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other types of antimatter</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Positrons_and_other_types_of_antimatter-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Charged_nuclei" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Charged_nuclei"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Charged nuclei</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Charged_nuclei-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indirectly_ionizing_radiation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indirectly_ionizing_radiation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Indirectly ionizing radiation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Indirectly_ionizing_radiation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Indirectly ionizing radiation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Indirectly_ionizing_radiation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Photon_radiation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Photon_radiation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Photon radiation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Photon_radiation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Definition_boundary_for_lower-energy_photons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Definition_boundary_for_lower-energy_photons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Definition boundary for lower-energy photons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Definition_boundary_for_lower-energy_photons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neutrons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neutrons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Neutrons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neutrons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physical_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physical_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Physical effects</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Physical_effects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Physical effects subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Physical_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nuclear_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nuclear_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Nuclear effects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nuclear_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chemical_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chemical_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Chemical effects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chemical_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electrical_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electrical_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Electrical effects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electrical_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Health effects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Health_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Measurement_of_radiation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Measurement_of_radiation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Measurement of radiation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Measurement_of_radiation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Uses_of_radiation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Uses_of_radiation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Uses of radiation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Uses_of_radiation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources_of_radiation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources_of_radiation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Sources of radiation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sources_of_radiation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Sources of radiation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Sources_of_radiation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Background_radiation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Background_radiation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Background radiation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Background_radiation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cosmic_radiation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cosmic_radiation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.1</span> <span>Cosmic radiation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cosmic_radiation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_terrestrial_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_terrestrial_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.2</span> <span>External terrestrial sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_terrestrial_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Internal_radiation_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internal_radiation_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.3</span> <span>Internal radiation sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internal_radiation_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.4</span> <span>Radon</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radiation_exposure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radiation_exposure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Radiation exposure</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Radiation_exposure-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Radiation exposure subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Radiation_exposure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Occupational_exposure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Occupational_exposure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Occupational exposure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Occupational_exposure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_exposure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_exposure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Public exposure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_exposure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Spaceflight" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spaceflight"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2.1</span> <span>Spaceflight</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spaceflight-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Air_travel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Air_travel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2.2</span> <span>Air travel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Air_travel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radiation_hazard_warning_signs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radiation_hazard_warning_signs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Radiation hazard warning signs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radiation_hazard_warning_signs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Ionizing radiation</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox 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Available in 70 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-70" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">70 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ioniserende_straling" title="Ioniserende straling – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Ioniserende straling" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D8%B4%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%B9_%D9%85%D8%A4%D9%8A%D9%86" title="إشعاع مؤين – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="إشعاع مؤين" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiaci%C3%B3n_ionizante" title="Radiación ionizante – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Radiación ionizante" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%B2%D9%87_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86" title="یونیزه رادیاسیون – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="یونیزه رادیاسیون" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Іанізавальнае выпраменьванне – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Іанізавальнае выпраменьванне" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Іянізавальнае выпраменьваньне – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Іянізавальнае выпраменьваньне" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Радиация – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Радиация" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ioniziraju%C4%87e_zra%C4%8Denje" title="Ionizirajuće zračenje – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Ionizirajuće zračenje" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiaci%C3%B3_ionitzant" title="Radiació ionitzant – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Radiació ionitzant" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B9%C4%83%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2" title="Ионлакан пайăркалав – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Ионлакан пайăркалав" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionizuj%C3%ADc%C3%AD_z%C3%A1%C5%99en%C3%AD" title="Ionizující záření – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Ionizující záření" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ioniserende_str%C3%A5ling" title="Ioniserende stråling – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Ioniserende stråling" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionisierende_Strahlung" title="Ionisierende Strahlung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Ionisierende Strahlung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ioniseeriv_kiirgus" title="Ioniseeriv kiirgus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Ioniseeriv kiirgus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%AF%CE%B6%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%83%CE%B1_%CE%B1%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%B2%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Ιονίζουσα ακτινοβολία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ιονίζουσα ακτινοβολία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiaci%C3%B3n_ionizante" title="Radiación ionizante – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Radiación ionizante" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joniga_radiado" title="Joniga radiado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Joniga radiado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erradiazio_ionizatzaile" title="Erradiazio ionizatzaile – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Erradiazio ionizatzaile" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%AA%D9%88_%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86" title="پرتو یونیزان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پرتو یونیزان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayonnement_ionisant" title="Rayonnement ionisant – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Rayonnement ionisant" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiaci%C3%B3n_ionizante" title="Radiación ionizante – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Radiación ionizante" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B4%EC%98%A8%ED%99%94_%EB%B0%A9%EC%82%AC%EC%84%A0" title="이온화 방사선 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="이온화 방사선" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BB%D5%B8%D5%B6%D5%A1%D6%81%D5%B6%D5%B8%D5%B2_%D5%B3%D5%A1%D5%BC%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%A9%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Իոնացնող ճառագայթում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Իոնացնող ճառագայթում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3" title="आयनकारी विकिरण – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="आयनकारी विकिरण" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ioniziraju%C4%87e_zra%C4%8Denje" title="Ionizirajuće zračenje – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Ionizirajuće zračenje" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiasi_pengion" title="Radiasi pengion – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Radiasi pengion" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B3nandi_geislun" title="Jónandi geislun – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Jónandi geislun" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiazioni_ionizzanti" title="Radiazioni ionizzanti – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Radiazioni ionizzanti" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%94_%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%A0%D7%AA" title="קרינה מייננת – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קרינה מייננת" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%AE%E1%83%98%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="მაიონებელი გამოსხივება – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მაიონებელი გამოსხივება" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D2%93%D1%8B%D1%88_%D1%81%D3%99%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Иондағыш сәулеленулер – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Иондағыш сәулеленулер" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radyasyon_iyonik" title="Radyasyon iyonik – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Radyasyon iyonik" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%88%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D1%83%D1%83%D1%87%D1%83_%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%83" title="Иондоштуруучу нурлануу – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Иондоштуруучу нурлануу" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiatio_ionizans" title="Radiatio ionizans – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Radiatio ionizans" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joniz%C4%93jo%C5%A1ais_starojums" title="Jonizējošais starojums – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Jonizējošais starojums" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonizuojan%C4%8Dioji_spinduliuot%C4%97" title="Jonizuojančioji spinduliuotė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Jonizuojančioji spinduliuotė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ioniz%C3%A1l%C3%B3_sug%C3%A1rz%C3%A1s" title="Ionizáló sugárzás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ionizáló sugárzás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinaran_pengion" title="Sinaran pengion – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sinaran pengion" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B6%D1%83%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%87_%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3" title="Ионжуулагч цацраг – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Ионжуулагч цацраг" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9A%E1%80%BD%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%95%E1%80%BC%E1%80%AF%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%81%E1%80%BC%E1%80%8A%E1%80%BA" title="အိုင်ယွန်ပြုရောင်ခြည် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အိုင်ယွန်ပြုရောင်ခြည်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ioniserende_straling" title="Ioniserende straling – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Ioniserende straling" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%94%BE%E5%B0%84%E7%B7%9A" title="放射線 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="放射線" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ioniserende_str%C3%A5ling" title="Ioniserende stråling – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Ioniserende stråling" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ioniserande_str%C3%A5ling" title="Ioniserande stråling – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Ioniserande stråling" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raionament_ionizant" title="Raionament ionizant – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Raionament ionizant" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionizing_Radiation" title="Ionizing Radiation – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Ionizing Radiation" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionlashtiruvchi_nurlanish" title="Ionlashtiruvchi nurlanish – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Ionlashtiruvchi nurlanish" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%88%E0%A8%93%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%88%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%BF%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%97_%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%A1%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%8F%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%A8" title="ਆਈਓਨਾਈਜ਼ਿੰਗ ਰੇਡੀਏਸ਼ਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਆਈਓਨਾਈਜ਼ਿੰਗ ਰੇਡੀਏਸ਼ਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promieniowanie_jonizuj%C4%85ce" title="Promieniowanie jonizujące – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Promieniowanie jonizujące" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radia%C3%A7%C3%A3o_ionizante" title="Radiação ionizante – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Radiação ionizante" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radia%C8%9Bie_ionizant%C4%83" title="Radiație ionizantă – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Radiație ionizantă" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%83%D1%8E%D1%89%D0%B5%D0%B5_%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Ионизирующее излучение – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Ионизирующее излучение" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%85%E0%B6%BA%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%93%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BB_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%AB%E0%B6%BA" title="අයනීකාර විකිරණය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="අයනීකාර විකිරණය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Ionizing radiation" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionizuj%C3%BAce_%C5%BEiarenie" title="Ionizujúce žiarenie – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Ionizujúce žiarenie" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionizirajo%C4%8De_sevanje" title="Ionizirajoče sevanje – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Ionizirajoče sevanje" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%88%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%83%D1%98%D1%83%D1%9B%D0%B5_%D0%B7%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%9A%D0%B5" title="Јонизујуће зрачење – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Јонизујуће зрачење" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ioniziraju%C4%87e_zra%C4%8Denje" title="Ionizirajuće zračenje – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Ionizirajuće zračenje" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionisoiva_s%C3%A4teily" title="Ionisoiva säteily – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ionisoiva säteily" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joniserande_str%C3%A5lning" title="Joniserande strålning – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Joniserande strålning" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D" title="அயனியாக்கும் கதிர் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அயனியாக்கும் கதிர்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%88%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%80%D1%83%D1%87%D1%8B_%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%88" title="Ионлаштыручы нурланыш – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" 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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Harmful high-frequency radiation</div> <p><b>Ionizing radiation</b> (US, <b>ionising radiation</b> in the UK), including <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">nuclear radiation</a>, consists of <a href="/wiki/Subatomic_particle" title="Subatomic particle">subatomic particles</a> or <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic wave">electromagnetic waves</a> that have sufficient <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a> to <a href="/wiki/Ionization" title="Ionization">ionize</a> <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a> or <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecules</a> by detaching <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> from them.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some particles can travel up to 99% of the <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">speed of light</a>, and the electromagnetic waves are on the high-energy portion of the <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum" title="Electromagnetic spectrum">electromagnetic spectrum</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">Gamma rays</a>, <a href="/wiki/X-rays" class="mw-redirect" title="X-rays">X-rays</a>, and the higher energy <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_ultraviolet" class="mw-redirect" title="Vacuum ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> part of the electromagnetic spectrum are ionizing radiation, whereas the lower energy <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a>, visible <a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">light</a>, nearly all types of <a href="/wiki/Laser" title="Laser">laser</a> light, <a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared</a>, <a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">microwaves</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">radio waves</a> are <a href="/wiki/Non-ionizing_radiation" title="Non-ionizing radiation">non-ionizing radiation</a>. The boundary between ionizing and non-ionizing radiation in the ultraviolet area cannot be sharply defined, as different molecules and atoms ionize at <a href="/wiki/Ionization_energies_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Ionization energies of the elements (data page)">different energies</a>. The energy of ionizing radiation starts between 10 <a href="/wiki/Electronvolt" title="Electronvolt">electronvolts</a> (eV) and 33 eV.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Ionizing subatomic particles include <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">alpha particles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beta_particle" title="Beta particle">beta particles</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutrons</a>. These particles are created by <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">radioactive decay</a>, and almost all are energetic enough to ionize. There are also secondary <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_particle" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic particle">cosmic particles</a> produced after <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic rays">cosmic rays</a> interact with Earth's atmosphere, including <a href="/wiki/Muon" title="Muon">muons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Meson" title="Meson">mesons</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">positrons</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Woodside_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Woodside-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stallcup_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stallcup-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic rays">Cosmic rays</a> may also produce <a href="/wiki/Radioisotope" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioisotope">radioisotopes</a> on Earth (for example, <a href="/wiki/Carbon-14" title="Carbon-14">carbon-14</a>), which in turn decay and emit ionizing radiation. Cosmic rays and the decay of radioactive <a href="/wiki/Isotopes" class="mw-redirect" title="Isotopes">isotopes</a> are the primary sources of natural ionizing radiation on Earth, contributing to <a href="/wiki/Background_radiation" title="Background radiation">background radiation</a>. Ionizing radiation is also generated artificially by <a href="/wiki/X-ray_tube" title="X-ray tube">X-ray tubes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerators" class="mw-redirect" title="Particle accelerators">particle accelerators</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">nuclear fission</a>. </p><p>Ionizing radiation is not immediately detectable by human senses, so instruments such as <a href="/wiki/Geiger_counter" title="Geiger counter">Geiger counters</a> are used to detect and measure it. However, very high energy particles can produce visible <a href="/wiki/Radiobiology" title="Radiobiology">effects on both organic</a> and inorganic matter (e.g. water lighting in <a href="/wiki/Cherenkov_radiation" title="Cherenkov radiation">Cherenkov radiation</a>) or humans (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Acute_radiation_syndrome" title="Acute radiation syndrome">acute radiation syndrome</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ionizing radiation is used in a wide variety of fields such as <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">nuclear power</a>, research, and industrial manufacturing, but presents a health hazard if proper measures against excessive exposure are not taken. Exposure to ionizing radiation causes cell damage to living <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tissue (anatomy)">tissue</a> and <a href="/wiki/Organ_(biology)" title="Organ (biology)">organ damage</a>. In high acute doses, it will result in <a href="/wiki/Radiation_burn" title="Radiation burn">radiation burns</a> and <a href="/wiki/Radiation_sickness" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation sickness">radiation sickness</a>, and lower level doses over a protracted time can cause <a href="/wiki/Radiation-induced_cancer" title="Radiation-induced cancer">cancer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/International_Commission_on_Radiological_Protection" title="International Commission on Radiological Protection">International Commission on Radiological Protection</a> (ICRP) issues guidance on ionizing radiation protection, and the effects of dose uptake on human health. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Directly_ionizing_radiation">Directly ionizing radiation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ionizing_radiation&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Directly ionizing radiation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Particle_radiation" title="Particle radiation">Particle radiation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alfa_beta_gamma_neutron_radiation.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Alfa_beta_gamma_neutron_radiation.svg/220px-Alfa_beta_gamma_neutron_radiation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="367" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Alfa_beta_gamma_neutron_radiation.svg/330px-Alfa_beta_gamma_neutron_radiation.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Alfa_beta_gamma_neutron_radiation.svg/440px-Alfa_beta_gamma_neutron_radiation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="576" data-file-height="961" /></a><figcaption>Alpha (<b>α</b>) radiation consists of a fast-moving <a href="/wiki/Helium-4" title="Helium-4">helium-4</a> (<a href="/wiki/Helium-4" title="Helium-4"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">4</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>He<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span></a>) nucleus and is <a href="/wiki/Stopping_power_(particle_radiation)" title="Stopping power (particle radiation)">stopped</a> by a sheet of paper. Beta (<b>β</b>) radiation, consisting of <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a>, is halted by an aluminium plate. Gamma (<b>γ</b>) radiation, consisting of energetic <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photons</a>, is eventually absorbed as it penetrates a dense material. Neutron (<b>n</b>) radiation consists of free neutrons that are blocked by light elements, like hydrogen, which slow and/or capture them. Not shown: <a href="/wiki/Galactic_cosmic_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Galactic cosmic rays">galactic cosmic rays</a> that consist of energetic charged nuclei such as <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a> nuclei, and high-charged nuclei called <a href="/wiki/HZE_ions" class="mw-redirect" title="HZE ions">HZE ions</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cloud_chambers_played_an_important_role_of_particle_detectors.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Cloud_chambers_played_an_important_role_of_particle_detectors.jpg/220px-Cloud_chambers_played_an_important_role_of_particle_detectors.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="325" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Cloud_chambers_played_an_important_role_of_particle_detectors.jpg/330px-Cloud_chambers_played_an_important_role_of_particle_detectors.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Cloud_chambers_played_an_important_role_of_particle_detectors.jpg/440px-Cloud_chambers_played_an_important_role_of_particle_detectors.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1140" data-file-height="1684" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cloud_chamber" title="Cloud chamber">Cloud chambers</a> are used to visualise ionizing radiation. This image show the tracks of particles, which ionise saturated air and leave a trail of water vapour.</figcaption></figure> <p>Ionizing radiation may be grouped as directly or indirectly ionizing. </p><p>Any charged particle with mass can ionize <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a> directly by <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_interaction" title="Fundamental interaction">fundamental interaction</a> through the <a href="/wiki/Coulomb_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Coulomb force">Coulomb force</a> if it carries sufficient kinetic energy. Such particles include <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nuclei" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic nuclei">atomic nuclei</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muon" title="Muon">muons</a>, charged <a href="/wiki/Pion" title="Pion">pions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a>, and energetic charged nuclei stripped of their electrons. When moving at relativistic speeds (near the <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">speed of light</a>, c) these particles have enough kinetic energy to be ionizing, but there is considerable speed variation. For example, a typical alpha particle moves at about 5% of c, but an electron with 33 eV (just enough to ionize) moves at about 1% of c. </p><p>Two of the first types of directly ionizing radiation to be discovered are <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particles" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha particles">alpha particles</a> which are helium nuclei ejected from the nucleus of an atom during radioactive decay, and energetic electrons, which are called <a href="/wiki/Beta_particle" title="Beta particle">beta particles</a>. </p><p>Natural <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">cosmic rays</a> are made up primarily of relativistic protons but also include heavier atomic nuclei like <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a> ions and <a href="/wiki/HZE_ions" class="mw-redirect" title="HZE ions">HZE ions</a>. In the atmosphere such particles are often stopped by air molecules, and this produces short-lived charged pions, which soon decay to muons, a primary type of cosmic ray radiation that reaches the surface of the earth. Pions can also be produced in large amounts in <a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator">particle accelerators</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alpha_particles">Alpha particles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ionizing_radiation&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Alpha particles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">Alpha particle</a></div> <p>Alpha particles consist of two <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a> and two <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutrons</a> bound together into a particle identical to a <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a> <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">nucleus</a>. Alpha particle emissions are generally produced in the process of <a href="/wiki/Alpha_decay" title="Alpha decay">alpha decay</a>. </p><p>Alpha particles are a strongly ionizing form of radiation, but when emitted by radioactive decay they have low penetration power and can be <a href="/wiki/Stopping_power_(particle_radiation)" title="Stopping power (particle radiation)">absorbed</a> by a few centimeters of air, or by the top layer of human skin. More powerful alpha particles from <a href="/wiki/Ternary_fission" title="Ternary fission">ternary fission</a> are three times as energetic, and penetrate proportionately farther in air. The helium nuclei that form 10–12% of cosmic rays, are also usually of much higher energy than those produced by radioactive decay and pose shielding problems in space. However, this type of radiation is significantly absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere, which is a radiation shield equivalent to about 10 meters of water.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The alpha particle was named by <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a> after the first letter in the <a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek alphabet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alpha" title="Alpha">α</a>, when he ranked the known radioactive emissions in descending order of ionising effect in 1899. The symbol is α or α<sup>2+</sup>. Because they are identical to helium nuclei, they are also sometimes written as <span class="chemf nowrap">He<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> or <span class="chemf nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">4</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span>He<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> indicating a Helium ion with a +2 charge (missing its two electrons). If the ion gains electrons from its environment, the alpha particle can be written as a normal (electrically neutral) helium atom <span class="chemf nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">4</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span>He</span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Beta_particles">Beta particles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ionizing_radiation&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Beta particles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Beta_particles" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta particles">Beta particles</a></div> <p>Beta particles are high-energy, high-speed <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> or <a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">positrons</a> emitted by certain types of <a href="/wiki/Radioactive" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactive">radioactive</a> <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">nuclei</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Potassium-40" title="Potassium-40">potassium-40</a>. The production of beta particles is termed <a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">beta decay</a>. They are designated by the <a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek letter</a> beta (β). There are two forms of beta decay, β<sup>−</sup> and β<sup>+</sup>, which respectively give rise to the electron and the positron.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Beta particles are much less penetrating than gamma radiation, but more penetrating than alpha particles. </p><p>High-energy beta particles may produce X-rays known as <a href="/wiki/Bremsstrahlung" title="Bremsstrahlung">bremsstrahlung</a> ("braking radiation") or <a href="/wiki/Secondary_electron" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary electron">secondary electrons</a> (<a href="/wiki/Delta_ray" title="Delta ray">delta ray</a>) as they pass through matter. Both of these can cause an indirect ionization effect. Bremsstrahlung is of concern when shielding beta emitters, as the interaction of beta particles with some shielding materials produces Bremsstrahlung. The effect is greater with material having high atomic numbers, so material with low atomic numbers is used for beta source shielding. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Positrons_and_other_types_of_antimatter">Positrons and other types of antimatter</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ionizing_radiation&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Positrons and other types of antimatter"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">Positron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antimatter" title="Antimatter">Antimatter</a></div> <p>The positron or antielectron is the <a href="/wiki/Antiparticle" title="Antiparticle">antiparticle</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Antimatter" title="Antimatter">antimatter</a> counterpart of the <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a>. When a low-energy positron collides with a low-energy electron, <a href="/wiki/Annihilation" title="Annihilation">annihilation</a> occurs, resulting in their conversion into the energy of two or more <a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">gamma ray</a> <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photons</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Electron%E2%80%93positron_annihilation" title="Electron–positron annihilation">electron–positron annihilation</a>). As positrons are positively charged particles they can directly ionize an atom through Coulomb interactions. </p><p>Positrons can be generated by <a href="/wiki/Positron_emission" title="Positron emission">positron emission</a> nuclear decay (through <a href="/wiki/Weak_interaction" title="Weak interaction">weak interactions</a>), or by <a href="/wiki/Pair_production" title="Pair production">pair production</a> from a sufficiently energetic <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photon</a>. Positrons are common artificial sources of ionizing radiation used in medical <a href="/wiki/PET_scan" class="mw-redirect" title="PET scan">positron emission tomography</a> (PET) scans. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Charged_nuclei">Charged nuclei</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ionizing_radiation&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Charged nuclei"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Charged nuclei are characteristic of galactic cosmic rays and solar particle events and except for alpha particles (charged helium nuclei) have no natural sources on earth. In space, however, very high energy protons, helium nuclei, and HZE ions can be initially stopped by relatively thin layers of shielding, clothes, or skin. However, the resulting interaction will generate secondary radiation and cause cascading biological effects. If just one atom of tissue is displaced by an energetic proton, for example, the collision will cause further interactions in the body. This is called "<a href="/wiki/Linear_energy_transfer" title="Linear energy transfer">linear energy transfer</a>" (LET), which utilizes <a href="/wiki/Elastic_scattering" title="Elastic scattering">elastic scattering</a>. </p><p>LET can be visualized as a billiard ball hitting another in the manner of the <a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_momentum" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation of momentum">conservation of momentum</a>, sending both away with the energy of the first ball divided between the two unequally. When a charged nucleus strikes a relatively slow-moving nucleus of an object in space, LET occurs and neutrons, alpha particles, low-energy protons, and other nuclei will be released by the collisions and contribute to the total absorbed dose of tissue.<sup id="cite_ref-NASA/TP-1999-209320_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASA/TP-1999-209320-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Indirectly_ionizing_radiation">Indirectly ionizing radiation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ionizing_radiation&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Indirectly ionizing radiation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Indirectly ionizing radiation is electrically neutral and does not interact strongly with matter, therefore the bulk of the ionization effects are due to secondary ionization. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Photon_radiation">Photon radiation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ionizing_radiation&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Photon radiation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Gamma_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma rays">Gamma rays</a> and <a href="/wiki/X-rays" class="mw-redirect" title="X-rays">X-rays</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EM-spectrum.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/EM-spectrum.svg/330px-EM-spectrum.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="248" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/EM-spectrum.svg/495px-EM-spectrum.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/EM-spectrum.svg/660px-EM-spectrum.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="384" /></a><figcaption>Different types of <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">electromagnetic radiation</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pb-gamma-xs.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Pb-gamma-xs.svg/330px-Pb-gamma-xs.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Pb-gamma-xs.svg/495px-Pb-gamma-xs.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Pb-gamma-xs.svg/660px-Pb-gamma-xs.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="630" data-file-height="360" /></a><figcaption>The total absorption coefficient of lead (atomic number 82) for gamma rays, plotted versus gamma energy, and contributions by the three effects. The photoelectric effect dominates at low energy, but above 5 MeV, pair production starts to dominate.</figcaption></figure> <p>Even though photons are electrically neutral, they can ionize <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a> indirectly through the <a href="/wiki/Photoelectric_effect" title="Photoelectric effect">photoelectric effect</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Compton_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Compton effect">Compton effect</a>. Either of those interactions will cause the ejection of an electron from an atom at relativistic speeds, turning that electron into a beta particle (secondary beta particle) that will ionize other atoms. Since most of the ionized atoms are due to the <a href="/wiki/Secondary_beta" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary beta">secondary beta</a> particles, photons are indirectly ionizing radiation.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Radiated photons are called <a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">gamma rays</a> if they are produced by a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reaction" title="Nuclear reaction">nuclear reaction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Subatomic_particle" title="Subatomic particle">subatomic particle</a> decay, or <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">radioactive decay</a> within the nucleus. They are called <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">x-rays</a> if produced outside the nucleus. The generic term "photon" is used to describe both.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>X-rays normally have a lower energy than gamma rays, and an older convention was to define the boundary as a wavelength of 10<sup>−11</sup> m (or a photon energy of 100 keV).<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That threshold was driven by historic limitations of older X-ray tubes and low awareness of <a href="/wiki/Isomeric_transition" class="mw-redirect" title="Isomeric transition">isomeric transitions</a>. Modern technologies and discoveries have shown an overlap between X-ray and gamma energies. In many fields they are functionally identical, differing for terrestrial studies only in origin of the radiation. In astronomy, however, where radiation origin often cannot be reliably determined, the old energy division has been preserved, with X-rays defined as being between about 120 eV and 120 keV, and gamma rays as being of any energy above 100 to 120 keV, regardless of source. Most astronomical "<a href="/wiki/Gamma-rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma-rays">gamma-ray astronomy</a>" are known <i>not</i> to originate in nuclear radioactive processes but, rather, result from processes like those that produce astronomical X-rays, except driven by much more energetic electrons. </p><p>Photoelectric absorption is the dominant mechanism in organic materials for photon energies below 100 keV, typical of classical X-ray tube originated <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-rays</a>. At energies beyond 100 keV, photons ionize matter increasingly through the <a href="/wiki/Compton_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Compton effect">Compton effect</a>, and then indirectly through <a href="/wiki/Pair_production" title="Pair production">pair production</a> at energies beyond 5 MeV. The accompanying interaction diagram shows two Compton scatterings happening sequentially. In every scattering event, the gamma ray transfers energy to an electron, and it continues on its path in a different direction and with reduced energy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Definition_boundary_for_lower-energy_photons">Definition boundary for lower-energy photons</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ionizing_radiation&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Definition boundary for lower-energy photons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">Ultraviolet</a></div> <p>The lowest ionization energy of any element is 3.89 eV, for <a href="/wiki/Caesium" title="Caesium">caesium</a>. However, US Federal Communications Commission material defines ionizing radiation as that with a <a href="/wiki/Photon_energy" title="Photon energy">photon energy</a> greater than 10 eV (equivalent to a far <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> wavelength of 124 <a href="/wiki/Nanometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanometer">nanometers</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roughly, this corresponds to both the first <a href="/wiki/Ionization_energy" title="Ionization energy">ionization energy</a> of oxygen, and the ionization energy of hydrogen, both about 14 eV.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some <a href="/wiki/Environmental_Protection_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental Protection Agency">Environmental Protection Agency</a> references, the ionization of a typical water molecule at an energy of 33 eV is referenced<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as the appropriate biological threshold for ionizing radiation: this value represents the so-called <i>W-value</i>, the colloquial name for the <a href="/wiki/International_Commission_on_Radiation_Units_and_Measurements" title="International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements">ICRU</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Stopping_power_(particle_radiation)#Stopping_power,_Bragg_curve_and_range" title="Stopping power (particle radiation)">mean energy expended in a gas per ion pair formed</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which combines ionization energy plus the energy lost to other processes such as <a href="/wiki/Excited_state" title="Excited state">excitation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At 38 nanometers wavelength for <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">electromagnetic radiation</a>, 33 eV is close to the energy at the conventional 10 nm wavelength transition between extreme ultraviolet and X-ray radiation, which occurs at about 125 eV. Thus, X-ray radiation is always ionizing, but only extreme-ultraviolet radiation can be considered ionizing under all definitions. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Strahlenarten_en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Strahlenarten_en.svg/330px-Strahlenarten_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Strahlenarten_en.svg/495px-Strahlenarten_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Strahlenarten_en.svg/660px-Strahlenarten_en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="632" data-file-height="414" /></a><figcaption>Radiation interaction: gamma rays are represented by wavy lines, charged particles and neutrons by straight lines. The small circles show where ionization occurs.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neutrons">Neutrons</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ionizing_radiation&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Neutrons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">Neutron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neutron_radiation" title="Neutron radiation">neutron radiation</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Ionizing_radiation" title="Special:EditPage/Ionizing radiation">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">Neutrons</a> have a neutral electrical charge often misunderstood as zero electrical charge and thus often do not <i>directly</i> cause ionization in a single step or interaction with matter. However, fast neutrons will interact with the protons in hydrogen via <a href="/wiki/Linear_energy_transfer" title="Linear energy transfer">linear energy transfer</a>, energy that a particle transfers to the material it is moving through. This mechanism scatters the nuclei of the materials in the target area, causing direct ionization of the hydrogen atoms. When neutrons strike the hydrogen nuclei, proton radiation (fast protons) results. These protons are themselves ionizing because they are of high energy, are charged, and interact with the electrons in matter. </p><p>Neutrons that strike other nuclei besides hydrogen will transfer less energy to the other particle if linear energy transfer does occur. But, for many nuclei struck by neutrons, <a href="/wiki/Inelastic_scattering" title="Inelastic scattering">inelastic scattering</a> occurs. Whether elastic or inelastic scatter occurs is dependent on the speed of the neutron, whether <a href="/wiki/Neutron_temperature" title="Neutron temperature">fast</a> or <a href="/wiki/Neutron_temperature" title="Neutron temperature">thermal</a> or somewhere in between. It is also dependent on the nuclei it strikes and its <a href="/wiki/Neutron_cross_section" title="Neutron cross section">neutron cross section</a>. </p><p>In inelastic scattering, neutrons are readily absorbed in a type of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reaction" title="Nuclear reaction">nuclear reaction</a> called <a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture" title="Neutron capture">neutron capture</a> and attributes to the <a href="/wiki/Neutron_activation" title="Neutron activation">neutron activation</a> of the nucleus. Neutron interactions with most types of matter in this manner usually produce <a href="/wiki/Radioactive" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactive">radioactive</a> nuclei. The abundant <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_oxygen" title="Isotopes of oxygen">oxygen-16</a> nucleus, for example, undergoes neutron activation, rapidly decays by a proton emission forming <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_nitrogen" title="Isotopes of nitrogen">nitrogen-16</a>, which decays to oxygen-16. The short-lived nitrogen-16 decay emits a powerful beta ray. This process can be written as: </p> <blockquote><p><sup>16</sup>O (n,p) <sup>16</sup>N (fast neutron capture possible with >11 MeV neutron) </p><p><sup>16</sup>N → <sup>16</sup>O + β<sup>−</sup> (Decay t<sub>1/2</sub> = 7.13 s) </p><p> This high-energy β<sup>−</sup> further interacts rapidly with other nuclei, emitting high-energy γ via <a href="/wiki/Bremsstrahlung" title="Bremsstrahlung">Bremsstrahlung</a></p></blockquote> <p>While not a favorable reaction, the <sup>16</sup>O (n,p) <sup>16</sup>N reaction is a major source of X-rays emitted from the cooling water of a <a href="/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactor" title="Pressurized water reactor">pressurized water reactor</a> and contributes enormously to the radiation generated by a water-cooled <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactor</a> while operating. </p><p>For the best shielding of neutrons, hydrocarbons that have an abundance of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> are used. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Fissile" class="mw-redirect" title="Fissile">fissile</a> materials, secondary neutrons may produce <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chain_reaction" title="Nuclear chain reaction">nuclear chain reactions</a>, causing a larger amount of ionization from the <a href="/wiki/Daughter_product" class="mw-redirect" title="Daughter product">daughter products</a> of fission. </p><p>Outside the nucleus, free neutrons are unstable and have a mean lifetime of 14 minutes, 42 seconds. Free neutrons decay by emission of an electron and an electron antineutrino to become a proton, a process known as <a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">beta decay</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the adjacent diagram, a neutron collides with a proton of the target material, and then becomes a fast recoil proton that ionizes in turn. At the end of its path, the neutron is captured by a nucleus in an (n,γ)-reaction that leads to the emission of a <a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture" title="Neutron capture">neutron capture</a> photon. Such photons always have enough energy to qualify as ionizing radiation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physical_effects">Physical effects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ionizing_radiation&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Physical effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Radiation_damage" title="Radiation damage">Radiation damage</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cyclotron_with_glowing_beam.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Cyclotron_with_glowing_beam.jpg/220px-Cyclotron_with_glowing_beam.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Cyclotron_with_glowing_beam.jpg/330px-Cyclotron_with_glowing_beam.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Cyclotron_with_glowing_beam.jpg/440px-Cyclotron_with_glowing_beam.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="436" /></a><figcaption>Ionized air glows blue around a beam of particulate ionizing radiation from a <a href="/wiki/Cyclotron" title="Cyclotron">cyclotron</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nuclear_effects">Nuclear effects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ionizing_radiation&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Nuclear effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Neutron radiation, alpha radiation, and extremely energetic gamma (> ~20 MeV) can cause <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_transmutation" title="Nuclear transmutation">nuclear transmutation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Induced_radioactivity" title="Induced radioactivity">induced radioactivity</a>. The relevant mechanisms are <a href="/wiki/Neutron_activation" title="Neutron activation">neutron activation</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Alpha_absorption&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alpha absorption (page does not exist)">alpha absorption</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Photodisintegration" title="Photodisintegration">photodisintegration</a>. A large enough number of transmutations can change macroscopic properties and cause targets to become radioactive themselves, even after the original source is removed. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chemical_effects">Chemical effects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ionizing_radiation&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Chemical effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Radiation_chemistry" title="Radiation chemistry">Radiation chemistry</a></div> <p>Ionization of molecules can lead to <a href="/wiki/Radiolysis" title="Radiolysis">radiolysis</a> (breaking chemical bonds), and formation of highly reactive <a href="/wiki/Free_radicals" class="mw-redirect" title="Free radicals">free radicals</a>. These free radicals may then react chemically with neighbouring materials even after the original radiation has stopped. (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Ozone_cracking" title="Ozone cracking">ozone cracking</a> of polymers by ozone formed by ionization of air). Ionizing radiation can also accelerate existing chemical reactions such as polymerization and corrosion, by contributing to the activation energy required for the reaction. Optical materials deteriorate under the effect of ionizing radiation. </p><p>High-intensity ionizing radiation in air can produce a visible <a href="/wiki/Ionized_air_glow" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionized air glow">ionized air glow</a> of telltale bluish-purple color. The glow can be observed, e.g., during <a href="/wiki/Criticality_accident" title="Criticality accident">criticality accidents</a>, around <a href="/wiki/Mushroom_cloud" title="Mushroom cloud">mushroom clouds</a> shortly after a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_explosion" title="Nuclear explosion">nuclear explosion</a>, or the inside of a damaged nuclear reactor like during the <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a>. </p><p>Monatomic fluids, e.g. molten <a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">sodium</a>, have no chemical bonds to break and no crystal lattice to disturb, so they are immune to the chemical effects of ionizing radiation. Simple diatomic compounds with very negative <a href="/wiki/Enthalpy_of_formation" class="mw-redirect" title="Enthalpy of formation">enthalpy of formation</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_fluoride" title="Hydrogen fluoride">hydrogen fluoride</a> will reform rapidly and spontaneously after ionization. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electrical_effects">Electrical effects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ionizing_radiation&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Electrical effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The ionization of materials temporarily increases their conductivity, potentially permitting damaging current levels. This is a particular hazard in <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductor</a> microelectronics employed in electronic equipment, with subsequent currents introducing operation errors or even permanently damaging the devices. Devices intended for high radiation environments such as the nuclear industry and extra-atmospheric (space) applications may be made <a href="/wiki/Radiation_hardening" title="Radiation hardening"><i>radiation hard</i></a> to resist such effects through design, material selection, and fabrication methods. </p><p>Proton radiation found in space can also cause <a href="/wiki/Single-event_upset" title="Single-event upset">single-event upsets</a> in digital circuits. The electrical effects of ionizing radiation are exploited in gas-filled radiation detectors, e.g. the <a href="/wiki/Geiger-Muller_counter" class="mw-redirect" title="Geiger-Muller counter">Geiger-Muller counter</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Ion_chamber" class="mw-redirect" title="Ion chamber">ion chamber</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Health_effects">Health effects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ionizing_radiation&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Health effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Radiobiology" title="Radiobiology">Radiobiology</a></div> <p>Most adverse health effects of exposure to ionizing radiation may be grouped in two general categories: </p> <ul><li>deterministic effects (harmful tissue reactions) due in large part to killing or malfunction of cells following high doses from <a href="/wiki/Radiation_burn" title="Radiation burn">radiation burns</a>.</li> <li>stochastic effects, i.e., <a href="/wiki/Radiation-induced_cancer" title="Radiation-induced cancer">cancer</a> and heritable effects involving either cancer development in exposed individuals owing to <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutation</a> of somatic cells or heritable disease in their offspring owing to mutation of reproductive (germ) cells.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEICRP2007paragraph_55_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEICRP2007paragraph_55-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The most common impact is stochastic <a href="/wiki/Radiation-induced_cancer" title="Radiation-induced cancer">induction of cancer</a> with a latent period of years or decades after exposure. For example, ionizing radiation is one cause of <a href="/wiki/Chronic_myelogenous_leukemia" title="Chronic myelogenous leukemia">chronic myelogenous leukemia</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-LLSCML_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LLSCML-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MedlinePlusCML_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MedlinePlusCML-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although most people with CML have not been exposed to radiation.<sup id="cite_ref-LLSCML_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LLSCML-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MedlinePlusCML_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MedlinePlusCML-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mechanism by which this occurs is well understood, but quantitative models predicting the level of risk remain controversial.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The most widely accepted model, the <a href="/wiki/Linear_no-threshold_model" title="Linear no-threshold model">Linear no-threshold model</a> (LNT), holds that the incidence of cancers due to ionizing radiation increases linearly with <a href="/wiki/Effective_radiation_dose" class="mw-redirect" title="Effective radiation dose">effective radiation dose</a> at a rate of 5.5% per <a href="/wiki/Sievert" title="Sievert">sievert</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEICRP2007_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEICRP2007-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If this is correct, then natural <a href="/wiki/Background_radiation" title="Background radiation">background radiation</a> is the most hazardous source of radiation to general public health, followed by medical imaging as a close second. Other stochastic effects of ionizing radiation are <a href="/wiki/Teratogenesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Teratogenesis">teratogenesis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radiation-induced_cognitive_decline" title="Radiation-induced cognitive decline">cognitive decline</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Heart_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Heart disease">heart disease</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Although <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> is always susceptible to damage by ionizing radiation, the DNA molecule may also be damaged by radiation with enough energy to excite certain <a href="/wiki/Molecular_bond" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular bond">molecular bonds</a> to form <a href="/wiki/Pyrimidine_dimer" title="Pyrimidine dimer">pyrimidine dimers</a>. This energy may be less than ionizing, but near to it. A good example is ultraviolet spectrum energy which begins at about 3.1 eV (400 nm) at close to the same energy level which can cause <a href="/wiki/Sunburn" title="Sunburn">sunburn</a> to unprotected skin, as a result of <a href="/wiki/Photochemistry" title="Photochemistry">photoreactions</a> in <a href="/wiki/Collagen" title="Collagen">collagen</a> and (in the <a href="/wiki/UV-B" class="mw-redirect" title="UV-B">UV-B</a> range) also damage in DNA (for example, pyrimidine dimers). Thus, the mid and lower ultraviolet electromagnetic spectrum is damaging to biological tissues as a result of electronic excitation in molecules which falls short of ionization, but produces similar non-thermal effects. To some extent, visible light and also ultraviolet A (UVA) which is closest to visible energies, have been proven to result in formation of <a href="/wiki/Reactive_oxygen_species" title="Reactive oxygen species">reactive oxygen species</a> in skin, which cause indirect damage since these are electronically excited molecules which can inflict reactive damage, although they do not cause sunburn (erythema).<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like ionization-damage, all these effects in skin are beyond those produced by simple thermal effects.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Measurement_of_radiation">Measurement of radiation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ionizing_radiation&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Measurement of radiation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The table below shows radiation and dose quantities in SI and non-SI units. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Radioactivity_and_radiation.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Radioactivity_and_radiation.png/330px-Radioactivity_and_radiation.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="248" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Radioactivity_and_radiation.png/495px-Radioactivity_and_radiation.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Radioactivity_and_radiation.png/660px-Radioactivity_and_radiation.png 2x" data-file-width="784" data-file-height="588" /></a><figcaption>Relationship between radioactivity and detected ionizing radiation. Key factors are; strength of the radioactive source, transmission effects and instrument sensitivity</figcaption></figure> <table class="wikitable plainrowheaders"> <caption>Methods of radiation measurement </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col">Quantity </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Particle_detector" title="Particle detector">Detector</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/CGS_units" class="mw-redirect" title="CGS units">CGS units</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/SI_units" class="mw-redirect" title="SI units">SI units</a> </th> <th scope="col">Other units </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Disintegration rate </th> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Curie_(unit)" title="Curie (unit)">curie</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Becquerel" title="Becquerel">becquerel</a></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Particle <a href="/wiki/Flux" title="Flux">flux</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Geiger_counter" title="Geiger counter">Geiger counter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proportional_counter" title="Proportional counter">proportional counter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scintillator" title="Scintillator">scintillator</a></td> <td><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1214402035">.mw-parser-output .sfrac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .sfrac.tion,.mw-parser-output .sfrac .tion{display:inline-block;vertical-align:-0.5em;font-size:85%;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .num{display:block;line-height:1em;margin:0.0em 0.1em;border-bottom:1px solid}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .den{display:block;line-height:1em;margin:0.1em 0.1em}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num">counts</span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">cm<sup>2</sup> · second</span></span>⁠</span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035"><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num">counts</span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">metre<sup>2</sup> · second</span></span>⁠</span></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Counts_per_minute" title="Counts per minute">counts per minute</a>, particles per cm<sup>2</sup> per second </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Energy <a href="/wiki/Fluence" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluence">fluence</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Thermoluminescent_dosimeter" title="Thermoluminescent dosimeter">thermoluminescent dosimeter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Film_badge_dosimeter" title="Film badge dosimeter">film badge dosimeter</a></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035"><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num">MeV</span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">cm<sup>2</sup></span></span>⁠</span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035"><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num">joule</span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">metre<sup>2</sup></span></span>⁠</span></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Beam energy </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Proportional_counter" title="Proportional counter">proportional counter</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Electronvolt" title="Electronvolt">electronvolt</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Joule" title="Joule">joule</a></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Linear_energy_transfer" title="Linear energy transfer">Linear energy transfer</a> </th> <td>derived quantity</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035"><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num">MeV</span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">cm</span></span>⁠</span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035"><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num"><a href="/wiki/Joule" title="Joule">Joule</a></span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">metre</span></span>⁠</span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035"><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num">keV</span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">μm</span></span>⁠</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Kerma_(physics)" title="Kerma (physics)">Kerma</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Ionization_chamber" title="Ionization chamber">ionization chamber</a>, <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_detector" title="Semiconductor detector">semiconductor detector</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quartz_fiber_dosimeter" title="Quartz fiber dosimeter">quartz fiber dosimeter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kearny_fallout_meter" title="Kearny fallout meter">Kearny fallout meter</a></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035"><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num"><a href="/wiki/Statcoulomb" title="Statcoulomb">esu</a></span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">cm<sup>3</sup></span></span>⁠</span></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gray_(unit)" title="Gray (unit)">gray</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035"><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num">joule</span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">kg</span></span>⁠</span>)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Roentgen_(unit)" title="Roentgen (unit)">roentgen</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Absorbed_dose" title="Absorbed dose">Absorbed dose</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Calorimeter" title="Calorimeter">calorimeter</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Rad_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rad (unit)">rad</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gray_(unit)" title="Gray (unit)">gray</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/R%C3%B6ntgen_equivalent_physical" title="Röntgen equivalent physical">rep</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Equivalent_dose" title="Equivalent dose">Equivalent dose</a> </th> <td>derived quantity</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Rem_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rem (unit)">rem</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sievert" title="Sievert">sievert</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035"><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num">joule</span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">kg</span></span>⁠</span> × <a href="/wiki/Sievert#Calculating_protection_dose_quantities" title="Sievert"><i>W</i><sub><i>R</i></sub></a>)</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Effective_dose_(radiation)" title="Effective dose (radiation)">Effective dose</a> </th> <td>derived quantity</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Rem_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rem (unit)">rem</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sievert" title="Sievert">sievert</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035"><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num">joule</span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">kg</span></span>⁠</span> × <a href="/wiki/Sievert#Calculating_protection_dose_quantities" title="Sievert"><i>W</i><sub><i>R</i></sub> × <i>W</i><sub><i>T</i></sub></a>)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Background_radiation_equivalent_time" title="Background radiation equivalent time">BRET</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Committed_dose" title="Committed dose">Committed dose</a> </th> <td>derived quantity</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Rem_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rem (unit)">rem</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sievert" title="Sievert">sievert</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Banana_equivalent_dose" title="Banana equivalent dose">banana equivalent dose</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Uses_of_radiation">Uses of radiation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ionizing_radiation&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Uses of radiation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_technology" title="Nuclear technology">Nuclear technology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Radiobiology" title="Radiobiology">Radiobiology</a></div> <p>Ionizing radiation has many industrial, military, and medical uses. Its usefulness must be balanced with its hazards, a compromise that has shifted over time. For example, at one time, assistants in shoe shops in the US <a href="/wiki/Shoe-fitting_fluoroscope" title="Shoe-fitting fluoroscope">used X-rays to check a child's shoe size</a>, but this practice was halted when the risks of ionizing radiation were better understood.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Neutron radiation is essential to the working of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a>. The penetrating power of x-ray, gamma, beta, and positron radiation is used for <a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">medical imaging</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nondestructive_testing" title="Nondestructive testing">nondestructive testing</a>, and a variety of industrial gauges. <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_tracers" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactive tracers">Radioactive tracers</a> are used in medical and industrial applications, as well as biological and <a href="/wiki/Radiation_chemistry" title="Radiation chemistry">radiation chemistry</a>. Alpha radiation is used in <a href="/wiki/Static_eliminator" class="mw-redirect" title="Static eliminator">static eliminators</a> and <a href="/wiki/Smoke_detectors" class="mw-redirect" title="Smoke detectors">smoke detectors</a>. The sterilizing effects of ionizing radiation are useful for cleaning medical instruments, <a href="/wiki/Food_irradiation" title="Food irradiation">food irradiation</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Sterile_insect_technique" title="Sterile insect technique">sterile insect technique</a>. Measurements of <a href="/wiki/Carbon-14" title="Carbon-14">carbon-14</a>, can be used to <a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Radiocarbon dating">date</a> the remains of long-dead organisms (such as wood that is thousands of years old). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources_of_radiation">Sources of radiation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ionizing_radiation&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Sources of radiation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ionizing radiation is generated through nuclear reactions, nuclear decay, by very high temperature, or via acceleration of charged particles in electromagnetic fields. Natural sources include the sun, lightning and supernova explosions. Artificial sources include nuclear reactors, particle accelerators, and <a href="/wiki/X-ray_tube" title="X-ray tube">x-ray tubes</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Scientific_Committee_on_the_Effects_of_Atomic_Radiation" title="United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation">United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation</a> (UNSCEAR) itemized types of human exposures. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Type of radiation exposures </caption> <tbody><tr> <td bgcolor="#dfffdf" colspan="3"><b>Public exposure</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="10">Natural Sources</td> <td rowspan="2">Normal occurrences</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic radiation">Cosmic radiation</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_radiation" class="mw-disambig" title="Terrestrial radiation">Terrestrial radiation</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="8">Enhanced sources</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Metal_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal mining">Metal mining</a> and <a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">smelting</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Phosphate" title="Phosphate">Phosphate</a> industry </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Coal_mining" title="Coal mining">Coal mining</a> and power production from coal </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Oil_well" title="Oil well">Oil</a> and gas drilling </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rare_earth_mineral" class="mw-redirect" title="Rare earth mineral">Rare earth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Titanium_dioxide" title="Titanium dioxide">titanium dioxide</a> industries </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Zirconium" title="Zirconium">Zirconium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ceramic_materials" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceramic materials">ceramics</a> industries </td></tr> <tr> <td>Application of <a href="/wiki/Radium" title="Radium">radium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">thorium</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Other exposure situations </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="5">Human-made sources</td> <td rowspan="3">Peaceful purposes</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear power</a> production </td></tr> <tr> <td>Transport of nuclear and radioactive material </td></tr> <tr> <td>Application other than nuclear power </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">Military purposes</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_tests" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear tests">Nuclear tests</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Residues in the environment. <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">Nuclear fallout</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3">Historical situations </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3">Exposure from accidents </td></tr> <tr> <td bgcolor="#dfffdf" colspan="3"><b>Occupational radiation exposure</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="4">Natural Sources</td> <td></td> <td>Cosmic ray exposures of <a href="/wiki/Aircrew" title="Aircrew">aircrew</a> and <a href="/wiki/Astronaut" title="Astronaut">space crew</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td>Exposures in extractive and processing industries </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td>Gas and oil extraction industries </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td>Radon exposure in workplaces other than mines </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="5">Human-made sources</td> <td rowspan="4">Peaceful purposes</td> <td>Nuclear power industries </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Radiology" title="Radiology">Medical uses of radiation</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Industrial uses of radiation </td></tr> <tr> <td>Miscellaneous uses </td></tr> <tr> <td>Military purposes</td> <td>Other exposed workers </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3"><small>Source <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unscear.org/docs/reports/2008/09-86753_Report_2008_Annex_B.pdf">UNSCEAR 2008 Annex B</a> retrieved 2011-7-4</small> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <a href="/wiki/International_Commission_on_Radiological_Protection" title="International Commission on Radiological Protection">International Commission on Radiological Protection</a> manages the International System of Radiological Protection, which sets recommended limits for dose uptake. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Background_radiation">Background radiation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ionizing_radiation&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Background radiation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Background_radiation" title="Background radiation">Background radiation</a></div> <p>Background radiation comes from both natural and human-made sources. </p><p>The global average exposure of humans to ionizing radiation is about 3 mSv (0.3 rem) per year, 80% of which comes from nature. The remaining 20% results from exposure to human-made radiation sources, primarily from <a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">medical imaging</a>. Average human-made exposure is much higher in developed countries, mostly due to <a href="/wiki/CT_scans" class="mw-redirect" title="CT scans">CT scans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_medicine" title="Nuclear medicine">nuclear medicine</a>. </p><p>Natural <a href="/wiki/Background_radiation" title="Background radiation">background radiation</a> comes from five primary sources: cosmic radiation, solar radiation, external terrestrial sources, radiation in the human body, and <a href="/wiki/Radon" title="Radon">radon</a>. </p><p>The background rate for natural radiation varies considerably with location, being as low as 1.5 mSv/a (1.5 mSv per year) in some areas and over 100 mSv/a in others. The highest level of purely natural radiation recorded on the Earth's surface is 90 μGy/h (0.8 Gy/a) on a Brazilian black beach composed of <a href="/wiki/Monazite" title="Monazite">monazite</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The highest background radiation in an inhabited area is found in <a href="/wiki/Ramsar,_Mazandaran" class="mw-redirect" title="Ramsar, Mazandaran">Ramsar</a>, primarily due to naturally radioactive limestone used as a building material. Some 2000 of the most exposed residents receive an average <a href="/wiki/Radiation_dose" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation dose">radiation dose</a> of 10 <a href="/wiki/MGy" class="mw-redirect" title="MGy">mGy</a> per year, (1 <a href="/wiki/Rad_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rad (unit)">rad</a>/yr) ten times more than the ICRP recommended limit for exposure to the public from artificial sources.<sup id="cite_ref-Mortazavi2005_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mortazavi2005-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Record levels were found in a house where the <a href="/wiki/Effective_radiation_dose" class="mw-redirect" title="Effective radiation dose">effective radiation dose</a> due to external radiation was 135 mSv/a, (13.5 rem/yr) and the <a href="/wiki/Committed_dose" title="Committed dose">committed dose</a> from <a href="/wiki/Radon" title="Radon">radon</a> was 640 mSv/a (64.0 rem/yr).<sup id="cite_ref-Sohrabi2005_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sohrabi2005-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This unique case is over 200 times higher than the world average background radiation. Despite the high levels of background radiation that the residents of Ramsar receive there is no compelling evidence that they experience a greater health risk. The ICRP recommendations are conservative limits and may represent an over representation of the actual health risk. Generally radiation safety organization recommend the most conservative limits assuming it is best to err on the side of caution. This level of caution is appropriate but should not be used to create fear about background radiation danger. Radiation danger from background radiation may be a serious threat but is more likely a small overall risk compared to all other factors in the environment. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cosmic_radiation">Cosmic radiation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ionizing_radiation&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Cosmic radiation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">Cosmic ray</a></div> <p>The Earth, and all living things on it, are constantly bombarded by radiation from outside our solar system. This cosmic radiation consists of relativistic particles: positively charged nuclei (ions) from 1 <a href="/wiki/Atomic_mass_unit" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic mass unit">amu</a> <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a> (about 85% of it) to 26 amu <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">nuclei</a> and even beyond. (The high-atomic number particles are called <a href="/wiki/HZE_ions" class="mw-redirect" title="HZE ions">HZE ions</a>.) The energy of this radiation can far exceed that which humans can create, even in the largest <a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator">particle accelerators</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Ultra-high-energy_cosmic_ray" title="Ultra-high-energy cosmic ray">ultra-high-energy cosmic ray</a>). This radiation interacts in the atmosphere to create secondary radiation that rains down, including <a href="/wiki/X-rays" class="mw-redirect" title="X-rays">x-rays</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muon" title="Muon">muons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antiproton" title="Antiproton">antiprotons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">alpha particles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pion" title="Pion">pions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">positrons</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutrons</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Dose_(biochemistry)" title="Dose (biochemistry)">dose</a> from cosmic radiation is largely from muons, neutrons, and electrons, with a dose rate that varies in different parts of the world and based largely on the geomagnetic field, altitude, and solar cycle. The cosmic-radiation dose rate on airplanes is so high that, according to the United Nations UNSCEAR 2000 Report (see links at bottom), airline flight crew workers receive more dose on average than any other worker, including those in nuclear power plants. Airline crews receive more cosmic rays if they routinely work flight routes that take them close to the North or South pole at high altitudes, where this type of radiation is maximal. </p><p>Cosmic rays also include high-energy gamma rays, which are far beyond the energies produced by solar or human sources. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="External_terrestrial_sources">External terrestrial sources</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ionizing_radiation&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External terrestrial sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most materials on Earth contain some radioactive <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a>, even if in small quantities. Most of the dose received from these sources is from gamma-ray emitters in building materials, or rocks and soil when outside. The major <a href="/wiki/Radionuclide" title="Radionuclide">radionuclides</a> of concern for <b>terrestrial radiation</b> are isotopes of <a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">potassium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">thorium</a>. Each of these sources has been decreasing in activity since the formation of the Earth. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Internal_radiation_sources">Internal radiation sources</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ionizing_radiation&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Internal radiation sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Committed_dose" title="Committed dose">Committed dose</a></div> <p>All earthly materials that are the building blocks of life contain a radioactive component. As humans, plants, and animals consume food, air, and water, an inventory of radioisotopes builds up within the organism (see <a href="/wiki/Banana_equivalent_dose" title="Banana equivalent dose">banana equivalent dose</a>). Some radionuclides, like <a href="/wiki/Potassium-40" title="Potassium-40">potassium-40</a>, emit a high-energy gamma ray that can be measured by sensitive electronic radiation measurement systems. These internal radiation sources contribute to an individual's total radiation dose from <a href="/wiki/Natural_background_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural background radiation">natural background radiation</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Radon">Radon</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ionizing_radiation&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Radon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Health_effects_of_radon" title="Health effects of radon">Health effects of radon</a></div> <p>An important source of natural radiation is <a href="/wiki/Radon" title="Radon">radon</a> gas, which seeps continuously from bedrock but can, because of its high density, accumulate in poorly ventilated houses. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Radon-222" title="Radon-222">Radon-222</a> is a gas produced by the α-decay of <a href="/wiki/Radium" title="Radium">radium</a>-226. Both are a part of the natural <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a> decay chain. Uranium is found in soil throughout the world in varying concentrations. Radon is the largest cause of lung cancer among non-smokers and the second-leading cause overall.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Radiation_exposure">Radiation exposure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ionizing_radiation&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Radiation exposure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:G_radiation-level_scale_01.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/G_radiation-level_scale_01.png/220px-G_radiation-level_scale_01.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/G_radiation-level_scale_01.png/330px-G_radiation-level_scale_01.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/G_radiation-level_scale_01.png/440px-G_radiation-level_scale_01.png 2x" data-file-width="1250" data-file-height="1389" /></a><figcaption> Radiation level in a range of situations, from normal activities up to the Chernobyl reactor accident. Each step up the scale indicates a tenfold increase in radiation level.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Exposure_chart-XKCD.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Exposure_chart-XKCD.svg/220px-Exposure_chart-XKCD.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Exposure_chart-XKCD.svg/330px-Exposure_chart-XKCD.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Exposure_chart-XKCD.svg/440px-Exposure_chart-XKCD.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="890" /></a><figcaption>Various doses of radiation in sieverts, ranging from trivial to lethal.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Radiological_exposure_from_daily_life.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Radiological_exposure_from_daily_life.png/220px-Radiological_exposure_from_daily_life.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Radiological_exposure_from_daily_life.png/330px-Radiological_exposure_from_daily_life.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Radiological_exposure_from_daily_life.png/440px-Radiological_exposure_from_daily_life.png 2x" data-file-width="2391" data-file-height="3094" /></a><figcaption>Visual comparison of radiological exposure from daily life activities.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Radiation_protection" title="Radiation protection">Radiation protection</a></div> <p>There are three standard ways to limit exposure: </p> <ol><li><b>Time</b>: For people exposed to radiation in addition to natural background radiation, limiting or minimizing the exposure time will reduce the dose from the source of radiation.</li> <li><b>Distance</b>: Radiation intensity decreases sharply with distance, according to an <a href="/wiki/Inverse-square_law" title="Inverse-square law">inverse-square law</a> (in an absolute vacuum).<sup id="cite_ref-Camphausen_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Camphausen-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Shielding</b>: Air or skin can be sufficient to substantially attenuate alpha radiation, while sheet metal or plastic is often sufficient to stop beta radiation. Barriers of <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a>, <a href="/wiki/Concrete" title="Concrete">concrete</a>, or water are often used to give effective protection from more penetrating forms of ionizing radiation such as gamma rays and <a href="/wiki/Neutrons" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutrons">neutrons</a>. Some radioactive materials are stored or handled underwater or by <a href="/wiki/Remote_control" title="Remote control">remote control</a> in rooms constructed of thick concrete or lined with lead. There are special <a href="/wiki/Plastic" title="Plastic">plastic</a> shields that stop beta particles, and air will stop most alpha particles. The effectiveness of a material in shielding radiation is determined by its <a href="/wiki/Half-value_layer" title="Half-value layer">half-value thicknesses</a>, the thickness of material that reduces the radiation by half. This value is a function of the material itself and of the type and energy of ionizing radiation. Some generally accepted thicknesses of attenuating material are 5 mm of aluminum for most beta particles, and 3 inches of lead for gamma radiation.</li></ol> <p>These can all be applied to natural and human-made sources. For human-made sources the use of <b>Containment</b> is a major tool in reducing dose uptake and is effectively a combination of shielding and isolation from the open environment. Radioactive materials are confined in the smallest possible space and kept out of the environment such as in a <a href="/wiki/Hot_cell" title="Hot cell">hot cell</a> (for radiation) or <a href="/wiki/Glove_box" class="mw-redirect" title="Glove box">glove box</a> (for contamination). <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_isotope" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactive isotope">Radioactive isotopes</a> for medical use, for example, are dispensed in closed handling facilities, usually gloveboxes, while <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactors</a> operate within closed systems with multiple barriers that keep the radioactive materials contained. Work rooms, hot cells and gloveboxes have slightly reduced air pressures to prevent escape of airborne material to the open environment. </p><p>In nuclear conflicts or civil nuclear releases <a href="/wiki/Civil_defense" title="Civil defense">civil defense</a> measures can help reduce exposure of populations by reducing ingestion of isotopes and occupational exposure. One is the issue of <a href="/wiki/Potassium_iodide" title="Potassium iodide">potassium iodide</a> (KI) tablets, which blocks the uptake of <a href="/wiki/Iodine-131" title="Iodine-131">radioactive iodine</a> (one of the major radioisotope products of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">nuclear fission</a>) into the human <a href="/wiki/Thyroid" title="Thyroid">thyroid</a> gland. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Occupational_exposure">Occupational exposure</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ionizing_radiation&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Occupational exposure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Occupationally exposed individuals are controlled within the regulatory framework of the country they work in, and in accordance with any local nuclear licence constraints. These are usually based on the recommendations of the <a href="/wiki/International_Commission_on_Radiological_Protection" title="International Commission on Radiological Protection">International Commission on Radiological Protection</a>. The ICRP recommends limiting artificial irradiation. For occupational exposure, the limit is 50 mSv in a single year with a maximum of 100 mSv in a consecutive five-year period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEICRP2007_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEICRP2007-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The radiation exposure of these individuals is carefully monitored with the use of <a href="/wiki/Dosimeter" title="Dosimeter">dosimeters</a> and other radiological protection instruments which will measure radioactive particulate concentrations, area gamma dose readings and <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">radioactive contamination</a>. A legal record of dose is kept. </p><p>Examples of activities where occupational exposure is a concern include: </p> <ul><li>Airline crew (the most exposed population)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_radiography" title="Industrial radiography">Industrial radiography</a></li> <li>Medical <a href="/wiki/Radiology" title="Radiology">radiology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_medicine" title="Nuclear medicine">nuclear medicine</a><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Uranium mining</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant" title="Nuclear power plant">Nuclear power plant</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel_reprocessing_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear fuel reprocessing plant">nuclear fuel reprocessing plant</a> workers</li> <li>Research laboratories (government, university and private)</li></ul> <p>Some human-made radiation sources affect the body through direct radiation, known as <a href="/wiki/Effective_dose_(radiation)" title="Effective dose (radiation)">effective dose (radiation)</a> while others take the form of <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">radioactive contamination</a> and <a href="/wiki/Irradiate" class="mw-redirect" title="Irradiate">irradiate</a> the body from within. The latter is known as <a href="/wiki/Committed_dose" title="Committed dose">committed dose</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_exposure">Public exposure</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ionizing_radiation&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Public exposure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Medical procedures, such as diagnostic <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-rays</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_medicine" title="Nuclear medicine">nuclear medicine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">radiation therapy</a> are by far the most significant source of human-made radiation exposure to the general public. Some of the major <a href="/wiki/Radionuclide" title="Radionuclide">radionuclides</a> used are <a href="/wiki/I-131" class="mw-redirect" title="I-131">I-131</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tc-99m" class="mw-redirect" title="Tc-99m">Tc-99m</a>, <a href="/wiki/Co-60" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-60">Co-60</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iridium" title="Iridium">Ir-192</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Caesium" title="Caesium">Cs-137</a>. The public is also exposed to radiation from consumer products, such as <a href="/wiki/Tobacco" title="Tobacco">tobacco</a> (<a href="/wiki/Polonium" title="Polonium">polonium</a>-210), combustible fuels (gas, <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a>, etc.), <a href="/wiki/Television" title="Television">televisions</a>, luminous <a href="/wiki/Watch" title="Watch">watches</a> and dials (<a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">tritium</a>), airport <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-ray</a> systems, <a href="/wiki/Smoke_detector" title="Smoke detector">smoke detectors</a> (<a href="/wiki/Americium" title="Americium">americium</a>), electron tubes, and gas lantern mantles (<a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">thorium</a>). </p><p>Of lesser magnitude, members of the public are exposed to radiation from the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel" title="Nuclear fuel">nuclear fuel</a> cycle, which includes the entire sequence from processing <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a> to the disposal of the spent fuel. The effects of such exposure have not been reliably measured due to the extremely low doses involved. Opponents use a cancer per dose model to assert that such activities cause several hundred cases of cancer per year, an application of the widely accepted <a href="/wiki/Linear_no-threshold_model" title="Linear no-threshold model">Linear no-threshold model</a> (LNT). </p><p>The International Commission on Radiological Protection recommends limiting artificial irradiation to the public to an average of 1 mSv (0.001 Sv) of effective dose per year, not including medical and occupational exposures.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEICRP2007_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEICRP2007-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare">nuclear war</a>, gamma rays from both the initial weapon explosion and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">fallout</a> would be the sources of radiation exposure. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Spaceflight">Spaceflight</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ionizing_radiation&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Spaceflight"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Massive particles are a concern for astronauts outside the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_magnetic_field" title="Earth's magnetic field">Earth's magnetic field</a> who would receive solar particles from <a href="/wiki/Solar_proton_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar proton event">solar proton events</a> (SPE) and <a href="/wiki/Galactic_cosmic_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Galactic cosmic rays">galactic cosmic rays</a> from cosmic sources. These high-energy charged nuclei are blocked by Earth's magnetic field but pose a <a href="/wiki/Health_threat_from_cosmic_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Health threat from cosmic rays">major health concern</a> for astronauts traveling to the Moon and to any distant location beyond the Earth orbit. Highly charged HZE ions in particular are known to be extremely damaging, although protons make up the vast majority of galactic cosmic rays. Evidence indicates past SPE radiation levels that would have been lethal for unprotected astronauts.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Air_travel">Air travel</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ionizing_radiation&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Air travel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Air travel exposes people on aircraft to increased radiation from space as compared to sea level, including <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic rays">cosmic rays</a> and from <a href="/wiki/Solar_flare" title="Solar flare">solar flare</a> events.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-davis_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-davis-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Software programs such as <a href="/wiki/Epcard" title="Epcard">Epcard</a>, CARI, SIEVERT, PCAIRE are attempts to simulate exposure by aircrews and passengers.<sup id="cite_ref-davis_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-davis-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example of a measured dose (not simulated dose) is 6 μSv per hour from London Heathrow to Tokyo Narita on a high-latitude polar route.<sup id="cite_ref-davis_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-davis-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, dosages can vary, such as during periods of high solar activity.<sup id="cite_ref-davis_37-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-davis-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The United States FAA requires airlines to provide flight crew with information about cosmic radiation, and an <a href="/wiki/International_Commission_on_Radiological_Protection" title="International Commission on Radiological Protection">International Commission on Radiological Protection</a> recommendation for the general public is no more than 1 mSv per year.<sup id="cite_ref-davis_37-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-davis-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, many airlines do not allow <a href="/wiki/Pregnancy" title="Pregnancy">pregnant</a> flightcrew members, to comply with a European Directive.<sup id="cite_ref-davis_37-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-davis-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The FAA has a recommended limit of 1 mSv total for a pregnancy, and no more than 0.5 mSv per month.<sup id="cite_ref-davis_37-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-davis-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Information originally based on <i>Fundamentals of Aerospace Medicine</i> published in 2008.<sup id="cite_ref-davis_37-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-davis-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radiation_hazard_warning_signs">Radiation hazard warning signs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ionizing_radiation&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Radiation hazard warning signs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Hazardous levels of ionizing radiation are signified by the trefoil sign on a yellow background. These are usually posted at the boundary of a radiation controlled area or in any place where radiation levels are significantly above background due to human intervention. </p><p>The red ionizing radiation warning symbol (ISO 21482) was launched in 2007, and is intended for <a href="/wiki/IAEA" class="mw-redirect" title="IAEA">IAEA</a> Category 1, 2 and 3 sources defined as dangerous sources capable of death or serious injury, including food irradiators, teletherapy machines for cancer treatment and industrial radiography units. The symbol is to be placed on the device housing the source, as a warning not to dismantle the device or to get any closer. It will not be visible under normal use, only if someone attempts to disassemble the device. The symbol will not be located on building access doors, transportation packages or containers.<sup id="cite_ref-radiationsymbol_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-radiationsymbol-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 285px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 280px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Radioactive.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ionizing radiation hazard symbol"><img alt="Ionizing radiation hazard symbol" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/230px-Radioactive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="230" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/344px-Radioactive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/459px-Radioactive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="446" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Ionizing radiation <a href="/wiki/Hazard_symbol" title="Hazard symbol">hazard symbol</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 285px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 280px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Logo_iso_radiation.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="2007 ISO radioactivity danger symbol intended for IAEA Category 1, 2 and 3 sources defined as dangerous sources capable of death or serious injury.[38]"><img alt="2007 ISO radioactivity danger symbol intended for IAEA Category 1, 2 and 3 sources defined as dangerous sources capable of death or serious injury.[38]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Logo_iso_radiation.svg/242px-Logo_iso_radiation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="242" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Logo_iso_radiation.svg/362px-Logo_iso_radiation.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Logo_iso_radiation.svg/483px-Logo_iso_radiation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="716" data-file-height="593" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">2007 ISO <a href="/wiki/Radioactivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactivity">radioactivity</a> danger symbol intended for <a href="/wiki/IAEA" class="mw-redirect" title="IAEA">IAEA</a> Category 1, 2 and 3 sources defined as dangerous sources capable of death or serious injury.<sup id="cite_ref-radiationsymbol_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-radiationsymbol-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ionizing_radiation&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span 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title="Treatment of infections after accidental or hostile exposure to ionizing radiation">Treatment of infections after accidental or hostile exposure to ionizing radiation</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ionizing_radiation&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns 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a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ionizing-radiation-health-effects-and-protective-measures">"Ionizing radiation, health effects and protective measures"</a>. <i>World Health Organization</i>. 29 April 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200329093757/https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ionizing-radiation-health-effects-and-protective-measures">Archived</a> from the original on 29 March 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 January</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Health+Organization&rft.atitle=Ionizing+radiation%2C+health+effects+and+protective+measures&rft.date=2016-04-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Fnews-room%2Ffact-sheets%2Fdetail%2Fionizing-radiation-health-effects-and-protective-measures&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIonizing+radiation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Woodside-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Woodside_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodside1997" class="citation book cs1">Woodside, Gayle (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SJP57-0UOzYC&q=%22ionizing+radiation&pg=PA476"><i>Environmental, Safety, and Health Engineering</i></a>. US: John Wiley & Sons. p. 476. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0471109327" title="Special:BookSources/978-0471109327"><bdi>978-0471109327</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151019172351/https://books.google.com/books?id=SJP57-0UOzYC&pg=PA476&dq=%22ionizing+radiation">Archived</a> from the original on 2015-10-19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Environmental%2C+Safety%2C+and+Health+Engineering&rft.place=US&rft.pages=476&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0471109327&rft.aulast=Woodside&rft.aufirst=Gayle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSJP57-0UOzYC%26q%3D%2522ionizing%2Bradiation%26pg%3DPA476&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIonizing+radiation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stallcup-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stallcup_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStallcup2006" class="citation book cs1">Stallcup, James G. 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US: Jones & Bartlett Learning. p. 133. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0763743475" title="Special:BookSources/978-0763743475"><bdi>978-0763743475</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151017165816/https://books.google.com/books?id=CpyeNUgls68C&pg=SA13-PA3&dq=%22ionizing+radiation">Archived</a> from the original on 2015-10-17.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=OSHA%3A+Stallcup%27s+High-voltage+Telecommunications+Regulations+Simplified&rft.place=US&rft.pages=133&rft.pub=Jones+%26+Bartlett+Learning&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0763743475&rft.aulast=Stallcup&rft.aufirst=James+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCpyeNUgls68C%26q%3D%2522ionizing%2Bradiation%26pg%3DSA13-PA3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIonizing+radiation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.osha.gov/ionizing-radiation/health-effects#:~:text=When%20ionizing%20radiation%20interacts%20with,DNA%20(i.e.,%20mutations).">"Ionizing Radiation - Health Effects | Occupational Safety and Health Administration"</a>. <i>www.osha.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Magnetic resonance versus computed tomography for the detection of retroperitoneal lymph node metastasis due to testicular cancer: A systematic literature review. European Journal of Radiology Open.2021;8:100372. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejro.2021.100372">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejro.2021.100372</a> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://engineering.dartmouth.edu/~d76205x/research/Shielding/docs/Parker_06.pdf">One kg of water per cm squared is 10 meters of water</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160101094421/http://engineering.dartmouth.edu/~d76205x/research/shielding/docs/Parker_06.pdf">Archived</a> 2016-01-01 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303195332/http://www2.lbl.gov/abc/wallchart/chapters/03/2.html">"Beta Decay"</a>. <i>Lbl.gov</i>. 9 August 2000. 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USA: Addison-Wesley. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/feynmanlectureso01feyn/page/2">2–5</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-201-02116-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-201-02116-5"><bdi>978-0-201-02116-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Feynman+Lectures+on+Physics%2C+Vol.1&rft.place=USA&rft.pages=2-5&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&rft.date=1963&rft.isbn=978-0-201-02116-5&rft.aulast=Feynman&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.au=Robert+Leighton&rft.au=Matthew+Sands&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffeynmanlectureso01feyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIonizing+radiation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFL'AnnunziataMohammad_Baradei2003" class="citation book cs1">L'Annunziata, Michael; Mohammad Baradei (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=b519e10OPT0C&pg=PA58"><i>Handbook of Radioactivity Analysis</i></a>. 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New Scientist. 21 March 2005. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150327023245/http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn7142">Archived</a> from the original on 27 March 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Superflares+could+kill+unprotected+astronauts&rft.pub=New+Scientist&rft.date=2005-03-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newscientist.com%2Farticle%2Fdn7142&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIonizing+radiation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sol.spacenvironment.net/raps_ops/current_files/globeView.html">"Effective Dose Rate"</a>. <i>NAIRAS (Nowcast of Atmospheric Ionizing Radiation System)</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160305061814/http://sol.spacenvironment.net/raps_ops/current_files/globeView.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2016-03-05.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NAIRAS+%28Nowcast+of+Atmospheric+Ionizing+Radiation+System%29&rft.atitle=Effective+Dose+Rate&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsol.spacenvironment.net%2Fraps_ops%2Fcurrent_files%2FglobeView.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIonizing+radiation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-davis-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-davis_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-davis_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-davis_37-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-davis_37-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-davis_37-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-davis_37-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-davis_37-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-davis_37-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJeffrey_R._DavisRobert_JohnsonJan_Stepanek2008" class="citation book cs1">Jeffrey R. 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February 15, 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070217075115/http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/News/2007/radiationsymbol.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2007-02-17.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=New+Symbol+Launched+to+Warn+Public+About+Radiation+Dangers&rft.pub=International+Atomic+Energy+Agency&rft.date=2007-02-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iaea.org%2Fnewscenter%2Fnews%2F2007%2Fradiationsymbol.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIonizing+radiation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Literature">Literature</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ionizing_radiation&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFICRP2007" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">ICRP (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121116084754/http://www.icrp.org/publication.asp?id=ICRP+Publication+103"><i>The 2007 Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection (Annals of the ICRP)</i></a>. ICRP publication 103. Vol. 37:2–4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7020-3048-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7020-3048-2"><bdi>978-0-7020-3048-2</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icrp.org/publication.asp?id=ICRP%20Publication%20103">the original</a> on 16 November 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 May</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+2007+Recommendations+of+the+International+Commission+on+Radiological+Protection+%28Annals+of+the+ICRP%29&rft.series=ICRP+publication+103&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7020-3048-2&rft.au=ICRP&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.icrp.org%2Fpublication.asp%3Fid%3DICRP%2520Publication%2520103&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIonizing+radiation" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ionizing_radiation&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nrc.gov">The Nuclear Regulatory Commission</a> regulates most commercial radiation sources and non-medical exposures in the US:</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/sis/search/r?dbs+hsdb:@term+@na+@rel+ionizing+radiation">NLM Hazardous Substances Databank – Ionizing Radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Scientific_Committee_on_the_Effects_of_Atomic_Radiation" title="United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation">United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation</a> 2000 Report <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unscear.org/unscear/en/publications/2000_1.html">Volume 1: Sources</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unscear.org/unscear/en/publications/2000_2.html">Volume 2: Effects</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.npl.co.uk/educate-explore/posters/ionising-radiation/">Beginners Guide to Ionising Radiation Measurement</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMike_Hanley" class="citation web cs1">Mike Hanley. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.xrayrisk.com">"XrayRisk.com : Radiation Risk Calculator. Calculate Radiation Dose and Cancer Risk"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=XrayRisk.com+%3A+Radiation+Risk+Calculator.+Calculate+Radiation+Dose+and+Cancer+Risk&rft.au=Mike+Hanley&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.xrayrisk.com&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIonizing+radiation" class="Z3988"></span> (from CT scans and xrays).</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.x-raysafety.com/rad-safety.htm">Free Radiation Safety Course</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180416160511/http://www.x-raysafety.com/rad-safety.htm">Archived</a> 2018-04-16 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.radiationanswers.org">Health Physics Society Public Education Website</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040623102755/http://www.ornl.gov/sci/env_rpt/aser95/appa.htm">Oak Ridge Reservation</a> Basic Radiation Facts</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output 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4em"><a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">Radiation</a> (physics and health)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Main articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Non-ionizing_radiation" title="Non-ionizing radiation">Non-ionizing radiation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acoustic_radiation_force" title="Acoustic radiation force">Acoustic radiation force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">Infrared</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">Light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starlight" title="Starlight">Starlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">Sunlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">Microwave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">Radio waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">Ultraviolet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ionizing radiation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">Radioactive decay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cluster_decay" title="Cluster decay">Cluster decay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Background_radiation" title="Background radiation">Background radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">Alpha particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_particle" title="Beta particle">Beta particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">Gamma ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">Cosmic ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_radiation" title="Neutron radiation">Neutron radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">Nuclear fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">Nuclear fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">Nuclear reactors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">Nuclear weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator">Particle accelerators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radionuclide" title="Radionuclide">Radioactive materials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-ray</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_budget" title="Earth's energy budget">Earth's energy budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">Electromagnetic radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synchrotron_radiation" title="Synchrotron radiation">Synchrotron radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_radiation" title="Thermal radiation">Thermal radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black-body_radiation" title="Black-body radiation">Black-body radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_radiation" title="Particle radiation">Particle radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitational radiation">Gravitational radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_background_radiation" title="Cosmic background radiation">Cosmic background radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherenkov_radiation" title="Cherenkov radiation">Cherenkov radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Askaryan_radiation" title="Askaryan radiation">Askaryan radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bremsstrahlung" title="Bremsstrahlung">Bremsstrahlung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unruh_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Unruh radiation">Unruh radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_radiation" title="Dark radiation">Dark radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_exposure" title="Radiation exposure">Radiation exposure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Radiation <br />and health</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Radiation syndrome <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acute_radiation_syndrome" title="Acute radiation syndrome">acute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronic_radiation_syndrome" title="Chronic radiation syndrome">chronic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_physics" title="Health physics">Health physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dosimetry" title="Dosimetry">Dosimetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation_and_health" title="Electromagnetic radiation and health">Electromagnetic radiation and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser_safety" title="Laser safety">Laser safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lasers_and_aviation_safety" title="Lasers and aviation safety">Lasers and aviation safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_radiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical radiography">Medical radiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_protection" title="Radiation protection">Radiation protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">Radiation therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_damage" title="Radiation damage">Radiation damage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactivity_in_the_life_sciences" title="Radioactivity in the life sciences">Radioactivity in the life sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">Radioactive contamination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiobiology" title="Radiobiology">Radiobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sievert" title="Sievert">Biological dose units and quantities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_device_radiation_and_health" title="Wireless device radiation and health">Wireless device radiation and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_electronic_devices_and_health" class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless electronic devices and health">Wireless electronic devices and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_transfer" title="Heat transfer">Radiation heat-transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_energy_transfer" title="Linear energy transfer">Linear energy transfer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Radiation incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_civilian_radiation_accidents" title="List of civilian radiation accidents">List of civilian radiation accidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1996_San_Juan_de_Dios_radiotherapy_accident" title="1996 San Juan de Dios radiotherapy accident">1996 Costa Rica accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goi%C3%A2nia_accident" title="Goiânia accident">1987 Goiânia accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_Moroccan_radiation_accident" title="1984 Moroccan radiation accident">1984 Moroccan accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1990_Clinic_of_Zaragoza_radiotherapy_accident" class="mw-redirect" title="1990 Clinic of Zaragoza radiotherapy accident">1990 Zaragoza accident</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">Half-life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Nuclear physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_source" title="Radioactive source">Radioactive source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_hardening" title="Radiation hardening">Radiation hardening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Havana_syndrome" title="Havana syndrome">Havana syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable selfref">See also the categories <a href="/wiki/Category:Radiation_effects" title="Category:Radiation effects">Radiation effects</a>, <a href="/wiki/Category:Radioactivity" title="Category:Radioactivity">Radioactivity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Category:Radiobiology" title="Category:Radiobiology">Radiobiology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Category:Radiation_protection" title="Category:Radiation protection">Radiation protection</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Cancer-causing_materials_and_agents_(carcinogens)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Carcinogens" title="Template:Carcinogens"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Carcinogens" title="Template talk:Carcinogens"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Carcinogens" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Carcinogens"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Cancer-causing_materials_and_agents_(carcinogens)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Cancer-causing materials and agents (<a href="/wiki/Carcinogen" title="Carcinogen">carcinogens</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">Cancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancer_cell" title="Cancer cell">Cancer cells</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Prominent human carcinogens</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acetaldehyde" title="Acetaldehyde">Acetaldehyde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">Arsenic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asbestos" title="Asbestos">Asbestos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Helicobacter_pylori" title="Helicobacter pylori">Helicobacter pylori</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzo(a)pyrene" title="Benzo(a)pyrene">Benzo[a]pyrene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1,3-Butadiene" class="mw-redirect" title="1,3-Butadiene">1,3-Butadiene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diethylstilbestrol" title="Diethylstilbestrol">Diethylstilbestrol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formaldehyde" title="Formaldehyde">Formaldehyde</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ionizing radiation</a> (e.g., from isotopes of <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Radium" title="Radium">radium</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobacco_smoking" title="Tobacco smoking">Tobacco smoke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">Ultraviolet light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viruses" class="mw-redirect" title="Viruses">Viruses</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epstein%E2%80%93Barr_virus" title="Epstein–Barr virus">Epstein–Barr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_B_virus" title="Hepatitis B virus">Hepatitis B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_C_virus" title="Hepatitis C virus">Hepatitis C</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_papillomavirus" class="mw-redirect" title="Human papillomavirus">HPV</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/International_Agency_for_Research_on_Cancer" title="International Agency for Research on Cancer">IARC</a> lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_IARC_Group_1_Agents_-_Carcinogenic_to_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="List of IARC Group 1 Agents - Carcinogenic to humans">Group 1 (carcinogenic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_IARC_Group_2A_Agents_-_Probably_carcinogenic_to_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="List of IARC Group 2A Agents - Probably carcinogenic to humans">Group 2A (probably carcinogenic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_IARC_Group_2B_Agents_-_Possibly_carcinogenic_to_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="List of IARC Group 2B Agents - Possibly carcinogenic to humans">Group 2B (possibly carcinogenic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IARC_group_3" title="IARC group 3">Group 3 (not classifiable)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Nuclear_technology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist ｜ above = * [[Outline of nuclear technology|Outline]] mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nuclear_technology" title="Template:Nuclear technology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nuclear_technology" title="Template talk:Nuclear technology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear_technology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear technology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nuclear_technology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_technology" title="Nuclear technology">Nuclear technology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chemistry" title="Nuclear chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_engineering" title="Nuclear engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">Atomic nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">Fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">Fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">Radiation</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">ionizing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bremsstrahlung" title="Bremsstrahlung">braking</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel" title="Nuclear fuel">Fuel</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">Tritium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">Deuterium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helium-3" title="Helium-3">Helium-3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertile_material" title="Fertile material">Fertile material</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fissile_material" title="Fissile material">Fissile material</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isotope_separation" title="Isotope separation">Isotope separation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_material" title="Nuclear material">Nuclear material</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">Uranium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enriched_uranium" title="Enriched uranium">enriched</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depleted_uranium" title="Depleted uranium">depleted</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">Plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">Thorium</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">Neutron</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_activation" title="Neutron activation">Activation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture" title="Neutron capture">Capture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_poison" title="Neutron poison">Poison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_cross_section" title="Neutron cross section">Cross section</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_generator" title="Neutron generator">Generator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_radiation" title="Neutron radiation">Radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_reflector" title="Neutron reflector">Reflector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_temperature" title="Neutron temperature">Temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal neutron">Thermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fast_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast neutron">Fast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron#Fusion_neutrons" title="Neutron">Fusion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Power</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_by_country" title="Nuclear power by country">by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant" title="Nuclear power plant">Power plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_nuclear_power_plants" title="Economics of nuclear power plants">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents" title="Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents">Accidents and incidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_policy" title="Nuclear energy policy">Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusion_power" title="Fusion power">Fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator" title="Radioisotope thermoelectric generator">Radioisotope thermoelectric (RTG)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multi-mission_radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator" title="Multi-mission radioisotope thermoelectric generator">MMRTG</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_propulsion" title="Nuclear propulsion">Propulsion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_thermal_rocket" title="Nuclear thermal rocket">rocket</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_safety_and_security" title="Nuclear safety and security">Safety and security</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_meltdown" title="Nuclear meltdown">Nuclear meltdown</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_medicine" title="Nuclear medicine">Medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">Imaging</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autoradiograph" title="Autoradiograph">Autoradiograph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RadBall" title="RadBall">RadBall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scintigraphy" title="Scintigraphy">Scintigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-photon_emission_computed_tomography" title="Single-photon emission computed tomography">Single-photon emission (SPECT)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positron_emission_tomography" title="Positron emission tomography">Positron-emission tomography (PET)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">Therapy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fast_neutron_therapy" title="Fast neutron therapy">Fast-neutron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture_therapy_of_cancer" title="Neutron capture therapy of cancer">Neutron capture therapy of cancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Targeted_alpha-particle_therapy" title="Targeted alpha-particle therapy">Targeted alpha-particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton_therapy" title="Proton therapy">Proton-beam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomotherapy" title="Tomotherapy">Tomotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brachytherapy" title="Brachytherapy">Brachytherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiosurgery" title="Radiosurgery">Radiosurgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiopharmacology" title="Radiopharmacology">Radiopharmacology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Irradiation" title="Irradiation">Processing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_gardening" title="Atomic gardening">Atomic gardening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron-beam_processing" title="Electron-beam processing">Electron-beam processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_irradiation" title="Food irradiation">Food irradiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemstone_irradiation" title="Gemstone irradiation">Gemstone irradiation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">Weapons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_arms_race" title="Nuclear arms race">Arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_delivery" title="Nuclear weapons delivery">Delivery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_design" title="Nuclear weapon design">Design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_disarmament" title="Nuclear disarmament">Disarmament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_ethics" title="Nuclear ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_explosion" title="Nuclear explosion">Explosion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_nuclear_explosions" title="Effects of nuclear explosions">effects</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nuclear_weapons" title="History of nuclear weapons">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_proliferation" title="Nuclear proliferation">Proliferation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_testing" title="Nuclear weapons testing">Testing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/High-altitude_nuclear_explosion" title="High-altitude nuclear explosion">high-altitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_nuclear_weapons_testing" title="Underground nuclear weapons testing">underground</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare">Warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_yield" title="Nuclear weapon yield">Yield</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/TNT_equivalent" title="TNT equivalent">TNTe</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_nuclear_weapons" title="List of states with nuclear weapons">States with nuclear weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_nuclear_weapons_stockpiles_and_nuclear_tests_by_country" title="Historical nuclear weapons stockpiles and nuclear tests by country">Historical stockpiles and tests</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests" title="List of nuclear weapons tests">Tests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="List of nuclear weapons tests of the United States">Tests in the United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_weapons_of_mass_destruction_treaties" title="List of weapons of mass destruction treaties">WMD treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear-weapon-free_zone" title="Nuclear-weapon-free zone">Weapon-free zones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons" title="List of nuclear weapons">Weapons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste" title="Radioactive waste">Waste</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;">Products</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actinide" title="Actinide">Actinide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reprocessed_uranium" title="Reprocessed uranium">Reprocessed uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactor-grade_plutonium" title="Reactor-grade plutonium">Reactor-grade plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minor_actinide" title="Minor actinide">Minor actinide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Activation_product" title="Activation product">Activation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission_product" title="Nuclear fission product">Fission</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Long-lived_fission_product" title="Long-lived fission product">LLFP</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actinide_chemistry" title="Actinide chemistry">Actinide chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;">Disposal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel_cycle" title="Nuclear fuel cycle">Fuel cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-level_waste" title="High-level waste">High-level (HLW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-level_waste" title="Low-level waste">Low-level (LLW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_decommissioning" title="Nuclear decommissioning">Nuclear decommissioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_geological_repository" title="Deep geological repository">Repository</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessing" title="Nuclear reprocessing">Reprocessing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spent_nuclear_fuel" title="Spent nuclear fuel">Spent fuel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spent_fuel_pool" title="Spent fuel pool">pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_cask_storage" title="Dry cask storage">cask</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_transmutation" title="Nuclear transmutation">Transmutation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Debate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_debate" title="Nuclear power debate">Nuclear power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_debate" title="Nuclear weapons debate">Nuclear weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_Ribbon_Commission_on_America%27s_Nuclear_Future" title="Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future">Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement" title="Anti-nuclear movement">Anti-nuclear movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_mining_debate" title="Uranium mining debate">Uranium mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_phase-out" title="Nuclear power phase-out">Nuclear power phase-out</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Nuclear_reactors" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">Nuclear reactors</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Fission" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor#Fission" title="Nuclear reactor">Fission</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div style="float: left;"><b><a href="/wiki/Neutron_moderator" title="Neutron moderator">Moderator</a></b></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Light-water_reactor" title="Light-water reactor">Light water</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aqueous_homogeneous_reactor" title="Aqueous homogeneous reactor">Aqueous homogeneous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boiling_water_reactor" title="Boiling water reactor">Boiling</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/GE_BWR" title="GE BWR">BWR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_boiling_water_reactor" title="Advanced boiling water reactor">ABWR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_Simplified_Boiling_Water_Reactor" title="Economic Simplified Boiling Water Reactor">ESBWR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerena_boiling_water_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Kerena boiling water reactor">Kerena</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_nuclear_fission_reactor" title="Natural nuclear fission reactor">Natural fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactor" title="Pressurized water reactor">Pressurized</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AP1000" title="AP1000">AP1000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/APR-1400" title="APR-1400">APR-1400</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/APR%2B" class="mw-redirect" title="APR+">APR+</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/APWR" class="mw-redirect" title="APWR">APWR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ATMEA1" class="mw-redirect" title="ATMEA1">ATMEA1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CAP1400" title="CAP1400">CAP1400</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CPR-1000" title="CPR-1000">CPR-1000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EPR_(nuclear_reactor)" title="EPR (nuclear reactor)">EPR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hualong_One" title="Hualong One">HPR-1000</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ACPR1000" class="mw-redirect" title="ACPR1000">ACPR1000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ACP1000" class="mw-redirect" title="ACP1000">ACP1000</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VVER" title="VVER">VVER</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPWR-900" title="IPWR-900">IPWR-900</a></li> <li>many others</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercritical_water_reactor" title="Supercritical water reactor">Supercritical (SCWR)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Heavy-water_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy-water reactor">Heavy water</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><span class="nobold">by <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor_coolant" title="Nuclear reactor coolant">coolant</a></span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;;background:whitesmoke;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Deuterium_oxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Deuterium oxide">D<sub>2</sub>O</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pressurized_heavy-water_reactor" title="Pressurized heavy-water reactor">Pressurized</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CANDU_reactor" title="CANDU reactor">CANDU</a> <ul><li>CANDU 6</li> <li>CANDU 9</li> <li>EC6</li> <li>AFCR</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ACR-1000" class="mw-redirect" title="ACR-1000">ACR-1000</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carolinas%E2%80%93Virginia_Tube_Reactor" title="Carolinas–Virginia Tube Reactor">CVTR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPHWR" title="IPHWR">IPHWR</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/IPHWR-220" title="IPHWR-220">IPHWR-220</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPHWR#IPHWR-540" title="IPHWR">IPHWR-540</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPHWR-700" title="IPHWR-700">IPHWR-700</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Argentina" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Argentina">PHWR KWU</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=MZFR&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MZFR (page does not exist)">MZFR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%85gestaverket" class="mw-redirect" title="Ågestaverket">R3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R4_nuclear_reactor" title="R4 nuclear reactor">R4 Marviken</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/H2O" class="mw-redirect" title="H2O">H<sub>2</sub>O</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=HWLWR&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="HWLWR (page does not exist)">HWLWR</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fugen_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Fugen Nuclear Power Plant">ATR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gentilly_Nuclear_Generating_Station#Gentilly-1" title="Gentilly Nuclear Generating Station">HW BLWR 250</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steam-generating_heavy_water_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Steam-generating heavy water reactor">Steam-generating (SGHWR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_heavy-water_reactor" title="Advanced heavy-water reactor">AHWR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Organic_matter" title="Organic matter">Organic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/WR-1" title="WR-1">WR-1</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO<sub>2</sub></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=HWGCR&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="HWGCR (page does not exist)">HWGCR</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brennilis_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Brennilis Nuclear Power Plant">EL-4</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kernkraftwerk_Niederaichbach&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kernkraftwerk Niederaichbach (page does not exist)">KKN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KS_150" title="KS 150">KS 150</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucens_reactor" title="Lucens reactor">Lucens</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Graphite-moderated_reactor" title="Graphite-moderated reactor">Graphite</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><span class="nobold">by <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor_coolant" title="Nuclear reactor coolant">coolant</a></span></span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Water</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="H2O" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/H2O" class="mw-redirect" title="H2O">H<sub>2</sub>O</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Obninsk_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant">AM-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beloyarsk_Nuclear_Power_Station#Early_reactors" title="Beloyarsk Nuclear Power Station">AMB-X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EGP-6" title="EGP-6">EGP-6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RBMK" title="RBMK">RBMK</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Gas-cooled_reactor" title="Gas-cooled reactor">Gas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO<sub>2</sub></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/UNGG_reactor" title="UNGG reactor"><i>Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz</i> (UNGG)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnox" title="Magnox">Magnox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_Gas-cooled_Reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Advanced Gas-cooled Reactor">Advanced gas-cooled (AGR)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">He</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_turbine_modular_helium_reactor" title="Gas turbine modular helium reactor">GTMHR</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=MHR-T&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MHR-T (page does not exist)">MHR-T</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UHTREX" title="UHTREX">UHTREX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Very-high-temperature_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Very-high-temperature reactor">VHTR (HTGR)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pebble-bed_reactor" title="Pebble-bed reactor">PBR (PBMR)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AVR_reactor" title="AVR reactor">AVR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HTR-10" title="HTR-10">HTR-10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HTR-PM" title="HTR-PM">HTR-PM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/THTR-300" title="THTR-300">THTR-300</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prismatic_block_reactor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Prismatic block reactor (page does not exist)">PMR</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Molten_salt_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Molten salt reactor">Molten-salt</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Fluorides" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/FLiBe" title="FLiBe">Fluorides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fuji_Molten_Salt_Reactor" title="Fuji Molten Salt Reactor">Fuji MSR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid_fluoride_thorium_reactor" title="Liquid fluoride thorium reactor">Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molten-Salt_Reactor_Experiment" title="Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment">Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integral_Molten_Salt_Reactor" title="Integral Molten Salt Reactor">Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TMSR-500" class="mw-redirect" title="TMSR-500">TMSR-500</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TMSR-LF1" title="TMSR-LF1">TMSR-LF1</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">None<br /><span class="nobold">(<a href="/wiki/Fast-neutron_reactor" title="Fast-neutron reactor">fast-neutron</a>)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fast_breeder_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast breeder reactor">Breeder (FBR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integral_fast_reactor" title="Integral fast reactor">Integral (IFR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid_metal_cooled_reactor" title="Liquid metal cooled reactor">Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small,_sealed,_transportable,_autonomous_reactor" title="Small, sealed, transportable, autonomous reactor">Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traveling_wave_reactor" title="Traveling wave reactor">Traveling-wave (TWR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_Multiplier_Module" title="Energy Multiplier Module">Energy Multiplier Module (EM2)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reduced_moderation_water_reactor" title="Reduced moderation water reactor">Reduced-moderation (RMWR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fast_Breeder_Test_Reactor" title="Fast Breeder Test Reactor">Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_fluid_reactor" title="Dual fluid reactor">Dual fluid reactor (DFR)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Generation_IV_reactor" title="Generation IV reactor">Generation IV</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sodium-cooled_fast_reactor" title="Sodium-cooled fast reactor">Sodium (SFR)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BN-350_reactor" title="BN-350 reactor">BN-350</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BN-600_reactor" title="BN-600 reactor">BN-600</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BN-800_reactor" title="BN-800 reactor">BN-800</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BN-1200_reactor" title="BN-1200 reactor">BN-1200</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CFR-600" title="CFR-600">CFR-600</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ph%C3%A9nix" title="Phénix">Phénix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superph%C3%A9nix" title="Superphénix">Superphénix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prototype_Fast_Breeder_Reactor" title="Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor">PFBR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FBR-600" title="FBR-600">FBR-600</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Experimental_Fast_Reactor" title="China Experimental Fast Reactor">CEFR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dounreay#Prototype_Fast_Reactor_(PFR)" title="Dounreay">PFR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PRISM_(reactor)" title="PRISM (reactor)">PRISM</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead-cooled_fast_reactor" title="Lead-cooled fast reactor">Lead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas-cooled_fast_reactor" title="Gas-cooled fast reactor">Helium gas (GFR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stable_salt_reactor" title="Stable salt reactor">Stable Salt Reactor (SSR)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organic_nuclear_reactor" title="Organic nuclear reactor">Organic nuclear reactor</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arbus-reactor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arbus-reactor (page does not exist)">Arbus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piqua_Nuclear_Generating_Station" title="Piqua Nuclear Generating Station">Piqua</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_Nuclear_Propulsion" title="Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion">Aircraft Reactor Experiment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Fusion" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor#Fusion_reactors" title="Nuclear reactor">Fusion</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>by <a href="/wiki/Thermonuclear_fusion#Confinement" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermonuclear fusion">confinement</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_confinement_fusion" title="Magnetic confinement fusion">Magnetic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Field-reversed_configuration" title="Field-reversed configuration">Field-reversed configuration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levitated_dipole" title="Levitated dipole">Levitated dipole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reversed_field_pinch" title="Reversed field pinch">Reversed field pinch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spheromak" title="Spheromak">Spheromak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellarator" title="Stellarator">Stellarator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokamak" title="Tokamak">Tokamak</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Inertial_confinement_fusion" title="Inertial confinement fusion">Inertial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bubble_fusion" title="Bubble fusion">Bubble <span style="font-size:85%;">(acoustic)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusor" title="Fusor">Fusor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inertial_electrostatic_confinement" title="Inertial electrostatic confinement">electrostatic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inertial_confinement_fusion" title="Inertial confinement fusion">Laser-driven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetized_target_fusion" title="Magnetized target fusion">Magnetized-target</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z-pinch" title="Z-pinch">Z-pinch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dense_plasma_focus" title="Dense plasma focus">Dense plasma focus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migma" title="Migma">Migma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muon-catalyzed_fusion" title="Muon-catalyzed fusion">Muon-catalyzed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polywell" title="Polywell">Polywell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyroelectric_fusion" title="Pyroelectric fusion">Pyroelectric</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/32px-Radioactive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/48px-Radioactive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/64px-Radioactive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="446" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Nuclear_technology" title="Portal:Nuclear technology">Nuclear technology portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Nuclear_technology" title="Category:Nuclear technology">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Nuclear_technology" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Nuclear technology">Commons</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Radiation_poisoning" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Radiation_poisoning" title="Template:Radiation poisoning"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Radiation_poisoning" title="Template talk:Radiation poisoning"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Radiation_poisoning" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Radiation poisoning"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Radiation_poisoning" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Radiation_poisoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation poisoning">Radiation poisoning</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acute_radiation_syndrome" title="Acute radiation syndrome">Acute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronic_radiation_syndrome" title="Chronic radiation syndrome">Chronic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents" title="Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents">Accidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_radiation_experiments" title="Human radiation experiments">Experiments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_timeline_of_radiation_poisoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological timeline of radiation poisoning">Biological timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Conditions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_burn" title="Radiation burn">Radiation burn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation-induced_cancer" title="Radiation-induced cancer">Radiation-induced cancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation-induced_cognitive_decline" title="Radiation-induced cognitive decline">Radiation-induced cognitive decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation-induced_lung_injury" title="Radiation-induced lung injury">Radiation-induced lung injury</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Treatments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dose_fractionation" title="Dose fractionation">Dose fractionation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioresistance" title="Radioresistance">Radioresistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_protection" title="Radiation protection">Radiation protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_dose_reconstruction" title="Radiation dose reconstruction">Radiation dose reconstruction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Radiation_protection" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Radiation_protection" title="Template:Radiation protection"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Radiation_protection" title="Template talk:Radiation protection"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Radiation_protection" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Radiation protection"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Radiation_protection" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Radiation_protection" title="Radiation protection">Radiation protection</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Main articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_radiation" title="Background radiation">Background radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dosimetry" title="Dosimetry">Dosimetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_physics" title="Health physics">Health physics</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ionizing radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_dosimetry" title="Internal dosimetry">Internal dosimetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">Radioactive contamination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_source" title="Radioactive source">Radioactive sources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiobiology" title="Radiobiology">Radiobiology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Measurement <br />quantities and units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absorbed_dose" title="Absorbed dose">Absorbed dose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Becquerel" title="Becquerel">Becquerel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committed_dose" title="Committed dose">Committed dose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computed_tomography_dose_index" title="Computed tomography dose index">Computed tomography dose index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counts_per_minute" title="Counts per minute">Counts per minute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effective_dose_(radiation)" title="Effective dose (radiation)">Effective dose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equivalent_dose" title="Equivalent dose">Equivalent dose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gray_(unit)" title="Gray (unit)">Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mean_glandular_dose" title="Mean glandular dose">Mean glandular dose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monitor_unit" title="Monitor unit">Monitor unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rad_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rad (unit)">Rad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roentgen_(unit)" title="Roentgen (unit)">Roentgen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roentgen_equivalent_man" title="Roentgen equivalent man">Rem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sievert" title="Sievert">Sievert</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Instruments and <br />measurement techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airborne_particulate_radioactivity_monitoring" title="Airborne particulate radioactivity monitoring">Airborne radioactive particulate monitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dosimeter" title="Dosimeter">Dosimeter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geiger_counter" title="Geiger counter">Geiger counter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion_chamber" class="mw-redirect" title="Ion chamber">Ion chamber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scintillation_counter" title="Scintillation counter">Scintillation counter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proportional_counter" title="Proportional counter">Proportional counter</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_monitoring" title="Radiation monitoring">Radiation monitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_detector" title="Semiconductor detector">Semiconductor detector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_meter" title="Survey meter">Survey meter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whole-body_counting" title="Whole-body counting">Whole-body counting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Protection techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lead_shielding" title="Lead shielding">Lead shielding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glovebox" title="Glovebox">Glovebox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potassium_iodide" title="Potassium iodide">Potassium iodide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radon_mitigation" title="Radon mitigation">Radon mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respirators" class="mw-redirect" title="Respirators">Respirators</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Euratom" title="Euratom">Euratom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_Physics_Society" title="Health Physics Society">HPS (USA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Atomic_Energy_Agency" title="International Atomic Energy Agency">IAEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Commission_on_Radiation_Units_and_Measurements" title="International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements">ICRU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Commission_on_Radiological_Protection" title="International Commission on Radiological Protection">ICRP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Radiation_Protection_Association" title="International Radiation Protection Association">IRPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_for_Radiological_Protection" title="Society for Radiological Protection">SRP (UK)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Scientific_Committee_on_the_Effects_of_Atomic_Radiation" title="United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation">UNSCEAR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regulation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionising_Radiations_Regulations" title="Ionising Radiations Regulations">IRR (UK)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Regulatory_Commission" title="Nuclear Regulatory Commission">NRC (USA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Office_for_Nuclear_Regulation" title="Office for Nuclear Regulation">ONR (UK)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_Protection_Convention,_1960" title="Radiation Protection Convention, 1960">Radiation Protection Convention, 1960</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Radiation effects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acute_radiation_syndrome" title="Acute radiation syndrome">Acute radiation syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation-induced_cancer" title="Radiation-induced cancer">Radiation-induced cancer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable selfref">See also the categories <a href="/wiki/Category:Medical_physics" title="Category:Medical physics">Medical physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Category:Radiation_effects" title="Category:Radiation effects">Radiation effects</a>, <a href="/wiki/Category:Radioactivity" title="Category:Radioactivity">Radioactivity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Category:Radiobiology" title="Category:Radiobiology">Radiobiology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Category:Radiation_protection" title="Category:Radiation protection">Radiation 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