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id="toc-Sociopolitical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sociopolitical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Sociopolitical</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sociopolitical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Military</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Julius_Caesar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Julius_Caesar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Julius Caesar</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Julius_Caesar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Beginning_of_the_Wars_–_campaign_against_the_Helvetii" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Beginning_of_the_Wars_–_campaign_against_the_Helvetii"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Beginning of the Wars – campaign against the Helvetii</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Beginning_of_the_Wars_–_campaign_against_the_Helvetii-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Battle_of_Bibracte" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_of_Bibracte"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Battle of Bibracte</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_of_Bibracte-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Campaign_against_the_Suebi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Campaign_against_the_Suebi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Campaign against the Suebi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Campaign_against_the_Suebi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-57_BC:_Campaigns_in_the_east" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#57_BC:_Campaigns_in_the_east"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>57 BC: Campaigns in the east</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-57_BC:_Campaigns_in_the_east-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nervii_ambush:_the_battle_of_the_Sabis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nervii_ambush:_the_battle_of_the_Sabis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Nervii ambush: the battle of the Sabis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nervii_ambush:_the_battle_of_the_Sabis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-56_BC:_Campaign_against_the_Veneti" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#56_BC:_Campaign_against_the_Veneti"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>56 BC: Campaign against the Veneti</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-56_BC:_Campaign_against_the_Veneti-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Battle_of_Morbihan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_of_Morbihan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Battle of Morbihan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_of_Morbihan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Caesar's_subordinates_and_mopping_up" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Caesar's_subordinates_and_mopping_up"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span> <span>Caesar's subordinates and mopping up</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Caesar's_subordinates_and_mopping_up-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-55_BC:_Crossing_the_Rhine_and_the_English_Channel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#55_BC:_Crossing_the_Rhine_and_the_English_Channel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>55 BC: Crossing the Rhine and the English Channel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-55_BC:_Crossing_the_Rhine_and_the_English_Channel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-54_BC:_Invading_Britain,_unrest_in_Gaul" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#54_BC:_Invading_Britain,_unrest_in_Gaul"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>54 BC: Invading Britain, unrest in Gaul</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-54_BC:_Invading_Britain,_unrest_in_Gaul-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Revolts_in_Gaul" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Revolts_in_Gaul"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.1</span> <span>Revolts in Gaul</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Revolts_in_Gaul-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-53_BC:_Suppressing_unrest" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#53_BC:_Suppressing_unrest"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>53 BC: Suppressing unrest</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-53_BC:_Suppressing_unrest-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-52_BC:_Vercingetorix's_revolt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#52_BC:_Vercingetorix's_revolt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>52 BC: Vercingetorix's revolt</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-52_BC:_Vercingetorix's_revolt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Siege_of_Alesia,_end_of_the_revolt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Siege_of_Alesia,_end_of_the_revolt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7.1</span> <span>Siege of Alesia, end of the revolt</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Siege_of_Alesia,_end_of_the_revolt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-51_and_50_BC:_Pacification_of_the_last_Gauls" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#51_and_50_BC:_Pacification_of_the_last_Gauls"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>51 and 50 BC: Pacification of the last Gauls</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-51_and_50_BC:_Pacification_of_the_last_Gauls-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Caesar_victorious" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Caesar_victorious"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8.1</span> <span>Caesar victorious</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Caesar_victorious-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Historiography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Historiography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Commentarii" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Commentarii"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>The <i>Commentarii</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Commentarii-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>In literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Bibliography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Modern_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Modern literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ancient_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Ancient sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Gallic Wars</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 56 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-56" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">56 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الحروب الغالية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الحروب الغالية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_de_les_Gaules" title="Guerra de les Gaules – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Guerra de les Gaules" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Arpetan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_de_les_Galies" title="Guerra de les Galies – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Guerra de les Galies" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qall_m%C3%BCharib%C9%99l%C9%99ri" title="Qall müharibələri – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Qall müharibələri" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B4%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="قالی ساواشلاری – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="قالی ساواشلاری" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Гальская вайна – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Гальская вайна" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Галски войни – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Галски войни" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brezel_Galia" title="Brezel Galia – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Brezel Galia" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_de_les_G%C3%A0l%C2%B7lies" title="Guerra de les Gàl·lies – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Guerra de les Gàl·lies" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galsk%C3%A9_v%C3%A1lky" title="Galské války – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Galské války" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallerkrigene" title="Gallerkrigene – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Gallerkrigene" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallischer_Krieg" title="Gallischer Krieg – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Gallischer Krieg" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%A0%CF%8C%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Γαλατικός Πόλεμος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γαλατικός Πόλεμος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_de_las_Galias" title="Guerra de las Galias – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Guerra de las Galias" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ga%C5%ADla_Milito" title="Gaŭla Milito – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Gaŭla Milito" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galietako_gerrak" title="Galietako gerrak – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Galietako gerrak" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C" title="جنگ‌های گالی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جنگ‌های گالی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerre_des_Gaules" title="Guerre des Gaules – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Guerre des Gaules" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coga%C3%AD_na_nGallach" title="Cogaí na nGallach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Cogaí na nGallach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_das_Galias" title="Guerra das Galias – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Guerra das Galias" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B0%88%EB%A6%AC%EC%95%84_%EC%A0%84%EC%9F%81" title="갈리아 전쟁 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="갈리아 전쟁" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%AC%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A6%D5%B4%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Գալլական պատերազմներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գալլական պատերազմներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%87_%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7" title="गैलिक के युद्ध – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" 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hreflang="is" data-title="Gallastríðin" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conquista_della_Gallia" title="Conquista della Gallia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Conquista della Gallia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%9C%D7%97%D7%9E%D7%AA_%D7%92%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%94" title="מלחמת גאליה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מלחמת גאליה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bellum_Gallicum" title="Bellum Gallicum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Bellum Gallicum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gal%C5%B3_karai" title="Galų karai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Galų karai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gall_h%C3%A1bor%C3%BA" title="Gall háború – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Gall háború" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallische_Oorlog" title="Gallische Oorlog – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Gallische Oorlog" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AC%E3%83%AA%E3%82%A2%E6%88%A6%E4%BA%89" title="ガリア戦争 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ガリア戦争" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallerkrigen" title="Gallerkrigen – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Gallerkrigen" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallarkrigane" title="Gallarkrigane – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Gallarkrigane" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gu%C3%A8rra_de_las_G%C3%A0llias" title="Guèrra de las Gàllias – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Guèrra de las Gàllias" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gall_yurishlari" title="Gall yurishlari – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Gall yurishlari" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wojny_galijskie" title="Wojny galijskie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wojny galijskie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerras_da_G%C3%A1lia" title="Guerras da Gália – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Guerras da Gália" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C4%83zboaiele_Galice" title="Războaiele Galice – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Războaiele Galice" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Галльская война – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Галльская война" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sm mw-list-item"><a href="https://sm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taua_o_Kalatia" title="Taua o Kalatia – Samoan" lang="sm" hreflang="sm" data-title="Taua o Kalatia" data-language-autonym="Gagana Samoa" data-language-local-name="Samoan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gagana Samoa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallic_Wars" title="Gallic Wars – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Gallic Wars" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallic_Wars" title="Gallic Wars – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Gallic Wars" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galsk%C3%A1_vojna" title="Galská vojna – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Galská vojna" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galske_vojne" title="Galske vojne – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Galske vojne" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Галски рат – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Галски рат" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galski_ratovi" title="Galski ratovi – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Galski ratovi" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallian_sota" title="Gallian sota – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Gallian sota" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallerkrigen" title="Gallerkrigen – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Gallerkrigen" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A5" title="สงครามกอล – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สงครามกอล" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galya_Sava%C5%9Flar%C4%B1" title="Galya Savaşları – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Galya Savaşları" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Галльська війна – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Галльська війна" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" 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Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a good article. Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">58–50 BC, Rome vs. Gallic tribes</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about Caesar's military campaigns of 58 to 50 BC. For Julius Caesar's writings, see <a href="/wiki/Commentarii_de_Bello_Gallico" title="Commentarii de Bello Gallico">Commentarii de Bello Gallico</a>. For the earlier Romano-Gallic conflicts, see <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Gallic_wars" title="Roman–Gallic wars">Roman–Gallic wars</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Gallic Wars</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Siege-alesia-vercingetorix-jules-cesar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Vercingetorix, on horseback, surrenders his sword to the seated Caesar, who is surrounded by his retinue" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Siege-alesia-vercingetorix-jules-cesar.jpg/305px-Siege-alesia-vercingetorix-jules-cesar.jpg" decoding="async" width="305" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Siege-alesia-vercingetorix-jules-cesar.jpg/458px-Siege-alesia-vercingetorix-jules-cesar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Siege-alesia-vercingetorix-jules-cesar.jpg/610px-Siege-alesia-vercingetorix-jules-cesar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2204" data-file-height="1469" /></a></span><br /><i>Vercingetorix Throws Down His Arms at the Feet of Julius Caesar</i>, 1899, by <a href="/wiki/Lionel_Royer" title="Lionel Royer">Lionel Noel Royer</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>58–50 BC</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location"><a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a> (present-day <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, <a href="/wiki/Luxembourg" title="Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>), <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Britain</a> (<a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar%27s_invasions_of_Britain" title="Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain">55–54 BC</a>)</div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status"> Roman victory</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Territorial<br />changes</th><td> <ul><li>Gaul annexed by Roman Republic</li> <li>Local client kings and tributaries set up in Britain</li></ul></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gauls</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germani</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Britons" title="Celtic Britons">Britons</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Aquitani" title="Aquitani">Aquitani</a></li><li><i>and others...</i></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a></b></li><li><a href="/wiki/Titus_Labienus" title="Titus Labienus">Titus Labienus</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Antony" title="Mark Antony">Mark Antony</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Tullius_Cicero" title="Quintus Tullius Cicero">Quintus Tullius Cicero</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Publius_Licinius_Crassus_(son_of_triumvir)" title="Publius Licinius Crassus (son of triumvir)">Publius Licinius Crassus</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Decimus_Junius_Brutus_Albinus" title="Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus">Decimus Brutus Albinus</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Trebonius" title="Gaius Trebonius">Gaius Trebonius</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Servius_Sulpicius_Galba_(praetor_54_BC)" title="Servius Sulpicius Galba (praetor 54 BC)">Servius Sulpicius Galba</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Caninius_Rebilus" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaius Caninius Rebilus">Gaius Caninius Rebilus</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Lucius_Munatius_Plancus" title="Lucius Munatius Plancus">Lucius Munatius Plancus</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Lucius_Roscius_Fabatus" title="Lucius Roscius Fabatus">Lucius Roscius Fabatus</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Titurius_Sabinus" title="Quintus Titurius Sabinus">Quintus Titurius Sabinus</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Lucius_Aurunculeius_Cotta" title="Lucius Aurunculeius Cotta">Lucius Aurunculeius Cotta</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a></li></ul></div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Vercingetorix" title="Vercingetorix">Vercingetorix</a></b> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Surrender_(military)" title="Surrendered"><img alt="Surrendered" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/14px-White_flag_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/21px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/28px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="351" /></a></span></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ambiorix" title="Ambiorix">Ambiorix</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Indutiomarus" title="Indutiomarus">Indutiomarus</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Commius" title="Commius">Commius</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ariovistus" title="Ariovistus">Ariovistus</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Cassivellaunus" title="Cassivellaunus">Cassivellaunus</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Strength</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <p><b>Modern estimates:</b> </p> <ul><li><b>58 BC:</b> 6 legions (understrength, 24–30,000 troops, including cavalry auxiliaries)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDelbrück199046_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDelbrück199046-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>57 BC:</b> 8 legions (32–40,000 troops)</li> <li><b>55 BC:</b> 2 legions (~10,000 troops) in Britain, the rest left on the continent</li> <li><b>54 BC:</b> 5 legions (~25,000 troops) & 2,000 auxiliaries in Britain</li> <li><b>53 BC:</b> 10 legions (40–50,000 troops)</li> <li><b>52 BC:</b> 11 legions & 10,000+ auxiliaries,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDodge1997276–295_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDodge1997276–295-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeppie199897_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeppie199897-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 60–75,000 troops total by the siege of Alesia</li></ul></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <p><b>Modern estimates:</b> </p> <ul><li><b>58 BC:</b> 20,000–50,000, of which 8,000 or more were civilians</li> <li><b>52 BC:</b> 180,000 Gallic combatants at Alesia</li></ul></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Casualties and losses</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> 40,000+ (credible estimate)<div><ul><li>30,000+ killed</li><li>10,000+ wounded</li></ul></div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><b>Plutarch and Appian:</b></li><li>1,000,000 <a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celts</a> killed in battle<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAppian2016_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAppian2016-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFields2010_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFields2010-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li>1,000,000+ Celts captured or <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">enslaved</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFields2010_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFields2010-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li>800 villages destroyed<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCarty2008_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCarty2008-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li><b>Julius Caesar:</b></li><li>430,000 <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germani</a> killed<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaesar198215_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaesar198215-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></div><hr />All contemporary numbers are considered not credible by <a href="/wiki/David_Henige" title="David Henige">Henige</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHenige1998_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHenige1998-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output 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class="mw-selflink selflink">Gallic Wars</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Magetobriga" title="Battle of Magetobriga">Magetobriga (63 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Arar" title="Battle of the Arar">Arar (58 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bibracte" title="Battle of Bibracte">Bibracte (58 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vosges_(58_BC)" title="Battle of Vosges (58 BC)">Vosges (58 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Axona" title="Battle of the Axona">Axona (57 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Sabis" title="Battle of the Sabis">Sabis (57 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_the_Atuatuci" title="Siege of the Atuatuci">Atuatuci (57 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Octodurus" title="Battle of Octodurus">Octodurus (57–56 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar%27s_invasions_of_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="Caesar's invasions of Britain">Britain (55–54 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambiorix%27s_revolt" title="Ambiorix's revolt">Ambiorix's revolt (54–53 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avaricum" title="Avaricum">Avaricum (52 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gergovia" title="Battle of Gergovia">Gergovia (52 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lutetia" title="Battle of Lutetia">Lutetia (52 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Vingeanne" title="Battle of the Vingeanne">Vingeanne (52 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Alesia" title="Battle of Alesia">Alesia (52 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Uxellodunum" title="Siege of Uxellodunum">Uxellodunum (51 BC)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>The <b>Gallic Wars</b><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were waged between 58 and 50 BC by the Roman general <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> against the peoples of <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a> (present-day <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>). <a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gallic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Celtic_Britons" title="Celtic Britons">Brittonic</a> tribes fought to defend their homelands against an aggressive Roman <a href="/wiki/Military_campaign" title="Military campaign">campaign</a>. The Wars culminated in the decisive <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Alesia" title="Battle of Alesia">Battle of Alesia</a> in 52 BC, in which a complete Roman victory resulted in the expansion of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> over the whole of Gaul. Though the collective Gallic armies were as strong as the Roman forces, the Gallic tribes' internal divisions eased victory for Caesar. Gallic chieftain <a href="/wiki/Vercingetorix" title="Vercingetorix">Vercingetorix</a>'s attempt to unite the Gauls under a single banner came too late. Caesar portrayed the invasion as being a preemptive and defensive action, but historians agree that he fought the wars primarily to boost his political career and to pay off his debts. Still, Gaul was of significant military importance to the Romans. Native tribes in the region, both Gallic and <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic</a>, had attacked Rome several times. Conquering Gaul allowed Rome to secure the <a href="/wiki/Natural_borders_of_France" title="Natural borders of France">natural border</a> of the river <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</a>. </p><p>The wars began with conflict over the migration of the <a href="/wiki/Helvetii" title="Helvetii">Helvetii</a> in 58 BC, which drew in neighboring tribes and the Germanic <a href="/wiki/Suebi" title="Suebi">Suebi</a>. By 57 BC, Caesar had resolved to conquer all of Gaul. He led campaigns in the east, where the <a href="/wiki/Nervii" title="Nervii">Nervii</a> almost defeated him. In 56 BC, Caesar defeated the <a href="/wiki/Veneti_(Gaul)" title="Veneti (Gaul)">Veneti</a> in a naval battle and took most of northwest Gaul. In 55 BC, Caesar sought to boost his public image. He undertook first-of-their-kind expeditions across the Rhine and the <a href="/wiki/English_Channel" title="English Channel">English Channel</a>. Rome hailed Caesar as a hero upon his return from Britain, though he had achieved little beyond landing because his army had been too small. The next year, he returned with a larger army and reached much further inland; he extracted tribute from the locals and returned to Gaul. Tribes rose up on the continent, and the Romans suffered a humiliating defeat. 53 BC saw a brutal pacification campaign. This failed, and Vercingetorix led a revolt in 52 BC. Gallic forces won a notable victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gergovia" title="Battle of Gergovia">Battle of Gergovia</a>, but the Romans' indomitable siege works at the Battle of Alesia crushed the Gallic coalition. </p><p>In 51 and 50 BC, there was limited resistance, and Caesar's troops mainly engaged in mop-up operations. Gaul was conquered, although it would not become a Roman province until 27 BC, and resistance would continue until as late as 70 AD. There is no precise end date to the war, but the <a href="/wiki/Caesar%27s_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Caesar's Civil War">imminent Roman Civil War</a> led to the withdrawal of Caesar's troops in 50 BC. Caesar's wild successes in the war had made him wealthy and provided a legendary reputation. The Gallic Wars were a key factor in Caesar's ability to win the Civil War and make himself <a href="/wiki/Dictator_perpetuo" title="Dictator perpetuo">dictator</a>, which culminated in the end of the Roman Republic and the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>. </p><p>Julius Caesar described the Gallic Wars in his book <i><a href="/wiki/Commentarii_de_Bello_Gallico" title="Commentarii de Bello Gallico">Commentarii de Bello Gallico</a>.</i> It is the primary source for the conflict, but modern historians consider it propaganda and prone to exaggeration. Caesar makes impossible claims about the number of Gauls killed (over a million), while claiming almost zero Roman casualties. Modern historians believe that Gallic forces were far smaller than the Romans claimed, and that the Romans suffered significant casualties. Regardless of the accuracy of the <i>Commentarii</i>, the campaign was still exceptionally brutal. Untold numbers of Gauls were killed, enslaved, or mutilated, including large numbers of civilians. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gallic_Wars&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sociopolitical">Sociopolitical</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gallic_Wars&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Sociopolitical"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The tribes of Gaul were civilized and wealthy, constituting what is known to archeologists as the <a href="/wiki/La_T%C3%A8ne_culture" title="La Tène culture">La Tène culture</a>. Most had contact with Roman merchants and some, such as the <a href="/wiki/Aedui" title="Aedui">Aedui</a>, who were governed by republics, had enjoyed stable political alliances with Rome in the past. During the first century, parts of Gaul were becoming urbanized, which concentrated wealth and population centers, inadvertently making Roman conquest easier. Though the Romans considered the Gauls to be barbarians, their cities mirrored those of the Mediterranean. They struck coins and traded extensively with Rome, providing iron, grain, and many slaves. In exchange, the Gauls accumulated much wealth and developed a taste for Roman wine. The contemporary writer <a href="/wiki/Diodoros" class="mw-redirect" title="Diodoros">Diodoros</a> explains that part of the conception of Gallic barbarity was because they drank their wine straight, unlike the supposedly civilized Romans who watered down their wine first. However, the Romans realized the Gauls were a powerful fighting force, and considered some of the most "barbaric" tribes to be the fiercest warriors, as they were supposedly uncorrupted by Roman luxuries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver20037,_13–15_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver20037,_13–15-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military">Military</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gallic_Wars&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Military"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aquilifer_romain_Arverniales_2012-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Man in chain armor holding a long staff" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Aquilifer_romain_Arverniales_2012-2.jpg/220px-Aquilifer_romain_Arverniales_2012-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="442" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Aquilifer_romain_Arverniales_2012-2.jpg/330px-Aquilifer_romain_Arverniales_2012-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Aquilifer_romain_Arverniales_2012-2.jpg/440px-Aquilifer_romain_Arverniales_2012-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1499" data-file-height="3009" /></a><figcaption>A modern re-enactor in 2012 wearing the gear that a VII legion standard bearer would have during the Gallic Wars era.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Camp_des_Pictes_(93).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Camp_des_Pictes_%2893%29.JPG/220px-Camp_des_Pictes_%2893%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Camp_des_Pictes_%2893%29.JPG/330px-Camp_des_Pictes_%2893%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Camp_des_Pictes_%2893%29.JPG/440px-Camp_des_Pictes_%2893%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4912" data-file-height="7360" /></a><figcaption>A modern re-enactor in 2018 with the typical panoply of a wealthier Gallic warrior.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Gauls and the Romans had significantly different <a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_the_Roman_military" title="Strategy of the Roman military">military strategies</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Roman army</a> was extremely disciplined, kept standing between conflicts, and made mostly of heavy infantry; any <a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">auxiliary units</a> were fielded from the less disciplined Roman allies, which as the war progressed would include some Gauls. By comparison, the Gauls were an irregular and less disciplined fighting force. Individual Gauls outfitted themselves, as did Romans, a practice that continued into the early Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wealthier soldiers had better <a href="/wiki/Roman_military_personal_equipment" title="Roman military personal equipment">equipment</a>. Unlike the Romans, the Gauls were a warrior culture. They prized acts of bravery and individual courage; frequent raiding of neighboring tribes kept their fighting skills sharp. Compared to the Romans, the Gauls carried longer swords and had far superior cavalry. The Gauls were generally taller than the Romans (a fact that seems to have embarrassed the Romans) and this combined with their longer swords gave them a reach advantage in combat. Both sides used archers and <a href="/wiki/Sling_(weapon)" title="Sling (weapon)">slingers</a>. Little is known about Gallic battle strategy, and the effectiveness of Gallic slingers and archers is unknown. What is known indicates that battle strategy varied between tribes, although engagement in pitched battle was frequent, to prove bravery. Not all tribes engaged the Romans directly, as Rome was a formidable enemy. The Gauls frequently used <a href="/wiki/Attrition_warfare" title="Attrition warfare">attrition warfare</a> against them. While the Gauls had much more flair in combat (such as fighting in intricately decorated armor, or even in the nude), the superior discipline and formation of the Romans generally gave them an advantage in hand-to-hand fighting.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200318–29_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200318–29-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Wars cemented the Roman use of the <a href="/wiki/Cohort_(military_unit)" title="Cohort (military unit)">cohort</a> instead of the <a href="/wiki/Maniple_(military_unit)" title="Maniple (military unit)">maniple</a>. First described by <a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a> as an administrative unit that was used in a battle in 206 BC,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor201981_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor201981-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it had become a tactical unit by the 130s.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor201976,_82_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor201976,_82-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Typically a quarter the size of a cohort, the maniple had proved too small and ineffective. The cohort was an effective counterbalance to Gallic and Germanic tactics. The system diversified the ranks by combining men from different socio-economic ranks: unlike in the maniple system, rich and poor fought alongside each other in a single uniform unit, greatly increasing overall morale by removing resentment.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMatthew200935–37_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthew200935–37-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A cohort held 480 men. Ten cohorts, combined with a small cavalry unit, engineers, and officers, made a <a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">legion</a> of around 5,000 men.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMatthew200935–37_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthew200935–37-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2016_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2016-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The practices of the army's <a href="/wiki/Baggage_train" class="mw-redirect" title="Baggage train">baggage train</a> would prove insufficient at times during the Wars. Following common practice of Roman generals as early as <a href="/wiki/Scipio_Aemilianus" title="Scipio Aemilianus">Scipio Aemilianus</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor201979_n._18_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor201979_n._18-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> each legionary was required to carry a substantial amount of his own gear, including weapons, and rations enough to operate independently of the baggage train for a few days. This reduced the size of the baggage train greatly and allowed for a legion to temporarily march well ahead of its baggage. Still, a legion usually had around a thousand beasts of burden to carry the tents, siege equipment, reserve food, entrenching tools, records, <a href="/wiki/Sarcina" title="Sarcina">personal effects</a>, and all other items a large army needed. While on march, the average legion with train stretched out for about 2.5 mi (4.0 km). Such a large number of animals also required a great deal of grazing or fodder; this limited campaigning to times when there was grass or adequate supplies. The logistical challenges of the baggage train forced the Romans' hand many times during the wars.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMatthew200939–49_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthew200939–49-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Romans respected and feared the Gallic tribes. In 390 BC, the <a href="/wiki/Gallic_sack_of_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallic sack of Rome">Gauls had sacked Rome</a>, which left an existential dread of barbarian conquest the Romans never forgot. In 121 BC, Rome conquered a group of southern Gauls, and established the province of <a href="/wiki/Transalpine" class="mw-redirect" title="Transalpine">Transalpine Gaul</a> in the conquered lands.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200311_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200311-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only 50 years before the Gallic Wars, in 109 BC, Italy had been <a href="/wiki/Cimbrian_War" title="Cimbrian War">invaded from the north</a> and saved by <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Marius" title="Gaius Marius">Gaius Marius</a> (uncle and father figure to Julius Caesar) only after several bloody and costly battles. Around 63 BC, when a Roman client state, the Gallic <a href="/wiki/Arverni" title="Arverni">Arverni</a>, conspired with the Gallic <a href="/wiki/Sequani" title="Sequani">Sequani</a> and the Germanic <a href="/wiki/Suebi" title="Suebi">Suebi</a> nations east of the <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</a> to attack the Gallic Aedui, a strong Roman ally, Rome turned a blind eye. The Sequani and the Arverni defeated the Aedui in 63 BC at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Magetobriga" title="Battle of Magetobriga">Battle of Magetobriga</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrant197487_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant197487-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalter1952159_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalter1952159-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2007246_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2007246-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Julius_Caesar">Julius Caesar</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gallic_Wars&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Julius Caesar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Retrato_de_Julio_C%C3%A9sar_(26724093101)_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Marble bust of a balding man" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Retrato_de_Julio_C%C3%A9sar_%2826724093101%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Retrato_de_Julio_C%C3%A9sar_%2826724093101%29_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Retrato_de_Julio_C%C3%A9sar_%2826724093101%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Retrato_de_Julio_C%C3%A9sar_%2826724093101%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Retrato_de_Julio_C%C3%A9sar_%2826724093101%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Retrato_de_Julio_C%C3%A9sar_%2826724093101%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1752" data-file-height="2379" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Tusculum_portrait" title="Tusculum portrait">Tusculum portrait</a> of Julius Caesar</figcaption></figure> <p>Rising politician and general <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> was the Roman commander and agonist of the war. As a result of the financial burdens of being <a href="/wiki/Consul" title="Consul">consul</a> (the highest office in the Roman Republic) in 59 BC, Caesar had incurred significant debts. To strengthen Rome's position among the Gauls, he had paid substantial money to <a href="/wiki/Ariovistus" title="Ariovistus">Ariovistus</a>, king of the Suebi, to cement an alliance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Ungern-Sternberg201491_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Ungern-Sternberg201491-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200316–17_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200316–17-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through his influence as part of the <a href="/wiki/First_Triumvirate" title="First Triumvirate">First Triumvirate</a> (the political alliance which comprised <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Licinius_Crassus" title="Marcus Licinius Crassus">Marcus Licinius Crassus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a>, and himself) during his consulship, Caesar had secured his assignment as <a href="/wiki/Proconsul" title="Proconsul">proconsul</a> (governor) to two provinces, <a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaul" title="Cisalpine Gaul">Cisalpine Gaul</a> and <a href="/wiki/Illyricum_(Roman_province)" title="Illyricum (Roman province)">Illyricum</a>, by passage of the <i><a href="/wiki/Lex_Vatinia" title="Lex Vatinia">Lex Vatinia</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Ungern-Sternberg201491_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Ungern-Sternberg201491-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the governor of <a href="/wiki/Transalpine_Gaul" class="mw-redirect" title="Transalpine Gaul">Transalpine Gaul</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Caecilius_Metellus_Celer" title="Quintus Caecilius Metellus Celer">Metellus Celer</a>, died unexpectedly, the province was also awarded to Caesar at the suggestion of Pompey and Caesar's father-in-law, <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Calpurnius_Piso_Caesoninus_(consul_58_BC)" title="Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus (consul 58 BC)">Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus</a>. In the law granting him command of the provinces, Caesar was given a five-year term as proconsul.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChrissanthos201973_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrissanthos201973-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was longer than the traditional one-year term that consuls received, enabling him to engage in a military campaign without fear of command turnover.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a23–24_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a23–24-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Caesar had four veteran legions under his direct command initially: <a href="/wiki/Legio_VII_Claudia" title="Legio VII Claudia">Legio VII</a>, <a href="/wiki/Legio_VIII_Augusta" title="Legio VIII Augusta">Legio VIII</a>, <a href="/wiki/Legio_IX_Hispana" title="Legio IX Hispana">Legio IX Hispana</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Legio_X_Equestris" title="Legio X Equestris">Legio X</a>. As he had been governor of <a href="/wiki/Hispania_Ulterior" title="Hispania Ulterior">Hispania Ulterior</a> in 61 BC and had campaigned successfully with them against the <a href="/wiki/Lusitanians" title="Lusitanians">Lusitanians</a>, Caesar knew most, perhaps even all, of the legions personally. He also had the legal authority to levy additional legions and <a href="/wiki/Auxiliaries_(Roman_military)" class="mw-redirect" title="Auxiliaries (Roman military)">auxiliary units</a> as he saw fit. The assignment of the province that comprises what is now <a href="/wiki/Northern_Italy" title="Northern Italy">Northern Italy</a> was helpful to his ambitions: the <a href="/wiki/Po_Valley" title="Po Valley">Po Valley</a> and the adjoining regions had large numbers of Roman citizens, who could be enticed to sign up for legionary service.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChrissanthos201973_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrissanthos201973-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>His ambition was to conquer and plunder some territories to get himself out of debt. It is possible that Gaul was not his initial target; he may have been planning a campaign against the Kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Dacia" title="Dacia">Dacia</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a> instead.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaesar19827–16_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaesar19827–16-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, a mass migration of Gallic tribes in 58 BC provided a convenient <i><a href="/wiki/Casus_belli" title="Casus belli">casus belli</a></i>, and Caesar prepared for war.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200316–17_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200316–17-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gallic_Wars&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Beginning_of_the_Wars_–_campaign_against_the_Helvetii"><span id="Beginning_of_the_Wars_.E2.80.93_campaign_against_the_Helvetii"></span>Beginning of the Wars – campaign against the Helvetii</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gallic_Wars&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Beginning of the Wars – campaign against the Helvetii"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Caesar_campaigns_gaul-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Map of the Gallic Wars" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Caesar_campaigns_gaul-en.svg/300px-Caesar_campaigns_gaul-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="310" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Caesar_campaigns_gaul-en.svg/450px-Caesar_campaigns_gaul-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Caesar_campaigns_gaul-en.svg/600px-Caesar_campaigns_gaul-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="751" data-file-height="777" /></a><figcaption>Multi-year overview of the Gallic Wars. The general routes taken by Caesar's army are indicated by the arrows.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Helvetii" title="Helvetii">Helvetii</a> were a confederation of about five related Gallic tribes that lived on the Swiss plateau, hemmed in by the mountains and the rivers Rhine and <a href="/wiki/Rh%C3%B4ne" title="Rhône">Rhône</a>. They had come under increased pressure from Germanic tribes to the north and the east and began planning for a migration around 61 BC. They intended to travel across Gaul to the <a href="/wiki/Saintonge_(region)" title="Saintonge (region)">Saintonge</a> region of modern France, a route that would have taken them around the Alps and through lands of the Aedui (a Roman ally) into the Roman province of Transalpine Gaul. As word of the migration spread, neighboring tribes grew concerned, and Rome sent ambassadors to several tribes to convince them not to join the Helvetii. Concern grew in Rome that the <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic tribes</a> would fill in the lands vacated by the Helvetii. The Romans much preferred the Gauls to the Germanic tribes as neighbors. One of the consuls of 60 (<a href="/wiki/Quintus_Caecilius_Metellus_Celer" title="Quintus Caecilius Metellus Celer">Metellus</a>) and one of 59 BC (Caesar) both wanted to lead a campaign against the Gauls, though neither had a <i>casus belli</i> at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200330–32_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200330–32-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 28 March in 58 BC, the Helvetii began their migration, bringing along all their peoples and livestock. They burned their villages and stores to ensure the migration could not be reversed. Upon reaching Transalpine Gaul, where Caesar was governor, they asked permission to cross the Roman lands. Caesar entertained the request but ultimately denied it. The Gauls turned north instead, entirely avoiding Roman lands. The threat to Rome was seemingly over, but Caesar led his army over the border and attacked the Helvetii unprovoked. So began what historian Kate Gilliver describes as "an aggressive war of expansion led by a general who was seeking to advance his career".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200330–32_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200330–32-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Caesar's consideration of the Gallic request to enter Rome was not indecision, but a play for time. He was in Rome when news of the migration arrived, and he rushed to Transalpine Gaul, raising two legions and some auxiliaries along the way. He delivered his refusal to the Gauls, and then promptly returned to Italy to gather the legions he had raised on his previous trip and three veteran legions. Caesar now had between 24,000 and 30,000 legionary troops, and some quantity of auxiliaries, many of whom were themselves Gauls. He marched north to the river <a href="/wiki/Sa%C3%B4ne" title="Saône">Saône</a>, where he caught the Helvetii in the middle of crossing. Some three-quarters had crossed; he slaughtered those who had not. Caesar then crossed the river in one day using a <a href="/wiki/Pontoon_bridge" title="Pontoon bridge">pontoon bridge</a>. He followed the Helvetii, but chose not to engage in combat, waiting for ideal conditions. The Gauls attempted to negotiate, but Caesar's terms were draconian (likely on purpose, as he may have used it as another delaying tactic). Caesar's supplies ran thin on 20 June, forcing him to travel towards allied territory in <a href="/wiki/Bibracte" title="Bibracte">Bibracte</a>. While his army had easily crossed the Saône, his supply train still had not. The Helvetii could now outmaneuver the Romans and had time to pick up <a href="/wiki/Boii" title="Boii">Boii</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tulingi" title="Tulingi">Tulingi</a> allies. They used this moment to attack Caesar's rearguard.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200333–35_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200333–35-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Battle_of_Bibracte">Battle of Bibracte</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gallic_Wars&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Battle of Bibracte"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the ensuing <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bibracte" title="Battle of Bibracte">Battle of Bibracte</a>, the Gauls and Romans fought for the better part of the day. After a hotly contested battle, the Romans eventually gained victory. Caesar had set up his legions on the slope of a hill, which put the Gauls at a disadvantage as they had to fight uphill. The Helvetii started the battle with a probable <a href="/wiki/Feint" title="Feint">feint</a>, which the Romans easily repulsed. However, the Boii and Tulingi then outmaneuvered the Romans and attacked their right flank. At this point, the Romans were surrounded. A heated battle ensued. The men in the legion's last line were ordered to turn their backs around. They now fought on two fronts instead of just being attacked in the rear, which Gilliver describes as a brilliant tactical decision. Eventually, the Helvetii were routed and fled. The Romans chased the now outnumbered Boii and Tulingi back to their encampments, killing the fighters as well as slaying the women and children.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200333–35_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200333–35-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Caesar's army rested for three days to tend to the wounded. They then gave chase to the Helvetii, who surrendered. Caesar ordered them back on their lands to provide a buffer between Rome and the even more feared Germanic tribes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200333–35_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200333–35-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the captured Helvetian camp Caesar claims that a census written in Greek was found and studied: of a total of 368,000 Helvetii, of whom 92,000 were able-bodied men, only 110,000 survivors remained to return home. Historians believe the total was likely between 20,000–50,000, with the excess exaggerated by Caesar for propaganda purposes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDelbrück1990475_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDelbrück1990475-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200333–35_31-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200333–35-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (See <a href="#Historiography">historiography</a> section below for a detailed accounting). </p><p>Bibracte, then the commercial hub of the Gallic Aedui tribe, would again play a crucial role during the Gallic uprising of 52 BC. Vercingetorix himself met with other Gallic leaders there to plot the rebellion against Caesar and the Romans. After Vercingetorix's revolt failed, Bibracte was slowly abandoned for other more prosperous settlements nearby.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaesar198225–29_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaesar198225–29-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Campaign_against_the_Suebi">Campaign against the Suebi</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gallic_Wars&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Campaign against the Suebi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vosges_(58_BC)" title="Battle of Vosges (58 BC)">Battle of Vosges (58 BC)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gallia_Cesare_58_aC.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A map of modern-day Europe centered on France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Gallia_Cesare_58_aC.png/220px-Gallia_Cesare_58_aC.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Gallia_Cesare_58_aC.png/330px-Gallia_Cesare_58_aC.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Gallia_Cesare_58_aC.png/440px-Gallia_Cesare_58_aC.png 2x" data-file-width="1318" data-file-height="1559" /></a><figcaption>The campaigns of 58 BC (In Italian). Note the Roman territory in yellow does not yet include modern day France, the Low Countries, or Germany. Caesar's expeditions are a red line, with battles noted. Celtic cities are in green, Germanic cities in orange.</figcaption></figure> <p>Caesar then turned his attention to the Germanic Suebi, whom he also wished to conquer. The Senate had declared Ariovistus, king of the Suebi, a "friend and ally of the Roman people" in 59 BC, so Caesar needed a convincing <i>casus belli</i> to betray the Suebi.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200333–36_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200333–36-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2007247_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2007247-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He found his excuse following victory over the Helvetii. A group of Gallic tribes congratulated him and sought to meet in a general assembly, hoping to leverage the Romans against other Gauls.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalter1952158_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalter1952158-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Diviciacus_(Aedui)" title="Diviciacus (Aedui)">Diviciacus</a>, the head of the Aeduan government and spokesmen for the Gallic delegation, expressed concern over Ariovistus' conquests and for the hostages he had taken.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalter1952158,_161_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalter1952158,_161-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2007271_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2007271-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Not only did Caesar have a responsibility to protect the longstanding allegiance of the Aedui, but this proposition presented an opportunity to expand Rome's borders, strengthen loyalty within Caesar's army and establish him as the commander of Rome's troops abroad.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2007271_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2007271-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the attack of the <a href="/wiki/Harudes" class="mw-redirect" title="Harudes">Harudes</a> (an apparent Suebi ally) on the Aedui and the report that a hundred clans of Suebi were trying to cross the Rhine into Gaul, Caesar had the justification he needed to wage war against Ariovistus in 58 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalter1952163–165_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalter1952163–165-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2007272_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2007272-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Learning that Ariovistus intended to seize <a href="/wiki/Vesontio" class="mw-redirect" title="Vesontio">Vesontio</a>, the largest Sequani town, Caesar marched towards it and arrived before Ariovistus.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2007274–275_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2007274–275-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ariovistus sent emissaries to Caesar requesting a meeting. They met under a truce at a knoll outside of town. The truce was violated when Germanic horsemen edged towards the knoll and threw stones at Caesar's mounted escort.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalter1952173–176_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalter1952173–176-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two days later, Ariovistus requested another meeting. Hesitant to send senior officials, Caesar dispatched <a href="/wiki/Valerius_Procillus" class="mw-redirect" title="Valerius Procillus">Valerius Procillus</a>, his trusted friend, and Caius Mettius, a merchant who had traded successfully with Ariovistus. Insulted, Ariovistus threw the envoys in chains.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalter1952177_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalter1952177-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2007277_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2007277-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ariovistus marched for two days and made camp two miles (3.2 km) behind Caesar, thus cutting off his communication and supply lines with the allied tribes. Unable to entice Ariovistus into battle, Caesar ordered a second smaller camp built near Ariovistus' position.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2007277–278_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2007277–278-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The next morning Caesar assembled his allied troops in front of the second camp and advanced his legions in towards Ariovistus. Each of Caesar's five legates and his <a href="/wiki/Quaestor" title="Quaestor">quaestor</a> were given command of a legion. Caesar lined up on the right flank.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2007279–280_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2007279–280-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ariovistus countered by lining up his seven tribal formations. Caesar was victorious in the ensuing battle due in large part to the charge made by <a href="/wiki/Publius_Licinius_Crassus_(son_of_triumvir)" title="Publius Licinius Crassus (son of triumvir)">Publius Crassus</a>, son of Marcus Crassus. As the Germanic tribesmen began to drive back the Roman left flank, Crassus led his cavalry in a charge to restore balance and ordered up the cohorts of the third line. As a result, the whole Germanic line broke and began to flee.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFuller1965109_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuller1965109-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2007280–281_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2007280–281-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Caesar claims that most of Ariovistus' one-hundred and twenty thousand men were killed. He and what remained of his troops escaped and crossed the Rhine, never to engage Rome in battle again. The Suebi camping near the Rhine returned home. Caesar was victorious.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrant197489_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant197489-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2007281_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2007281-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In one year he had defeated two of Rome's most feared enemies. After this busy campaigning season, he returned to Transalpine Gaul to deal with the non-military aspects of his governorship. At this point it is possible he had already decided he would conquer all of Gaul.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200336_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200336-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="57_BC:_Campaigns_in_the_east">57 BC: Campaigns in the east</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gallic_Wars&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: 57 BC: Campaigns in the east"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Caesar's stunning victories in 58 BC had unsettled the Gallic tribes. Many rightly predicted Caesar would seek to conquer all of Gaul, and some sought alliance with Rome. As the campaigning season of 57 BC dawned, both sides were busy recruiting new soldiers. Caesar set off with two more legions than the year before, with 32,000 to 40,000 men, along with a contingent of auxiliaries. The exact number of men the Gauls raised is unknown, but Caesar claims he would fight 200,000.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200336–40_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200336–40-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Intervening again in an intra-Gallic conflict, Caesar marched against the <a href="/wiki/Belgae" title="Belgae">Belgae</a> tribal confederation, who inhabited the area roughly bounded by modern-day <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>. They had recently attacked a tribe allied with Rome and before marching with his army to meet them, Caesar ordered the <a href="/wiki/Remi" title="Remi">Remi</a> and other neighboring Gauls to investigate the Belgae's actions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzov199666_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEzov199666-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Belgae and the Romans encountered each other near <a href="/wiki/Bibrax" title="Bibrax">Bibrax</a>. The Belgae attempted to take the fortified <i><a href="/wiki/Oppidum" title="Oppidum">oppidum</a></i> (main settlement) from the Remi but were unsuccessful and chose instead to raid the nearby countryside. Each side tried to avoid battle, as both were short on supplies (a continuing theme for Caesar, who gambled and left his baggage train behind several times). Caesar ordered fortifications built, which the Belgae understood would give them a disadvantage. Instead of making battle, the Belgic army simply disbanded, as it could be re-assembled easily.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200336–40_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200336–40-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Caesar realized an opportunity was presenting itself: if he could beat the men from the army home, he could take their lands with ease. His armies' travel speed proved to be a crucial aspect of his ensuing victories. He rushed to the Belgic <a href="/wiki/Suessiones" title="Suessiones">Suessiones</a>' <i>oppidum</i> at what is now <a href="/wiki/Villeneuve-Saint-Germain" title="Villeneuve-Saint-Germain">Villeneuve-Saint-Germain</a> and laid siege to it. The Belgic army nullified Caesar's advantage by sneaking back into the city under cover of darkness. The Roman siege preparations proved to be the decisive factor: grand Roman-style siege warfare was unknown to the Gauls, and the might of the Romans' preparations drove the Gauls to surrender promptly. This had a ripple effect: the nearby <a href="/wiki/Bellovaci" title="Bellovaci">Bellovaci</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ambiani" title="Ambiani">Ambiones</a> surrendered immediately afterward, realizing the Romans had defeated a powerful army without any combat. Not all the tribes were so cowed though. The <a href="/wiki/Nervii" title="Nervii">Nervii</a> allied with the <a href="/wiki/Atrebates" title="Atrebates">Atrebates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Viromandui" title="Viromandui">Viromandui</a>, and planned to ambush the Romans. The ensuing <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Sabis" title="Battle of the Sabis">battle of the Sabis</a> was nearly a humiliating defeat for Caesar, and the Roman victory was very hard-won.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200336–40_52-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200336–40-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nervii_ambush:_the_battle_of_the_Sabis">Nervii ambush: the battle of the Sabis</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gallic_Wars&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Nervii ambush: the battle of the Sabis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gallia_Cesare_57_aC.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A map of modern-day Europe centered on France. Compared to the prior map, southeastern France is now shaded red." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Gallia_Cesare_57_aC.png/220px-Gallia_Cesare_57_aC.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Gallia_Cesare_57_aC.png/330px-Gallia_Cesare_57_aC.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Gallia_Cesare_57_aC.png/440px-Gallia_Cesare_57_aC.png 2x" data-file-width="1318" data-file-height="1559" /></a><figcaption>Campaign map of 57 BC. Territory conquered the previous year is shaded red.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Nervii set up an ambush along the river <a href="/wiki/Sambre" title="Sambre">Sambre</a>, lying in wait for the Romans who arrived and started setting up camp. The Romans detected the Nervii, and the battle began with the Romans sending a light cavalry and infantry force across the river to keep the Nervii at bay while the main force fortified its camp. The Nervii easily repulsed the attack. In an uncharacteristic move for Caesar, he made a serious tactical error by not setting up an infantry screen to protect the entrenching force. The Nervii took ample advantage of this, and their entire force crossed the river quickly and caught the Romans off-guard and unprepared. As the battle began, two legions had not even arrived, whereas the Nervii had at least 60,000 fighters.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200336–40_52-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200336–40-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The reserve legions were stuck at the end of the column, 15 km (9.3 mi) back, with the 8,000 animals of the baggage train. However, because the soldiers could operate independently of the train, the forwards legions were still ready for battle.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMatthew200943_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthew200943-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Romans' superior discipline and experience came in use and they quickly formed lines of battle. Their center and left wings were successful and chased the Atrebates across the river. To the tribes' advantage, this exposed the half-built camp, and they took it easily. To make matters worse for the Romans, the right wing was in serious trouble. It had been outflanked, its line of battle had become too tight to swing a sword, and multiple officers were dead. The situation was so critical Caesar took up his shield and joined the front line of the legion. His mere presence greatly increased morale, and he ordered his men to form a defensive square to open the ranks and protect them from all sides. What turned the tide of battle was Caesar's reinforcements, the X legion which returned from chasing the Atrebates, and the two straggler legions that finally arrived. The strong stand by the X legion and the timely arrival of reinforcements enabled Caesar to regroup, redeploy and eventually repulse the Nervii once the Atrebates and Viromandui were put to flight.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200336–40_52-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200336–40-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Caesar's cockiness had nearly ended in defeat, but the legions' experience combined with his personal role in combat turned a disaster into an incredible victory. The Belgae were broken, and most of the Germanic tribes offered submission to Rome. The end of the campaigning season saw Caesar conquer tribes along the Atlantic coast, and deal with the <a href="/wiki/Atuatuci" title="Atuatuci">Atuatuci</a>, who were allies of the Nervii but had broken the terms of surrender. Caesar punished the Atuatuci by selling 53,000 of them into slavery. By law, the profits were Caesar's alone. He saw a minor setback towards winter as he sent <a href="/wiki/Servius_Sulpicius_Galba_(praetor_54_BC)" title="Servius Sulpicius Galba (praetor 54 BC)">one of his officers</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Great_St_Bernard_Pass" title="Great St Bernard Pass">Great St Bernard Pass</a>, where local tribes fought back fiercely; he abandoned the campaign. But overall, Caesar had seen monumental success in 57 BC. He had accumulated great wealth to pay off his debts and increased his stature to heroic levels. Upon his return, the senate granted him a 15-day thanksgiving (<i><a href="/wiki/Supplicatio" title="Supplicatio">supplicatio</a></i>), longer than any before. His political reputation was now formidable. Again, he returned to Transalpine Gaul for the winter to see to the civil affairs of the province. He wintered his troops in northern Gaul, where the tribes were forced to house and feed them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200336–40_52-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200336–40-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="56_BC:_Campaign_against_the_Veneti">56 BC: Campaign against the Veneti</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gallic_Wars&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: 56 BC: Campaign against the Veneti"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:D._Junius_Brutus_Albinus,_denarius,_48_BC,_RRC_450-1a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photo of two silver coins" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/D._Junius_Brutus_Albinus%2C_denarius%2C_48_BC%2C_RRC_450-1a.jpg/300px-D._Junius_Brutus_Albinus%2C_denarius%2C_48_BC%2C_RRC_450-1a.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/D._Junius_Brutus_Albinus%2C_denarius%2C_48_BC%2C_RRC_450-1a.jpg/450px-D._Junius_Brutus_Albinus%2C_denarius%2C_48_BC%2C_RRC_450-1a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/D._Junius_Brutus_Albinus%2C_denarius%2C_48_BC%2C_RRC_450-1a.jpg/600px-D._Junius_Brutus_Albinus%2C_denarius%2C_48_BC%2C_RRC_450-1a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="369" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Denarius" title="Denarius">Denarius</a> minted by <a href="/wiki/Decimus_Junius_Brutus_Albinus" title="Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus">Decimus Brutus</a> in 48 BC, recalling his service in Gaul. The obverse features the head of <a href="/wiki/Mars_(mythology)" title="Mars (mythology)">Mars</a>, and the reverse shows Gallic <a href="/wiki/Carnyx" title="Carnyx">carnyces</a> and shields.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrawford1974466_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrawford1974466-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The Gauls were embittered at being forced to feed the Roman troops over the winter. The Romans sent out officers to requisition grain from the <a href="/wiki/Veneti_(Gaul)" title="Veneti (Gaul)">Veneti</a>, a group of tribes in northwest Gaul, but the Veneti had other ideas and captured the officers. This was a calculated move: they knew this would anger Rome and prepared by allying with the tribes of <a href="/wiki/Armorica" title="Armorica">Armorica</a>, fortifying their hill settlements, and preparing a fleet. The Veneti and the other peoples along the Atlantic coast were versed in sailing and had vessels suitable for the rough waters of the Atlantic. By comparison, the Romans were hardly prepared for naval warfare on the open ocean. The Veneti also had sails, whereas the Romans relied on oarsmen. Rome was a feared naval power in the Mediterranean, but there the waters were calm, and less sturdy ships could be used. Regardless, the Romans understood that to defeat the Veneti they would need a fleet: many of the Venetic settlements were isolated and best accessible by sea.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200340–43_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200340–43-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Decimus_Junius_Brutus_Albinus" title="Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus">Decimus Brutus</a> was appointed <a href="/wiki/Prefect#Ancient_Rome" title="Prefect">prefect</a> of the fleet.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroughton1951213_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroughton1951213-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Caesar wished to sail as soon as the weather permitted and ordered new boats and recruited oarsmen from the already conquered regions of Gaul to ensure the fleet would be ready as soon as possible. The legions were dispatched by land, but not as a single unit. Gilliver regards this as evidence that Caesar's claims the prior year that Gaul was at peace were untrue, as the legions were apparently being dispatched to prevent or deal with rebellion. A cavalry force was sent to hold down the Germanic and Belgic tribes. Troops under Publius Crassus were sent to <a href="/wiki/Aquitania" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquitania">Aquitania</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Titurius_Sabinus" title="Quintus Titurius Sabinus">Quintus Titurius Sabinus</a> took forces to Normandy. Caesar led the remaining four legions overland to meet up with his recently raised fleet near the mouth of the river <a href="/wiki/Loire" title="Loire">Loire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200340–43_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200340–43-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Veneti held the upper hand for much of the campaign. Their ships were well-suited to the region, and when their hill forts were under siege, they could simply evacuate them by sea. The less sturdy Roman fleet was stuck in harbor for much of the campaign. Despite having the superior army and great siege equipment, the Romans were making little progress. Caesar realized that the campaign could not be won on land and halted the campaign until the seas calmed enough for the Roman vessels to be most useful.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200340–43_56-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200340–43-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Battle_of_Morbihan">Battle of Morbihan</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gallic_Wars&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Battle of Morbihan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Morbihan" title="Battle of Morbihan">Battle of Morbihan</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bataille_Morbihan_-56.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Map of the Battle of Morbihan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Bataille_Morbihan_-56.png/300px-Bataille_Morbihan_-56.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Bataille_Morbihan_-56.png/450px-Bataille_Morbihan_-56.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Bataille_Morbihan_-56.png/600px-Bataille_Morbihan_-56.png 2x" data-file-width="1842" data-file-height="1125" /></a><figcaption> Battle of Morbihan (in French, Rome is in red, Veneti in green)</figcaption></figure><p>At last, the Roman fleet sailed, and encountered the Venetic fleet off the coast of Brittany near <a href="/wiki/Quiberon_Bay" title="Quiberon Bay">Quiberon Bay</a>. They engaged in a battle that lasted from late in the morning until sundown. On paper, the Veneti appeared to have the superior fleet. Their ships' sturdy oak beam construction meant they were effectively immune to ramming, and their high-profile protected their occupants from projectiles. The Veneti had some 220 ships, although Gilliver notes many were likely not much more than fishing boats. Caesar did not report the number of Roman ships. The Romans had one advantage—<a href="/wiki/Grappling_hook" title="Grappling hook">grappling hooks</a>. These allowed them to shred the rigging and sails of the Venetic ships that got close enough rendering them inoperable. The hooks also allowed them to pull ships close enough to board. The Veneti realized the grappling hooks were an existential threat and retreated. However, the wind dropped, and the Roman fleet (which did not rely on sails) was able to catch up. The Romans could now use their superior soldiers to board ships <i>en masse</i> and overwhelm the Gauls at their leisure. Just as the Romans had beaten the superior forces of <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a> in the <a href="/wiki/First_Punic_War" title="First Punic War">First Punic War</a> by using the <a href="/wiki/Corvus_(boarding_device)" title="Corvus (boarding device)"><i>corvus</i></a> boarding device, a simple technological advantage—the grappling hook—allowed them to defeat the superior Venetic fleet.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200340–43_56-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200340–43-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHammond199660–61_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHammond199660–61-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PXjKB_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PXjKB-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Veneti, now without a navy, had been bested. They surrendered, and Caesar made an example of the tribal elders by executing them. He sold the rest of the Veneti into slavery. Caesar now turned his attention to the <a href="/wiki/Morini" title="Morini">Morini</a> and <a href="/wiki/Menapii" title="Menapii">Menapii</a> along the coast.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200340–43_56-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200340–43-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHammond199660–61_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHammond199660–61-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Caesar's_subordinates_and_mopping_up"><span id="Caesar.27s_subordinates_and_mopping_up"></span>Caesar's subordinates and mopping up</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gallic_Wars&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Caesar's subordinates and mopping up"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gallia_Cesare_56_aC.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Map of Europe, centered on France. Compared to the prior year, new conquered territory includes a long finger towards the Atlantic and most of Northeast France." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Gallia_Cesare_56_aC.png/220px-Gallia_Cesare_56_aC.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Gallia_Cesare_56_aC.png/330px-Gallia_Cesare_56_aC.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Gallia_Cesare_56_aC.png/440px-Gallia_Cesare_56_aC.png 2x" data-file-width="1318" data-file-height="1559" /></a><figcaption>Campaign map of 56 BC. Note Caesar's foray into the north of Gaul, Crassus' campaigns in the south, and the Battle of Morbihan off the west Atlantic coast.</figcaption></figure> <p>During the Venetic campaign, Caesar's subordinates had been busy pacifying Normandy and Aquitania. A coalition of <a href="/wiki/Lexovii" title="Lexovii">Lexovii</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coriosolites" title="Coriosolites">Coriosolites</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Venelli" title="Venelli">Venelli</a> charged Sabinus while he was entrenched atop a hill. This was a poor tactical move by the tribes. By the time they had reached the top, they were exhausted, and Sabinus defeated them with ease. The tribes consequently surrendered, yielding up all of Normandy to the Romans. Crassus did not have such an easy time in facing the Aquitania. With only one legion and some cavalry, he was outnumbered. He raised additional forces from Provence and marched south to what is now the border of modern Spain and France. Along the way, he fought off the <a href="/wiki/Sotiates" title="Sotiates">Sotiates</a>, who attacked while the Romans were marching. Defeating the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Vocates_(Gallic_tribe)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vocates (Gallic tribe) (page does not exist)">Vocates</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tarusates&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tarusates (page does not exist)">Tarusates</a> proved a tougher task. Having allied with the rebel Roman general <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Sertorius" title="Quintus Sertorius">Quintus Sertorius</a> during <a href="/wiki/Sertorian_War" title="Sertorian War">his uprising</a> in 70 BC, these tribes were well versed in Roman combat, and had learned guerilla tactics from the war. They avoided frontal battle and harassed supply lines and the marching Romans. Crassus realized he would have to force battle and located the Gallic encampment of some 50,000. However, they had only fortified the front of the camp, and Crassus simply circled it and attacked the rear. Taken by surprise, the Gauls attempted to flee. However, Crassus' cavalry pursued them. According to Crassus, only 12,000 survived the overwhelming Roman victory. The tribes surrendered, and Rome now controlled most of southwest Gaul.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200340–43_56-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200340–43-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Caesar finished the campaign season by trying to take out the coastal tribes who had allied with the Veneti. However, they outmaneuvered the Romans. Due to superior knowledge of the local terrain, which was heavily forested and marshy, and a strategy of withdrawing there, they avoided battle with the Romans. Poor weather worsened the situation, and Caesar could do little more than raid the countryside. Realizing he would not meet the Gauls in battle, he withdrew for the winter. This was a setback for Caesar, as not pacifying the tribes would slow his campaigns the next year. The legions overwintered between the rivers Saône and Loire on the lands which they had conquered during the year. This was Caesar's punishment to the tribes for having fought against the Romans.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200340–43_56-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200340–43-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Non-military business for Caesar during the year included the politically pivotal <a href="/wiki/Luca_Conference" title="Luca Conference">Luca Conference</a> in April, which gave him another 5 years as governor, allowing time to finish his conquest of Gaul. In exchange, Pompey and Crassus would share the consulship for 55 BC, which further cemented the First Triumvirate.<sup id="cite_ref-yBqns_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yBqns-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-XYxU3_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-XYxU3-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="55_BC:_Crossing_the_Rhine_and_the_English_Channel">55 BC: Crossing the Rhine and the English Channel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gallic_Wars&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: 55 BC: Crossing the Rhine and the English Channel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Caesar%27s_invasions_of_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="Caesar's invasions of Britain">Caesar's invasions of Britain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Caesar%27s_Rhine_bridges" title="Caesar's Rhine bridges">Caesar's Rhine bridges</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Il_ponte_di_Cesare_sul_Reno.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A painting of Caesar's Rhine river Bridge" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Il_ponte_di_Cesare_sul_Reno.jpg/220px-Il_ponte_di_Cesare_sul_Reno.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Il_ponte_di_Cesare_sul_Reno.jpg/330px-Il_ponte_di_Cesare_sul_Reno.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Il_ponte_di_Cesare_sul_Reno.jpg/440px-Il_ponte_di_Cesare_sul_Reno.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1122" data-file-height="650" /></a><figcaption> Caesar's Rhine Bridge, by <a href="/wiki/John_Soane" title="John Soane">John Soane</a> (1814)</figcaption></figure> <p>A need for prestige more than tactical concerns likely determined Caesar's campaigns in 55 BC, due to Pompey and Crassus' consulship. On the one hand, they were Caesar's political allies, and Crassus's son had fought under him the year before. But they were also his rivals, and had formidable reputations (Pompey was a great general, and Crassus was fabulously wealthy). Since the consuls could easily sway and buy public opinion, Caesar needed to stay in the public eye. His solution was to cross two water bodies no Roman army had attempted before: the Rhine and the <a href="/wiki/English_Channel" title="English Channel">English Channel</a>. Crossing the Rhine was a consequence of Germanic/Celtic unrest. The Suebi had recently forced the Celtic <a href="/wiki/Usipetes" title="Usipetes">Usipetes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tencteri" title="Tencteri">Tencteri</a> from their lands, who resultingly had crossed the Rhine in search of a new home. Caesar, however, had denied their earlier request to settle in Gaul, and the issue turned to war. The Celtic tribes sent out a cavalry force of 800 against a Roman auxiliary force of 5,000 made up of Gauls, and won a surprising victory. Caesar retaliated by attacking the defenseless Celtic camp, and slaughtering the men, women, and children. Caesar claims he killed 430,000 people in the camp. Modern historians find this number impossibly high (see <a href="#Historiography">historiography</a> below), but it is apparent that Caesar killed a great many Celts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200343–49_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200343–49-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> So cruel were his actions, his enemies in the Senate wished to prosecute him for war crimes once his tenure as governor was up and he was no longer immune from prosecution.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200346_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200346-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the massacre, Caesar led the first Roman army across the Rhine in a lightning campaign that lasted just 18 days.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200343–49_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200343–49-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gallia_Cesare_55_aC.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Map of Europe, centered on France. Compared to the last map, northwest France has been captured. Note that south-central France remains uncaptured." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Gallia_Cesare_55_aC.png/220px-Gallia_Cesare_55_aC.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Gallia_Cesare_55_aC.png/330px-Gallia_Cesare_55_aC.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Gallia_Cesare_55_aC.png/440px-Gallia_Cesare_55_aC.png 2x" data-file-width="1318" data-file-height="1559" /></a><figcaption>Campaign map of 55 BC. Note Caesar's crossing of the Rhine, with Germanic counter movements in orange. Aside from the crossing of the Channel, few other actions were carried out that year.</figcaption></figure> <p>Historian Kate Gilliver considers all of Caesar's actions in 55 BC to be a "publicity stunt" and suggests that the basis for continuing the Celtic/Germanic campaign was a desire to gain prestige. This also explains the campaign's brief time span. Caesar wanted to impress the Romans and scare the Germanic tribesmen, and he did this by crossing the Rhine in style. Instead of using boats or pontoons as he had in earlier campaigns, he built a timber bridge in a mere ten days. He walked across, raided the Suebic countryside, and retreated across the bridge before the Suebic army could mobilize. He then burned the bridge and turned his attentions to another feat no Roman army had accomplished before—landing in Britain. The nominal reason to attack Britain was the Britonic tribes had been assisting the Gauls, but like most of Caesar's <i>casus belli</i> it was just an excuse to gain stature in the eyes of the Roman people.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200343–49_62-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200343–49-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_Chronicle_of_England_-_Page_005_-_The_Standard_Bearer_of_the_Tenth_Legion.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A drawing showing some Romans landing in Britain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/A_Chronicle_of_England_-_Page_005_-_The_Standard_Bearer_of_the_Tenth_Legion.jpg/220px-A_Chronicle_of_England_-_Page_005_-_The_Standard_Bearer_of_the_Tenth_Legion.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/A_Chronicle_of_England_-_Page_005_-_The_Standard_Bearer_of_the_Tenth_Legion.jpg/330px-A_Chronicle_of_England_-_Page_005_-_The_Standard_Bearer_of_the_Tenth_Legion.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/A_Chronicle_of_England_-_Page_005_-_The_Standard_Bearer_of_the_Tenth_Legion.jpg/440px-A_Chronicle_of_England_-_Page_005_-_The_Standard_Bearer_of_the_Tenth_Legion.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1236" data-file-height="1324" /></a><figcaption> Illustration of the Romans landing in Britain, featuring the standard bearer of the X legion</figcaption></figure> <p>Caesar's first trip into Britain was less of a full scale invasion than an expedition. He took only two legions from his army; however, his cavalry auxiliaries were unable to make the crossing despite several attempts. Caesar crossed late in the season, and in great haste, leaving well after midnight on 23 August.<sup id="cite_ref-gF4VT_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gF4VT-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200343–49_62-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200343–49-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Initially, he planned to land somewhere in <a href="/wiki/Kent" title="Kent">Kent</a>, but the Britons were waiting for him. He moved up the coast and landed—modern archeological finds suggest at <a href="/wiki/Pegwell_Bay" title="Pegwell Bay">Pegwell Bay</a><sup id="cite_ref-le.ac.uk_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-le.ac.uk-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—but the Britons had kept pace and fielded an impressive force, including cavalry and chariots. The legions were hesitant to go ashore. Eventually, the X legion's standard bearer jumped into the sea and waded to shore. To have the legion's standard fall in combat was the greatest humiliation, and the men disembarked to protect the standard bearer. After some delay, a battle line was finally formed, and the Britons withdrew. Because the Roman cavalry had not made the crossing, Caesar could not chase down the Britons. The Romans' luck did not improve, and a Roman foraging party was ambushed. The Britons took this as a sign of Roman weakness and amassed a large force to assault them. A short battle ensued, though Caesar provides no details beyond indicating the Romans prevailed. Again, the lack of cavalry to chase down the fleeing Britons prevented a decisive victory. The campaigning season was now nearly over, and the legions were in no condition to winter on the coast of Kent. Caesar withdrew back across the Channel.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200343–49_62-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200343–49-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Gilliver notes that Caesar once again narrowly escaped disaster. Taking an understrength army with few provisions to a far-off land was a poor tactical decision, which easily could have led to Caesar's defeat—yet he survived. While he had achieved no significant gains in Britain, he had accomplished a monumental feat simply by landing there. It was a fabulous propaganda victory as well, which was chronicled in Caesar's ongoing <i><a href="/wiki/Commentarii_de_Bello_Gallico" title="Commentarii de Bello Gallico">Commentarii de Bello Gallico</a></i>. The writings in the <i>Commentarii</i> fed Rome a steady update of Caesar's exploits (with his own personal spin on events). Caesar's goal of prestige and publicity succeeded enormously: upon his return to Rome, he was hailed as a hero and given an unprecedented 20-day thanksgiving. He now began planning for a proper invasion of Britain.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200343–49_62-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200343–49-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="54_BC:_Invading_Britain,_unrest_in_Gaul"><span id="54_BC:_Invading_Britain.2C_unrest_in_Gaul"></span>54 BC: Invading Britain, unrest in Gaul</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gallic_Wars&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: 54 BC: Invading Britain, unrest in Gaul"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Caesar's approach towards Britain in 54 BC was far more comprehensive and successful than his initial expedition. New ships had been built over the winter, and Caesar now took five legions and 2,000 cavalry. He left the rest of his army in Gaul to keep order. Gilliver notes that Caesar took with him a good number of Gallic chiefs whom he considered untrustworthy so he could keep an eye on them, a further sign that he had not comprehensively conquered Gaul. A series of revolts there late in the year were proof of continued Gallic instability.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200349–50_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200349–50-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Caesar landed without resistance and immediately went to find the Britonic army. The Britons used guerilla tactics to avoid a direct confrontation. This allowed them to gather a formidable army under <a href="/wiki/Cassivellaunus" title="Cassivellaunus">Cassivellaunus</a>, king of the <a href="/wiki/Catuvellauni" title="Catuvellauni">Catuvellauni</a>. The Britonic army had superior mobility due to its cavalry and chariots, which easily allowed them to evade and harass the Romans. The Britons attacked a foraging party, hoping to pick off the isolated group, but the party fought back fiercely and thoroughly defeated the Britons. They mostly gave up resistance at this point, and a great many tribes surrendered and offered tribute. The Romans assaulted Cassivellaunus' stronghold (likely modern day <a href="/wiki/Wheathampstead" title="Wheathampstead">Wheathampstead</a>), and he surrendered. Caesar extracted payment of grain, slaves, and an annual tribute to Rome. However, Britain was not particularly rich at the time; <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Marcus Cicero</a> summed up Roman sentiment by saying, "It's also been established that there isn't a scrap of silver in the island and no hope of booty except for slaves—and I don't suppose you're expecting them to know much about literature or music!" Regardless, this second trip to Britain was a true invasion, and Caesar achieved his goals. He had beaten the Britons and extracted tribute; they were now effectively Roman subjects. Caesar was lenient towards the tribes as he needed to leave before the stormy season set in, which would make crossing the channel impossible.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200349–50_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200349–50-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Revolts_in_Gaul">Revolts in Gaul</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gallic_Wars&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Revolts in Gaul"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ambiorix%27s_revolt" title="Ambiorix's revolt">Ambiorix's revolt</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gallia_Cesare_54_aC.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Map, centered on France. No territorial changes from 55 BC." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Gallia_Cesare_54_aC.png/220px-Gallia_Cesare_54_aC.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Gallia_Cesare_54_aC.png/330px-Gallia_Cesare_54_aC.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Gallia_Cesare_54_aC.png/440px-Gallia_Cesare_54_aC.png 2x" data-file-width="1318" data-file-height="1559" /></a><figcaption>Campaign map of 54 BC. Tribes that revolted have flame icons near their name. Note the Gallic victory over Sabinus in northern Gaul, and Caesar's rush to relieve Cicero.</figcaption></figure> <p>Things did not run so smoothly back on the continent during 54 BC. Harvests had failed in Gaul that year, but Caesar still wintered his legions there, and expected the Gauls to feed his troops. He did at least realize harvests had failed and spread his troops out so they would not overburden one tribe. But this isolated his legions, making them easier to attack. Gallic anger boiled over shortly after the legions made camp for the winter, and tribes rebelled.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200349–50_66-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200349–50-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Eburones" title="Eburones">Eburones</a>, under the competent <a href="/wiki/Ambiorix" title="Ambiorix">Ambiorix</a>, had been forced to winter a legion and five cohorts under Quintus Titurius Sabinus and <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Aurunculeius_Cotta" title="Lucius Aurunculeius Cotta">Lucius Aurunculeius Cotta</a>. Ambiorix attacked the Roman camp and told Sabinus (falsely) that all of Gaul was revolting and that the Germanic tribes were also invading. He offered to give the Romans safe passage if they abandoned their camp and returned to Rome. In what Gilliver describes as an incredibly foolish move, Sabinus believed Ambiorix. As soon as Sabinus left the camp, his forces were ambushed in a steep valley. Sabinus had not chosen an appropriate formation for the terrain, and the green troops panicked. The Gauls won decisively, both Sabinus and Cotta were killed, and only a handful of Romans survived.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200349–50_66-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200349–50-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The total defeat of Sabinus spread revolutionary fervor, and the Atuatuci, Nervii, and their allies also rebelled. They attacked the camp of <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Cicero" class="mw-redirect" title="Quintus Cicero">Quintus Cicero</a>, brother to Marcus Cicero—the famed orator and a key political player whom Caesar wished to keep as a loyal ally.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELuibheid197088–94_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELuibheid197088–94-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200349–50_66-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200349–50-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also told Cicero the story that Ambiorix had related to Sabinus, but Cicero was not as gullible as Sabinus. He fortified the camp's defenses and attempted to get a messenger to Caesar. The Gauls began a fierce siege. Having previously captured a number of Roman troops as prisoners, they used the knowledge of the Romans' tactics to build <a href="/wiki/Siege_tower" title="Siege tower">siege towers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Earthworks_(military)" class="mw-redirect" title="Earthworks (military)">earthworks</a>. They then assaulted the Romans nearly continuously for more than two weeks. Cicero's message finally reached Caesar, and he immediately took two legions and cavalry to relieve the siege. They went on a forced march through the lands of the Nervii, making some 20 miles (32 km) a day. Caesar defeated the 60,000 strong Gallic army and finally rescued Cicero's legion. The siege resulted in a more than 90% casualty rate for Cicero's men. Caesar's praise of Quintus Cicero's tenacity was unending.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200349–50_66-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200349–50-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="53_BC:_Suppressing_unrest">53 BC: Suppressing unrest</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gallic_Wars&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: 53 BC: Suppressing unrest"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:L._Hostilius_Saserna,_denarius,_48_BC,_RRC_448-2a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photograph of two Roman coins" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/L._Hostilius_Saserna%2C_denarius%2C_48_BC%2C_RRC_448-2a.jpg/220px-L._Hostilius_Saserna%2C_denarius%2C_48_BC%2C_RRC_448-2a.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/L._Hostilius_Saserna%2C_denarius%2C_48_BC%2C_RRC_448-2a.jpg/330px-L._Hostilius_Saserna%2C_denarius%2C_48_BC%2C_RRC_448-2a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/L._Hostilius_Saserna%2C_denarius%2C_48_BC%2C_RRC_448-2a.jpg/440px-L._Hostilius_Saserna%2C_denarius%2C_48_BC%2C_RRC_448-2a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="387" /></a><figcaption> Denarius minted by L. Hostilius Saserna, 48 BC, showing the head of a captive Gaul, and a Britonic chariot on the reverse. Coin Expert <a href="/wiki/Michael_Crawford_(historian)" title="Michael Crawford (historian)">Michael Crawford</a> rejects the theory of several historians that the head on the obverse is that of Vercingetorix.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrawford1974463–464_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrawford1974463–464-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The winter uprising of 54 BC had been a fiasco for the Romans. One legion had been lost entirely, and another almost destroyed. The revolts had shown the Romans were not truly in command of Gaul. Caesar set out on a campaign to subjugate the Gauls completely and forestall future resistance. Down to seven legions, he needed more men. Two more legions were recruited, and one was borrowed from Pompey. The Romans now had 40,000–50,000 men. Caesar began the brutal campaign early, before the weather had warmed. He focused on a non-traditional campaign, demoralizing populations and attacking civilians. He assaulted the Nervii and focused his energy on raiding, burning villages, stealing livestock, and taking prisoners. This strategy worked, and the Nervii promptly surrendered. The legions returned to their wintering spots until the campaign season started fully. Once the weather warmed, Caesar pulled a surprise attack on the <a href="/wiki/Senones" title="Senones">Senones</a>. Having had no time to prepare for a siege or even withdraw to their <i>oppidum</i>, the Senones also surrendered. Attention turned to the Menapii, where Caesar followed the same strategy of raiding he had used on the Nervii. It worked just as well on the Menapii, who surrendered quickly.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200350–51_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200350–51-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gaule_-53.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="No territorial changes from the previous year." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Gaule_-53.png/220px-Gaule_-53.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Gaule_-53.png/330px-Gaule_-53.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Gaule_-53.png/440px-Gaule_-53.png 2x" data-file-width="1318" data-file-height="1559" /></a><figcaption>Campaign map of 53 BC. Again, revolting tribes are shown with flame icons. Despite having been conquered the prior year, Britain is not shaded in red, as it was not a territorial acquisition: the Britons had only been made tributaries.</figcaption></figure> <p>Caesar's legions had been split up to put down more tribes, and his lieutenant <a href="/wiki/Titus_Labienus" title="Titus Labienus">Titus Labienus</a> had with him 25 cohorts (about 12,000 men) and a good deal of cavalry in the lands of the <a href="/wiki/Treveri" title="Treveri">Treveri</a> (led by <a href="/wiki/Indutiomarus" title="Indutiomarus">Indutiomarus</a>). The Germanic tribes had promised aid to the Treveri, and Labienus realized that his relatively small force would be at a serious disadvantage. Thus, he sought to bait the Treveri into an attack on his terms. He did so by <a href="/wiki/Feigned_retreat" title="Feigned retreat">feinting a withdrawal</a>, and the Treveri took the bait. However, Labienus had made sure to feint up a hill, requiring the Treveri to run up it, so by the time they reached the top, they were exhausted. Labienus dropped the pretense of withdrawing and gave battle defeating the Treveri in minutes; the tribe surrendered shortly after. In the rest of Belgium, three legions raided the remaining tribes and forced widespread surrender, including the Eburones under Ambiorix.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200350–51_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200350–51-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Caesar now sought to punish the Germanic tribes for daring to help the Gauls. He took his legions over the Rhine once more by building a bridge. But again, Caesar's supplies failed him, forcing him to withdraw to avoid engaging with the still mighty Suebi while short on supplies. Regardless, Caesar had exacted widespread surrender through a vicious retaliatory campaign that focused on destruction over battle. Northern Gaul was essentially flattened. At the end of the year, six legions were wintered, two each on the lands of the Senones, the Treveri, and the Lingones. Caesar aimed to prevent a repeat of the previous disastrous winter, but given the brutality of Caesar's actions that year, an uprising could not be stopped by garrisons alone.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200350–51_69-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200350–51-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="52_BC:_Vercingetorix's_revolt"><span id="52_BC:_Vercingetorix.27s_revolt"></span>52 BC: Vercingetorix's revolt</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gallic_Wars&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: 52 BC: Vercingetorix's revolt"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alise-Sainte-Reine_statue_Vercingetorix_par_Millet.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photograph of Vercingetorix's memorial" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Alise-Sainte-Reine_statue_Vercingetorix_par_Millet.jpg/220px-Alise-Sainte-Reine_statue_Vercingetorix_par_Millet.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="391" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Alise-Sainte-Reine_statue_Vercingetorix_par_Millet.jpg/330px-Alise-Sainte-Reine_statue_Vercingetorix_par_Millet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Alise-Sainte-Reine_statue_Vercingetorix_par_Millet.jpg/440px-Alise-Sainte-Reine_statue_Vercingetorix_par_Millet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2205" data-file-height="3920" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Vercing%C3%A9torix_monument" class="mw-redirect" title="Vercingétorix monument">Vercingétorix's Memorial</a> in Alesia, where he made his last stand</figcaption></figure> <p>Gallic existential concerns came to a head in 52 BC and caused the widespread revolt the Romans had long feared. The campaigns of 53 BC had been particularly harsh, and the Gauls feared for their prosperity. Previously, they had not been united, which had made them easy to conquer. But this changed in 53 BC, when Caesar announced that Gaul was now being treated as a Roman province, subject to Roman laws and religion. This was a subject of immense concern for the Gauls, who feared the Romans would destroy the Gallic holy land, which the <a href="/wiki/Carnutes" title="Carnutes">Carnutes</a> watched over. Each year the <a href="/wiki/Druid" title="Druid">druids</a> met there to mediate between the tribes on the lands considered the center of Gaul. A threat to their sacred lands was an issue that finally united the Gauls. Over the winter the charismatic king of the Arverni tribe, <a href="/wiki/Vercingetorix" title="Vercingetorix">Vercingetorix</a>, assembled an unprecedented grand coalition of Gauls.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200351–60_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200351–60-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Caesar was still in Rome when news of the revolt reached him. He rushed to Gaul in an attempt to prevent the revolt from spreading, heading first to <a href="/wiki/Provence" title="Provence">Provence</a> to see to its defense, and then to <a href="/wiki/Agedincum" class="mw-redirect" title="Agedincum">Agedincum</a> to counter the Gallic forces. Caesar took a winding route to the Gallic army to capture several <i><a href="/wiki/Oppidum" title="Oppidum">oppida</a></i> for food. Vercingetorix was forced to withdraw from his siege of the Boii capital of <a href="/wiki/Gorgobina" title="Gorgobina">Gorgobina</a> (the Boii had been allied to Rome since their defeat at Roman hands in 58 BC). However, it was still winter, and he realized the reason Caesar had detoured was that the Romans were low on supplies. Thus, Vercingetorix set out a strategy to starve the Romans. He avoided attacking them outright and raided foraging parties and supply trains instead. Vercingetorix abandoned a great many <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">oppida</i></span>, seeking only to defend the strongest, and to ensure the others and their supplies could not fall into Roman hands. Once again, a lack of supplies forced Caesar's hand, and he besieged the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">oppidum</i></span> of <a href="/wiki/Avaricum" title="Avaricum">Avaricum</a> where Vercingetorix had sought refuge.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200351–60_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200351–60-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Originally, Vercingetorix had been opposed to defending Avaricum, but the <a href="/wiki/Bituriges_Cubi" title="Bituriges Cubi">Bituriges Cubi</a> had persuaded him otherwise. The Gallic army was camped outside the settlement. Even while defending, Vercingetorix wished to abandon the siege and outrun the Romans. But the warriors of Avaricum were unwilling to leave it. Upon his arrival, Caesar promptly began construction of a defensive fortification. The Gauls continuously harassed the Romans and their foraging parties while they built their camp and attempted to burn it down. But not even the fierce winter weather could stop the Romans, and they built a very sturdy camp in just 25 days. The Romans built <a href="/wiki/Roman_siege_engines" title="Roman siege engines">siege engines</a>, and Caesar waited for an opportunity to attack the heavily fortified <i>oppidum</i>. He chose to attack during a rainstorm when the sentries were distracted. Siege towers were used to assault the fort, and <a href="/wiki/Ballista" title="Ballista">ballista</a> <a href="/wiki/Greek_and_Roman_artillery" title="Greek and Roman artillery">artillery</a> battered the walls. Eventually, the artillery broke a hole in a wall, and the Gauls could not stop the Romans from taking the settlement. The Romans then looted and pillaged Avaricum; Caesar took no prisoners and claims the Romans slew 40,000. That the Gallic coalition did not fall apart after this defeat is a testament to the leadership of Vercingetorix. Even after losing Avaricum, the Aedui were willing to revolt and join the coalition. This was yet another setback to Caesar's supply lines, as he could no longer get supplies through the Aedui (though the taking of Avaricum had supplied the army for the moment).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200351–60_70-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200351–60-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Vercingetorix now withdrew to <a href="/wiki/Gergovia" title="Gergovia">Gergovia</a>, the capital of his own tribe, which he was eager to defend. Caesar arrived as the weather warmed, and <a href="/wiki/Fodder" title="Fodder">fodder</a> finally became available, which somewhat eased supply issues. As usual, Caesar promptly set about building a fortification for the Romans. He captured territory closer to the <i>oppidum</i>. What happened in the ensuing <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gergovia" title="Battle of Gergovia">Battle of Gergovia</a> remains somewhat unclear. Caesar claims that he had just ordered his men to take a hill near the <i>oppidum</i>, and that he then sounded a retreat. But no such retreat occurred, and the Romans assaulted the settlement directly. Gilliver finds it probable that Caesar did not actually sound a retreat, and that it was his plan all along to take the settlement. Caesar's dubious claim was likely intended to distance himself from the ensuing and overwhelming Roman failure. Greatly outnumbered, the Roman assault ended in clear defeat. Caesar claims that 700 of his men died, including 46 <a href="/wiki/Centurion" title="Centurion">centurions</a>, although the actual numbers are likely much higher. Caesar withdrew from the siege, and Vercingetorix's victory attracted many more Gallic tribes to his cause. Despite their loss, the Romans still convinced numerous Germanic tribes to join them after the battle.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200351–60_70-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200351–60-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gaule_-52.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Map centered on France. From the previous year, territory has expanded all the way to the Rhine." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Gaule_-52.png/220px-Gaule_-52.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Gaule_-52.png/330px-Gaule_-52.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Gaule_-52.png/440px-Gaule_-52.png 2x" data-file-width="1318" data-file-height="1559" /></a><figcaption>Campaign map 52 BC. Most of south and central Gaul is in revolt. Note the Gallic victory at the battle of Gergovia, and Caesar's rush north from Rome.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Siege_of_Alesia,_end_of_the_revolt"><span id="Siege_of_Alesia.2C_end_of_the_revolt"></span>Siege of Alesia, end of the revolt</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gallic_Wars&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Siege of Alesia, end of the revolt"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mus%C3%A9oparc_d%27Al%C3%A9sia_fortifications.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Battlefield" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Mus%C3%A9oparc_d%27Al%C3%A9sia_fortifications.JPG/220px-Mus%C3%A9oparc_d%27Al%C3%A9sia_fortifications.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Mus%C3%A9oparc_d%27Al%C3%A9sia_fortifications.JPG/330px-Mus%C3%A9oparc_d%27Al%C3%A9sia_fortifications.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Mus%C3%A9oparc_d%27Al%C3%A9sia_fortifications.JPG/440px-Mus%C3%A9oparc_d%27Al%C3%A9sia_fortifications.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption>Modern recreation of the Alesia fortifications, featuring rows of stakes in front of a moat, a high banked approach, and regular towers for Roman sentries</figcaption></figure><p> Vercingetorix chose to defend the <a href="/wiki/Mandubii" title="Mandubii">Mandubii</a> <i>oppidum</i> of <a href="/wiki/Alesia_(city)" title="Alesia (city)">Alesia</a> next, in what would become the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Alesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Alesia">siege of Alesia</a>. He assembled some 70,000–100,000 warriors.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDelbrück199046_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDelbrück199046-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-bwoJ0_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bwoJ0-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the poor performance at Gergovia, Caesar felt a direct assault on the Gauls was no longer a viable solution, so he opted to simply besiege the settlement and starve out the defenders. Vercingetorix was fine with this, as he intended to use Alesia as a trap to lay a <a href="/wiki/Pincer_movement" title="Pincer movement">pincer attack</a> on the Romans and sent a call for a relieving army at once. Vercingetorix likely did not expect the intensity of the Roman siege preparations. Although modern archeology suggests that Caesar's preparations were not as complete as he describes, it is apparent that he laid some incredible siege works. Over the span of a month, the Romans built some 25 miles (40 km) of fortifications. These included a trench for soldiers, an anti-cavalry moat, towers at regular intervals, and booby traps in front of the trenches. The fortifications were dug in two lines, one to protect from the defenders and one to protect from the relievers. Archeological evidence suggests the lines were not continuous as Caesar claims, and made much use of the local terrain, but it is apparent that they worked. Vercingetorix's relieving army arrived quickly, yet concerted coordinated attacks by both the defenders and relievers failed to oust the Romans.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200351–60_70-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200351–60-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SiegeAlesia.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A map of the fortifications Caesar built in Alesia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/SiegeAlesia.png/220px-SiegeAlesia.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/SiegeAlesia.png/330px-SiegeAlesia.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/SiegeAlesia.png/440px-SiegeAlesia.png 2x" data-file-width="977" data-file-height="845" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Fortification" title="Fortification">fortifications</a> built by Caesar in Alesia Inset: cross shows location of Alesia in Gaul (modern France). The circle shows the weakness in the north-western section of the fortifications</figcaption></figure><p>After numerous attacks, the Gauls realized they could not overcome the impressive Roman siege works. At this point, it became clear that the Romans would be able to outlast the defenders and that the revolt was doomed. The relieving army melted away. Vercingetorix surrendered and was held as a prisoner for the next six years until he was paraded through Rome and ceremonially <a href="/wiki/Garrote" title="Garrote">garroted</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Tullianum" class="mw-redirect" title="Tullianum">Tullianum</a> in 46 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200351–60_70-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200351–60-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFields2014_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFields2014-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Having crushed the revolt, Caesar set his legions to winter across the lands of the defeated tribes to prevent further rebellion. He sent troops to protect the Remi, who had been steadfast allies to the Romans throughout the campaign. But resistance was not entirely over: Caesar had not yet pacified southwest Gaul.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200351–60_70-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200351–60-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="51_and_50_BC:_Pacification_of_the_last_Gauls">51 and 50 BC: Pacification of the last Gauls</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gallic_Wars&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: 51 and 50 BC: Pacification of the last Gauls"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gaule_-51.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Map centered on France. Most of south and central France has been conquered, though some holdouts remain." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Gaule_-51.png/220px-Gaule_-51.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Gaule_-51.png/330px-Gaule_-51.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Gaule_-51.png/440px-Gaule_-51.png 2x" data-file-width="1318" data-file-height="1559" /></a><figcaption>Campaign map of 51 BC. The last major revolts are put down, and mop-up operations occur in the southwest.</figcaption></figure> <p>The spring of 51 BC saw the legions campaign among the Belgic tribes to snuff out any thoughts of an uprising, and the Romans achieved peace. But two chiefs in southwest Gaul, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Drappes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Drappes (page does not exist)">Drappes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lucterius" title="Lucterius">Lucterius</a>, remained openly hostile to the Romans and had fortified the formidable <a href="/wiki/Cadurci" title="Cadurci">Cadurci</a> <i>oppidum</i> of <a href="/wiki/Uxellodunum" title="Uxellodunum">Uxellodunum</a>. <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Caninius_Rebilus_(consul_45_BC)" title="Gaius Caninius Rebilus (consul 45 BC)">Gaius Caninius Rebilus</a> surrounded the <i>oppidum</i> and set the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Uxellodunum" title="Siege of Uxellodunum">siege of Uxellodunum</a>, focusing on building a series of camps, a <a href="/wiki/Circumvallation" class="mw-redirect" title="Circumvallation">circumvallation</a>, and disrupting Gallic access to water. A series of tunnels (of which archeological evidence has been found) were dug to the spring that fed the city. The Gauls attempted to burn down the Roman siege works, but to no avail. Eventually, the Roman tunnels reached the spring and diverted the water supply. Not realizing the Roman action, the Gauls believed the spring going dry was a sign from the Gods and surrendered. Caesar chose not to slaughter the defenders, and instead just cut off their hands as an example.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200360–65_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200360–65-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The legions were again wintered in Gaul, but little unrest occurred. All of the tribes had surrendered to the Romans, and little campaigning took place in 50 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200360–65_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200360–65-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Caesar_victorious">Caesar victorious</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gallic_Wars&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Caesar victorious"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the span of eight years, Caesar had conquered all of Gaul and part of Britain. He had become fabulously wealthy and achieved a legendary reputation. The Gallic Wars provided enough gravitas to Caesar that subsequently he was able to wage <a href="/wiki/Caesar%27s_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Caesar's Civil War">a civil war</a> and declare himself dictator, in a series of events that would eventually lead to the end of the Roman Republic.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200383–88_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200383–88-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gaule_-50.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Map of France, now all of France and the low countries are shaded yellow, conquered fully by Rome." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Gaule_-50.png/220px-Gaule_-50.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Gaule_-50.png/330px-Gaule_-50.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Gaule_-50.png/440px-Gaule_-50.png 2x" data-file-width="1318" data-file-height="1559" /></a><figcaption>Gaul in 50 BC: fully conquered.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Gallic Wars lack a clear end date. Legions continued to be active in Gaul through 50 BC, when <a href="/wiki/Aulus_Hirtius" title="Aulus Hirtius">Aulus Hirtius</a> took over the writing of Caesar's reports on the war. The campaigns might have continued into Germanic lands, if not for the impending Roman civil war. The legions in Gaul were eventually pulled out in 50 BC as the civil war drew near, for Caesar would need them to defeat his enemies in Rome. The Gauls had not been entirely subjugated and were not yet a formal part of the empire. But that task was not Caesar's, and he left that to his successors. Gaul would not be <a href="/wiki/Roman_Gaul" title="Roman Gaul">made formally into Roman provinces</a> until the reign of <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> in 27 BC. Several rebellions happened subsequently, and Roman troops were kept stationed throughout Gaul. Historian Gilliver thinks there could have been unrest in the region as late as 70 AD, but not to the level of Vercingetorix's revolt.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200383–88_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200383–88-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The conquest of Gaul marked the beginning of almost five centuries of Roman rule, which would have profound cultural and historical impacts. Roman rule brought with it Latin, the language of the Romans. This would evolve into <a href="/wiki/Old_French" title="Old French">Old French</a>, giving the modern French language its Latin roots.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Conquering Gaul enabled further expansion of the Empire into Northwestern Europe. <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> would push into Germania and reach the <a href="/wiki/Elbe" title="Elbe">Elbe</a>, though settled on the Rhine as the imperial border following the disastrous <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Teutoburg_Forest" title="Battle of the Teutoburg Forest">Battle of the Teutoburg Forest</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to facilitating the conquest of parts of Germania, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_Britain" title="Roman conquest of Britain">Roman conquest of Britain</a> led in 43 AD by <a href="/wiki/Claudius" title="Claudius">Claudius</a> also built on Caesar's invasions.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Roman hegemony would last, with only <a href="/wiki/Gallic_Empire" title="Gallic Empire">one interruption</a>, until the <a href="/wiki/Crossing_of_the_Rhine" title="Crossing of the Rhine">Crossing of the Rhine</a> in 406 AD.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeather20093–29_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather20093–29-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETime-Life198838_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETime-Life198838-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historiography">Historiography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gallic_Wars&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Historiography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Very few sources about the Gallic Wars survive. The Gauls did not record the history of their peoples and thus any Gallic perspective has been lost to time. The writings of Julius Caesar remain the main source of information, which complicates the task of historians as it is biased in his favor. Only a handful of other contemporary works refer to the conflict but none as in-depth as Caesar's, and most rely on Caesar's account. The fact that he conquered Gaul is certain. The details, however, are less clear.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver20037_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver20037-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Commentarii">The <i>Commentarii</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gallic_Wars&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: The Commentarii"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vercing%C3%A9torix_stat%C3%A8re_Gallica_avers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Vercing%C3%A9torix_stat%C3%A8re_Gallica_avers.jpg/220px-Vercing%C3%A9torix_stat%C3%A8re_Gallica_avers.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Vercing%C3%A9torix_stat%C3%A8re_Gallica_avers.jpg/330px-Vercing%C3%A9torix_stat%C3%A8re_Gallica_avers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Vercing%C3%A9torix_stat%C3%A8re_Gallica_avers.jpg/440px-Vercing%C3%A9torix_stat%C3%A8re_Gallica_avers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2020" data-file-height="2020" /></a><figcaption>Gold <a href="/wiki/Stater" title="Stater">stater</a> of Vercingetorix, 53–52 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDelestrée2004_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDelestrée2004-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The main contemporary source for the conflict is Julius Caesar's <i><a href="/wiki/Commentarii_de_Bello_Gallico" title="Commentarii de Bello Gallico">Commentarii de Bello Gallico</a></i>, which was largely taken as truthful and accurate until the 20th century. As late as 1908, <a href="/wiki/Camille_Jullian" title="Camille Jullian">Camille Jullian</a> wrote a comprehensive history of Gaul and took Caesar's account as unerring. But after World War II, historians began to question if Caesar's claims stood up.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHenige1998_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHenige1998-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrilloKrebs20187_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrilloKrebs20187-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historian <a href="/wiki/David_Henige" title="David Henige">David Henige</a> takes issue with the supposed population and warrior counts. Caesar claims that he could estimate the population of the Helvetii because in their camp there was a census, written in Greek on tablets, which would have showed 263,000 Helvetii and 105,000 allies, of whom exactly one quarter (92,000) were combatants. But Henige points out that such a census would have been difficult to achieve by the Gauls, that it made no sense to be written in Greek by non-Greek tribes, and that carrying such a large quantity of stone or wood tablets on their migration would have been a monumental feat. Henige finds it oddly convenient that exactly one quarter were combatants, suggesting that the numbers were more likely exaggerated by Caesar than counted by census. Contemporary authors also estimated the population of the Helvetii and their allies was lower; <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a> surmised that there were 157,000 overall (though Henige still believes this number is inaccurate).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHenige1998_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHenige1998-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hans_Delbr%C3%BCck" title="Hans Delbrück">Hans Delbrück</a> estimates that there were at most 20,000 migrating Helvetii, of whom 12,000 were warriors.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDelbrück1990475_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDelbrück1990475-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gilliver thinks there were no more than 50,000 Helvetii and allies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200333–35_31-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200333–35-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Caesar%27s_Commentaries_on_the_Gallic_war,_with_a_vocabulary_and_notes_-_DPLA_-_1a746426c2bb5a80313795323c08babd_(page_72).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Caesar%27s_Commentaries_on_the_Gallic_war%2C_with_a_vocabulary_and_notes_-_DPLA_-_1a746426c2bb5a80313795323c08babd_%28page_72%29.jpg/220px-Caesar%27s_Commentaries_on_the_Gallic_war%2C_with_a_vocabulary_and_notes_-_DPLA_-_1a746426c2bb5a80313795323c08babd_%28page_72%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="398" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Caesar%27s_Commentaries_on_the_Gallic_war%2C_with_a_vocabulary_and_notes_-_DPLA_-_1a746426c2bb5a80313795323c08babd_%28page_72%29.jpg/330px-Caesar%27s_Commentaries_on_the_Gallic_war%2C_with_a_vocabulary_and_notes_-_DPLA_-_1a746426c2bb5a80313795323c08babd_%28page_72%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Caesar%27s_Commentaries_on_the_Gallic_war%2C_with_a_vocabulary_and_notes_-_DPLA_-_1a746426c2bb5a80313795323c08babd_%28page_72%29.jpg/440px-Caesar%27s_Commentaries_on_the_Gallic_war%2C_with_a_vocabulary_and_notes_-_DPLA_-_1a746426c2bb5a80313795323c08babd_%28page_72%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1770" data-file-height="3199" /></a><figcaption>A page from an 1864 printing of the <i>Commentarii</i>, made by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Parrish_%26_Willingham&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Parrish & Willingham (page does not exist)">Parrish & Willingham</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederate</a> publisher during the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></figcaption></figure> <p>During the campaign against the Usipetes and the Tenceri, Caesar makes the incredible claim that the Romans attacked a camp of 430,000, their victory was total, they lost not a single soldier, and that upon losing the tribes committed mass suicide. Henige finds this entire story impossible, as did <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Lot" title="Ferdinand Lot">Ferdinand Lot</a>, writing in 1947. Lot was one of the first modern authors who directly questioned the validity of these numbers, finding a fighting force of 430,000 to have been unbelievable for the time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHenige1998_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHenige1998-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gilliver also considers 430,000 to be absurd, but does note that it was likely the Romans killed tens of thousands, and finds the claim of zero Roman losses possible. Still, the action to annihilate a non-combatant camp was exceptionally brutal, even by Roman standards.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver200343–49_62-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver200343–49-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ben Kiernan, while noting the 430,000 to be exaggerated, otherwise accepts Caesar's account and describes the action as <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ultimately, modern scholars see the <i>Commentarii</i> as a very clever piece of propaganda written by Caesar, built to make Caesar appear far grander than he was. Henige notes that Caesar's matter-of-fact tone and easy-to-read writing made it all the easier to accept his outlandish claims. He sought to portray his fight as a justified defense against the barbarity of the Gauls (which was important, as Caesar had been the aggressor contrary to his claims). By making it appear that he had won against overwhelming odds and suffered minimal casualties, he further reinforced the belief that he and the Romans were protected by the gods and destined to win against the heathen barbarians of Gaul. Overall, Henige concludes that, "Julius Caesar must be considered one of history's earliest—and most durably successful—<a href="/wiki/Spin_(propaganda)" title="Spin (propaganda)">'spin doctors</a><span style="padding-right:.15em;">'</span>".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHenige1998_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHenige1998-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gilliver also calls Caesar a "spin-doctor", noting that he realized the importance of keeping up appearances in Rome.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilliver20037_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilliver20037-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Kurt_Raaflaub" title="Kurt Raaflaub">Kurt Raaflaub</a> argues, in contrast to Henige and Gilliver, that Caesar's campaign was not in fact exceptionally brutal compared to the standards of the day, even if it is considered ghoulish by modern standards. Raaflaub notes that Caesar generally tried to avoid battle where it was unnecessary, and tried to be more lenient than most generals of his time. Whether true or not, Caesar seems to go to great lengths to appear as having the moral high ground. This allows Caesar to compare himself favorably to the "barbarian" Gauls, and present himself, as Raaflaub puts it, as the "perfect Roman citizen". Raaflaub contends that Caesar's work is certainly full of propaganda, but that it has more truth to it than most authors believe. Above all, he argues that it shows how Caesar envisioned himself, and how he thought a leader ought to rule. Raaflaub notes that Caesar's subjugation of the Gauls would have been received favorably at home, and have been considered a just peace.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrilloKrebs201820–27_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrilloKrebs201820–27-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_literature">In literature</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gallic_Wars&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: In literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Caesar's <i>Commentarii de Bello Gallico,</i> in Latin, is one of the best surviving examples of unadorned <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> prose. It has consequently been a subject of intense study for Latinists and is one of the classic prose sources traditionally used as a standard teaching text in modern Latin education.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerzfeld1960214_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerzfeld1960214-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlbrecht1994332–334_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlbrecht1994332–334-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It begins with the oft-quoted phrase <i>"Gallia est omnis divisa in partes tres"</i>, meaning "Gaul is a whole divided into three parts". The introduction is world-famed for its overview of Gaul.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdema2017_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdema2017-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaesar19821_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaesar19821-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Gallic Wars have become a popular setting in modern <a href="/wiki/Historical_fiction" title="Historical fiction">historical fiction</a>, especially that of <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-sfdim_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sfdim-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, the <a href="/wiki/Comic" class="mw-redirect" title="Comic">comic</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Ast%C3%A9rix" class="mw-redirect" title="Astérix">Astérix</a></i> is set shortly after the Gallic Wars, where the titular character's village is the last holdout in Gaul against Caesar's legions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECendrowicz2009_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECendrowicz2009-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gallic_Wars&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The 58–50 BCE conflict is also named the "Second Transalpine War" to distinguish it from the <a href="/wiki/First_Transalpine_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First Transalpine War">First Transalpine War</a> (125–121 BCE).<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gallic_Wars&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDelbrück199046-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDelbrück199046_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDelbrück199046_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDelbrück1990">Delbrück 1990</a>, p. 46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDodge1997276–295-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDodge1997276–295_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDodge1997">Dodge 1997</a>, pp. 276–295.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeppie199897-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeppie199897_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKeppie1998">Keppie 1998</a>, p. 97.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAppian2016-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAppian2016_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAppian2016">Appian 2016</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFields2010-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFields2010_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFields2010_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFields2010">Fields 2010</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCarty2008-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCarty2008_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcCarty2008">McCarty 2008</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECaesar198215-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaesar198215_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCaesar1982">Caesar 1982</a>, p. 15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHenige1998-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHenige1998_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHenige1998_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHenige1998_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHenige1998_8-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHenige1998_8-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHenige1998">Henige 1998</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output 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(2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120119114742/http://www.scifidimensions.com/Aug03/druidking.htm">"Book Review: The Druid King by Norman Spinrad"</a>. <a href="/wiki/SciFiDimensions" title="SciFiDimensions">SciFiDimensions</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scifidimensions.com/Aug03/druidking.htm">the original</a> on 19 January 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Book+Review%3A+The+Druid+King+by+Norman+Spinrad&rft.pub=SciFiDimensions&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Snider&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scifidimensions.com%2FAug03%2Fdruidking.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGallic+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECendrowicz2009-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECendrowicz2009_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCendrowicz2009">Cendrowicz 2009</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gallic_Wars&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Gallic_War" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Gallic War">Gallic War</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_literature">Modern literature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gallic_Wars&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Modern literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdema2017" class="citation book cs1">Adema, Suzanne (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1163/9789004347120"><i>Speech and Thought in Latin War Narratives</i></a>. Brill. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004347120">10.1163/9789004347120</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-34712-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-34712-0"><bdi>978-90-04-34712-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Speech+and+Thought+in+Latin+War+Narratives&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789004347120&rft.isbn=978-90-04-34712-0&rft.aulast=Adema&rft.aufirst=Suzanne&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1163%2F9789004347120&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGallic+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlbrecht1994" class="citation book cs1">Albrecht, Michael von (1994). <i><span></span></i>Geschichte der römischen Literatur Band 1<i> (History of Roman Literature, Volume 1)</i> (2nd ed.). Deutscher Taschenbuch-Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/342330099X" title="Special:BookSources/342330099X"><bdi>342330099X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geschichte+der+r%C3%B6mischen+Literatur+Band+1+%28History+of+Roman+Literature%2C+Volume+1%29&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Deutscher+Taschenbuch-Verlag&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=342330099X&rft.aulast=Albrecht&rft.aufirst=Michael+von&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGallic+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBroughton1951" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Robert_Shannon_Broughton" title="Thomas Robert Shannon Broughton">Broughton, Thomas Robert Shannon</a> (1951). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QicsAQAAMAAJ"><i>The Magistrates of the Roman Republic: Volume II 99 B.C.–31 B.C</i></a>. New York: American Philogical Association. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0891308126" title="Special:BookSources/978-0891308126"><bdi>978-0891308126</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Magistrates+of+the+Roman+Republic%3A+Volume+II+99+B.C.%E2%80%9331+B.C&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=American+Philogical+Association&rft.date=1951&rft.isbn=978-0891308126&rft.aulast=Broughton&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Robert+Shannon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQicsAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGallic+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCendrowicz2009" class="citation magazine cs1">Cendrowicz, Leo (19 November 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://content.time.com/time/arts/article/0,8599,1931169,00.html">"Asterix at 50: The Comic Hero Conquers the World"</a>. <i>Time</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140908022648/http://content.time.com/time/arts/article/0,8599,1931169,00.html">Archived</a> from the original on 8 September 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 September</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=Asterix+at+50%3A+The+Comic+Hero+Conquers+the+World&rft.date=2009-11-19&rft.aulast=Cendrowicz&rft.aufirst=Leo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcontent.time.com%2Ftime%2Farts%2Farticle%2F0%2C8599%2C1931169%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGallic+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChrissanthos2019" class="citation book cs1">Chrissanthos, Stefan (2019). <i>Julius and Caesar</i>. Baltimore, MD: <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University_Press" title="Johns Hopkins University Press">Johns Hopkins University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4214-2969-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4214-2969-4"><bdi>978-1-4214-2969-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1057781585">1057781585</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Julius+and+Caesar&rft.place=Baltimore%2C+MD&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1057781585&rft.isbn=978-1-4214-2969-4&rft.aulast=Chrissanthos&rft.aufirst=Stefan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGallic+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrawford1974" class="citation book cs1">Crawford, Michael H. (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1288923"><i>Roman Republican coinage</i></a>. London: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-07492-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-07492-4"><bdi>0-521-07492-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1288923">1288923</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Republican+coinage&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1974&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1288923&rft.isbn=0-521-07492-4&rft.aulast=Crawford&rft.aufirst=Michael+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1288923&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGallic+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDodge1997" class="citation book cs1">Dodge, Theodore Ayrault (1997). <i>Caesar</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Da_Capo_Press" title="Da Capo Press">Da Capo Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-306-80787-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-306-80787-9"><bdi>978-0-306-80787-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Caesar&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Da+Capo+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-306-80787-9&rft.aulast=Dodge&rft.aufirst=Theodore+Ayrault&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGallic+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDelbrück1990" class="citation book cs1">Delbrück, Hans (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/20561250"><i>History of the art of war</i></a>. Lincoln: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Nebraska_Press" title="University of Nebraska Press">University of Nebraska Press</a>. p. 475. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-6584-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-6584-4"><bdi>978-0-8032-6584-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/20561250">20561250</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201125012405/https://www.worldcat.org/title/history-of-the-art-of-war/oclc/20561250">Archived</a> from the original on 25 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+art+of+war&rft.place=Lincoln&rft.pages=475&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F20561250&rft.isbn=978-0-8032-6584-4&rft.aulast=Delbr%C3%BCck&rft.aufirst=Hans&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F20561250&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGallic+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDelestrée2004" class="citation book cs1">Delestrée, Louis-Pol (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/57682619"><i>Nouvel atlas des monnaies gauloises</i></a>. Saint-Germain-en-Laye: Commios. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-9518364-0-6" title="Special:BookSources/2-9518364-0-6"><bdi>2-9518364-0-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/57682619">57682619</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nouvel+atlas+des+monnaies+gauloises&rft.place=Saint-Germain-en-Laye&rft.pub=Commios&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F57682619&rft.isbn=2-9518364-0-6&rft.aulast=Delestr%C3%A9e&rft.aufirst=Louis-Pol&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F57682619&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGallic+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEzov1996" class="citation journal cs1">Ezov, Amiram (1996). "The 'Missing Dimension' of C. Julius Caesar". <i><a href="/wiki/Historia_(classical_antiquity_history_journal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Historia (classical antiquity history journal)">Historia</a></i>. <b>45</b> (1). <a href="/wiki/Franz_Steiner_Verlag" title="Franz Steiner Verlag">Franz Steiner Verlag</a>: <span class="nowrap">64–</span>94. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4436407">4436407</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historia&rft.atitle=The+%27Missing+Dimension%27+of+C.+Julius+Caesar&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E64-%3C%2Fspan%3E94&rft.date=1996&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4436407%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Ezov&rft.aufirst=Amiram&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGallic+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFuller1965" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/J._F._C._Fuller" title="J. F. C. Fuller">Fuller, J. F. C.</a> (1965). <i>Julius Caesar: Man, Soldier, and Tyrant</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Hachette_Books" title="Hachette Books">Hachette Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-306-80422-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-306-80422-9"><bdi>978-0-306-80422-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Julius+Caesar%3A+Man%2C+Soldier%2C+and+Tyrant&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Hachette+Books&rft.date=1965&rft.isbn=978-0-306-80422-9&rft.aulast=Fuller&rft.aufirst=J.+F.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGallic+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFields2014" class="citation book cs1">Fields, Nic (June 2014). "Aftermath". <i>Alesia 52 BC: The final struggle for Gaul (Campaign)</i>. <a href="/wiki/Osprey_Publishing" title="Osprey Publishing">Osprey Publishing</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Aftermath&rft.btitle=Alesia+52+BC%3A+The+final+struggle+for+Gaul+%28Campaign%29&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=2014-06&rft.aulast=Fields&rft.aufirst=Nic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGallic+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFields2010" class="citation book cs1">Fields, Nic (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/298185011"><i>Warlords of Republican Rome: Caesar versus Pompey</i></a>. Philadelphia: Casemate. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-935149-06-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-935149-06-4"><bdi>978-1-935149-06-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/298185011">298185011</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warlords+of+Republican+Rome%3A+Caesar+versus+Pompey&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=Casemate&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F298185011&rft.isbn=978-1-935149-06-4&rft.aulast=Fields&rft.aufirst=Nic&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F298185011&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGallic+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGauthier2015" class="citation thesis cs1">Gauthier, François (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://escholarship.mcgill.ca/downloads/2f75rb627"><i>Financing war in the Roman republic: 201 BCE–14 CE</i></a> (PhD thesis). McGill University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Financing+war+in+the+Roman+republic%3A+201+BCE%E2%80%9314+CE&rft.degree=PhD&rft.inst=McGill+University&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Gauthier&rft.aufirst=Fran%C3%A7ois&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fescholarship.mcgill.ca%2Fdownloads%2F2f75rb627&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGallic+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilliver2003" class="citation book cs1">Gilliver, Catherine (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=O1xsBgAAQBAJ"><i>Caesar's Gallic wars, 58–50 BC</i></a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-49484-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-49484-4"><bdi>978-0-203-49484-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/57577646">57577646</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Caesar%27s+Gallic+wars%2C+58%E2%80%9350+BC&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F57577646&rft.isbn=978-0-203-49484-4&rft.aulast=Gilliver&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DO1xsBgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGallic+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldsworthy2007" class="citation book cs1">Goldsworthy, Adrian (2007). <i><a href="/wiki/Caesar,_Life_of_a_Colossus" title="Caesar, Life of a Colossus">Caesar, Life of a Colossus</a></i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Orion_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Orion Books">Orion Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-12689-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-12689-1"><bdi>978-0-300-12689-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Caesar%2C+Life+of+a+Colossus&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Orion+Books&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-300-12689-1&rft.aulast=Goldsworthy&rft.aufirst=Adrian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGallic+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldsworthy2016" class="citation book cs1">Goldsworthy, Adrian Keith (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/936322646"><i>In the name of Rome : the men who won the Roman Empire</i></a>. New Haven. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-22183-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-22183-1"><bdi>978-0-300-22183-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/936322646">936322646</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+the+name+of+Rome+%3A+the+men+who+won+the+Roman+Empire&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F936322646&rft.isbn=978-0-300-22183-1&rft.aulast=Goldsworthy&rft.aufirst=Adrian+Keith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F936322646&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGallic+Wars" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrant1974" class="citation book cs1">Grant, Michael (1974) [1969]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/juliuscaesar0000gran_k2z5/"><i>Julius Caesar</i></a>. London: <a href="/wiki/Weidenfeld_and_Nicolson" class="mw-redirect" title="Weidenfeld and Nicolson">Weidenfeld and Nicolson</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Julius+Caesar&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Weidenfeld+and+Nicolson&rft.date=1974&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjuliuscaesar0000gran_k2z5%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGallic+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrilloKrebs2018" class="citation book cs1">Grillo, Luca; Krebs, Christopher B., eds. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1010620484"><i>The Cambridge Companion to the Writings of Julius Caesar</i></a>. Cambridge, UK. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-02341-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-02341-3"><bdi>978-1-107-02341-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1010620484">1010620484</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+the+Writings+of+Julius+Caesar&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1010620484&rft.isbn=978-1-107-02341-3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1010620484&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGallic+Wars" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeather2009" class="citation journal cs1">Heather, Peter (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/261435/summary">"Why Did the Barbarian Cross the Rhine?"</a>. <i>Journal of Late Antiquity</i>. <b>2</b> (1). Johns Hopkins University Press: <span class="nowrap">3–</span>29. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjla.0.0036">10.1353/jla.0.0036</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162494914">162494914</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 September</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Late+Antiquity&rft.atitle=Why+Did+the+Barbarian+Cross+the+Rhine%3F&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3-%3C%2Fspan%3E29&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fjla.0.0036&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162494914%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Heather&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Farticle%2F261435%2Fsummary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGallic+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenige1998" class="citation journal cs1">Henige, David (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.persee.fr/doc/adh_0066-2062_1998_num_1998_1_2162">"He came, he saw, we counted : the historiography and demography of Caesar's gallic numbers"</a>. <i>Annales de Démographie Historique</i>. <b>1998</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">215–</span>242. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fadh.1998.2162">10.3406/adh.1998.2162</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201111192430/https://www.persee.fr/doc/adh_0066-2062_1998_num_1998_1_2162">Archived</a> from the original on 11 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annales+de+D%C3%A9mographie+Historique&rft.atitle=He+came%2C+he+saw%2C+we+counted+%3A+the+historiography+and+demography+of+Caesar%27s+gallic+numbers&rft.volume=1998&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E215-%3C%2Fspan%3E242&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Fadh.1998.2162&rft.aulast=Henige&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.persee.fr%2Fdoc%2Fadh_0066-2062_1998_num_1998_1_2162&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGallic+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerzfeld1960" class="citation book cs1">Herzfeld, Hans (1960). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/3275022"><i>Geschichte in Gestalten: Ceasar</i></a>. Stuttgart: Steinkopf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-7984-0301-5" title="Special:BookSources/3-7984-0301-5"><bdi>3-7984-0301-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/3275022">3275022</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geschichte+in+Gestalten%3A+Ceasar&rft.place=Stuttgart&rft.pub=Steinkopf&rft.date=1960&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F3275022&rft.isbn=3-7984-0301-5&rft.aulast=Herzfeld&rft.aufirst=Hans&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F3275022&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGallic+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeppie1998" class="citation book cs1">Keppie, Lawrende (1998). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/makingromanarmyf00kepp"><i>The Making of the Roman Army</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oklahoma" title="University of Oklahoma">University of Oklahoma</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/makingromanarmyf00kepp/page/n109">97</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-15150-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-15150-4"><bdi>978-0-415-15150-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+the+Roman+Army&rft.place=University+of+Oklahoma&rft.pages=97&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-415-15150-4&rft.aulast=Keppie&rft.aufirst=Lawrende&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmakingromanarmyf00kepp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGallic+Wars" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLord2012a" class="citation book cs1">Lord, Carnes (2012a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?isbn=1107009618"><i>Proconsuls: Delegated Political-Military Leadership from Rome to America Today</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-25469-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-25469-4"><bdi>978-0-521-25469-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Proconsuls%3A+Delegated+Political-Military+Leadership+from+Rome+to+America+Today&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-521-25469-4&rft.aulast=Lord&rft.aufirst=Carnes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fisbn%3D1107009618&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGallic+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuibheid1970" class="citation journal cs1">Luibheid, Colm (April 1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.1086/365589">"The Luca Conference"</a>. <i>Classical Philology</i>. <b>65</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">88–</span>94. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F365589">10.1086/365589</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0009-837X">0009-837X</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162232759">162232759</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Classical+Philology&rft.atitle=The+Luca+Conference&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E88-%3C%2Fspan%3E94&rft.date=1970-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162232759%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0009-837X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F365589&rft.aulast=Luibheid&rft.aufirst=Colm&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.journals.uchicago.edu%2Fdoi%2Fpdf%2F10.1086%2F365589&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGallic+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatthew2009" class="citation book cs1">Matthew, Christopher Anthony (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YBYaBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA37"><i>On the Wings of Eagles: The Reforms of Gaius Marius and the Creation of Rome's First Professional Soldiers</i></a>. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4438-1813-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4438-1813-1"><bdi>978-1-4438-1813-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+the+Wings+of+Eagles%3A+The+Reforms+of+Gaius+Marius+and+the+Creation+of+Rome%27s+First+Professional+Soldiers&rft.pub=Cambridge+Scholars+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4438-1813-1&rft.aulast=Matthew&rft.aufirst=Christopher+Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYBYaBwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA37&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGallic+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCarty2008" class="citation book cs1">McCarty, Nick (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CMe8VvxBVYgC&pg=PA44"><i>Rome: The Greatest Empire of the Ancient World</i></a>. Carlton Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4042-1366-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4042-1366-1"><bdi>978-1-4042-1366-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rome%3A+The+Greatest+Empire+of+the+Ancient+World&rft.pub=Carlton+Books&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4042-1366-1&rft.aulast=McCarty&rft.aufirst=Nick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCMe8VvxBVYgC%26pg%3DPA44&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGallic+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor2019" class="citation journal cs1">Taylor, Michael J (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biblioscout.net/article/10.25162/historia-2019-0004">"Tactical reform in the late Roman republic: the view from Italy"</a>. <i>Historia</i>. <b>68</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">76–</span>94. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.25162%2Fhistoria-2019-0004">10.25162/historia-2019-0004</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0018-2311">0018-2311</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:165437350">165437350</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historia&rft.atitle=Tactical+reform+in+the+late+Roman+republic%3A+the+view+from+Italy&rft.volume=68&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E76-%3C%2Fspan%3E94&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A165437350%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0018-2311&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.25162%2Fhistoria-2019-0004&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Michael+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiblioscout.net%2Farticle%2F10.25162%2Fhistoria-2019-0004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGallic+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvon_Ungern-Sternberg2014" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">von Ungern-Sternberg, Jurgen (2014). "The Crisis of the Republic". In Flower, Harriet (ed.). <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic</i> (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCCOL0521807948">10.1017/CCOL0521807948</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-00033-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-00033-8"><bdi>978-1-139-00033-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Crisis+of+the+Republic&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+the+Roman+Republic&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCCOL0521807948&rft.isbn=978-1-139-00033-8&rft.aulast=von+Ungern-Sternberg&rft.aufirst=Jurgen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGallic+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTime-Life1988" class="citation book cs1">"The Roman Decline". <i>Empires Besieged</i>. Amsterdam: Time-Life Books Inc. 1988. p. 38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0705409740" title="Special:BookSources/0705409740"><bdi>0705409740</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Roman+Decline&rft.btitle=Empires+Besieged&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=Time-Life+Books+Inc.&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=0705409740&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGallic+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalter1952" class="citation book cs1">Walter, Gérard (1952). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.530976/"><i>Caesar: A Biography</i></a>. Translated by Craufurd, Emma. New York: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Scribner%E2%80%99s_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Scribner’s Sons">Charles Scribner’s Sons</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/657705">657705</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Caesar%3A+A+Biography&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Charles+Scribner%E2%80%99s+Sons&rft.date=1952&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F657705&rft.aulast=Walter&rft.aufirst=G%C3%A9rard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.530976%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGallic+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_sources">Ancient sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gallic_Wars&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Ancient sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAppian2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian</a> (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N47OCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT45"><i>Delphi Complete Works of Appian (Illustrated)</i></a>. Delphi Classics. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78656-370-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78656-370-5"><bdi>978-1-78656-370-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201125012400/https://books.google.com/books?id=N47OCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT45">Archived</a> from the original on 25 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Delphi+Complete+Works+of+Appian+%28Illustrated%29&rft.pub=Delphi+Classics&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-78656-370-5&rft.au=Appian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DN47OCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT45&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGallic+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaesar1982" class="citation book cs1">Caesar, Julius (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/conquestofgaul00juli/"><i>The Conquest of Gaul</i></a>. Translated by Handford, S. A. Revised by Jane F. Gardner. London: Penguin Classics. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-044433-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-044433-9"><bdi>978-0-14-044433-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/21116188">21116188</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Conquest+of+Gaul&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Penguin+Classics&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F21116188&rft.isbn=978-0-14-044433-9&rft.aulast=Caesar&rft.aufirst=Julius&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fconquestofgaul00juli%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGallic+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><span class="citation gutenberg"> <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gutenberg.org/ebooks/10657">"De Bello Gallico" and Other Commentaries</a></i> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHammond1996" class="citation book cs1">Hammond, Carolyn, ed. (1996). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sevencommentarie00caes"><i>Caesar: The Gallic War</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-283120-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-283120-0"><bdi>978-0-19-283120-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Caesar%3A+The+Gallic+War&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-19-283120-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsevencommentarie00caes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGallic+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gallic_Wars&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dcc.dickinson.edu/caesar/caesar-maps-and-tools">GIS maps of the campaigns and battles</a> at Dickinson College</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Julius_Caesar298" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Julius_Caesar" title="Template:Julius Caesar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Julius_Caesar" title="Template talk:Julius Caesar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Julius_Caesar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Julius Caesar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Julius_Caesar298" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major life events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_life_and_career_of_Julius_Caesar" title="Early life and career of Julius Caesar">Early life and career</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Triumvirate" title="First Triumvirate">First Triumvirate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallic_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallic wars">Gallic wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar%27s_civil_war" title="Caesar's civil war">Caesar's civil war</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crossing_the_Rubicon" title="Crossing the Rubicon">Crossing the Rubicon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Julius_Caesar" title="Assassination of Julius Caesar">Assassination</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_campaigns_of_Julius_Caesar" title="Military campaigns of Julius Caesar">Military campaigns</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Mytilene_(81_BC)" title="Siege of Mytilene (81 BC)">Mytilene</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Gallic Wars</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Arar" title="Battle of the Arar">Arar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bibracte" title="Battle of Bibracte">Bibracte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vosges_(58_BC)" title="Battle of Vosges (58 BC)">Vosges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Axona" title="Battle of the Axona">Axona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Sabis" title="Battle of the Sabis">Sabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_the_Atuatuci" title="Siege of the Atuatuci">Atuatuci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Octodurus" title="Battle of Octodurus">Octodurus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Morbihan" title="Battle of Morbihan">Morbihan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar%27s_invasions_of_Britain" title="Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain">Invasions of Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambiorix%27s_revolt" title="Ambiorix's revolt">Ambiorix's revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avaricum" title="Avaricum">Avaricum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gergovia" title="Battle of Gergovia">Gergovia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Alesia" title="Battle of Alesia">Alesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Uxellodunum" title="Siege of Uxellodunum">Uxellodunum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Caesar%27s_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Caesar's Civil War">Civil War</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Corfinium" title="Siege of Corfinium">Corfinium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Brundisium" title="Siege of Brundisium">Brundisium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ilerda" title="Battle of Ilerda">Ilerda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dyrrhachium_(48_BC)" title="Battle of Dyrrhachium (48 BC)">Dyrrhachium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pharsalus" title="Battle of Pharsalus">Pharsalus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandrian_war" title="Alexandrian war">Alexandrian war</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Alexandria_(47_BC)" title="Siege of Alexandria (47 BC)">Siege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Nile_(47_BC)" title="Battle of the Nile (47 BC)">Battle of the Nile</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zela" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Zela">Zela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ruspina" title="Battle of Ruspina">Ruspina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Corduba" title="Siege of Corduba">Corduba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thapsus" title="Battle of Thapsus">Thapsus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Munda" title="Battle of Munda">Munda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar%27s_planned_invasion_of_the_Parthian_Empire" title="Julius Caesar's planned invasion of the Parthian Empire">Planned invasion of the Parthian Empire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legislation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Lex_Julia_de_maiestate" title="Lex Julia de maiestate">Lex Julia de maiestate</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lex_Roscia" title="Lex Roscia">Lex Roscia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_reforms_of_Julius_Caesar" title="Constitutional reforms of Julius Caesar">Constitutional reforms</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dictator_perpetuo" title="Dictator perpetuo">Dictator perpetuo</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Laudatio_Iuliae_amitae" title="Laudatio Iuliae amitae">Laudatio Iuliae amitae</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Anticato" title="Anticato">Anticato</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Commentarii_de_Bello_Civili" title="Commentarii de Bello Civili">Commentarii de Bello Civili</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Commentarii_de_Bello_Gallico" title="Commentarii de Bello Gallico">Commentarii de Bello Gallico</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_analogia" title="De analogia">De analogia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poems_by_Julius_Caesar" title="Poems by Julius Caesar">Poems by Julius Caesar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Quotes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Alea_iacta_est" title="Alea iacta est">Alea iacta est</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Veni,_vidi,_vici" title="Veni, vidi, vici">Veni, vidi, vici</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ut_est_rerum_omnium_magister_usus" title="Ut est rerum omnium magister usus">Ut est rerum omnium magister usus</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Last_words_of_Julius_Caesar" title="Last words of Julius Caesar">Last words</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Buildings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forum_of_Caesar" title="Forum of Caesar">Forum of Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curia_Julia" title="Curia Julia">Curia Julia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basilica_Julia" title="Basilica Julia">Basilica Julia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Venus_Genetrix" title="Temple of Venus Genetrix">Temple of Venus Genetrix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar%27s_Rhine_bridges" title="Caesar's Rhine bridges">Caesar's Rhine bridges</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Portraits</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tusculum_portrait" title="Tusculum portrait">Tusculum portrait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiaramonti_Caesar" title="Chiaramonti Caesar">Chiaramonti Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Caesar" title="Green Caesar">Green Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arles_bust" title="Arles bust">Arles bust</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Julii_Caesares" title="Julii Caesares">Family</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Wives</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cossutia" title="Cossutia">Cossutia (disputed)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelia_(wife_of_Caesar)" title="Cornelia (wife of Caesar)">Cornelia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompeia_(wife_of_Caesar)" title="Pompeia (wife of Caesar)">Pompeia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calpurnia_(wife_of_Caesar)" title="Calpurnia (wife of Caesar)">Calpurnia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Children</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Julia_(daughter_of_Caesar)" title="Julia (daughter of Caesar)">Julia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesarion" title="Caesarion">Caesarion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus (adopted)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Caesar_(proconsul_of_Asia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaius Julius Caesar (proconsul of Asia)">Gaius Julius Caesar (father)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelia_(mother_of_Caesar)" title="Aurelia (mother of Caesar)">Aurelia (mother)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julia_Major_(sister_of_Caesar)" title="Julia Major (sister of Caesar)">Julia Major (sister)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julia_Minor_(grandmother_of_Augustus)" title="Julia Minor (grandmother of Augustus)">Julia Minor (sister)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Life_of_Caesar_(Plutarch)" title="Life of Caesar (Plutarch)"><i>Life of Caesar</i> by Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_depictions_of_Julius_Caesar" title="Cultural depictions of Julius Caesar">Cultural depictions of Julius Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Caesar" title="Temple of Caesar">Temple of Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar%27s_Comet" title="Caesar's Comet">Caesar's Comet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesarism" title="Caesarism">Caesarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julio-Claudian_dynasty" title="Julio-Claudian dynasty">Julio-Claudian dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar (title)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Julia_gens" title="Julia gens">Julia gens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Antony" title="Mark Antony">Mark Antony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleopatra" title="Cleopatra">Cleopatra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Servilia_(mother_of_Brutus)" title="Servilia (mother of Brutus)">Servilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Junius_Brutus" title="Marcus Junius Brutus">Marcus Junius Brutus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curia_of_Pompey" title="Curia of Pompey">Curia of Pompey</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span></b> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Julius_Caesar" title="Category:Julius Caesar">Category</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Roman_wars2382" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Roman_Wars" title="Template:Ancient Roman Wars"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Roman_Wars" title="Template talk:Ancient Roman Wars"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Roman_Wars" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Roman Wars"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Roman_wars2382" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_external_wars_and_battles" title="List of Roman external wars and battles">Ancient Roman wars</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">Wars of the<br />Roman Republic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_expansion_in_Italy" title="Roman expansion in Italy">Roman expansion in Italy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Etruscan_Wars" title="Roman–Etruscan Wars">Roman–Etruscan Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman-Aequian_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman-Aequian wars">Roman-Aequian wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Latin_wars" title="Roman–Latin wars">Roman–Latin wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Hernici_conflicts" title="Roman–Hernici conflicts">Roman–Hernici conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Volscian_wars" title="Roman–Volscian wars">Roman–Volscian wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Sabine_wars" title="Roman–Sabine wars">Roman–Sabine wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samnite_Wars" title="Samnite Wars">Samnite Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhic_War" title="Pyrrhic War">Pyrrhic War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Gallic_wars" title="Roman–Gallic wars">Roman–Gallic wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punic_Wars" title="Punic Wars">Punic Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Punic_War" title="First Punic War">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Punic_War" title="Second Punic War">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Punic_War" title="Third Punic War">Third</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illyro-Roman_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Illyro-Roman Wars">Illyro-Roman Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Wars" title="Macedonian Wars">Macedonian Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Macedonian_War" title="First Macedonian War">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Macedonian_War" title="Second Macedonian War">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Macedonian_War" title="Third Macedonian War">Third</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Macedonian_War" title="Fourth Macedonian War">Fourth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Seleucid_war" title="Roman–Seleucid war">Roman–Seleucid war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galatian_War" title="Galatian War">Galatian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_the_Iberian_Peninsula" title="Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula">Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celtiberian_Wars" title="Celtiberian Wars">Celtiberian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusitanian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Lusitanian War">Lusitanian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numantine_War" title="Numantine War">Numantine War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sertorian_War" title="Sertorian War">Sertorian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantabrian_Wars" title="Cantabrian Wars">Cantabrian Wars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaean_War" title="Achaean War">Achaean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jugurthine_War" title="Jugurthine War">Jugurthine War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cimbrian_War" title="Cimbrian War">Cimbrian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Servile_Wars" title="Servile Wars">Servile Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Servile_War" title="First Servile War">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Servile_War" title="Second Servile War">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Servile_War" title="Third Servile War">Third</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_War_(91%E2%80%9387_BC)" title="Social War (91–87 BC)">Social War</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bellum_Octavianum" title="Bellum Octavianum">Bellum Octavianum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulla%27s_civil_war" title="Sulla's civil war">Sulla's civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithridatic_Wars" title="Mithridatic Wars">Mithridatic Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Mithridatic_War" title="First Mithridatic War">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mithridatic_War" title="Second Mithridatic War">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Mithridatic_War" title="Third Mithridatic War">Third</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Gallic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar%27s_invasions_of_Britain" title="Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain">Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Parthian_Wars" title="Roman–Parthian Wars">Roman–Parthian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar%27s_civil_war" title="Caesar's civil war">Caesar's civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Mutina" title="War of Mutina">War of Mutina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberators%27_civil_war" title="Liberators' civil war">Liberators' civil war</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bellum_Siculum" title="Bellum Siculum">Bellum Siculum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perusine_War" title="Perusine War">Perusine War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Actium" title="War of Actium">War of Actium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">Wars of the<br />Roman Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_warfare_between_the_Romans_and_Germanic_peoples" title="Chronology of warfare between the Romans and Germanic peoples">Germanic wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marcomannic_Wars" title="Marcomannic Wars">Marcomannic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_War_(376%E2%80%93382)" title="Gothic War (376–382)">Gothic War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_Britain" title="Roman conquest of Britain">Roman conquest of Britain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boudican_revolt" title="Boudican revolt">Boudican revolt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Parthian_War_of_58%E2%80%9363" title="Roman–Parthian War of 58–63">Armenian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Year_of_the_Four_Emperors" title="Year of the Four Emperors">Civil war of 69</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_wars" title="Jewish–Roman wars">Jewish–Roman wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domitian%27s_Dacian_War" title="Domitian's Dacian War">Domitian's Dacian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Dacian_Wars" title="Trajan's Dacian Wars">Trajan's Dacian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars" title="Roman–Persian Wars">Roman–Persian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Civil wars of the Third Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Wars of the fall of the Western Roman Empire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div><b><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military history of ancient Rome">Military history of ancient Rome</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Gauls76" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Gallic_peoples" title="Template:Gallic peoples"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Gallic_peoples" title="Template talk:Gallic peoples"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Gallic_peoples" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Gallic peoples"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Gauls76" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gauls</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Allia" title="Battle of the Allia">Battle of the Allia</a> (ca. 387 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_settlement_of_Southeast_Europe" title="Celtic settlement of Southeast Europe">Celtic settlement of Southeast Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galatian_War" title="Galatian War">Galatian War</a> (189 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Transalpine_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First Transalpine War">First Transalpine War</a> (125–121 BC)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Gallic Wars</a> (58–50 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Gaul" title="Roman Gaul">Roman Gaul</a> (50 BC–476 AD)</li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sequani_coin_5th_to_1st_century_BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Sequani gold coin"><img alt="Sequani gold coin" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Sequani_coin_5th_to_1st_century_BCE.jpg/70px-Sequani_coin_5th_to_1st_century_BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="70" height="71" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Sequani_coin_5th_to_1st_century_BCE.jpg/105px-Sequani_coin_5th_to_1st_century_BCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Sequani_coin_5th_to_1st_century_BCE.jpg/140px-Sequani_coin_5th_to_1st_century_BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1954" data-file-height="1977" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ambactus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ambactus (page does not exist)">Ambactus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bard" title="Bard">Bard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Druid" title="Druid">Druid</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eubages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eubages (page does not exist)">Eubages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_culture" title="Gallo-Roman culture">Gallo-Roman culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemeton" title="Nemeton">Nemeton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppidum" title="Oppidum">Oppidum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaulish" title="Gaulish">Language</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaulish" title="Cisalpine Gaulish">Cisalpine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galatian_language" title="Galatian language">Galatian</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_T%C3%A8ne_culture" title="La Tène culture">La Tène culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaulish_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaulish religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vates" title="Vates">Vātes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vergobret" title="Vergobret">Vergobret</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Peoples</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em"><a href="/wiki/Gallia_Belgica" title="Gallia Belgica">Belgica</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ambiani" title="Ambiani">Ambiani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aresaces" title="Aresaces">Aresaces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atrebates" title="Atrebates">Atrebates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atuatuci" title="Atuatuci">Atuatuci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bellovaci" title="Bellovaci">Bellovaci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caeracates" title="Caeracates">Caeracates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caeroesi" class="mw-redirect" title="Caeroesi">Caeroesi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caletes" title="Caletes">Caletes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catuslugi" title="Catuslugi">Catuslugi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalauni" title="Catalauni">Catalauni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condrusi" title="Condrusi">Condrusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eburones" title="Eburones">Eburones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leuci" title="Leuci">Leuci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediomatrici" title="Mediomatrici">Mediomatrici</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meldi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Meldi (page does not exist)">Meldi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menapii" title="Menapii">Menapii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morini" title="Morini">Morini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemetes" title="Nemetes">Nemetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nervii" title="Nervii">Nervii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paemani" title="Paemani">Paemani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remi" title="Remi">Remi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silvanectes" title="Silvanectes">Silvanectes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suessiones" title="Suessiones">Suessiones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treveri" title="Treveri">Treveri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triboci" title="Triboci">Triboci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vadicassii" title="Vadicassii">Vadicassii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veliocasses" title="Veliocasses">Veliocasses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viromandui" title="Viromandui">Viromandui</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em"><a href="/wiki/Gallia_Celtica" title="Gallia Celtica">Celtica</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrincatui" title="Abrincatui">Abrincatui</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ambiliati&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ambiliati (page does not exist)">Ambiliati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aedui" title="Aedui">Aedui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambarri" title="Ambarri">Ambarri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andecavi" title="Andecavi">Andecavi</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arouii&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arouii (page does not exist)">Arouii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arverni" title="Arverni">Arverni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aulerci" title="Aulerci">Aulerci</a> (<a href="/wiki/Brannovices" title="Brannovices">Brannovices</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aulerci_Cenomani" title="Aulerci Cenomani">Cenomani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diablintes" title="Diablintes">Diablintes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eburovices" title="Eburovices">Eburovices</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodiocasses" title="Bodiocasses">Bodiocasses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bituriges_Cubi" title="Bituriges Cubi">Bituriges Cubi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bituriges_Vivisci" title="Bituriges Vivisci">Bituriges Vivisci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cadurci" title="Cadurci">Cadurci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnutes" title="Carnutes">Carnutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coriosolites" title="Coriosolites">Coriosolites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durocasses" title="Durocasses">Durocasses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esuvii" title="Esuvii">Esuvii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabali" title="Gabali">Gabali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helvetii" title="Helvetii">Helvetii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latobrigi" title="Latobrigi">Latobrigi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemovices" title="Lemovices">Lemovices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexovii" title="Lexovii">Lexovii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingones" title="Lingones">Lingones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandubii" title="Mandubii">Mandubii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namnetes" title="Namnetes">Namnetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitiobroges" title="Nitiobroges">Nitiobroges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osismii" title="Osismii">Osismii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parisii_(Gaul)" title="Parisii (Gaul)">Parisii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrocorii" title="Petrocorii">Petrocorii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pictones" title="Pictones">Pictones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rauraci" title="Rauraci">Rauraci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redones" title="Redones">Redones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruteni" title="Ruteni">Ruteni</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sagii&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sagii (page does not exist)">Sagii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santoni_(tribe)" title="Santoni (tribe)">Santoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senones" title="Senones">Senones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segusiavi" title="Segusiavi">Segusiavi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sequani" title="Sequani">Sequani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigurini" title="Tigurini">Tigurini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tricasses" title="Tricasses">Tricasses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulingi" title="Tulingi">Tulingi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turoni" title="Turoni">Turoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vellavii" title="Vellavii">Vellavii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venelli" title="Venelli">Venelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veneti_(Gaul)" title="Veneti (Gaul)">Veneti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viducasses" title="Viducasses">Viducasses</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em"><a href="/wiki/Gallia_Narbonensis" title="Gallia Narbonensis">Narbonensis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Agesinates&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Agesinates (page does not exist)">Agesinates</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Albici&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Albici (page does not exist)">Albici</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allobroges" title="Allobroges">Allobroges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatilii" title="Anatilii">Anatilii</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atacini&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Atacini (page does not exist)">Atacini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avatici" title="Avatici">Avatici</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bormani&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bormani (page does not exist)">Bormani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Budenicenses" title="Budenicenses">Budenicenses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camactulici" title="Camactulici">Camactulici</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavari" title="Cavari">Cavari</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cenomani_(Narbonensis)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cenomani (Narbonensis) (page does not exist)">Cenomani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comani_(tribe)" title="Comani (tribe)">Comani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dexivates" title="Dexivates">Dexivates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helvii" title="Helvii">Helvii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libicii_(Narbonensis)" title="Libicii (Narbonensis)">Libicii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ligauni" title="Ligauni">Ligauni</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Longostaletes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Longostaletes (page does not exist)">Longostaletes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Memini_(tribe)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Memini (tribe) (page does not exist)">Memini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nearchi" title="Nearchi">Nearchi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxybii" title="Oxybii">Oxybii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reii" title="Reii">Reii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salyes" title="Salyes">Salyes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segobrigii" title="Segobrigii">Segobrigii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segovellauni" title="Segovellauni">Segovellauni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suelteri" title="Suelteri">Suelteri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolosates" class="mw-redirect" title="Tolosates">Tolosates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tricastini" title="Tricastini">Tricastini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tricores" title="Tricores">Tricores</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tricorii&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tricorii (page does not exist)">Tricorii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tritolli" title="Tritolli">Tritolli</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vertamocorii_(Narbonensis)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vertamocorii (Narbonensis) (page does not exist)">Vertamocorii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verucini" title="Verucini">Verucini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vocontii" title="Vocontii">Vocontii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcae" title="Volcae">Volcae</a> (<a href="/wiki/Arecomici" title="Arecomici">Arecomici</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tectosages" title="Tectosages">Tectosages</a>)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vulgientes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vulgientes (page does not exist)">Vulgientes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em"><a href="/wiki/Gallia_Alpina" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallia Alpina">Alpina</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acitavones" title="Acitavones">Acitavones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adanates" title="Adanates">Adanates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adunicates" title="Adunicates">Adunicates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alauni" title="Alauni">Alauni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambidravi" title="Ambidravi">Ambidravi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambilici" title="Ambilici">Ambilici</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambisontes" title="Ambisontes">Ambisontes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aneuniates" title="Aneuniates">Aneuniates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ausuciates" title="Ausuciates">Ausuciates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avantici" title="Avantici">Avantici</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belaci" title="Belaci">Belaci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belouni" title="Belouni">Belouni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benacenses" title="Benacenses">Benacenses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bergalei" title="Bergalei">Bergalei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodiontici" title="Bodiontici">Bodiontici</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brigantii" title="Brigantii">Brigantii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brigianii" title="Brigianii">Brigianii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brixentes" title="Brixentes">Brixentes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calucones" title="Calucones">Calucones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carni" title="Carni">Carni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catenates" title="Catenates">Catenates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catubrini" title="Catubrini">Catubrini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caturiges" title="Caturiges">Caturiges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceutrones" title="Ceutrones">Ceutrones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosuanetes" title="Cosuanetes">Cosuanetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecdinii" title="Ecdinii">Ecdinii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eguiturii" title="Eguiturii">Eguiturii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallitae" title="Gallitae">Gallitae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genauni" title="Genauni">Genauni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graioceli" title="Graioceli">Graioceli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iemerii" title="Iemerii">Iemerii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingauni" title="Ingauni">Ingauni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Licates" title="Licates">Licates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medulli" title="Medulli">Medulli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nantuates" title="Nantuates">Nantuates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemaloni" title="Nemaloni">Nemaloni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemeturii" title="Nemeturii">Nemeturii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quariates" title="Quariates">Quariates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rucinates" title="Rucinates">Rucinates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salassi" title="Salassi">Salassi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savincates" title="Savincates">Savincates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebaginni" title="Sebaginni">Sebaginni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seduni" title="Seduni">Seduni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segovii" title="Segovii">Segovii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segusini" title="Segusini">Segusini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentii" title="Sentii">Sentii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sogionti" title="Sogionti">Sogionti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suanetes" title="Suanetes">Suanetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suetrii" title="Suetrii">Suetrii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tebavii" title="Tebavii">Tebavii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triulatti" title="Triulatti">Triulatti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ucennii" title="Ucennii">Ucennii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vediantii" title="Vediantii">Vediantii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velaunii" title="Velaunii">Velaunii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venisami" title="Venisami">Venisami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venostes" title="Venostes">Venostes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vennones" title="Vennones">Vennones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veragri" title="Veragri">Veragri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vergunni" title="Vergunni">Vergunni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vesubiani" title="Vesubiani">Vesubiani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vindelici" title="Vindelici">Vindelici</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em"><a href="/wiki/Gallia_Cisalpina" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallia Cisalpina">Cisalpina</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anamares&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anamares (page does not exist)">Anamares</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anauni&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anauni (page does not exist)">Anauni</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anesiates&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anesiates (page does not exist)">Anesiates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arusnates" title="Arusnates">Arusnates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagienni" title="Bagienni">Bagienni</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Boii_(Cisalpine_Gaul)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Boii (Cisalpine Gaul) (page does not exist)">Boii</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bromanenses&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bromanenses (page does not exist)">Bromanenses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cenomani_(Cisalpine_Gaul)" title="Cenomani (Cisalpine Gaul)">Cenomani</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gallianates&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gallianates (page does not exist)">Gallianates</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gennanates&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gennanates (page does not exist)">Gennanates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insubres" title="Insubres">Insubres</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Libicii_(Cisalpine_Gaul)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Libicii (Cisalpine Gaul) (page does not exist)">Libicii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marici_(tribe)" title="Marici (tribe)">Marici</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Montunates&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Montunates (page does not exist)">Montunates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orobii" title="Orobii">Orobii</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Subinates&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Subinates (page does not exist)">Subinates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taurini" title="Taurini">Taurini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertamocorii" title="Vertamocorii">Vertamocorii</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Votodrones&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Votodrones (page does not exist)">Votodrones</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em"><a href="/wiki/Gallia_Aquitania" title="Gallia Aquitania">Aquitania</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Boii_(Aquitania)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Boii (Aquitania) (page does not exist)">Boii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cocosates" title="Cocosates">Cocosates</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lactorates&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lactorates (page does not exist)">Lactorates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sotiates" title="Sotiates">Sotiates</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tarusates&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tarusates (page does not exist)">Tarusates</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vasates_(tribe)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vasates (tribe) (page does not exist)">Vasates</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_settlement_of_Southeast_Europe" title="Celtic settlement of Southeast Europe">Eastern Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anartes" title="Anartes">Anartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabiates" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabiates">Arabiates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boii" title="Boii">Boii</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Britolagai&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Britolagai (page does not exist)">Britolagai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornacates" class="mw-redirect" title="Cornacates">Cornacates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Costoboci" title="Costoboci">Costoboci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gotini" class="mw-redirect" title="Gotini">Gotini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eravisci" title="Eravisci">Eravisci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hercuniates" class="mw-redirect" title="Hercuniates">Hercuniates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latobici" title="Latobici">Latobici</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scordisci" title="Scordisci">Scordisci</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dindari" title="Dindari">Dindari</a> and <a href="/wiki/Celegeri" title="Celegeri">Celegeri</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serdi" title="Serdi">Serdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taurisci" title="Taurisci">Taurisci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varciani" title="Varciani">Varciani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em"><a href="/wiki/Galatia" title="Galatia">Galatia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aigosages" title="Aigosages">Aigosages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tectosages" title="Tectosages">Tectosages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolistobogii" title="Tolistobogii">Tolistobogii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trocmi" title="Trocmi">Trocmi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-Roman<br />settlements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alesia_(city)" title="Alesia (city)">Alesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argentomagus" title="Argentomagus">Argentomagus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avaricum" title="Avaricum">Avaricum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basel-M%C3%BCnsterh%C3%BCgel" title="Basel-Münsterhügel">Basel-Münsterhügel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibracte" title="Bibracte">Bibracte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibrax" title="Bibrax">Bibrax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cenabum" title="Cenabum">Cenabum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cularo" title="Cularo">Cularo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppidum_d%27Ens%C3%A9rune" title="Oppidum d'Ensérune">Ensérune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entremont_(oppidum)" title="Entremont (oppidum)">Entremont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gergovia" title="Gergovia">Gergovia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magetobria" title="Magetobria">Magetobria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noreia" title="Noreia">Noreia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tylis" title="Tylis">Tylis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertillum" title="Vertillum">Vertillum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><i>Part of:</i> <a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celts</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox966" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist 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