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aria-controls="toc-Common_carcinogens_associated_with_food-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Common carcinogens associated with food subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Common_carcinogens_associated_with_food-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Alcohol" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alcohol"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Alcohol</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alcohol-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Processed_meats" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Processed_meats"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Processed meats</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Processed_meats-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Meats_cooked_at_high_temperatures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Meats_cooked_at_high_temperatures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Meats cooked at high temperatures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Meats_cooked_at_high_temperatures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Acrylamide_in_foods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Acrylamide_in_foods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Acrylamide in foods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Acrylamide_in_foods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biologic_Agents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biologic_Agents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Biologic Agents</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biologic_Agents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cigarette_smoke" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cigarette_smoke"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Cigarette smoke</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cigarette_smoke-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Occupational_carcinogens" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Occupational_carcinogens"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Occupational carcinogens</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Occupational_carcinogens-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Occupational carcinogens subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Occupational_carcinogens-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Others" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Others"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Others</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Others-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mechanisms_of_carcinogenicity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mechanisms_of_carcinogenicity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Mechanisms of carcinogenicity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mechanisms_of_carcinogenicity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Classification</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Classification-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Classification subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-International_Agency_for_Research_on_Cancer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_Agency_for_Research_on_Cancer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>International Agency for Research on Cancer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_Agency_for_Research_on_Cancer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Globally_Harmonized_System" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Globally_Harmonized_System"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Globally Harmonized System</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Globally_Harmonized_System-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-U.S._National_Toxicology_Program" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#U.S._National_Toxicology_Program"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>U.S. National Toxicology Program</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-U.S._National_Toxicology_Program-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-American_Conference_of_Governmental_Industrial_Hygienists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#American_Conference_of_Governmental_Industrial_Hygienists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-American_Conference_of_Governmental_Industrial_Hygienists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-European_Union" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#European_Union"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>European Union</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-European_Union-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Safe_Work_Australia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Safe_Work_Australia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.6</span> <span>Safe Work Australia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Safe_Work_Australia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Major_carcinogens_implicated_in_the_four_most_common_cancers_worldwide" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Major_carcinogens_implicated_in_the_four_most_common_cancers_worldwide"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Major carcinogens implicated in the four most common cancers worldwide</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Major_carcinogens_implicated_in_the_four_most_common_cancers_worldwide-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Major carcinogens implicated in the four most common cancers worldwide subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Major_carcinogens_implicated_in_the_four_most_common_cancers_worldwide-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Lung_cancer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lung_cancer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Lung cancer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lung_cancer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Breast_cancer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Breast_cancer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Breast cancer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Breast_cancer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colon_cancer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colon_cancer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Colon cancer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colon_cancer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stomach_cancer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stomach_cancer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>Stomach cancer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stomach_cancer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Carcinogen</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 53 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-53" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">53 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karsinogeen" title="Karsinogeen – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Karsinogeen" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%B7%D9%86" title="مسرطن – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مسرطن" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carcin%C3%B3xenu" title="Carcinóxenu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Carcinóxenu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanserogen" title="Kanserogen – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Kanserogen" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8B" title="Канцэрагены – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Канцэрагены" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Канцероген – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Канцероген" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karcinogen" title="Karcinogen – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Karcinogen" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carcinogen" title="Carcinogen – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Carcinogen" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karzinogen" title="Karzinogen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Karzinogen" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kantserogeenid" title="Kantserogeenid – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kantserogeenid" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BA%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%B3%CF%8C%CE%BD%CE%BF" title="Καρκινογόνο – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Καρκινογόνο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carcin%C3%B3geno" title="Carcinógeno – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Carcinógeno" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kancerigilo" title="Kancerigilo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kancerigilo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kartzinogeno" title="Kartzinogeno – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Kartzinogeno" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D8%B2%D8%A7" title="ماده سرطان‌زا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ماده سرطان‌زا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canc%C3%A9rog%C3%A8ne" title="Cancérogène – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Cancérogène" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carcanaigin" title="Carcanaigin – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Carcanaigin" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carcin%C3%B3xeno" title="Carcinóxeno – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Carcinóxeno" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B0%9C%EC%95%94%EB%AC%BC%EC%A7%88" title="발암물질 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="발암물질" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%94%D5%A1%D5%B2%D6%81%D5%AF%D5%A5%D5%B2%D5%A1%D5%AE%D5%AB%D5%B6" title="Քաղցկեղածին – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Քաղցկեղածին" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%95" title="कैंसरजनक – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="कैंसरजनक" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kancerogen" title="Kancerogen – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kancerogen" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karsinogen" title="Karsinogen – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Karsinogen" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carcinogeno" title="Carcinogeno – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Carcinogeno" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%9D_%D7%9E%D7%A1%D7%A8%D7%98%D7%9F" title="גורם מסרטן – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="גורם מסרטן" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%AA%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="კანცეროგენი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="კანცეროგენი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Канцероген – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Канцероген" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%AEraveker" title="Tîraveker – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Tîraveker" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B" title="Канцероген заттары – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Канцероген заттары" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kancerogenin%C4%97_med%C5%BEiaga" title="Kancerogeninė medžiaga – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Kancerogeninė medžiaga" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Канцероген – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Канцероген" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karsinogen" title="Karsinogen – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Karsinogen" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carcinogeen" title="Carcinogeen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Carcinogeen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8" title="कार्सिनोजेन – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="कार्सिनोजेन" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%99%BA%E7%99%8C%E6%80%A7" title="発癌性 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="発癌性" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreftfremkallende_stoffer" title="Kreftfremkallende stoffer – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kreftfremkallende stoffer" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czynnik_rakotw%C3%B3rczy" title="Czynnik rakotwórczy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Czynnik rakotwórczy" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carcin%C3%B3geno" title="Carcinógeno – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Carcinógeno" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carcinogen" title="Carcinogen – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Carcinogen" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Канцероген – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Канцероген" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carcinogen" title="Carcinogen – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Carcinogen" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karcinog%C3%A9n" title="Karcinogén – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Karcinogén" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karcinogen" title="Karcinogen – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Karcinogen" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karcinogen" title="Karcinogen – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Karcinogen" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karcinogen" title="Karcinogen – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Karcinogen" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karsinogeeni" title="Karsinogeeni – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Karsinogeeni" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancerframkallande_%C3%A4mnen" title="Cancerframkallande ämnen – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Cancerframkallande ämnen" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%81%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B0%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%87" title="สารก่อมะเร็ง – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สารก่อมะเร็ง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanserojen" title="Kanserojen – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kanserojen" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Канцерогени – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Канцерогени" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%8F%D8%B3%D9%8E%D8%B1%D8%B7%D9%90%D9%86" title="مُسَرطِن – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="مُسَرطِن" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A1c_nh%C3%A2n_g%C3%A2y_ung_th%C6%B0" title="Tác nhân gây ung thư – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tác nhân gây ung thư" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" 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style="width:187px;max-width:187px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:123px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:UV_Sterilisation.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/UV_Sterilisation.jpg/185px-UV_Sterilisation.jpg" decoding="async" width="185" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/UV_Sterilisation.jpg/278px-UV_Sterilisation.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/UV_Sterilisation.jpg/370px-UV_Sterilisation.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:201px;max-width:201px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:123px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tremolite_Campolungo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Tremolite_Campolungo.jpg/199px-Tremolite_Campolungo.jpg" decoding="async" width="199" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Tremolite_Campolungo.jpg/299px-Tremolite_Campolungo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Tremolite_Campolungo.jpg/398px-Tremolite_Campolungo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4438" data-file-height="2746" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Common carcinogens; clockwise from top left: <a href="/wiki/Tobacco_smoking" title="Tobacco smoking">tobacco smoking</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_and_cancer" title="Alcohol and cancer">alcohol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asbestos" title="Asbestos">asbestos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> radiation</div></div></div></div> <p>A <b>carcinogen</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/ɑːr/: 'ar' in 'far'">ɑːr</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/dʒ/: 'j' in 'jam'">dʒ</span><span title="/ən/: 'on' in 'button'">ən</span></span>/</a></span></span>) is any agent that promotes the development of <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Carcinogens can include <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_chemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Synthetic chemical">synthetic chemicals</a>, naturally occurring substances, physical agents such as ionizing and non-ionizing <a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">radiation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Biological_agent" title="Biological agent">biologic agents</a> such as viruses and <a href="/wiki/Carcinogenic_bacteria" title="Carcinogenic bacteria">bacteria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most carcinogens act by creating mutations in <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> that disrupt a cell's normal processes for regulating growth, leading to uncontrolled cellular proliferation.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This occurs when the cell's <a href="/wiki/DNA_repair" title="DNA repair">DNA repair</a> processes fail to identify DNA damage allowing the defect to be passed down to <a href="/wiki/Daughter_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Daughter cells">daughter cells</a>. The damage accumulates over time. This is typically a multi-step process during which the regulatory mechanisms within the cell are gradually dismantled allowing for unchecked <a href="/wiki/Cell_division" title="Cell division">cellular division</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The specific mechanisms for carcinogenic activity is unique to each agent and cell type. Carcinogens can be broadly categorized, however, as activation-dependent and activation-independent which relate to the agent's ability to engage directly with DNA.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Activation-dependent agents are relatively inert in their original form, but are bioactivated in the body into <a href="/wiki/Metabolite" title="Metabolite">metabolites</a> or intermediaries capable of damaging human DNA.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These are also known as "indirect-acting" carcinogens. Examples of activation-dependent carcinogens include <a href="/wiki/Polycyclic_aromatic_hydrocarbon" title="Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon">polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons</a> (PAHs), <a href="/wiki/Heterocyclic_aromatic_amine" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterocyclic aromatic amine">heterocyclic aromatic amines</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mycotoxin" title="Mycotoxin">mycotoxins</a>. Activation-independent carcinogens, or "direct-acting" carcinogens, are those that are capable of directly damaging DNA without any modification to their molecular structure. These agents typically include <a href="/wiki/Electrophile" title="Electrophile">electrophilic</a> groups that react readily with the net negative charge of DNA molecules.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Examples of activation-independent carcinogens include <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet light</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing radiation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alkylating_agent" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkylating agent">alkylating agents</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The time from exposure to a carcinogen to the development of cancer is known as the <a href="/wiki/Latency_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Latency period">latency period</a>. For most solid tumors in humans the latency period is between 10 and 40 years depending on cancer type.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For blood cancers, the latency period may be as short as two.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to prolonged latency periods identification of carcinogens can be challenging. </p><p>A number of organizations review and evaluate the cumulative scientific evidence regarding the potential carcinogenicity of specific substances. Foremost among these is the <a href="/wiki/International_Agency_for_Research_on_Cancer" title="International Agency for Research on Cancer">International Agency for Research on Cancer</a> (IARC). IARC routinely publishes monographs in which specific substances are evaluated for their potential carcinogenicity to humans and subsequently categorized into one of four groupings: Group 1: Carcinogenic to humans, Group 2A: Probably carcinogenic to humans, Group 2B: Possibly carcinogenic to humans and Group 3: Not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other organizations that evaluate the carcinogenicity of substances include the <a href="/wiki/National_Toxicology_Program" title="National Toxicology Program">National Toxicology Program</a> of the <a href="/wiki/US_Public_Health_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="US Public Health Service">US Public Health Service</a>, <a href="/wiki/NIOSH" class="mw-redirect" title="NIOSH">NIOSH</a>, the <a href="/wiki/American_Conference_of_Governmental_Industrial_Hygienists" title="American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists">American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists</a> and others.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are numerous sources of exposures to carcinogens including <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultraviolet radiation">ultraviolet radiation</a> from the sun, <a href="/wiki/Radon_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Radon gas">radon gas</a><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> emitted in residential basements, environmental contaminants such as <a href="/wiki/Chlordecone" title="Chlordecone">chlordecone</a>, cigarette smoke and ingestion of some types of foods such as alcohol and <a href="/wiki/Processed_meat" title="Processed meat">processed meats</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Occupational exposures represent a major source of carcinogens with an estimated 666,000 annual fatalities worldwide attributable to work related cancers.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Health" title="National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health">NIOSH</a>, 3-6% of cancers worldwide are due to occupational exposures.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Well established occupational carcinogens include <a href="/wiki/Vinyl_chloride" title="Vinyl chloride">vinyl chloride</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hemangiosarcoma" title="Hemangiosarcoma">hemangiosarcoma</a> of the liver, <a href="/wiki/Benzene" title="Benzene">benzene</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leukemia" title="Leukemia">leukemia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aniline_dyes" class="mw-redirect" title="Aniline dyes">aniline dyes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bladder_cancer" title="Bladder cancer">bladder cancer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asbestos" title="Asbestos">asbestos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mesothelioma" title="Mesothelioma">mesothelioma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polycyclic_aromatic_hydrocarbon" title="Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon">polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chimney_sweeps%27_carcinoma" title="Chimney sweeps' carcinoma">scrotal cancer</a> among chimney sweeps to name a few. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Radiation">Radiation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carcinogen&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Radiation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Radiation-induced_cancer" title="Radiation-induced cancer">radiation-induced cancer</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ionizing_Radiation">Ionizing Radiation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carcinogen&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Ionizing Radiation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/CERCLA" class="mw-redirect" title="CERCLA">CERCLA</a> identifies all <a href="/wiki/Radionuclide" title="Radionuclide">radionuclides</a> as carcinogens, although the nature of the emitted <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">radiation</a> (<a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">alpha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beta_particle" title="Beta particle">beta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">gamma</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Neutron_radiation" title="Neutron radiation">neutron</a> and the radioactive strength), its consequent capacity to cause <a href="/wiki/Ionization" title="Ionization">ionization</a> in tissues, and the magnitude of radiation exposure, determine the potential hazard. Carcinogenicity of radiation depends on the type of radiation, type of exposure, and penetration. For example, <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">alpha radiation</a> has low penetration and is not a hazard outside the body, but emitters are carcinogenic when inhaled or ingested. For example, <a href="/wiki/Thorotrast" title="Thorotrast">Thorotrast</a>, a (incidentally radioactive) <a href="/wiki/Suspension_(chemistry)" title="Suspension (chemistry)">suspension</a> previously used as a <a href="/wiki/Radiocontrast" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiocontrast">contrast</a> medium in <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">x-ray</a> diagnostics, is a potent human carcinogen known because of its retention within various <a href="/wiki/Organ_(biology)" title="Organ (biology)">organs</a> and persistent emission of alpha particles. Low-level ionizing radiation may induce irreparable DNA damage (leading to replicational and transcriptional errors needed for neoplasia or may trigger viral interactions) leading to pre-mature aging and <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-ionizing_radiation">Non-ionizing radiation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carcinogen&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Non-ionizing radiation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Not all types of electromagnetic radiation are carcinogenic. Low-energy waves on the <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum" title="Electromagnetic spectrum">electromagnetic spectrum</a> including <a href="/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">radio waves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">microwaves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Infrared_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Infrared radiation">infrared radiation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Visible_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Visible light">visible light</a> are thought not to be, because they have insufficient energy to break chemical bonds. Evidence for carcinogenic effects of non-ionizing radiation is generally <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation_and_health" title="Electromagnetic radiation and health">inconclusive</a>, though there are some documented cases of radar technicians with prolonged high exposure experiencing significantly higher cancer incidence.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Higher-energy radiation, including <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultraviolet radiation">ultraviolet radiation</a> (present in <a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">sunlight</a>) generally <i>is</i> carcinogenic, if received in sufficient doses. For most people, ultraviolet radiations from sunlight is the most common cause of skin cancer. In Australia, where people with pale skin are often exposed to strong sunlight, <a href="/wiki/Melanoma" title="Melanoma">melanoma</a> is the most common cancer diagnosed in people aged 15–44 years.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Substances or <a href="/wiki/Food_irradiation" title="Food irradiation">foods</a> irradiated with electrons or electromagnetic radiation (such as microwave, X-ray or gamma) are not carcinogenic.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast, non-electromagnetic <a href="/wiki/Neutron_radiation" title="Neutron radiation">neutron radiation</a> produced inside nuclear reactors can produce secondary radiation through <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_transmutation" title="Nuclear transmutation">nuclear transmutation</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Common_carcinogens_associated_with_food">Common carcinogens associated with food</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carcinogen&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Common carcinogens associated with food"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alcohol">Alcohol</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carcinogen&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Alcohol"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_and_cancer" title="Alcohol and cancer">Alcohol and cancer</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">Alcohol</a> is a carcinogen of the head and neck, esophagus, liver, colon and rectum, and breast. It has a synergistic effect with tobacco smoke in the development of head and neck cancers. In the United States approximately 6% of cancers and 4% of cancer deaths are attributable to alcohol use.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Processed_meats">Processed meats</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carcinogen&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Processed meats"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Chemicals used in processed and cured meat such as some brands of bacon, sausages and ham may produce carcinogens.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, nitrites used as food preservatives in cured meat such as bacon have also been noted as being carcinogenic with demographic links, but not causation, to colon cancer.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Meats_cooked_at_high_temperatures">Meats cooked at high temperatures</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carcinogen&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Meats cooked at high temperatures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Cooking#Carcinogens" title="Cooking">Cooking § Carcinogens</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Raw_foodism" title="Raw foodism">Raw foodism</a></div> <p>Cooking food at high temperatures, for example <a href="/wiki/Grilling" title="Grilling">grilling</a> or <a href="/wiki/Barbecuing" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbecuing">barbecuing</a> meats, may also lead to the formation of minute quantities of many potent carcinogens that are comparable to those found in cigarette smoke (i.e., <a href="/wiki/Benzo(a)pyrene" title="Benzo(a)pyrene">benzo[<i>a</i>]pyrene</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-pmid9827527_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid9827527-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Charring" title="Charring">Charring</a> of food looks like <a href="/wiki/Coking" title="Coking">coking</a> and tobacco <a href="/wiki/Pyrolysis" title="Pyrolysis">pyrolysis</a>, and produces carcinogens. There are several carcinogenic pyrolysis products, such as polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, which are converted by human <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a> into <a href="/wiki/Epoxide" title="Epoxide">epoxides</a>, which attach permanently to DNA. Pre-cooking meats in a <a href="/wiki/Microwave_oven" title="Microwave oven">microwave oven</a> for 2–3 minutes before grilling shortens the time on the hot pan, and removes heterocyclic amine (HCA) precursors, which can help minimize the formation of these carcinogens.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Acrylamide_in_foods">Acrylamide in foods</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carcinogen&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Acrylamide in foods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Frying, grilling or broiling food at high temperatures, especially starchy foods, until a toasted crust is formed generates <a href="/wiki/Acrylamide" title="Acrylamide">acrylamides</a>. This discovery in 2002 led to international health concerns. Subsequent research has however found that it is not likely that the acrylamides in burnt or well-cooked food cause cancer in humans; <a href="/wiki/Cancer_Research_UK" title="Cancer Research UK">Cancer Research UK</a> categorizes the idea that burnt food causes cancer as a "myth".<sup id="cite_ref-cruk_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cruk-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biologic_Agents">Biologic Agents</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carcinogen&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Biologic Agents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several biologic agents are known carcinogens. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Aflatoxin" title="Aflatoxin">Aflatoxin</a> B<sub>1</sub>, a toxin produced by the <a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">fungus</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Aspergillus_flavus" title="Aspergillus flavus">Aspergillus flavus</a></i> which is a common contaminant of stored <a href="/wiki/Cereal" title="Cereal">grains</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nut_(fruit)" title="Nut (fruit)">nuts</a> is a known cause of <a href="/wiki/Hepatocellular_carcinoma" title="Hepatocellular carcinoma">hepatocellular cancer</a>. The bacteria <a href="/wiki/Helicobacter_pylori" title="Helicobacter pylori">H. Pylori</a> is known to cause stomach cancer and <a href="/wiki/MALT_lymphoma" title="MALT lymphoma">MALT lymphoma</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_B" title="Hepatitis B">Hepatitis B</a> and C are associated with the development of hepatocellular cancer. <a href="/wiki/Human_papillomavirus_infection" title="Human papillomavirus infection">HPV</a> is the primary cause of <a href="/wiki/Cervical_cancer" title="Cervical cancer">cervical cancer</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cigarette_smoke">Cigarette smoke</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carcinogen&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Cigarette smoke"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Health_effects_of_tobacco" title="Health effects of tobacco">Health effects of tobacco</a></div> <p>Tobacco smoke contains at least 70 known carcinogens and is implicated in the development of numerous types of cancers including cancers of the lung, larynx, esophagus, stomach, kidney, pancreas, liver, bladder, cervix, colon, rectum and blood.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Potent carcinogens found in cigarette smoke include <a href="/wiki/Polycyclic_aromatic_hydrocarbon" title="Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon">polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons</a> (PAH, such as benzo(a)pyrene), <a href="/wiki/Benzene" title="Benzene">benzene</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nitrosamine" title="Nitrosamine">nitrosamine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Occupational_carcinogens">Occupational carcinogens</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carcinogen&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Occupational carcinogens"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Given that populations of workers are more likely to have consistent, often high level exposures to chemicals rarely encountered in normal life, much of the evidence for the carcinogenicity of specific agents is derived from studies of workers.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><u>Selected carcinogens</u> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Carcinogen</th> <th>Associated cancer sites or types</th> <th>Occupational uses or sources </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">Arsenic</a> and its compounds </th> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lung" title="Lung">Lung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skin" title="Skin">Skin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemangiosarcoma" title="Hemangiosarcoma">Hemangiosarcoma</a></li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">Smelting</a> byproduct</li> <li>Component of: <ul><li>Alloys</li> <li>Electrical and <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductor</a> devices</li> <li>Medications (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Melarsoprol" title="Melarsoprol">melarsoprol</a>)</li> <li>Herbicides</li> <li>Fungicides</li> <li>Animal dips</li> <li>Drinking water from contaminated aquifers.</li></ul></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Asbestos" title="Asbestos">Asbestos</a> </th> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lung_cancer" title="Lung cancer">Lungs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asbestosis" title="Asbestosis">Asbestosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_cancer" title="Gastrointestinal cancer">Gastrointestinal tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pleural" class="mw-redirect" title="Pleural">Pleural</a> mesothelioma</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peritoneal_mesothelioma" title="Peritoneal mesothelioma">Peritoneal mesothelioma</a></li></ul> </td> <td> <p>Not in widespread use, but found in: </p> <ul><li>Constructions <ul><li>Roofing papers</li> <li>Floor tiles</li></ul></li> <li>Fire-resistant textiles</li> <li>Friction linings (brake pads) (only outside Europe) <ul><li>Replacement friction linings for automobiles still may contain asbestos</li></ul></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Benzene" title="Benzene">Benzene</a> </th> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leukemia" title="Leukemia">Leukemia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hodgkin%27s_lymphoma" class="mw-redirect" title="Hodgkin's lymphoma">Hodgkin's lymphoma</a></li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li>Light <a href="/wiki/Fuel_oil" title="Fuel oil">fuel oil</a></li> <li>Former use as <a href="/wiki/Solvent" title="Solvent">solvent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commodity_chemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Commodity chemical">commodity chemical</a></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Beryllium" title="Beryllium">Beryllium</a> and its compounds<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <td> <ul><li>Lung</li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li>Lightweight alloys <ul><li>Aerospace applications</li> <li>Nuclear reactors</li></ul></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Cadmium" title="Cadmium">Cadmium</a> and its compounds<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prostate_cancer" title="Prostate cancer">Prostate</a></li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li>Yellow pigments</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosphor" title="Phosphor">Phosphors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solder" title="Solder">Solders</a></li> <li>Batteries</li> <li>Metal paintings and coatings</li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Hexavalent <a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">chromium</a>(VI) compounds </th> <td> <ul><li>Lung</li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li>Paints</li> <li>Pigments</li> <li>Preservatives</li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Nitrosamine" title="Nitrosamine">Nitrosamines</a><sup id="cite_ref-Tricker_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tricker-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <td> <ul><li>Lung</li> <li>Esophagus</li> <li>Liver</li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cigarette_smoke" class="mw-redirect" title="Cigarette smoke">cigarette smoke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrite" title="Nitrite">nitrite</a>-treated foods (cured meats)</li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Ethylene_oxide" title="Ethylene oxide">Ethylene oxide</a> </th> <td> <ul><li>Leukemia</li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commodity_chemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Commodity chemical">commodity chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sterilant" class="mw-redirect" title="Sterilant">Sterilant</a> for hospital equipment</li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">Nickel</a> </th> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nose" title="Nose">Nose</a></li> <li>Lung</li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li>Nickel plating</li> <li>Ferrous alloys</li> <li>Ceramics</li> <li>Batteries</li> <li>Stainless-steel welding byproduct</li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Radon" title="Radon">Radon</a> and its decay products </th> <td> <ul><li>Lung</li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li>Uranium decay <ul><li>Quarries and mines</li> <li>Cellars and poorly ventilated places</li></ul></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Vinyl_chloride" title="Vinyl chloride">Vinyl chloride</a> </th> <td> <ul><li>Hemangiosarcoma</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liver_cancer" title="Liver cancer">Liver</a></li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li>Production of <a href="/wiki/Polyvinyl_chloride" title="Polyvinyl chloride">polyvinyl chloride</a></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Shift work that involves <p><a href="/wiki/Circadian" class="mw-redirect" title="Circadian">circadian</a> disruption<sup id="cite_ref-IARC180_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IARC180-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </th> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breast_cancer" title="Breast cancer">Breast</a></li></ul> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Involuntary smoking (<a href="/wiki/Passive_smoking" title="Passive smoking">Passive smoking</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <td> <ul><li>Lung</li></ul> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Radium-226" title="Radium-226">Radium-226</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radium-224" class="mw-redirect" title="Radium-224">Radium-224</a>,<br /> <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-238" title="Plutonium-238">Plutonium-238</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-239" title="Plutonium-239">Plutonium-239</a><sup id="cite_ref-Durbin75_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Durbin75-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /> and other <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">alpha particle</a><br /> emitters with high atomic weight </th> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bone_cancer" class="mw-redirect" title="Bone cancer">Bone</a> (they are <a href="/wiki/Bone_seeker" title="Bone seeker">bone seekers</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liver_cancer" title="Liver cancer">Liver</a></li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel" title="Nuclear fuel">Nuclear fuel</a> processing</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radium_dial" title="Radium dial">Radium dial</a> manufacturing</li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td><small>Unless otherwise specified, ref is:<sup id="cite_ref-Kumar6-2_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kumar6-2-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></small> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Others">Others</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carcinogen&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Others"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gasoline" title="Gasoline">Gasoline</a> (contains aromatics)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">Lead</a> and its compounds</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alkylating_antineoplastic_agent" title="Alkylating antineoplastic agent">Alkylating antineoplastic agents</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Mechlorethamine" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechlorethamine">mechlorethamine</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Styrene" title="Styrene">Styrene</a></li> <li>Other <a href="/wiki/Alkylating_agent" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkylating agent">alkylating agents</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Dimethyl_sulfate" title="Dimethyl sulfate">dimethyl sulfate</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultraviolet radiation">Ultraviolet radiation</a> from the sun and UV lamps</li> <li>Other <a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing radiation</a> (X-rays, gamma rays, etc.)</li> <li>Low refining or unrefined <a href="/wiki/Mineral_oil" title="Mineral oil">mineral oils</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mechanisms_of_carcinogenicity">Mechanisms of carcinogenicity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carcinogen&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Mechanisms of carcinogenicity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Carcinogens can be classified as genotoxic or nongenotoxic. <a href="/wiki/Genotoxin" class="mw-redirect" title="Genotoxin">Genotoxins</a> cause irreversible genetic damage or mutations by binding to <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>. Genotoxins include chemical agents like <a href="/wiki/N-nitroso-N-methylurea" class="mw-redirect" title="N-nitroso-N-methylurea">N-nitroso-N-methylurea</a> (NMU) or non-chemical agents such as <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultraviolet light">ultraviolet light</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing radiation</a>. Certain viruses can also act as carcinogens by interacting with DNA. </p><p>Nongenotoxins do not directly affect DNA but act in other ways to promote growth. These include hormones and some organic compounds.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carcinogen&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" style="margin:0 0 0 0.5em; float:right;"> <caption>Approximate equivalences<br />between classification schemes </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>IARC </th> <th>GHS </th> <th>NTP </th> <th>ACGIH </th> <th>EU </th></tr> <tr> <td>Group 1 </td> <td>Cat. 1A </td> <td style="text-align:center;">Known </td> <td style="text-align:center;">A1 </td> <td>Cat. 1A </td></tr> <tr> <td>Group 2A </td> <td rowspan="2">Cat. 1B </td> <td rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;">Reasonably<br />suspected </td> <td rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;">A2 </td> <td rowspan="2">Cat. 1B </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">Group 2B </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">Cat. 2 </td> <td rowspan="4">  </td> <td rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;">A3 </td> <td rowspan="2">Cat. 2 </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">Group 3 </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">  </td> <td style="text-align:center;">A4 </td> <td rowspan="2">  </td></tr> <tr> <td>Group 4 </td> <td style="text-align:center;">A5 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International_Agency_for_Research_on_Cancer">International Agency for Research on Cancer</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carcinogen&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: International Agency for Research on Cancer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/International_Agency_for_Research_on_Cancer" title="International Agency for Research on Cancer">International Agency for Research on Cancer</a> (IARC) is an intergovernmental agency established in 1965, which forms part of the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>. It is based in <a href="/wiki/Lyon" title="Lyon">Lyon</a>, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>. Since 1971 it has published a series of <i>Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans</i><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that have been highly influential in the classification of possible carcinogens. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_IARC_Group_1_carcinogens" class="mw-redirect" title="List of IARC Group 1 carcinogens">Group 1</a>: the agent (mixture) is carcinogenic to humans. The exposure circumstance entails exposures that are carcinogenic to humans.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_IARC_Group_2A_carcinogens" class="mw-redirect" title="List of IARC Group 2A carcinogens">Group 2A</a>: the agent (mixture) is most likely (<i>product more likely to be</i>) carcinogenic to humans. The exposure circumstance entails exposures that are probably carcinogenic to humans.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_IARC_Group_2B_carcinogens" class="mw-redirect" title="List of IARC Group 2B carcinogens">Group 2B</a>: the agent (mixture) is possibly (<i>chance of product being</i>) carcinogenic to humans. The exposure circumstance entails exposures that are possibly carcinogenic to humans.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_IARC_Group_3_carcinogens" class="mw-redirect" title="List of IARC Group 3 carcinogens">Group 3</a>: the agent (mixture or exposure circumstance) is not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_IARC_Group_4_carcinogens" class="mw-redirect" title="List of IARC Group 4 carcinogens">Group 4</a>: the agent (mixture) is most likely not carcinogenic to humans.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Globally_Harmonized_System">Globally Harmonized System</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carcinogen&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Globally Harmonized System"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Globally_Harmonized_System_of_Classification_and_Labelling_of_Chemicals" title="Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals">Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals</a> (GHS) is a <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> initiative to attempt to harmonize the different systems of assessing chemical risk which currently exist (as of March 2009) around the world. It classifies carcinogens into two categories, of which the first may be divided again into subcategories if so desired by the competent regulatory authority: </p> <ul><li>Category 1: known or presumed to have carcinogenic potential for humans <ul><li>Category 1A: the assessment is based primarily on human evidence</li> <li>Category 1B: the assessment is based primarily on animal evidence</li></ul></li> <li>Category 2: suspected human carcinogens</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="U.S._National_Toxicology_Program">U.S. National Toxicology Program</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carcinogen&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: U.S. National Toxicology Program"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/National_Toxicology_Program" title="National Toxicology Program">National Toxicology Program</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services" title="United States Department of Health and Human Services">U.S. Department of Health and Human Services</a> is mandated to produce a biennial <i>Report on Carcinogens</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of August 2024, the latest edition was the 15th report (2021).<sup id="cite_ref-roc_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-roc-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It classifies carcinogens into two groups: </p> <ul><li>Known to be a human carcinogen</li> <li>Reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="American_Conference_of_Governmental_Industrial_Hygienists">American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carcinogen&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/American_Conference_of_Governmental_Industrial_Hygienists" title="American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists">American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists</a> (ACGIH) is a private organization best known for its publication of <a href="/wiki/Threshold_limit_value" title="Threshold limit value">threshold limit values</a> (TLVs) for occupational exposure and monographs on workplace chemical hazards. It assesses carcinogenicity as part of a wider assessment of the occupational hazards of chemicals. </p> <ul><li>Group A1: Confirmed human carcinogen</li> <li>Group A2: Suspected human carcinogen</li> <li>Group A3: Confirmed animal carcinogen with unknown relevance to humans</li> <li>Group A4: Not classifiable as a human carcinogen</li> <li>Group A5: Not suspected as a human carcinogen</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="European_Union">European Union</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carcinogen&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: European Union"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The European Union classification of carcinogens is contained in the Regulation (EC) No 1272/2008. It consists of three categories:<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Category 1A: Carcinogenic</li> <li>Category 1B: May cause cancer</li> <li>Category 2: Suspected of causing cancer</li></ul> <p>The former European Union classification of carcinogens was contained in the <a href="/wiki/Dangerous_Substances_Directive_(67/548/EEC)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dangerous Substances Directive (67/548/EEC)">Dangerous Substances Directive</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Dangerous_Preparations_Directive" title="Dangerous Preparations Directive">Dangerous Preparations Directive</a>. It also consisted of three categories: </p> <ul><li>Category 1: Substances known to be carcinogenic to humans.</li> <li>Category 2: Substances which should be regarded as if they are carcinogenic to humans.</li> <li>Category 3: Substances which cause concern for humans, owing to possible carcinogenic effects but in respect of which the available information is not adequate for making a satisfactory assessment.</li></ul> <p>This assessment scheme is being phased out in favor of the GHS scheme (see above), to which it is very close in category definitions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Safe_Work_Australia">Safe Work Australia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carcinogen&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Safe Work Australia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Under a previous name, the NOHSC, in 1999 <a href="/wiki/Safe_Work_Australia" title="Safe Work Australia">Safe Work Australia</a> published the Approved Criteria for Classifying Hazardous Substances [NOHSC:1008(1999)].<sup id="cite_ref-Safe_Work_Australia3_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Safe_Work_Australia3-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Section 4.76 of this document outlines the criteria for classifying carcinogens as approved by the Australian government. This classification consists of three categories: </p> <ul><li>Category 1: Substances known to be carcinogenic to humans.</li> <li>Category 2: Substances that should be regarded as if they were carcinogenic to humans.</li> <li>Category 3: Substances that have possible carcinogenic effects in humans but about which there is insufficient information to make an assessment.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Major_carcinogens_implicated_in_the_four_most_common_cancers_worldwide">Major carcinogens implicated in the four most common cancers worldwide</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carcinogen&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Major carcinogens implicated in the four most common cancers worldwide"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In this section, the carcinogens implicated as the main causative agents of the four most common cancers worldwide are briefly described. These four cancers are lung, breast, colon, and stomach cancers. Together they account for about 41% of worldwide cancer incidence and 42% of cancer deaths (for more detailed information on the carcinogens implicated in these and other cancers, see references<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lung_cancer">Lung cancer</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carcinogen&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Lung cancer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Lung_cancer" title="Lung cancer">Lung cancer</a> (pulmonary carcinoma) is the most common cancer in the world, both in terms of cases (1.6 million cases; 12.7% of total cancer cases) and deaths (1.4 million deaths; 18.2% of total cancer deaths).<sup id="cite_ref-Ferlay_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ferlay-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lung cancer is largely caused by tobacco smoke. Risk estimates for lung cancer in the United States indicate that tobacco smoke is responsible for 90% of lung cancers. Other factors are implicated in lung cancer, and these factors can interact synergistically with <a href="/wiki/Smoking" title="Smoking">smoking</a> so that total attributable risk adds up to more than 100%. These factors include occupational exposure to carcinogens (about 9-15%), <a href="/wiki/Radon" title="Radon">radon</a> (10%) and outdoor air pollution (1-2%).<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Tobacco smoke is a complex mixture of more than 5,300 identified chemicals. The most important carcinogens in tobacco smoke have been determined by a "Margin of Exposure" approach.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using this approach, the most important tumorigenic compounds in tobacco smoke were, in order of importance, <a href="/wiki/Acrolein" title="Acrolein">acrolein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Formaldehyde" title="Formaldehyde">formaldehyde</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acrylonitrile" title="Acrylonitrile">acrylonitrile</a>, 1,3-butadiene, cadmium, acetaldehyde, ethylene oxide, and isoprene. Most of these compounds cause DNA damage by forming DNA adducts or by inducing other alterations in DNA.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="removed citation to book from predatory publisher (December 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> DNA damages are subject to error-prone DNA repair or can cause replication errors. Such errors in repair or replication can result in mutations in tumor suppressor genes or oncogenes leading to cancer. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Breast_cancer">Breast cancer</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carcinogen&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Breast cancer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Breast_cancer" title="Breast cancer">Breast cancer</a> is the second most common cancer [(1.4 million cases, 10.9%), but ranks 5th as cause of death (458,000, 6.1%)].<sup id="cite_ref-Ferlay_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ferlay-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Increased risk of breast cancer is associated with persistently elevated blood levels of <a href="/wiki/Estrogen" title="Estrogen">estrogen</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Estrogen appears to contribute to breast carcinogenesis by three processes; (1) the metabolism of estrogen to genotoxic, mutagenic carcinogens, (2) the stimulation of tissue growth, and (3) the repression of phase II <a href="/wiki/Detoxification" title="Detoxification">detoxification</a> enzymes that metabolize <a href="/wiki/Reactive_oxygen_species" title="Reactive oxygen species">ROS</a> leading to increased oxidative DNA damage.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The major estrogen in humans, <a href="/wiki/Estradiol" title="Estradiol">estradiol</a>, can be metabolized to quinone derivatives that form <a href="/wiki/DNA_adduct" title="DNA adduct">adducts</a> with DNA.<sup id="cite_ref-Yue_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yue-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These derivatives can cause depurination, the removal of bases from the phosphodiester backbone of DNA, followed by inaccurate repair or replication of the apurinic site leading to mutation and eventually cancer. This genotoxic mechanism may interact in synergy with estrogen receptor-mediated, persistent cell proliferation to ultimately cause breast cancer.<sup id="cite_ref-Yue_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yue-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Genetic background, dietary practices and environmental factors also likely contribute to the incidence of DNA damage and breast cancer risk. </p><p>Consumption of <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">alcohol</a> has also been linked to an increased risk for breast cancer.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colon_cancer">Colon cancer</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carcinogen&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Colon cancer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Colorectal_cancer" title="Colorectal cancer">Colorectal cancer</a> is the third most common cancer [1.2 million cases (9.4%), 608,000 deaths (8.0%)].<sup id="cite_ref-Ferlay_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ferlay-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tobacco smoke may be responsible for up to 20% of colorectal cancers in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, substantial evidence implicates <a href="/wiki/Bile_acid" title="Bile acid">bile acids</a> as an important factor in colon cancer. Twelve studies (summarized in Bernstein et al.<sup id="cite_ref-Bernstein2009_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bernstein2009-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) indicate that the bile acids deoxycholic acid (DCA) or lithocholic acid (LCA) induce production of DNA-damaging reactive oxygen species or reactive nitrogen species in human or animal colon cells. Furthermore, 14 studies showed that DCA and LCA induce DNA damage in colon cells. Also 27 studies reported that bile acids cause programmed cell death (<a href="/wiki/Apoptosis" title="Apoptosis">apoptosis</a>). </p><p>Increased apoptosis can result in selective survival of cells that are resistant to induction of apoptosis.<sup id="cite_ref-Bernstein2009_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bernstein2009-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Colon cells with reduced ability to undergo apoptosis in response to DNA damage would tend to accumulate mutations, and such cells may give rise to colon cancer.<sup id="cite_ref-Bernstein2009_52-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bernstein2009-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Epidemiologic studies have found that fecal bile acid concentrations are increased in populations with a high incidence of colon cancer. Dietary increases in total fat or saturated fat result in elevated DCA and LCA in feces and elevated exposure of the colon epithelium to these bile acids. When the bile acid DCA was added to the standard diet of wild-type mice invasive colon cancer was induced in 56% of the mice after 8 to 10 months.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Overall, the available evidence indicates that DCA and LCA are centrally important DNA-damaging carcinogens in colon cancer. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stomach_cancer">Stomach cancer</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carcinogen&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Stomach cancer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Stomach_cancer" title="Stomach cancer">Stomach cancer</a> is the fourth most common cancer [990,000 cases (7.8%), 738,000 deaths (9.7%)].<sup id="cite_ref-Ferlay_42-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ferlay-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Helicobacter_pylori" title="Helicobacter pylori">Helicobacter pylori</a></i> infection is the main causative factor in stomach cancer. Chronic <a href="/wiki/Gastritis" title="Gastritis">gastritis</a> (inflammation) caused by <i>H. pylori</i> is often long-standing if not treated. Infection of gastric epithelial cells with <i>H. pylori</i> results in increased production of reactive oxygen species (ROS).<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ROS cause oxidative DNA damage including the major base alteration 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8-OHdG). 8-OHdG resulting from ROS is increased in chronic gastritis. The altered DNA base can cause errors during DNA replication that have mutagenic and carcinogenic potential. Thus <i>H. pylori</i>-induced ROS appear to be the major carcinogens in stomach cancer because they cause oxidative DNA damage leading to carcinogenic mutations. </p><p>Diet is also thought to be a contributing factor in stomach cancer: in Japan, where very salty pickled foods are popular, the incidence of stomach cancer is high. Preserved meat such as bacon, sausages, and ham increases the risk, while a diet rich in fresh fruit, vegetables, peas, beans, grains, nuts, seeds, herbs, and spices will reduce the risk. The risk also increases with age.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carcinogen&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cancer" title="History of cancer">History of cancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutagen" title="Mutagen">Mutagen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possible_carcinogen" class="mw-redirect" title="Possible carcinogen">Possible carcinogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safe_handling_of_carcinogens" title="Safe handling of carcinogens">Safe handling of carcinogens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teratology" title="Teratology">Teratology</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carcinogen&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:1-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-07-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=IARC+Monographs+Programme+finds+cancer+hazards+associated+with+shiftwork%2C+painting+and+firefighting%2C+International+Agency+for+Research+on+Cancer&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iarc.fr%2Fen%2Fmedia-centre%2Fpr%2F2007%2Fpr180.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarcinogen" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150315135351/http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol83/"><i>Tobacco Smoke and Involuntary Smoking</i></a>. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. Vol. 83. 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/type/stomach-cancer/about/stomach-cancer-risks-and-causes">"Stomach cancer risks and causes"</a>. <i>Cancer Research UK</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cancer+Research+UK&rft.atitle=Stomach+cancer+risks+and+causes&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cancerresearchuk.org%2Fabout-cancer%2Ftype%2Fstomach-cancer%2Fabout%2Fstomach-cancer-risks-and-causes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarcinogen" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carcinogen&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Carcinogens" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Carcinogens">Carcinogens</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230530104021/https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/cancer/npotocca.html">"Occupational Cancer - Carcinogen List"</a>. <i>NIOSH Workplace Safety & Health</i>. CDC. May 2, 2012. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/cancer/npotocca.html">the original</a> on May 30, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NIOSH+Workplace+Safety+%26+Health&rft.atitle=Occupational+Cancer+-+Carcinogen+List&rft.date=2012-05-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fniosh%2Ftopics%2Fcancer%2Fnpotocca.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarcinogen" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://monographs.iarc.who.int/">"IARC Monographs on the Identification of Carcinogenic Hazards to Humans"</a>. <i>International Agency for Research on Cancer</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=International+Agency+for+Research+on+Cancer&rft.atitle=IARC+Monographs+on+the+Identification+of+Carcinogenic+Hazards+to+Humans&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmonographs.iarc.who.int%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarcinogen" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080317051133/http://www.cancer.org/docroot/PED/content/PED_1_3x_Known_and_Probable_Carcinogens.asp?sitearea=PED">"Known and Probable Carcinogens"</a>. <i>American Cancer Society</i>. 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cancer.org/docroot/PED/content/PED_1_3x_Known_and_Probable_Carcinogens.asp?sitearea=PED">the original</a> on 2008-03-17.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Cancer+Society&rft.atitle=Known+and+Probable+Carcinogens&rft.date=2006&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cancer.org%2Fdocroot%2FPED%2Fcontent%2FPED_1_3x_Known_and_Probable_Carcinogens.asp%3Fsitearea%3DPED&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarcinogen" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071217104833/http://www.scorecard.org/health-effects/chemicals.tcl?short_hazard_name=cancer&all_p=t">"Recognized Carcinogens"</a>. <i>Scorecard</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scorecard.org/health-effects/chemicals.tcl?short_hazard_name=cancer&all_p=t">the original</a> on 2007-12-17.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Scorecard&rft.atitle=Recognized+Carcinogens&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scorecard.org%2Fhealth-effects%2Fchemicals.tcl%3Fshort_hazard_name%3Dcancer%26all_p%3Dt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarcinogen" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051028174523/http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/index.cfm?objectid=03C9B512-ACF8-C1F3-ADBA53CAE848F635">"Report on Carcinogens"</a>. <i>U.S. National Toxicology Program</i>. 2005. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/index.cfm?objectid=03C9B512-ACF8-C1F3-ADBA53CAE848F635">the original</a> on 2005-10-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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title="Asbestos">Asbestos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Helicobacter_pylori" title="Helicobacter pylori">Helicobacter pylori</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzo(a)pyrene" title="Benzo(a)pyrene">Benzo[a]pyrene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1,3-Butadiene" class="mw-redirect" title="1,3-Butadiene">1,3-Butadiene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diethylstilbestrol" title="Diethylstilbestrol">Diethylstilbestrol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formaldehyde" title="Formaldehyde">Formaldehyde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">Ionizing radiation</a> (e.g., from isotopes of <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Radium" title="Radium">radium</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobacco_smoking" title="Tobacco smoking">Tobacco smoke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">Ultraviolet light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viruses" class="mw-redirect" title="Viruses">Viruses</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epstein%E2%80%93Barr_virus" title="Epstein–Barr virus">Epstein–Barr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_B_virus" title="Hepatitis B virus">Hepatitis B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_C_virus" title="Hepatitis C virus">Hepatitis C</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_papillomavirus" class="mw-redirect" title="Human papillomavirus">HPV</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/International_Agency_for_Research_on_Cancer" title="International Agency for Research on Cancer">IARC</a> lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_IARC_Group_1_Agents_-_Carcinogenic_to_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="List of IARC Group 1 Agents - Carcinogenic to humans">Group 1 (carcinogenic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_IARC_Group_2A_Agents_-_Probably_carcinogenic_to_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="List of IARC Group 2A Agents - Probably carcinogenic to humans">Group 2A (probably carcinogenic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_IARC_Group_2B_Agents_-_Possibly_carcinogenic_to_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="List of IARC Group 2B Agents - Possibly carcinogenic to humans">Group 2B (possibly carcinogenic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IARC_group_3" title="IARC group 3">Group 3 (not classifiable)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Overview_of_tumors,_cancer_and_oncology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Tumors" title="Template:Tumors"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Tumors" title="Template talk:Tumors"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Tumors" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Tumors"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Overview_of_tumors,_cancer_and_oncology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Overview of <a href="/wiki/Neoplasm" title="Neoplasm">tumors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oncology" title="Oncology">oncology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Conditions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Benign_tumor" title="Benign tumor">Benign tumors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hyperplasia" title="Hyperplasia">Hyperplasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyst" title="Cyst">Cyst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudocyst" title="Pseudocyst">Pseudocyst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamartoma" title="Hamartoma">Hamartoma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Malignant progression</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dysplasia" title="Dysplasia">Dysplasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carcinoma_in_situ" title="Carcinoma in situ">Carcinoma in situ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">Cancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metastasis" title="Metastasis">Metastasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_tumor" title="Primary tumor">Primary tumor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentinel_lymph_node" title="Sentinel lymph node">Sentinel lymph node</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topography</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Head_and_neck_cancer" title="Head and neck cancer">Head and neck</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oral_cancer" title="Oral cancer">oral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oropharyngeal_cancer" title="Oropharyngeal cancer">oropharyngeal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laryngeal_cancer" title="Laryngeal cancer">laryngeal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasopharyngeal_carcinoma" title="Nasopharyngeal carcinoma">nasopharyngeal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digestive_system_neoplasm" title="Digestive system neoplasm">Digestive system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplasm" title="Neoplasm">Respiratory system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bone_tumor" title="Bone tumor">Bone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skin_cancer" title="Skin cancer">Skin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leukemia" title="Leukemia">Blood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urogenital_neoplasm" title="Urogenital neoplasm">Urogenital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nervous_system_neoplasm" title="Nervous system neoplasm">Nervous system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_gland_neoplasm" title="Endocrine gland neoplasm">Endocrine system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Histology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carcinoma" title="Carcinoma">Carcinoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarcoma" title="Sarcoma">Sarcoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blastoma" title="Blastoma">Blastoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papilloma" title="Papilloma">Papilloma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adenoma" title="Adenoma">Adenoma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Precancerous_condition" title="Precancerous condition">Precancerous condition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paraneoplastic_syndrome" title="Paraneoplastic syndrome">Paraneoplastic syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cancer_staging" title="Cancer staging">Staging</a>/<a href="/wiki/Grading_(tumors)" title="Grading (tumors)">grading</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/TNM_staging_system" title="TNM staging system">TNM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ann_Arbor_staging" title="Ann Arbor staging">Ann Arbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostate_cancer_staging" title="Prostate cancer staging">Prostate cancer staging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gleason_grading_system" title="Gleason grading system">Gleason grading system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dukes_classification" class="mw-redirect" title="Dukes classification">Dukes classification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Carcinogenesis" title="Carcinogenesis">Carcinogenesis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cancer_cell" title="Cancer cell">Cancer cell</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Carcinogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumor_suppressor_gene" title="Tumor suppressor gene">Tumor suppressor genes</a>/<a href="/wiki/Oncogene" title="Oncogene">oncogenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clonally_transmissible_cancer" title="Clonally transmissible cancer">Clonally transmissible cancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oncovirus" title="Oncovirus">Oncovirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carcinogenic_bacteria" title="Carcinogenic bacteria">Carcinogenic bacteria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Misc.</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cancer_research" title="Cancer research">Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles" title="Index of oncology articles">Index of oncology articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cancer" title="History of cancer">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancer_pain" title="Cancer pain">Cancer pain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancer_and_nausea" title="Cancer and nausea">Cancer and nausea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diet_and_cancer" title="Diet and cancer">Diet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Toxicology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Toxicology" title="Template:Toxicology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Toxicology" title="Template talk:Toxicology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Toxicology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Toxicology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Toxicology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Toxicology" title="Toxicology">Toxicology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_toxicology" title="Aquatic toxicology">Aquatic toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotoxicology" title="Ecotoxicology">Ecotoxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_toxicology" title="Occupational toxicology">Occupational toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entomotoxicology" title="Entomotoxicology">Entomotoxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_toxicology" title="Environmental toxicology">Environmental toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_toxicology" title="Forensic toxicology">Forensic toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_toxicology" title="Medical toxicology">Medical toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_vitro_toxicology" title="In vitro toxicology">In vitro toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicogenomics" title="Toxicogenomics">Toxicogenomics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acceptable_daily_intake" title="Acceptable daily intake">Acceptable daily intake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acute_toxicity" title="Acute toxicity">Acute toxicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioaccumulation" title="Bioaccumulation">Bioaccumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomagnification" title="Biomagnification">Biomagnification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fixed-dose_procedure" title="Fixed-dose procedure">Fixed-dose procedure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lethal_dose" title="Lethal dose">Lethal dose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poison" title="Poison">Poison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_capacity" title="Toxic capacity">Toxic capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicity_class" title="Toxicity class">Toxicity class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxin" title="Toxin">Toxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venom" title="Venom">Venom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Treatments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Activated_carbon" title="Activated carbon">Activated carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antidote" title="Antidote">Antidote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cathartic" title="Cathartic">Cathartic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chelation_therapy" title="Chelation therapy">Chelation therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastric_lavage" title="Gastric lavage">Gastric lavage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemodialysis" title="Hemodialysis">Hemodialysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemoperfusion" title="Hemoperfusion">Hemoperfusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whole_bowel_irrigation" title="Whole bowel irrigation">Whole bowel irrigation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1858_Bradford_sweets_poisoning" title="1858 Bradford sweets poisoning">1858 Bradford sweets poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2007_pet_food_recalls" title="2007 pet food recalls">2007 pet food recalls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhopal_disaster" title="Bhopal disaster">Bhopal disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minamata_disease" title="Minamata disease">Minamata disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niigata_Minamata_disease" title="Niigata Minamata disease">Niigata Minamata disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poisoning_of_Alexander_Litvinenko" title="Poisoning of Alexander Litvinenko">Poisoning of Alexander Litvinenko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seveso_disaster" title="Seveso disaster">Seveso disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumption_of_Tide_Pods" title="Consumption of Tide Pods">Consumption of Tide Pods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visakhapatnam_gas_leak" title="Visakhapatnam gas leak">Visakhapatnam gas leak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_Aqaba_toxic_gas_leak" title="2022 Aqaba toxic gas leak">2022 Aqaba toxic gas leak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_poisonings" class="mw-redirect" title="List of poisonings">List of poisonings</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_warfare" title="Biological warfare">Biological warfare</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Carcinogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety" title="Food safety">Food safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazard_symbol" title="Hazard symbol">Hazard symbol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extremely_hazardous_substances" class="mw-redirect" title="List of extremely hazardous substances">List of extremely hazardous substances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutagen" title="Mutagen">Mutagen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">Occupational safety and health</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: transparent; padding: 0px;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Toxicology" title="Category:Toxicology">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Toxicology" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Toxicology">Commons</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Toxicology" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Toxicology">WikiProject</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Genotoxicity" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Genotoxicity" title="Template:Genotoxicity"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Genotoxicity" title="Template talk:Genotoxicity"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Genotoxicity" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Genotoxicity"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Genotoxicity" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Genotoxicity" title="Genotoxicity">Genotoxicity</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Agent</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mutagen" title="Mutagen">Mutagen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clastogen" title="Clastogen">Clastogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aneugen" title="Aneugen">Aneugen</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Carcinogen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Assay" title="Assay">Assays</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ames_test" title="Ames test">Ames test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comet_assay" title="Comet assay">Comet assay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algal" class="mw-redirect" title="Algal">algal test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seed_testing" title="Seed testing">Seed testing</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viability_test&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Viability test (page does not exist)">Viability test</a> (TZ test)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microtox_bioassay" title="Microtox bioassay">Microtox bioassay</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: transparent; padding: 0px;"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Toxicology" title="Category:Toxicology">Category</a></b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Toxicology" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Toxicology">Commons</a></b> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Toxicology" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Toxicology">WikiProject</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Health_issues_of_plastics_and_polyhalogenated_compounds_(PHCs)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Health_issues_of_plastics" title="Template:Health issues of plastics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Health_issues_of_plastics" title="Template talk:Health issues of plastics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Health_issues_of_plastics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Health issues of plastics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Health_issues_of_plastics_and_polyhalogenated_compounds_(PHCs)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Health issues of <a href="/wiki/Plastic" title="Plastic">plastics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polyhalogenated_compound" title="Polyhalogenated compound">polyhalogenated compounds</a> (PHCs)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plasticizer" title="Plasticizer">Plasticizers</a>: <a href="/wiki/Phthalate" class="mw-redirect" title="Phthalate">Phthalates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diisobutyl_phthalate" title="Diisobutyl phthalate">DIBP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dibutyl_phthalate" title="Dibutyl phthalate">DBP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzyl_butyl_phthalate" title="Benzyl butyl phthalate">BBP</a> (BBzP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diisoheptyl_phthalate" title="Diisoheptyl phthalate">DIHP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bis(2-ethylhexyl)_phthalate" title="Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate">DEHP</a> (DOP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diisodecyl_phthalate" title="Diisodecyl phthalate">DIDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diisononyl_phthalate" title="Diisononyl phthalate">DINP</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous plasticizers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organophosphate" title="Organophosphate">Organophosphates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adipic_acid" title="Adipic acid">Adipates</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bis(2-ethylhexyl)_adipate" title="Bis(2-ethylhexyl) adipate">DEHA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dioctyl_adipate" title="Dioctyl adipate">DOA</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Monomer" title="Monomer">Monomers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bisphenol_A" title="Bisphenol A">Bisphenol A</a> (BPA, in <a href="/wiki/Polycarbonate" title="Polycarbonate">Polycarbonates</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinyl_chloride" title="Vinyl chloride">Vinyl chloride</a> (in <a href="/wiki/Polyvinyl_chloride" title="Polyvinyl chloride">PVC</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous additives incl. PHCs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polybrominated_diphenyl_ethers" title="Polybrominated diphenyl ethers">PBDEs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polychlorinated_biphenyl" title="Polychlorinated biphenyl">PCBs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organotin" class="mw-redirect" title="Organotin">Organotins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perfluorinated_compounds" class="mw-redirect" title="Perfluorinated compounds">PFCs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perfluorooctanoic_acid" title="Perfluorooctanoic acid">Perfluorooctanoic acid</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plastic#Toxicity" title="Plastic">Health issues</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Teratogen" class="mw-redirect" title="Teratogen">Teratogen</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Carcinogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_disruptor" title="Endocrine disruptor">Endocrine disruptor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diabetes" title="Diabetes">Diabetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obesity" title="Obesity">Obesity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_fume_fever" title="Polymer fume fever">Polymer fume fever</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pollution</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_pollution" title="Plastic pollution">Plastic pollution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rubber_pollution" title="Rubber pollution">Rubber pollution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Pacific_Garbage_Patch" title="Great Pacific Garbage Patch">Great Pacific Garbage Patch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistent_organic_pollutant" title="Persistent organic pollutant">Persistent organic pollutant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polychlorinated_dibenzodioxins" title="Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins">Dioxins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_health_hazards" class="mw-redirect" title="List of environmental health hazards">List of environmental health hazards</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regulations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1986_California_Proposition_65" title="1986 California Proposition 65">California Proposition 65</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Registration,_Evaluation,_Authorisation_and_Restriction_of_Chemicals" title="Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals">European REACH regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashinhou" title="Kashinhou">Japan Toxic Substances Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_Substances_Control_Act_of_1976" title="Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976">Toxic Substances Control Act</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q187661#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" 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