery">archers</a> from the Black Sea coast of <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>. Alongside troops raised and paid for directly by the state the Komnenian army included the armed followers of members of the wider imperial family and its extensive connections. In this can be seen the beginnings of the feudalisation of the Byzantine military. The granting of <i><a href="/wiki/Pronoia" title="Pronoia">pronoia</a></i> holdings, where land, or more accurately rights to revenue from land, was held in return for military obligations, was beginning to become a notable element in the military infrastructure towards the end of the Komnenian period, though it became much more important subsequently. </p><p>In 1097, the Byzantine army numbered around 70,000 men altogether.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1180 and the death of Manuel Komnenos, whose frequent campaigns had been on a grand scale, the army was probably considerably larger. During the reign of Alexios I, the field army numbered around 20,000 men which was increased to about 30,000 men in John II's reign.<sup id="cite_ref-Treadgold680_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Treadgold680-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the end of Manuel I's reign the Byzantine field army had risen to 40,000 men. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Palaiologan_Byzantine_army_(1261–1453)"><span id="Palaiologan_Byzantine_army_.281261.E2.80.931453.29"></span>Palaiologan Byzantine army (1261–1453)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_army&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Palaiologan Byzantine army (1261–1453)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_army_(Palaiologan_era)" title="Byzantine army (Palaiologan era)">Byzantine army (Palaiologan era)</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Palaiologan_Byzantine_army" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaiologan Byzantine army">Palaiologan army</a> refers to the military forces of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> from the late 13th century to its final collapse in the mid 15th century, under the <a href="/wiki/Palaiologos" title="Palaiologos">House of the Palaiologoi</a>. The army was a direct continuation of the forces of the Nicaean army, which itself was a fractured component of the formidable <a href="/wiki/Komnenian_army" class="mw-redirect" title="Komnenian army">Komnenian army</a>. Under the first Palaiologan emperor, Michael VIII, the army's role took an increasingly offensive role whilst the naval forces of the Empire, weakened since the days of Andronikos I Komnenos, were boosted to include thousands of skilled sailors and some 80 ships. Due to the lack of land to support the army, the Empire required the use of large numbers of mercenaries. </p><p>After Andronikos II took to the throne, the army fell apart and the Byzantines suffered regular defeats at the hands of their eastern opponents, although they would continue to enjoy success against the crusader territories in Greece. By c. 1350, following a <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_civil_war_of_1341%E2%80%931347" title="Byzantine civil war of 1341–1347">destructive civil war</a> and the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a>, the Empire was no longer capable of raising troops and the supplies to maintain them. The Empire came to rely upon troops provided by Serbs, Bulgarians, Venetians, Latins, Genoans and Ottoman Turks to fight the civil wars that lasted for the greater part of the 14th century, with the latter foe being the most successful in establishing a foothold in Thrace. The Ottomans swiftly expanded through the Balkans and cut off Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire, from the surrounding land. The last decisive battle was fought by the Palaiologan army in 1453, when Constantinople was besieged and <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">fell</a> on 29 May. The last isolated remnants of the Byzantine state were conquered by 1461. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_army&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/40px-SPQRomani.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/60px-SPQRomani.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/120px-SPQRomani.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="931" data-file-height="548" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Rome" title="Portal:Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome portal</a></span></li></ul> <p>This section contains the summaries of the detailed linked articles on the historical phases above. Readers seeking presentations of the Roman army by theme, rather than by chronological phase, should consult these articles: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1216972533">.mw-parser-output .col-begin{border-collapse:collapse;padding:0;color:inherit;width:100%;border:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .col-begin-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .col-break{vertical-align:top;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .col-break-2{width:50%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-3{width:33.3%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-4{width:25%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-5{width:20%}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .col-begin,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr>td{display:block!important;width:100%!important}.mw-parser-output .col-break{padding-left:0!important}}</style><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <p><b>History</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">Campaign history of the Roman military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military history of ancient Rome">Military history of ancient Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Political history of the Roman military">Political history of the Roman military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Structural history of the Roman military">Structural history of the Roman military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Technological history of the Roman military">Technological history of the Roman military</a></li></ul> <p><b>Corps</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Praetorian_Guard" title="Praetorian Guard">Praetorian Guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Roman legion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliaries_(Roman_military)" class="mw-redirect" title="Auxiliaries (Roman military)">Roman auxiliaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_cavalry" title="Roman cavalry">Roman cavalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Roman navy</a></li></ul> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <p><b>Strategy and tactics</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_infantry_tactics" title="Roman infantry tactics">Roman infantry tactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_the_Roman_military" title="Strategy of the Roman military">Strategy of the Roman military</a></li></ul> <p><b>Equipment</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_military_clothing" title="Ancient Roman military clothing">Ancient Roman military clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_personal_equipment" title="Roman military personal equipment">Roman military personal equipment</a></li></ul> <p><b>Other</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_the_Roman_army" title="Economics of the Roman army">Economics of the Roman army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_engineering" title="Roman military engineering">Roman military engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_frontiers_and_fortifications" title="Roman military frontiers and fortifications">Roman military frontiers and fortifications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_decorations_and_punishments" title="Roman military decorations and punishments">Roman military decorations and punishments</a></li></ul> <p>  </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_army&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Complete Roman Army, Adrian Goldsworthy Thames & Hudson, 2011</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Companion to the Roman Army, Paul Erdkamp, John Wiley & Sons, 31 March 2011</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSouthern2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Pat_Southern" title="Pat Southern">Southern, Pat</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=b3UHGXny-NwC&q=Tactics+of+the+Roman+Army&pg=PT16"><i>The Roman Army: A Social and Institutional History</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-532878-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-532878-3"><bdi>978-0-19-532878-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Army%3A+A+Social+and+Institutional+History&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-19-532878-3&rft.aulast=Southern&rft.aufirst=Pat&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Db3UHGXny-NwC%26q%3DTactics%2Bof%2Bthe%2BRoman%2BArmy%26pg%3DPT16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+army" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Angold, p. 127 <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (February 2025)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Konstam, p. 141.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (February 2025)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Treadgold680-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Treadgold680_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">W. Treadgold, <i>A History of the Byzantine State and Society</i>, 680</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_army&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ross_Cowan" title="Ross Cowan">Ross Cowan</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/80274943">Roman Legionary 109-58 BC: The Age of Marius, Sulla and Pompey the Great</a></li> <li>Ross Cowan, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/99238434"><i>Roman Legionary AD 69-161</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ross_Cowan" title="Ross Cowan">Ross Cowan</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/98627208/Roman_Legionary_AD_284_337_The_Age_of_Diocletian_and_Constantine_proof_">Roman Legionary AD 284-337: The Age of Diocletian and Constantine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/862755/Did_Diocletian_overhaul_the_Roman_army">Diocletian and the Roman Army</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.imperiumromanum.edu.pl/en/life-of-a-roman-legionary/">Life of Roman legionary</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/80285528/Roman_Warriors_The_Myth_of_the_Military_Machine">Roman Warriors: The Myth of the Military Machine</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Rome_topics565" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Template:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Template talk:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Rome_topics565" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Rome" title="Outline of ancient Rome">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Roman_history" title="Timeline of Roman history">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rome" title="History of Rome">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overthrow_of_the_Roman_monarchy" title="Overthrow of the Roman monarchy">overthrow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Roman Empire">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">Pax Romana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominate" title="Dominate">Dominate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">historiography of the fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Decline of the Byzantine Empire">decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Roman_Empire" title="Later Roman Empire">Later Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Later_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Later Roman Empire">History</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Constitution" title="Roman Constitution">Constitution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Constitution" title="History of the Roman Constitution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Constitution of the Roman Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Constitution of the Roman Empire">Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Late_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the Late Roman Empire">Late Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_assemblies" title="Roman assemblies">Legislative assemblies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curiate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Curiate Assembly">Curiate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centuriate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Centuriate Assembly">Centuriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Tribal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeian_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebeian Council">Plebeian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Executive magistrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SPQR" title="SPQR">SPQR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tables" title="Twelve Tables">Twelve Tables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mos_maiorum" title="Mos maiorum">Mos maiorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">Auctoritas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">Imperium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_in_Roman_legal_system" title="Status in Roman legal system">Status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_litigation" title="Roman litigation">Litigation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curia" title="Curia">Curia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_(Roman)" title="Forum (Roman)">Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursus_honorum" title="Cursus honorum">Cursus honorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collegiality#In_the_Roman_Republic" title="Collegiality">Collegiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">Legatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dux" title="Dux">Dux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Officium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Officium (ancient Rome)">Officium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praefectus" title="Praefectus">Praefectus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicarius" title="Vicarius">Vicarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vigintisexviri" title="Vigintisexviri">Vigintisexviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lictor" title="Lictor">Lictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_militum" title="Magister militum">Magister militum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">Imperator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeps_senatus" title="Princeps senatus">Princeps senatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus">Pontifex maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimates_and_populares" title="Optimates and populares">Optimates and populares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Province</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Magistrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Ordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Consul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">Censor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">Praetor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">Tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune_of_the_plebs" title="Tribune of the plebs">Tribune of the plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_tribune" title="Military tribune">Military tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestor" title="Quaestor">Quaestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aedile" title="Aedile">Aedile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promagistrate" title="Promagistrate">Promagistrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_governor" title="Roman governor">Governor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Extraordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Rome" title="King of Rome">Rex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrex" title="Interrex">Interrex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">Dictator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_equitum" title="Magister equitum">Magister equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decemviri" title="Decemviri">Decemviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribuni_militum_consulari_potestate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribuni militum consulari potestate">Consular tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triumvirate_(ancient_Rome)" title="Triumvirate (ancient Rome)">Triumvir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military of ancient Rome">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military history of ancient Rome">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Borders of the Roman Empire">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_establishment_of_the_Roman_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Military establishment of the Roman Republic">Establishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Structural history of the Roman military">Structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Political history of the Roman military">Political control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_the_Roman_military" title="Strategy of the Roman military">Strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_engineering" title="Roman military engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_frontiers_and_fortifications" title="Roman military frontiers and fortifications">Frontiers and fortifications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castra" title="Castra">castra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Technological history of the Roman military">Technology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Legion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_infantry_tactics" title="Roman infantry tactics">Infantry tactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_personal_equipment" title="Roman military personal equipment">Personal equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_siege_engines" title="Roman siege engines">Siege engines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_(Roman_history)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege (Roman history)">Siege in Ancient Rome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">Auxiliaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_decorations_and_punishments" title="Roman military decorations and punishments">Decorations and punishments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippika_gymnasia" title="Hippika gymnasia">Hippika gymnasia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_economy" title="Roman economy">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Rome" title="Agriculture in ancient Rome">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_during_the_Roman_period" title="Deforestation during the Roman period">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce" title="Roman commerce">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_finance" title="Roman finance">Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_currency" title="Roman currency">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republican_currency" title="Roman Republican currency">Republican currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Imperial_currency" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Imperial currency">Imperial currency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rome" title="Culture of ancient Rome">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture" title="Ancient Roman architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_bathing" title="Ancient Roman bathing">Bathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Rome" title="Clothing in ancient Rome">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_in_ancient_Rome" title="Cosmetics in ancient Rome">Cosmetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_cuisine" title="Ancient Roman cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_ancient_Rome" title="Education in ancient Rome">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_folklore" title="Roman folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_hairstyles" title="Roman hairstyles">Hairstyles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Rome" title="Music of ancient Rome">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_deities" title="List of Roman deities">Deities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_people" title="Roman people">Romans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sexuality in ancient Rome">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectacles_in_ancient_Rome" title="Spectacles in ancient Rome">Spectacles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Rome" title="Theatre of ancient Rome">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toys_and_games_in_ancient_Rome" title="Toys and games in ancient Rome">Toys and games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome_and_wine" title="Ancient Rome and wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_ancient_Rome" title="Social class in ancient Rome">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">Patricians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeians" title="Plebeians">Plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_the_Orders" title="Conflict of the Orders">Conflict of the Orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secessio_plebis" title="Secessio plebis">Secessio plebis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equites" title="Equites">Equites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gens" title="Gens">Gens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_tribe" title="Roman tribe">Tribes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Assembly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patronage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Patronage in ancient Rome">Patronage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_naming_conventions" title="Roman naming conventions">Naming conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Demography of the Roman Empire">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_Rome" title="Women in ancient Rome">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Marriage in ancient Rome">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adoption_in_ancient_Rome" title="Adoption in ancient Rome">Adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagaudae" title="Bagaudae">Bagaudae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_technology" title="Ancient Roman technology">Technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_amphitheatre" title="Roman amphitheatre">Amphitheatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">Aqueducts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_bridge" title="Roman bridge">Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_circus" title="Roman circus">Circuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_engineering" title="Ancient Roman engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">Concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_domes" title="History of Roman and Byzantine domes">Domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_metallurgy" title="Roman metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_numerals" title="Roman numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_roads" title="Roman roads">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sanitation in ancient Rome">Sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_theatre_(structure)" title="Roman theatre (structure)">Theatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">Thermae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Latin" title="History of Latin">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Alphabet</a></li> <li>Versions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Latin" title="Renaissance Latin">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Latin" title="Contemporary Latin">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">Ecclesiastical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aelius_Donatus" title="Aelius Donatus">Aelius Donatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Appuleius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Asconius_Pedianus" title="Quintus Asconius Pedianus">Asconius Pedianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelius_Victor" title="Aurelius Victor">Aurelius Victor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ausonius" title="Ausonius">Ausonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boëthius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catullus" title="Catullus">Catullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassiodorus" title="Cassiodorus">Cassiodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorinus" title="Censorinus">Censorinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudian" title="Claudian">Claudian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columella" title="Columella">Columella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Nepos" title="Cornelius Nepos">Cornelius Nepos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ennius" title="Ennius">Ennius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutropius_(historian)" title="Eutropius (historian)">Eutropius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Fabius_Pictor" title="Quintus Fabius Pictor">Fabius Pictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Sextus Pompeius Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festus_(historian)" title="Festus (historian)">Rufus Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Works_attributed_to_Florus" class="mw-redirect" title="Works attributed to Florus">Florus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontinus" title="Frontinus">Frontinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Cornelius_Fronto" title="Marcus Cornelius Fronto">Fronto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabius_Planciades_Fulgentius" title="Fabius Planciades Fulgentius">Fulgentius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aulus_Gellius" title="Aulus Gellius">Gellius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydatius" title="Hydatius">Hydatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Hyginus" title="Gaius Julius Hyginus">Hyginus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanes" title="Jordanes">Jordanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Paulus" title="Julius Paulus">Julius Paulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_(historian)" title="Justin (historian)">Justin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juvenal" title="Juvenal">Juvenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucan" title="Lucan">Lucan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcellus_Empiricus" title="Marcellus Empiricus">Marcellus Empiricus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Manilius" title="Marcus Manilius">Manilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial" title="Martial">Martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_of_Damascus" title="Nicolaus of Damascus">Nicolaus Damascenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonius_Marcellus" title="Nonius Marcellus">Nonius Marcellus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Obsequens" title="Julius Obsequens">Obsequens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orosius" title="Orosius">Orosius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petronius" title="Petronius">Petronius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(fabulist)" title="Phaedrus (fabulist)">Phaedrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomponius_Mela" title="Pomponius Mela">Pomponius Mela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscian" title="Priscian">Priscian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propertius" title="Propertius">Propertius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Claudius_Quadrigarius" title="Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius">Quadrigarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus" title="Quintus Curtius Rufus">Quintus Curtius Rufus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sallust" title="Sallust">Sallust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Elder" title="Seneca the Elder">Seneca the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidonius_Apollinaris" title="Sidonius Apollinaris">Sidonius Apollinaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silius_Italicus" title="Silius Italicus">Silius Italicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statius" title="Statius">Statius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Aurelius_Symmachus" title="Quintus Aurelius Symmachus">Symmachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terence" title="Terence">Terence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibullus" title="Tibullus">Tibullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Antias" title="Valerius Antias">Valerius Antias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Maximus" title="Valerius Maximus">Valerius Maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro" title="Marcus Terentius Varro">Varro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velleius_Paterculus" title="Velleius Paterculus">Velleius Paterculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verrius_Flaccus" title="Verrius Flaccus">Verrius Flaccus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Vergil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Greek</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_Aelianus" title="Claudius Aelianus">Aelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C3%ABtius_of_Amida" title="Aëtius of Amida">Aëtius of Amida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes Laërtius">Diogenes Laërtius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedanius_Dioscorides" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedanius Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eusebius" title="Eusebius">Eusebius of Caesaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian" title="Herodian">Herodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libanius" title="Libanius">Libanius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)" title="Pausanias (geographer)">Pausanias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philostratus" title="Philostratus">Philostratus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phlegon_of_Tralles" title="Phlegon of Tralles">Phlegon of Tralles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyaenus" title="Polyaenus">Polyaenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyrius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscus" title="Priscus">Priscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius of Cilicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sozomen" title="Sozomen">Sozomen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanus_of_Byzantium" title="Stephanus of Byzantium">Stephanus Byzantinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Themistius" title="Themistius">Themistius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodoret" title="Theodoret">Theodoret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joannes_Zonaras" title="Joannes Zonaras">Zonaras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zosimus_(historian)" title="Zosimus (historian)">Zosimus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquileia" title="Aquileia">Aquileia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berytus" title="Berytus">Berytus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bononia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eboracum" title="Eboracum">Eboracum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptis_Magna" title="Leptis Magna">Leptis Magna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Londinium" title="Londinium">Londinium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugdunum" title="Lugdunum">Lugdunum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutetia" title="Lutetia">Lutetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediolanum" title="Mediolanum">Mediolanum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Roma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smyrna" title="Smyrna">Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vindobona" title="Vindobona">Vindobona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volubilis" title="Volubilis">Volubilis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists <span class="nobold">and other<br />topics</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_founded_by_the_Romans" title="List of cities founded by the Romans">Cities and towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_ancient_Rome" title="Climate of ancient Rome">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_consuls" title="List of Roman consuls">Consuls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Dictators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_women" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Roman women">Distinguished women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dynasties" title="List of Roman dynasties">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_emperors" title="List of Roman emperors">Emperors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_empresses" title="List of Roman and Byzantine empresses">Empresses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiction_set_in_ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiction set in ancient Rome">Fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_set_in_ancient_Rome" title="List of films set in ancient Rome">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_generals" title="List of Roman generals">Generals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_gentes" title="List of Roman gentes">Gentes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Graeco-Roman_geographers" title="List of Graeco-Roman geographers">Geographers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_laws" title="List of Roman laws">Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_legions" title="List of Roman legions">Legions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Magistri equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_nomina" title="List of Roman nomina">Nomina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pontifices_maximi" title="List of pontifices maximi">Pontifices maximi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_praetors" title="List of Roman praetors">Praetors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_quaestors" title="List of Roman quaestors">Quaestors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_tribunes" title="List of Roman tribunes">Tribunes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Iranian_relations" title="Roman–Iranian relations">Roman–Iranian relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_external_wars_and_battles" title="List of Roman external wars and battles">External wars and battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_civil_wars_and_revolts" title="List of Roman civil wars and revolts">Civil wars and revolts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://auth.wikimedia.org/loginwiki/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_army&oldid=1283276644">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_army&oldid=1283276644</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_of_ancient_Rome" title="Category:Military of ancient Rome">Military of ancient Rome</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Disbanded_armies" title="Category:Disbanded armies">Disbanded armies</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_specifically_marked_weasel-worded_phrases" title="Category:All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases">All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_specifically_marked_weasel-worded_phrases_from_February_2025" title="Category:Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from February 2025">Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from February 2025</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_October_2020" title="Category:Use dmy dates from October 2020">Use dmy dates from October 2020</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Latin-language text">Articles containing Latin-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_September_2018" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from September 2018">Articles with unsourced statements from September 2018</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 31 March 2025, at 14:12<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_army&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://www.wikimedia.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia.svg" width="25" height="25" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" lang="en" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" width="88" height="31"><img src="/w/resources/assets/mediawiki_compact.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" lang="en" width="25" height="25" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-header-container vector-sticky-header-container"> <div id="vector-sticky-header" class="vector-sticky-header"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-start"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-start vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" aria-hidden="true"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-sticky-header-search-toggle" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.vector-sticky-search-form.icon"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </button> </div> <div role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box"> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="vector-sticky-search-form" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia"> <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-sticky-header-toc vector-sticky-header-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-sticky-header-toc-label" for="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar-primary" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="mw-page-title-main">Roman army</span></div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-end" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icons"> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-talk-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="talk-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbles mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbles"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-subject-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="subject-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-article mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-article"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-history-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="history-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-history mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-history"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only mw-watchlink" id="ca-watchstar-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="watch-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-star mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-star"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="wikitext-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikiText mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-wikiText"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-ve-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-edit mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-edit"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-editLock mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-editLock"></span> <span></span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-language"></span> <span>45 languages</span> </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Add topic</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="mw-portlet mw-portlet-dock-bottom emptyPortlet" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul> </ul> </div> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-65585cc8dc-zvnz5","wgBackendResponseTime":134,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"0.475","walltime":"0.602","ppvisitednodes":{"value":2803,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":94549,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":6722,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":15,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":13,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":22055,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":0,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 471.802 1 -total"," 32.39% 152.794 1 Template:Infobox_military_unit"," 30.32% 143.030 1 Template:Infobox"," 23.50% 110.862 24 Template:Lang"," 17.31% 81.677 1 Template:Reflist"," 15.37% 72.498 4 Template:Navbox"," 15.24% 71.892 1 Template:Ancient_Rome_topics"," 12.29% 57.988 1 Template:Cite_book"," 11.91% 56.198 2 Template:Short_description"," 8.60% 40.576 3 Template:Fix"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.269","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":25493789,"limit":52428800}},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-684955989f-chqcs","timestamp":"20250331180708","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Roman army","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Roman_army","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q1114493","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q1114493","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2004-06-25T17:45:54Z","dateModified":"2025-03-31T14:12:02Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/8\/83\/Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg","headline":"terrestrial forces of Roman governments"}</script> </body> </html>