CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Age of Revolution - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"a7ee1436-2a2a-4c6d-9e38-4f05a056a2f3","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Age_of_Revolution","wgTitle":"Age of Revolution","wgCurRevisionId":1245526032,"wgRevisionId":1245526032,"wgArticleId":3661620,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Webarchive template wayback links","CS1 errors: missing periodical","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Articles needing additional references from November 2020","All articles needing additional references","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from May 2023","Articles needing additional references from June 2020","Articles with unsourced statements from June 2024","Age of Revolution", "Napoleonic Wars","18th-century revolutions","19th-century revolutions","Historical eras","History of Europe","History of North America","History of South America","18th century in Europe","19th century in Europe","18th century in North America","19th century in North America","18th century in South America","19th century in South America","Revolutionary waves"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Age_of_Revolution","wgRelevantArticleId":3661620,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist": true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":30000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q4691908","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready", "jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Jacques_Bertaux_-_Prise_du_palais_des_Tuileries_-_1793.jpg/1200px-Jacques_Bertaux_-_Prise_du_palais_des_Tuileries_-_1793.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="790"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Jacques_Bertaux_-_Prise_du_palais_des_Tuileries_-_1793.jpg/800px-Jacques_Bertaux_-_Prise_du_palais_des_Tuileries_-_1793.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="527"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Jacques_Bertaux_-_Prise_du_palais_des_Tuileries_-_1793.jpg/640px-Jacques_Bertaux_-_Prise_du_palais_des_Tuileries_-_1793.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="421"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Age of Revolution - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Revolution"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Revolution&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Revolution"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Age_of_Revolution rootpage-Age_of_Revolution skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Age+of+Revolution" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Age+of+Revolution" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Age+of+Revolution" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Age+of+Revolution" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Industrial_Revolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Industrial_Revolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Industrial Revolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Industrial_Revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-American_Revolution_(1765–1783)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#American_Revolution_(1765–1783)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>American Revolution (1765–1783)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-American_Revolution_(1765–1783)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-French_Revolution_(1789–1799)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#French_Revolution_(1789–1799)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>French Revolution (1789–1799)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-French_Revolution_(1789–1799)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle French Revolution (1789–1799) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-French_Revolution_(1789–1799)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-King's_weakened_position" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#King's_weakened_position"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>King's weakened position</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-King's_weakened_position-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bourgeoisie" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bourgeoisie"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Bourgeoisie</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bourgeoisie-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Constitutional_chronology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constitutional_chronology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Constitutional chronology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constitutional_chronology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Haitian_Revolution_(1791–1804)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Haitian_Revolution_(1791–1804)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Haitian Revolution (1791–1804)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Haitian_Revolution_(1791–1804)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_Irishmen's_Rebellion_(1798)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Irishmen's_Rebellion_(1798)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>United Irishmen's Rebellion (1798)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Irishmen's_Rebellion_(1798)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Serbian_Revolution_(1804–1835)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Serbian_Revolution_(1804–1835)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Serbian Revolution (1804–1835)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Serbian_Revolution_(1804–1835)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Latin_American_Wars_of_Independence_(1808–1833)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Latin_American_Wars_of_Independence_(1808–1833)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Latin American Wars of Independence (1808–1833)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Latin_American_Wars_of_Independence_(1808–1833)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Greek_War_of_Independence_(1821–1832)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greek_War_of_Independence_(1821–1832)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Greek War of Independence (1821–1832)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greek_War_of_Independence_(1821–1832)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Revolutions_of_1820" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Revolutions_of_1820"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Revolutions of 1820</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Revolutions_of_1820-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Revolutions_of_1830" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Revolutions_of_1830"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Revolutions of 1830</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Revolutions_of_1830-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Revolutions_of_1848" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Revolutions_of_1848"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Revolutions of 1848</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Revolutions_of_1848-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eureka_Rebellion_(1854)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eureka_Rebellion_(1854)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Eureka Rebellion (1854)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eureka_Rebellion_(1854)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_War_of_Indian_Independence_(1857–1858)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_War_of_Indian_Independence_(1857–1858)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>First War of Indian Independence (1857–1858)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_War_of_Indian_Independence_(1857–1858)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bulgarian_revolts_and_liberation_(1869–1878)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bulgarian_revolts_and_liberation_(1869–1878)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Bulgarian revolts and liberation (1869–1878)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bulgarian_revolts_and_liberation_(1869–1878)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Paris_Commune_(1871)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paris_Commune_(1871)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Paris Commune (1871)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paris_Commune_(1871)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Age of Revolution</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 10 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-10" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">10 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AB%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A9" title="عصر الثورة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="عصر الثورة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Era_de_les_revolucions" title="Era de les revolucions – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Era de les revolucions" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Era_de_la_revoluci%C3%B3n" title="Era de la revolución – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Era de la revolución" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epoko_de_la_revolucioj" title="Epoko de la revolucioj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Epoko de la revolucioj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abad_Revolusi" title="Abad Revolusi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Abad Revolusi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoliucij%C5%B3_am%C5%BEius" title="Revoliucijų amžius – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Revoliucijų amžius" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8" title="دور انقلاب – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="دور انقلاب" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epoca_da_las_revoluziuns" title="Epoca da las revoluziuns – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Epoca da las revoluziuns" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Rumantsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8" title="دور انقلاب – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="دور انقلاب" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD%E6%97%B6%E4%BB%A3" title="革命时代 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="革命时代" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q4691908#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Revolution" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Age_of_Revolution" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Revolution"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Revolution&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Revolution&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Revolution"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Revolution&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Revolution&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Age_of_Revolution" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Age_of_Revolution" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Revolution&oldid=1245526032" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Revolution&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Age_of_Revolution&id=1245526032&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FAge_of_Revolution"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FAge_of_Revolution"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Age_of_Revolution&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Revolution&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q4691908" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Period in the 18th century</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the book, see <a href="/wiki/The_Age_of_Revolution:_Europe_1789%E2%80%931848" title="The Age of Revolution: Europe 1789–1848"><i>The Age of Revolution: Europe 1789–1848</i></a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Age_of_Revolution" title="Special:EditPage/Age of Revolution">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Age+of+Revolution%22">"Age of Revolution"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Age+of+Revolution%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Age+of+Revolution%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Age+of+Revolution%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Age+of+Revolution%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Age+of+Revolution%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent"><caption class="infobox-title summary">Age of Revolution</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="border-bottom:#aaa solid 1px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Jacques_Bertaux_-_Prise_du_palais_des_Tuileries_-_1793.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Scene from the French Revolution" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Jacques_Bertaux_-_Prise_du_palais_des_Tuileries_-_1793.jpg/250px-Jacques_Bertaux_-_Prise_du_palais_des_Tuileries_-_1793.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Jacques_Bertaux_-_Prise_du_palais_des_Tuileries_-_1793.jpg/375px-Jacques_Bertaux_-_Prise_du_palais_des_Tuileries_-_1793.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Jacques_Bertaux_-_Prise_du_palais_des_Tuileries_-_1793.jpg/500px-Jacques_Bertaux_-_Prise_du_palais_des_Tuileries_-_1793.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1399" data-file-height="921" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Scene from the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>: The storming of the <a href="/wiki/Tuileries" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuileries">Tuileries</a>, August 1792</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Date</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align: left;">22 March 1765 – 4 October 1849</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Outcome</th><td class="infobox-data description" style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a><br />Multiple revolutionary waves<br /><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Revolutions" title="Atlantic Revolutions">Atlantic Revolutions</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">Latin American wars of independence</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1820" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolutions of 1820">Revolutions of 1820</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1830" title="Revolutions of 1830">Revolutions of 1830</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a><br />End of <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudalism</a><br />Widespread implementation of <a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Deaths</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align: left;">American Revolution: 37,324+<sup id="cite_ref-auto_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <p>French Revolution: 150,000+<sup id="cite_ref-auto_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Napoleonic Wars: 3,500,000–7,000,000 (see <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars_casualties" title="Napoleonic Wars casualties">Napoleonic Wars casualties</a>) </p> Over 3,687,324–7,187,324 casualties (other wars excluded)</td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Age of Revolution</b> is a period from the late-18th to the mid-19th centuries during which a number of significant <a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">revolutionary</a> movements occurred in most of Europe and the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The period is noted for the change from <a href="/wiki/Absolutism_(European_history)" title="Absolutism (European history)">absolutist monarchies</a> to representative governments with a <a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">written constitution</a>, and the creation of <a href="/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state">nation states</a>. </p><p>Influenced by the new ideas of the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>, the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> (1765–1783) is usually considered the starting point of the Age of Revolution. It in turn inspired the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> of 1789,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> which rapidly spread to the rest of Europe through its wars. In 1799, <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a> <a href="/wiki/Coup_of_18_Brumaire" title="Coup of 18 Brumaire">took power in France</a> and continued the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="French Revolutionary Wars">French Revolutionary Wars</a> by conquering most of continental Europe. Although Napoleon imposed on his conquests several modern concepts such as <a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">equality before the law</a>, or a <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Code" title="Napoleonic Code">civil code</a>, his rigorous military occupation triggered national rebellions, notably in <a href="/wiki/Peninsular_War" title="Peninsular War">Spain</a> and <a href="/wiki/German_Campaign_of_1813" class="mw-redirect" title="German Campaign of 1813">Germany</a>. After Napoleon's defeat, European great powers forged the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Alliance" title="Holy Alliance">Holy Alliance</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a> in 1814–15, in an attempt to prevent future revolutions, and also restored the previous monarchies. Nevertheless, Spain was considerably weakened by the Napoleonic Wars and could not control its <a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">American colonies</a>, almost all of which <a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">proclaimed their independence</a> between 1810 and 1820. Revolution then spread back to southern Europe in 1820, with <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1820" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolutions of 1820">uprisings</a> in <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Revolution_of_1820" title="Liberal Revolution of 1820">Portugal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trienio_Liberal" title="Trienio Liberal">Spain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbonari" title="Carbonari">Italy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence" title="Greek War of Independence">Greece</a>. Continental Europe was shaken by two similar revolutionary waves in <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1830" title="Revolutions of 1830">1830</a> and <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">1848</a>, also called the Spring of Nations. The democratic demands of the revolutionaries often merged with independence or national unification movements, such as in <a href="/wiki/Italian_unification" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian unification">Italy</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_revolutions_of_1848%E2%80%9349" class="mw-redirect" title="German revolutions of 1848–49">Germany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greater_Poland_uprising_(1848)" class="mw-redirect" title="Greater Poland uprising (1848)">Poland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1848" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1848">Hungary</a>, etc. The violent repression of the Spring of Nations marked the end of the era. </p><p>The expression was popularized by the British historian <a href="/wiki/Eric_Hobsbawm" title="Eric Hobsbawm">Eric Hobsbawm</a> in his book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Age_of_Revolution:_Europe_1789%E2%80%931848" title="The Age of Revolution: Europe 1789–1848">The Age of Revolution: Europe 1789–1848</a></i>, published in 1962<i>.</i><sup id="cite_ref-:2_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Industrial_Revolution">Industrial Revolution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Revolution&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Industrial Revolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></div> <p>The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. It marked a major turning point in history and almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. In particular, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth. This led to a rapid expansion of cities that resulted in social strains and disturbances.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, economic grievances associated with this industrialization fed later revolutions such as those that transpired from 1848.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> New social classes emerged including those that began to reject orthodox politics.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is demonstrated by the rise of the urban <a href="/wiki/Middle_class" title="Middle class">middle class</a>, which became a powerful force so that they had to be integrated into the political system.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The upheavals also led to old political ideas that were directed against the social arrangements of the preindustrial regime.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="American_Revolution_(1765–1783)"><span id="American_Revolution_.281765.E2.80.931783.29"></span>American Revolution (1765–1783)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Revolution&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: American Revolution (1765–1783)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Washington_Crossing_the_Delaware_by_Emanuel_Leutze,_MMA-NYC,_1851.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Washington_Crossing_the_Delaware_by_Emanuel_Leutze%2C_MMA-NYC%2C_1851.jpg/220px-Washington_Crossing_the_Delaware_by_Emanuel_Leutze%2C_MMA-NYC%2C_1851.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Washington_Crossing_the_Delaware_by_Emanuel_Leutze%2C_MMA-NYC%2C_1851.jpg/330px-Washington_Crossing_the_Delaware_by_Emanuel_Leutze%2C_MMA-NYC%2C_1851.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Washington_Crossing_the_Delaware_by_Emanuel_Leutze%2C_MMA-NYC%2C_1851.jpg/440px-Washington_Crossing_the_Delaware_by_Emanuel_Leutze%2C_MMA-NYC%2C_1851.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4313" data-file-height="2473" /></a><figcaption>American Revolution</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> brought about independence for the <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a> of <a href="/wiki/British_America" title="British America">British America</a>. This was the first European colony to claim independence. It was the birth of the United States of America, ultimately leading to the drafting and ratification of a <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">U.S. Constitution</a> that included a number of original features within a federated <a href="/wiki/Republic" title="Republic">republic</a> and a system of <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">separation of powers</a> and checks and balances. Those include but are not limited to an elected head of state, property rights, due process rights, and the rights of free speech, the press and religious practice.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="French_Revolution_(1789–1799)"><span id="French_Revolution_.281789.E2.80.931799.29"></span>French Revolution (1789–1799)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Revolution&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: French Revolution (1789–1799)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></div><p>The British historian <a href="/wiki/Eric_Hobsbawm" title="Eric Hobsbawm">Eric Hobsbawm</a> credits the French Revolution with giving the 19th century its ideology and politics, stating:</p><blockquote><p>France made its revolutions and gave them their ideas, to the point where a <a href="/wiki/Tricolour_(flag)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tricolour (flag)">tricolour</a> of some kind became the emblem of virtually every emerging nation, and European (or indeed world) politics between 1789 and 1917 were largely the struggle for and against the principles of 1789, or the even more incendiary ones of 1793. <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> provided the vocabulary and the issues of <a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">liberal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Radical_democracy" title="Radical democracy">radical-democratic politics</a> for most of the world. France provided the first great example, the concept and the vocabulary of <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalism</a>. France provided the codes of law, the model of scientific and technical organization, the <a href="/wiki/Metric_system" title="Metric system">metric system</a> of measurement for most countries. The ideology of the modern world first penetrated the ancient civilizations which had hitherto resisted European ideas through French influence. This was the work of the French Revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prise_de_la_Bastille,_le_peuple_entre.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Prise_de_la_Bastille%2C_le_peuple_entre.jpg/220px-Prise_de_la_Bastille%2C_le_peuple_entre.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Prise_de_la_Bastille%2C_le_peuple_entre.jpg/330px-Prise_de_la_Bastille%2C_le_peuple_entre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Prise_de_la_Bastille%2C_le_peuple_entre.jpg/440px-Prise_de_la_Bastille%2C_le_peuple_entre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1782" data-file-height="1290" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Storming_of_the_Bastille" title="Storming of the Bastille">Storming of the Bastille</a> on July 14 (<a href="/wiki/Bastille_Day" title="Bastille Day">Bastille Day</a>), 1789</figcaption></figure> <p>The French Revolution was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France from 1789 to 1799 that profoundly affected French and modern history, marking the decline of powerful monarchies and churches and the rise of democracy and nationalism.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Popular resentment of the privileges enjoyed by the clergy and aristocracy grew amidst an economic crisis following two expensive wars and years of bad harvests, motivating demands for change. These were couched in terms of Enlightenment ideals and caused the convocation of the Estates-General in May 1789. </p><p>The precipitating event was that the King went public that the French state was essentially bankrupt, and because of that he convened the <i>États généraux (</i>Estates general) to replenish state coffers. The Estates-General was made up of 3 estates/orders: </p> <ul><li>1st Estate: Clergy</li> <li>2nd Estate: Nobility</li> <li>3rd Estate: Wealthier, better educated non-nobility (commoners)<sup id="cite_ref-:3_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="King's_weakened_position"><span id="King.27s_weakened_position"></span>King's weakened position</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Revolution&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: King's weakened position"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The French tax regime was regressive, and traditional noble and bourgeois allies felt shut out. </p><p>Centralizing monarchical power, i.e. Royal absolutism, onward from Louis XIII in 1614<sup id="cite_ref-:3_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> inward to the royal court in Versailles led to a snowball effect that ended up alienating both nobility and bourgeoisie. There was a tendency to play favorites with the tax regime, especially by exempting nobility from taxation. This led to a feeling of discrimination among the bourgeoisie, which itself was an engine of the Revolution<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It was also a question of numbers. The population of nobles versus that of the rest of France wildly disparate: nobles = .4-1.5% out of total population of ca. 28 million. The population of clergy versus the rest of France was even less: about 120,000 clergy total, out of which were 139 powerful and wealthy bishops (.0005% of total pop.); the majority of parish priests were as poor as their parishioners.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bourgeoisie">Bourgeoisie</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Revolution&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Bourgeoisie"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> These were young men from commoner families who were not sustenance farmers and whose families could afford to send their sons to either study the law or take over the family business. When talking about these young (mainly) lawyers from this segment of society, one is also talking about products of the Enlightenment. As the former <i><a href="/wiki/Financial_Times" title="Financial Times">Financial Times</a></i> chief foreign affairs columnist and author Ian Davidson puts it:</p><blockquote><p>"French society, like others in much of Western Europe, was undergoing a colossal transformation. The ultra-intellectual Enlightenment of Montesquieu and Voltaire, Bach and Mozart, Isaac Newton and Adam Smith was just the tip of a vast change that was happening throughout society and producing an expanding, educated, literate and ambitious bourgeoisie."<sup id="cite_ref-:4_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p>Part of this ambition was to enter a political scene that was always locked behind a door to which only the monarchy, clergy, and nobility had the keys. The durable shift here was that, by the time the Estates general convened, their knowledge of law gave them the tools to enter the political scene. </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Constitutional_chronology">Constitutional chronology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Revolution&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Constitutional chronology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancien Régime">Ancien Régime</a></i> (pre–1789) <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/National_Constituent_Assembly_(France)" title="National Constituent Assembly (France)">National Constituent Assembly</a></i> (1789–1791)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Cabinet_of_Louis_XVI" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitutional Cabinet of Louis XVI">Constitutional Monarchy</a> (1791–1792) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Legislative_Assembly_(France)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Legislative Assembly (France)">National Legislative Assembly</a> (1791–1792)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">First Republic</a> (1792–1804) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Convention" title="National Convention">National Convention</a> (1792–1795)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Directory_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Directory of France">Directory</a> (1795–1799)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Consulate" title="French Consulate">Consulate</a> (1799–1804)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First Empire</a>, the reign of <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a> (1804–1814)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Haitian_Revolution_(1791–1804)"><span id="Haitian_Revolution_.281791.E2.80.931804.29"></span>Haitian Revolution (1791–1804)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Revolution&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Haitian Revolution (1791–1804)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Age_of_Revolution" title="Special:EditPage/Age of Revolution">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">Haitian Revolution</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Haitian_Revolution.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Haitian_Revolution.jpg/200px-Haitian_Revolution.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Haitian_Revolution.jpg/300px-Haitian_Revolution.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Haitian_Revolution.jpg/400px-Haitian_Revolution.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1395" data-file-height="1032" /></a><figcaption>Attack and siege of the Crête-à-Pierrot during Haitian revolution</figcaption></figure> <p>The Haitian Revolution was a slave rebellion in the French colony of <a href="/wiki/Saint-Domingue" title="Saint-Domingue">Saint-Domingue</a>, which culminated in the elimination of slavery there and the founding of the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Haiti_(1859%E2%80%931957)" title="Republic of Haiti (1859–1957)">Republic of Haiti</a>. The Haitian Revolution was the only slave revolt which led to the founding of a state. Furthermore, it is generally considered the most successful slave rebellion ever to have occurred and as a defining moment in the histories of both Europe and the Americas. The rebellion began with a revolt of black African slaves in August 1791. It ended in November 1803 with the French defeat at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Verti%C3%A8res" title="Battle of Vertières">Battle of Vertières</a>. Haiti became an independent country on January 1, 1804. </p><p>One-third of French overseas trade and revenue came from Haitian sugar and coffee plantations. During the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> the island was ignored, allowing the revolt to have some initial successes. However, after <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a> became the first consul of France, he sent troops to suppress the revolt. </p><p>The war was known for cruelty on both sides, and extensive guerrilla warfare. French forces showed no mercy, as they were fighting blacks, who were not considered to be worthy opponents of the French army. </p><p>The French army suffered from severe outbreaks of disease, and the Haitians were under-equipped. Top leaders of both sides were killed, and the leader of the Haitians died in captivity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="United_Irishmen's_Rebellion_(1798)"><span id="United_Irishmen.27s_Rebellion_.281798.29"></span>United Irishmen's Rebellion (1798)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Revolution&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: United Irishmen's Rebellion (1798)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Age_of_Revolution" title="Special:EditPage/Age of Revolution">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Irish_Rebellion_of_1798" title="Irish Rebellion of 1798">Irish Rebellion of 1798</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vinhill.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Vinhill.gif/200px-Vinhill.gif" decoding="async" width="200" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Vinhill.gif/300px-Vinhill.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Vinhill.gif/400px-Vinhill.gif 2x" data-file-width="580" data-file-height="377" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vinegar_Hill" title="Battle of Vinegar Hill">Battle of Vinegar Hill</a> during 1798 Irish rebellion</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1798, a revolt broke out against <a href="/wiki/British_rule_in_Ireland" title="British rule in Ireland">British rule in Ireland</a> in the hopes of creating an independent Irish republic. The rebellion was initiated by the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_United_Irishmen" title="Society of United Irishmen">Society of United Irishmen</a> and led by <a href="/wiki/Theobald_Wolfe_Tone" class="mw-redirect" title="Theobald Wolfe Tone">Theobald Wolfe Tone</a>. The revolt was motivated by a combination of factors, including <a href="/wiki/Irish_nationalism" title="Irish nationalism">Irish nationalism</a>, news of the success of the French Revolution, and resentment at the British-instituted <a href="/wiki/Penal_law_(British)" title="Penal law (British)">Penal laws</a>, which discriminated against Catholics and Presbyterians in Ireland. The rebellion failed and led to the <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1800" title="Acts of Union 1800">Act of Union in 1801</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Serbian_Revolution_(1804–1835)"><span id="Serbian_Revolution_.281804.E2.80.931835.29"></span>Serbian Revolution (1804–1835)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Revolution&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Serbian Revolution (1804–1835)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Serbian_Revolution" title="Serbian Revolution">Serbian Revolution</a></div> <p>The Serbian Revolution was a national uprising and constitutional change in <a href="/wiki/Serbia" title="Serbia">Serbia</a> that took place between 1804 and 1835, during which the territory evolved from an <a href="/wiki/Belgrade_Pashaluk" class="mw-redirect" title="Belgrade Pashaluk">Ottoman province</a> into a rebel territory, a <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Serbia" title="Constitution of Serbia">constitutional monarchy</a>, and finally the modern Serbian state. The first part of the period, from 1804 to 1815, was marked by a violent struggle for independence from the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> with three armed uprisings taking place(<a href="/wiki/First_Serbian_Uprising" title="First Serbian Uprising">The First Serbian Uprising</a>, <a href="/wiki/Had%C5%BEi-Prodan%27s_rebellion" title="Hadži-Prodan's rebellion">Hadži Prodan's rebellion</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Second_Serbian_Uprising" title="Second Serbian Uprising">Second Serbian Uprising</a>), ending with a ceasefire.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> During the later period (1815–1835) a peaceful consolidation of political power developed in the increasingly autonomous Serbia, culminating in the recognition of the right to hereditary rule by <a href="/wiki/List_of_Serbian_monarchs" title="List of Serbian monarchs">Serbian princes</a> in 1830 and 1833 and the territorial expansion of the young monarchy. The adoption of the first written <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Serbia" title="Constitution of Serbia">Constitution</a> in 1835 abolished <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">serfdom</a>, and made the country <a href="/wiki/Suzerainty" title="Suzerainty">suzerain</a>. The term "Serbian Revolution" was coined by a German academic historiographer, <a href="/wiki/Leopold_von_Ranke" title="Leopold von Ranke">Leopold von Ranke</a>, in his book <i>Die Serbische Revolution</i>, published in 1829. These events marked the foundation of the modern <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Serbia" title="Principality of Serbia">Principality of Serbia</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Scholars have characterized the Serbian War of Independence and subsequent national liberation as a revolution because the uprisings were started by broad masses of rural Serbian people who were in severe class conflict with the Turkish landowners as a political and economic masters at the same time, similar to <a href="/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence" title="Greek War of Independence">Greece in 1821–1832</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Latin_American_Wars_of_Independence_(1808–1833)"><span id="Latin_American_Wars_of_Independence_.281808.E2.80.931833.29"></span>Latin American Wars of Independence (1808–1833)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Revolution&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Latin American Wars of Independence (1808–1833)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Age_of_Revolution" title="Special:EditPage/Age of Revolution">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">Spanish American wars of independence</a> and <a href="/wiki/War_of_Independence_of_Brazil" class="mw-redirect" title="War of Independence of Brazil">War of Independence of Brazil</a></div> <p>Latin America experienced <a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">independence revolutions</a> in the early 19th century that separated the colonies from <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>, creating new nations. These movements were generally led by the ethnically Spanish but locally born <a href="/wiki/Creole_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Creole people">Creole</a> class; these were often wealthy citizens that held high positions of power but were still poorly respected by the European-born Spaniards. One such Creole was <a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar" title="Simón Bolívar">Simón Bolívar</a>, who led several revolutions throughout South America and helped establish <a href="/wiki/Gran_Colombia" title="Gran Colombia">Gran Colombia</a>. Another important figure was <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_San_Mart%C3%ADn" title="José de San Martín">José de San Martín</a>, who helped create the <a href="/wiki/United_Provinces_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="United Provinces of the Río de la Plata">United Provinces of the Río de la Plata</a> and became the first president of <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Greek_War_of_Independence_(1821–1832)"><span id="Greek_War_of_Independence_.281821.E2.80.931832.29"></span>Greek War of Independence (1821–1832)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Revolution&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Greek War of Independence (1821–1832)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Age_of_Revolution" title="Special:EditPage/Age of Revolution">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence" title="Greek War of Independence">Greek War of Independence</a></div> <p>Greece in the early 1800s was under the rule of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>. A series of revolts, starting in 1821, began the conflict. The Ottoman Empire sent in forces to suppress the revolts. By 1827, forces from Russia, Great Britain, and France entered the conflict, helping the Greeks drive the Turkish forces off the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnese_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Peloponnese Peninsula">Peloponnese Peninsula</a>. The Turks finally recognized Greece as a free nation in May 1832. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Revolutions_of_1820">Revolutions of 1820</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Revolution&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Revolutions of 1820"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Age_of_Revolution" title="Special:EditPage/Age of Revolution">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_during_the_1820s" title="Revolutions during the 1820s">Revolutions during the 1820s</a></div> <p>The Revolutions of 1820 were a series of revolutionary uprisings in <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a>. Unlike the wars of 1830, these wars tended to be in the outer regions of Europe. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Revolutions_of_1830">Revolutions of 1830</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Revolution&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Revolutions of 1830"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1830" title="Revolutions of 1830">Revolutions of 1830</a></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_wave" title="Revolutionary wave">revolutionary wave</a> in Europe which took place in 1830. It included two "<a href="/wiki/Romantic_nationalism" title="Romantic nationalism">romantic nationalist</a>" revolutions, the <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Revolution" title="Belgian Revolution">Belgian Revolution</a> in the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands" title="United Kingdom of the Netherlands">United Kingdom of the Netherlands</a> and the <a href="/wiki/July_Revolution" title="July Revolution">July Revolution</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">France</a>. There also were revolutions in <a href="/wiki/Congress_Poland" title="Congress Poland">Congress Poland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italian_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian states">Italian states</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Portugal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>. It was followed eighteen years later by another and much stronger wave of revolutions known as the <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Revolutions_of_1848">Revolutions of 1848</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Revolution&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Revolutions of 1848"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a></div> <p>The European Revolutions of 1848, known in some countries as the Spring of Nations, Springtime of the Peoples or the Year of Revolution, were a series of political upheavals throughout Europe in 1848. It remains the most widespread revolutionary wave in European history, but within a year, reactionary forces had regained control, and the revolutions collapsed. </p><p>The political impact of the 1848 revolutions was more evident in Austria in comparison to the revolution's effects in countries like Germany. This is attributed to the way the upheavals in Vienna resulted in greater loss of life and gained stronger support from intellectuals, students, and the working class.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An account described the German experience as less concerned with national issues, although it succeeded in breaking down class barriers.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There was a previously prevalent view that there was only one revolutionary event in Germany but recent scholarship pointed to a fragmented picture of several revolutions happening at the same time.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 1848 revolutions were also notable because of the increased participation of women. While women rarely participated in revolutionary activities, there were those who performed supportive and auxiliary roles such as the cases of the women's political club in <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>, which demanded revolutionary measures from the Austrian Constituent Assembly, and the Parisian women who protested and proposed their own solutions to social problems, particularly those involving their rights and crafts.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Eureka_Rebellion_(1854)"><span id="Eureka_Rebellion_.281854.29"></span>Eureka Rebellion (1854)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Revolution&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Eureka Rebellion (1854)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Eureka_Rebellion" title="Eureka Rebellion">Eureka Rebellion</a></div> <p>The Eureka Rebellion was a 20-minute shootout between the miners of <a href="/wiki/Ballarat" title="Ballarat">Ballarat</a>, Victoria, and the <a href="/wiki/British_Army" title="British Army">British Army</a>. After the imposition of Gold Mining Licences, that being that a person had to have one of these to mine gold, and which cost 30 shillings a month to own a license, the miners decided that it was too much. The Ballarat miners started rallies at <a href="/wiki/Bakery_Hill" class="mw-redirect" title="Bakery Hill">Bakery Hill</a> and burnt their licenses, took an oath under the flag of the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Cross" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Cross">Southern Cross</a>, elected Peter Lalor as their rebellion leader, and built a stockade (a makeshift fort) around the diggings. Eventually, the British troops, led by Governor <a href="/wiki/Charles_Hotham" title="Charles Hotham">Charles Hotham</a> of Ballarat fired upon the stockade. The miners fired back and lasted 20 minutes before their stockade was stormed by British troops. Most of the miners were arrested by the British colonial authorities, and taken to trial. If found guilty, they would hang for high treason. All were eventually acquitted. The Eureka Rebellion is controversially identified with the birth of democracy in Australia and interpreted by many as a political revolt.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="First_War_of_Indian_Independence_(1857–1858)"><span id="First_War_of_Indian_Independence_.281857.E2.80.931858.29"></span>First War of Indian Independence (1857–1858)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Revolution&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: First War of Indian Independence (1857–1858)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857" title="Indian Rebellion of 1857">Indian Rebellion of 1857</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Indian_independence_movement" title="Indian independence movement">Indian independence movement</a></div> <p>The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was a major, but ultimately unsuccessful, uprising in India in 1857–58 against the rule of the <a href="/wiki/British_East_India_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="British East India Company">British East India Company</a>, which functioned as a sovereign power on behalf of the British Crown. The rebellion began on 10 May 1857 in the form of a mutiny of sepoys of the Company's army in the garrison town of Meerut, 40 mi (64 km) northeast of <a href="/wiki/Delhi" title="Delhi">Delhi</a> (that area is now Old Delhi). It then erupted into other mutinies and civilian rebellions chiefly in the upper Gangetic plain and central India, though incidents of revolt also occurred farther north and east. The rebellion posed a considerable threat to British power in that region, and was contained only with the rebels' defeat in <a href="/wiki/Gwalior" title="Gwalior">Gwalior</a> on 20 June 1858. On 1 November 1858, the British granted amnesty to all rebels not involved in murder, though they did not declare the hostilities to have formally ended until 8 July 1859. Its name is contested, and it is variously described as the Sepoy Mutiny, the Indian Mutiny, the Great Rebellion, the Revolt of 1857, the Indian Insurrection, and the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857" title="Indian Rebellion of 1857">First War of Independence</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bulgarian_revolts_and_liberation_(1869–1878)"><span id="Bulgarian_revolts_and_liberation_.281869.E2.80.931878.29"></span>Bulgarian revolts and liberation (1869–1878)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Revolution&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Bulgarian revolts and liberation (1869–1878)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/April_Uprising_of_1876" title="April Uprising of 1876">April Uprising of 1876</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_National_Revival" title="Bulgarian National Revival">Bulgarian National Revival</a>, and <a href="/wiki/National_awakening_of_Bulgaria" title="National awakening of Bulgaria">National awakening of Bulgaria</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Bulgarians" title="Bulgarians">Bulgarian</a> modern <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalism</a> emerged under <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman rule</a> in the late 18th and early 19th century, under the influence of western ideas such as liberalism and nationalism, which trickled into the country after the French Revolution. In 1869 the <a href="/wiki/Internal_Revolutionary_Organization" title="Internal Revolutionary Organization">Internal Revolutionary Organization</a> was initiated. An autonomous <a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Exarchate" title="Bulgarian Exarchate">Bulgarian Exarchate</a> was established in 1870/1872 for the Bulgarian diocese wherein at least two-thirds of Orthodox Christians were willing to join it. The <a href="/wiki/April_Uprising_of_1876" title="April Uprising of 1876">April Uprising of 1876</a> indirectly resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Liberation_of_Bulgaria" title="Liberation of Bulgaria">re-establishment of Bulgaria in 1878</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Paris_Commune_(1871)"><span id="Paris_Commune_.281871.29"></span>Paris Commune (1871)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Revolution&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Paris Commune (1871)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Paris_Commune" title="Paris Commune">Paris Commune</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Paris_Commune" title="Paris Commune">Paris Commune</a> was a revolutionary <a href="/wiki/Socialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialist">socialist</a> government that controlled Paris from 18 March to 28 May 1871. It was established by radicalized defectors from the <a href="/wiki/National_Guard_(France)" title="National Guard (France)">French National Guard</a>, which had been mobilized to defend Paris in the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">Franco-Prussian War</a> (19 July 1870 – 28 January 1871). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Revolution&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_revolutions_and_rebellions" title="List of revolutions and rebellions">List of revolutions and rebellions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Revolutions" title="Atlantic Revolutions">Atlantic Revolutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern history">Modern history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_nineteenth_century" title="Long nineteenth century">Long nineteenth century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_Britannica" title="Pax Britannica">Pax Britannica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_world" title="Political history of the world">Political history of the world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risorgimento" class="mw-redirect" title="Risorgimento">Risorgimento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_national_independence" title="Timeline of national independence">Timeline of national independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Spring:_Fighting_for_a_New_World_1848%E2%80%931849" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolutionary Spring: Fighting for a New World 1848–1849">Revolutionary Spring: Fighting for a New World 1848–1849</a> by <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Clark" title="Christopher Clark">Christopher Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">Spanish American wars of independence</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Revolution&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-auto-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3KglCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA775">https://books.google.com/books?id=3KglCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA775</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221203082123/https://books.google.com/books?id=3KglCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA775#v=onepage--">Archived</a> 2022-12-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMatson,_Cathy2005" class="citation journal cs1">Matson, Cathy (July 2005). "The Atlantic Economy in an Era of Revolutions: An Introduction". William and Mary Quarterly.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Atlantic+Economy+in+an+Era+of+Revolutions%3A+An+Introduction&rft.date=2005-07&rft.au=Matson%2C+Cathy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hobsbawm, Eric, <i>The Age of Revolution: Europe 1789–1848</i>, London, Abacus (1962).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmelser2011" class="citation book cs1">Smelser, Neil (2011). <i>Theory of Collective Behavior</i>. New Orleans: Quid Pro Books. p. 311. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781610270854" title="Special:BookSources/9781610270854"><bdi>9781610270854</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theory+of+Collective+Behavior&rft.place=New+Orleans&rft.pages=311&rft.pub=Quid+Pro+Books&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781610270854&rft.aulast=Smelser&rft.aufirst=Neil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolfe2015" class="citation book cs1">Wolfe, James (2015). <i>The Industrial Revolution: Steam and Steel</i>. New York: The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 85. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781680480283" title="Special:BookSources/9781680480283"><bdi>9781680480283</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Industrial+Revolution%3A+Steam+and+Steel&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=85&rft.pub=The+Rosen+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781680480283&rft.aulast=Wolfe&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHudson1992" class="citation book cs1">Hudson, Pat (1992). <i>The Industrial Revolution</i>. New York: Hodder Arnold. p. 35. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780713165319" title="Special:BookSources/9780713165319"><bdi>9780713165319</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Industrial+Revolution&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=35&rft.pub=Hodder+Arnold&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=9780713165319&rft.aulast=Hudson&rft.aufirst=Pat&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOwens2017" class="citation book cs1">Owens, Geoffrey (2017). <i>From Empire to Europe: The Decline and Revival of British Industry Since the Second World War</i>. London: HarperCollins Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780006387503" title="Special:BookSources/9780006387503"><bdi>9780006387503</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Empire+to+Europe%3A+The+Decline+and+Revival+of+British+Industry+Since+the+Second+World+War&rft.place=London&rft.pub=HarperCollins+Publishers&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9780006387503&rft.aulast=Owens&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert A. Ferguson, <i>The American Enlightenment, 1750–1820</i> (1997).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurrinJohnsonMcPhersonFahs2012" class="citation book cs1">Murrin, John M.; Johnson, Paul E.; McPherson, James M.; Fahs, Alice; Gerstle, Gary (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FGSQOiy6uZUC&pg=PT337"><i>Liberty, Equality, Power: A History of the American People</i></a> (6th ed.). Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. p. 296. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0495904991" title="Special:BookSources/978-0495904991"><bdi>978-0495904991</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Liberty%2C+Equality%2C+Power%3A+A+History+of+the+American+People&rft.pages=296&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Wadsworth%2C+Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0495904991&rft.aulast=Murrin&rft.aufirst=John+M.&rft.au=Johnson%2C+Paul+E.&rft.au=McPherson%2C+James+M.&rft.au=Fahs%2C+Alice&rft.au=Gerstle%2C+Gary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFGSQOiy6uZUC%26pg%3DPT337&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wood, <i>The American Revolution: A History</i> (2003)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson1991" class="citation book cs1">Anderson, Benedict (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/imaginedcommunit0000ande_f5f1/mode/2up"><i>Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism</i></a>. London: <a href="/wiki/Verso" class="mw-redirect" title="Verso">Verso</a>. pp. 7, 192–195. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0860915468" title="Special:BookSources/0860915468"><bdi>0860915468</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Imagined+Communities%3A+Reflections+on+the+Origin+and+Spread+of+Nationalism&rft.place=London&rft.pages=7%2C+192-195&rft.pub=Verso&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0860915468&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Benedict&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fimaginedcommunit0000ande_f5f1%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavidson2016" class="citation book cs1">Davidson, Ian (2016). <i>The French Revolution: From Enlightenment to Tyranny</i>. United States: [Pegasus Books]. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781681772509" title="Special:BookSources/9781681772509"><bdi>9781681772509</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+French+Revolution%3A+From+Enlightenment+to+Tyranny&rft.place=United+States&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=%5BPegasus+Books%5D&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781681772509&rft.aulast=Davidson&rft.aufirst=Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Id., pp. 2-3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Id., pp. 4-5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCirkovic2008" class="citation book cs1">Cirkovic, Sima (2008). <i>The Serbs</i>. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 290–295.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Serbs&rft.pages=290-295&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Cirkovic&rft.aufirst=Sima&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Clive H. Church, "Forgotten Revolutions: recent work on the revolutions of 1830 in Europe." <i>European Studies Review</i> 7.1 (1977): 95-106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Clive H. Church, <i>Europe in 1830: Revolution and political change</i> (1983)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHahn2014" class="citation book cs1">Hahn, Hans Joachim (2014). <i>The 1848 Revolutions in German-Speaking Europe</i>. Oxon: Routledge. p. 107. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780582357655" title="Special:BookSources/9780582357655"><bdi>9780582357655</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+1848+Revolutions+in+German-Speaking+Europe&rft.place=Oxon&rft.pages=107&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9780582357655&rft.aulast=Hahn&rft.aufirst=Hans+Joachim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvansvon_Strandmann2002" class="citation book cs1">Evans, Robert John; von Strandmann, Hartmut Pogge (2002). <i>The Revolutions in Europe, 1848–1849: From Reform to Reaction</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 132. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0199249970" title="Special:BookSources/0199249970"><bdi>0199249970</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Revolutions+in+Europe%2C+1848%E2%80%931849%3A+From+Reform+to+Reaction&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=132&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0199249970&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.aufirst=Robert+John&rft.au=von+Strandmann%2C+Hartmut+Pogge&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSperber2005" class="citation book cs1">Sperber, Jonathan (2005). <i>The European Revolutions, 1848–1851</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 188. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521839076" title="Special:BookSources/0521839076"><bdi>0521839076</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+European+Revolutions%2C+1848%E2%80%931851&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=188&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0521839076&rft.aulast=Sperber&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">'Dr. H.V. Evatt, leader of the ALP, wrote that "The Eureka Stockade was of crucial importance in the making of Australian democracy"; Robert Menzies, later Liberal Prime Minister, said that "the Eureka revolution was an earnest attempt at democratic government"; <a href="/wiki/Ben_Chifley" title="Ben Chifley">Ben Chifley</a>, former ALP Prime Minister, wrote that "Eureka was more than an incident or passing phase. It was greater in significance than the short-lived revolt against tyrannical authority would suggest. The permanency of Eureka in its impact on our development was that it was the first real affirmation of our determination to be masters of our own political destiny." (from <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://home.alphalink.com.au/~eureka/eukand.htm">"The Eureka Rebellion"</a>. National Republicans. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170308223221/http://home.alphalink.com.au/~eureka/eukand.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 8 March 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Eureka+Rebellion&rft.pub=National+Republicans&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhome.alphalink.com.au%2F~eureka%2Feukand.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span>, quoting <i>Historical Studies: Eureka Supplement</i>, Melbourne University Press, Carlton, Vic., 1965, pages 125–6)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSunterass2003" class="citation web cs1">Sunterass, Anne Beggs (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070426185846/http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/lab/85/sunter.html">"Contested Memories of Eureka: Museum Interpretations of the Eureka Stockade"</a>. <i>Labour History</i>. History Cooperative. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/lab/85/sunter.html">the original</a> on 26 April 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 December</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Labour+History&rft.atitle=Contested+Memories+of+Eureka%3A+Museum+Interpretations+of+the+Eureka+Stockade&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Sunterass&rft.aufirst=Anne+Beggs&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historycooperative.org%2Fjournals%2Flab%2F85%2Fsunter.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Blainey" title="Geoffrey Blainey">Geoffrey Blainey</a> commented in 1963 that "Eureka became a legend, a battlecry for nationalists. republicans, liberals, radicals, or communists, each creed finding in the rebellion the lessons they liked to see." ..."In fact the new colonies' political constitutions were not affected by Eureka, but the first Parliament that met under Victoria's new constitution was alert to the democratic spirit of the goldfields, and passed laws enabling each adult man in Victoria to vote at elections, to vote by <a href="/wiki/Secret_ballot" title="Secret ballot">secret ballot</a>, to stand for the Legislative Assembly." <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlainey1963" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Blainey" title="Geoffrey Blainey">Blainey, Geoffrey</a> (1963). <i>The Rush That Never Ended</i>. Melbourne University Press. pp. 56–7.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rush+That+Never+Ended&rft.pages=56-7&rft.pub=Melbourne+University+Press&rft.date=1963&rft.aulast=Blainey&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Revolution&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_I._Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="Jonathan I. Israel">Israel, Jonathan I.</a>. <i>Expanding Blaze: How the American Revolution Ignited the World, 1775-1848</i>. Princeton: Princeton University Press 2017.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Western_world_and_culture" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Western_world" title="Template:Western world"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Western_world" title="Template talk:Western world"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Western_world" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Western world"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Western_world_and_culture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">culture</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foundations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization" title="Cradle of civilization">Cradle of civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman world</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Roman legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_culture" title="Gallo-Roman culture">Gallo-Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">European Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">high</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">late</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Age of Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">Universal suffrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Post–Cold War era">Post–Cold War era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">Alphabet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Periods_in_Western_art_history" title="Periods in Western art history">Periods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_cuisine" title="European cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_pattern_diet" title="Western pattern diet">Diet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_tradition" title="Classical tradition">Classical tradition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">Studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_dress_codes" title="Western dress codes">Clothing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_fashion" title="History of Western fashion">History</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_dance_(Europe_and_North_America)" class="mw-redirect" title="Western dance (Europe and North America)">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_education" title="Western education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Esotericism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_astrology" title="Western astrology">Astrology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_folklore" title="European folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_Western_world" title="Immigration to the Western world">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_law" title="Western law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eurolinguistics" title="Eurolinguistics">Eurolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Average_European" title="Standard Average European">Standard Average European</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_literature" title="Western literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_canon" title="Western canon">Canon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_media" title="Western media">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chant" title="Chant">Chant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_music" title="Classical music">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_European_folk_music_traditions" title="List of European folk music traditions">Folk</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="European mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_painting" title="Western painting">Painting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/20th-century_Western_painting" title="20th-century Western painting">contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_(Western_philosophy)" title="Values (Western philosophy)">Values</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_physical_culture" title="Western physical culture">Physical culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_sports" title="Western sports">Sport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Christianity_in_the_Western_world" title="Decline of Christianity in the Western world">Decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Ancient Roman philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Christian_ethics" title="Judeo-Christian ethics">Judeo-Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian existentialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular humanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Tolerance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_tolerance" title="Paradox of tolerance">Paradox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Peritrope" title="Peritrope">Peritrope</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanticism" title="Atlanticism">Atlanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereigntism" title="Sovereigntism">Sovereigntism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_values" title="Western values">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_values" title="European values">European</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western</a>/<a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodoxy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Church" title="Greek Orthodox Church">Greek Orthodox Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Culture</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">Paganism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_paganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Finnish paganism">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankish mythology">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_paganism" title="Gothic paganism">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Old Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_religion" title="Hellenistic religion">Hellenistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_paganism" title="Modern paganism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_law" title="Western law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">Equality before the law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_life" title="Right to life">Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_thought" title="Freedom of thought">Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">Press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">Property</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">International law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary<br />integration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ABCANZ_Armies" title="ABCANZ Armies">ABCANZ Armies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_of_European_Regions" title="Assembly of European Regions">AER</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Portuguese_Alliance" title="Anglo-Portuguese Alliance">Anglo-Portuguese Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUK" title="ANZUK">ANZUK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUS" title="ANZUS">ANZUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Council" title="Arctic Council">Arctic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AUKUS" title="AUKUS">AUKUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AUSCANNZUKUS" title="AUSCANNZUKUS">AUSCANNZUKUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Assembly" title="Baltic Assembly">Baltic Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benelux" title="Benelux">Benelux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British%E2%80%93Irish_Council" title="British–Irish Council">British–Irish Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_the_Black_Sea_Economic_Cooperation" title="Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation">BSEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bucharest_Nine" title="Bucharest Nine">Bucharest Nine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CANZUK" title="CANZUK">CANZUK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Baltic_Sea_States" title="Council of the Baltic Sea States">CBSS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_European_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="Central European Free Trade Agreement">CEFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Europe" title="Council of Europe">Council of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craiova_Group" title="Craiova Group">Craiova Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_European_Group" title="Eastern European Group">Eastern European Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Partnership" title="Eastern Partnership">Eastern Partnership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Area" title="European Economic Area">EEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Free_Trade_Association" title="European Free Trade Association">EFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Political_Community" title="European Political Community">EPC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">ESA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">EU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union_Customs_Union" title="European Union Customs Union">EU Customs Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurozone" title="Eurozone">Eurozone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EU%E2%80%93UK_Trade_and_Cooperation_Agreement" title="EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement">EU–UK TCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Eyes" title="Five Eyes">Five Eyes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G7" title="G7">G7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lancaster_House_Treaties" title="Lancaster House Treaties">Lancaster House Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lublin_Triangle" title="Lublin Triangle">Lublin Triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Council" title="Nordic Council">Nordic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_American_States" title="Organization of American States">OAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Balkan" title="Open Balkan">Open Balkan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_for_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europe" title="Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe">OSCE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Islands_Forum" title="Pacific Islands Forum">Pacific Islands Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_for_the_Progress_and_Integration_of_South_America" title="Forum for the Progress and Integration of South America">PROSUR/PROSUL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-American_Treaty_of_Reciprocal_Assistance" title="Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance">Rio Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schengen_Area" title="Schengen Area">Schengen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Relationship" title="Special Relationship">Special Relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Seas_Initiative" title="Three Seas Initiative">Three Seas Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UKUSA_Agreement" title="UKUSA Agreement">UKUSA Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States%E2%80%93Mexico%E2%80%93Canada_Agreement" title="United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement">USMCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visegr%C3%A1d_Group" title="Visegrád Group">Visegrád Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Nordic_Council" title="West Nordic Council">West Nordic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_European_and_Others_Group" title="Western European and Others Group">Western European and Others Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westernization" title="Westernization">Westernization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Revolution&oldid=1245526032">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Revolution&oldid=1245526032</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Age_of_Revolution" title="Category:Age of Revolution">Age of Revolution</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Napoleonic_Wars" title="Category:Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:18th-century_revolutions" title="Category:18th-century revolutions">18th-century revolutions</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:19th-century_revolutions" title="Category:19th-century revolutions">19th-century revolutions</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Historical_eras" title="Category:Historical eras">Historical eras</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Europe" title="Category:History of Europe">History of Europe</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_North_America" title="Category:History of North America">History of North America</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_South_America" title="Category:History of South America">History of South America</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:18th_century_in_Europe" title="Category:18th century in Europe">18th century in Europe</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:19th_century_in_Europe" title="Category:19th century in Europe">19th century in Europe</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:18th_century_in_North_America" title="Category:18th century in North America">18th century in North America</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:19th_century_in_North_America" title="Category:19th century in North America">19th century in North America</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:18th_century_in_South_America" title="Category:18th century in South America">18th century in South America</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:19th_century_in_South_America" title="Category:19th century in South America">19th century in South America</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Revolutionary_waves" title="Category:Revolutionary waves">Revolutionary waves</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_errors:_missing_periodical" title="Category:CS1 errors: missing periodical">CS1 errors: missing periodical</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_additional_references_from_November_2020" title="Category:Articles needing additional references from November 2020">Articles needing additional references from November 2020</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_needing_additional_references" title="Category:All articles needing additional references">All articles needing additional references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_May_2023" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from May 2023">Articles with unsourced statements from May 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_additional_references_from_June_2020" title="Category:Articles needing additional references from June 2020">Articles needing additional references from June 2020</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_June_2024" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from June 2024">Articles with unsourced statements from June 2024</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 13 September 2024, at 14:04<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Revolution&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-x5wzj","wgBackendResponseTime":121,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"0.517","walltime":"0.638","ppvisitednodes":{"value":3360,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":98910,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":3554,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":12,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":25,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":83176,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":0,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 520.535 1 -total"," 29.64% 154.267 1 Template:Reflist"," 13.92% 72.482 6 Template:Ambox"," 13.23% 68.848 1 Template:Western_culture"," 12.57% 65.426 1 Template:Cite_journal"," 12.54% 65.271 1 Template:Short_description"," 12.45% 64.784 1 Template:More_citations_needed"," 10.01% 52.099 12 Template:Cite_book"," 7.70% 40.064 1 Template:Infobox_historical_event"," 6.64% 34.564 2 Template:Pagetype"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.307","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":7498456,"limit":52428800}},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-r2wfs","timestamp":"20241122141755","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Age of Revolution","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Age_of_Revolution","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q4691908","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q4691908","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2006-01-08T23:42:25Z","dateModified":"2024-09-13T14:04:11Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/5\/56\/Jacques_Bertaux_-_Prise_du_palais_des_Tuileries_-_1793.jpg","headline":"historic period"}</script> </body> </html>