H脡MISPH脠RES C脡R脡BRAUX - Encyclop忙dia Universalis

<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="fr-FR" xml:lang="fr" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="utf-8">  <title>H脡MISPH脠RES C脡R脡BRAUX - Encyclop忙dia Universalis</title> <meta http-equiv="x-ua-compatible" content="IE=edge,chrome=1" /> <meta name="generator" content="TYPO3 CMS" /> <meta name="description" content="Bien des si猫cles avant l'Antiquit茅 classique, on admettait d茅j脿 un 茅troit rapport entre les h茅misph猫res c茅r茅braux et les fonctions mentales..." /> <meta name="robots" content="index, all, follow" /> <meta name="viewport" content="viewport-fit=cover, width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0, minimum-scale=1.0" /> <meta name="author" content="Encyclop忙dia Universalis" /> <meta property="og:title" content="H脡MISPH脠RES C脡R脡BRAUX" /> <meta property="og:description" content="Bien des si猫cles avant l'Antiquit茅 classique, on admettait d茅j脿 un 茅troit rapport entre les h茅misph猫res c茅r茅braux et les fonctions mentales sup茅rieures聽: sensation consciente, motricit茅 volontaire, m茅moire , etc. Les anciens auteurs ont abondamment sp茅cul茅 sur la r茅gion des h茅misph猫res o霉..." /> <meta property="og:url" content="https://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/hemispheres-cerebraux/" /> <meta property="og:locale" content="fr_FR" /> <meta property="og:site_name" content="Encyclop忙dia Universalis" /> <meta property="og:type" content="website" /> <meta property="og:image" content="https://www.universalis.fr/_web/static/icons/favicon.png" /> <meta property="og:image:width" content="256" /> <meta property="og:image:height" content="252" /> <meta name="twitter:title" content="H脡MISPH脠RES C脡R脡BRAUX" /> <meta name="twitter:description" content="Bien des si猫cles avant l'Antiquit茅 classique, on admettait d茅j脿 un 茅troit rapport entre les h茅misph猫res c茅r茅braux et les fonctions mentales sup茅rieures聽: sensation consciente, motricit茅 volontaire, m茅moire , etc. Les anciens auteurs ont abondamment sp茅cul茅 sur la r茅gion des h茅misph猫res o霉..." /> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary" /> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@universalisfr" /> <meta name="location" content="France" /> <meta name="rating" content="General" /> <meta name="distribution" content="Global" /> <meta name="resource-type" content="document" /> <meta name="copyright" content="漏 Copyright 2024 - Universalis" /> <meta name="apple-mobile-web-app-title" content="Universalis" /> <meta name="apple-mobile-web-app-capable" content="yes" /> <meta name="apple-mobile-web-app-status-bar-style" content="default" /> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no,date=no,address=no,email=no,url=no" /> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/_shared/pub/pub.css?1737972863" media="all"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/_web/assets/css/home.css?1737986363" media="all"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/_web/assets/css/classification.css?1737986363" media="all"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/hemispheres-cerebraux/" /> <link rel="next" href="https://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/hemispheres-cerebraux/2-localisations-corticales-sensorielles-chez-l-homme/" /> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"H\u00c9MISPH\u00c8RES C\u00c9R\u00c9BRAUX","headline":"H\u00c9MISPH\u00c8RES C\u00c9R\u00c9BRAUX","description":"Bien des si\u00e8cles avant l'Antiquit\u00e9 classique, on admettait d\u00e9j\u00e0 un \u00e9troit rapport entre les h\u00e9misph\u00e8res c\u00e9r\u00e9braux et les fonctions mentales sup\u00e9rieures\u00a0: sensation consciente, motricit\u00e9 volontaire, m\u00e9moire , etc. Les anciens auteurs ont abondamment sp\u00e9cul\u00e9 sur la r\u00e9gion des h\u00e9misph\u00e8res o\u00f9 pouvaient r\u00e9sider ces facult\u00e9s g\u00e9n\u00e9ralement d\u00e9sign\u00e9es par le terme global d'\u00e2me ou de psych\u00e9. Les uns les pla\u00e7aient dans les cavit\u00e9s c\u00e9r\u00e9brales que nous appelons aujourd'hui ventricules, d'autres sugg\u00e9raient des localisations diverses et plus pr\u00e9cises. D\u00e8s le xvii e \u00a0si\u00e8cle cependant, T. Willis (1621-1675) et R. Vieussens (1641-1715), \u00e0 la suite de quelques exp\u00e9riences encore tr\u00e8s grossi\u00e8res, retiraien...","url":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/encyclopedie\/hemispheres-cerebraux\/","wordCount":"12329","image":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/_web\/static\/icons\/favicon.png"},"isPartOf":{"@type":"WebPage","url":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/encyclopedie\/hemispheres-cerebraux\/","name":"H\u00c9MISPH\u00c8RES C\u00c9R\u00c9BRAUX"},"dateModified":"2025-01-29T00:00:00+00:00","author":[{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Person","name":"Pierre BUSER","familyName":"BUSER","givenName":"Pierre","description":"Membre de l'Acad\u00e9mie des sciences, professeur \u00e9m\u00e9rite \u00e0 l'universit\u00e9 de Paris-VI-Pierre-et-Marie-Curie.","url":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/auteurs\/pierre-buser\/"},{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Person","name":"Paul LAGET","familyName":"LAGET","givenName":"Paul","description":"Professeur de psychophysiologie \u00e0 l'universit\u00e9 de Paris-VI-Pierre-et-Marie-Curie.","url":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/auteurs\/paul-laget\/"}],"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Encyclop\u00e6dia Universalis","alternateName":"Universalis","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/_web\/assets\/img\/banniere-fr.png"},"sameAs":["https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/EncyclopedieUniversalis\/","https:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/company\/encyclopaedia-universalis","https:\/\/www.twitter.com\/universalisfr","https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/channel\/UC0srTZiJaRaDw3fAvtCo4Ow"],"slogan":"Passeur de savoir"}}</script> <script type="application/ld+json">[{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"BreadcrumbList","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"name":"Classification","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"name":"Sciences de la vie","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-vie\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":3,"name":"Physiologie","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-vie\/physiologie\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":4,"name":"Physiologie animale et humaine g\u00e9n\u00e9rale","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-vie\/physiologie\/physiologie-animale-et-humaine-generale\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":5,"name":"Neurobiologie, physiologie animale et humaine","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-vie\/physiologie\/physiologie-animale-et-humaine-generale\/neurobiologie-physiologie-animale-et-humaine\/"}],"numberOfItems":5,"itemListOrder":"Ascending","name":"Classification : Neurobiologie, physiologie animale et humaine"},{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"BreadcrumbList","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"name":"Classification","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"name":"Sciences de la vie","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-vie\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":3,"name":"Zoologie","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-vie\/zoologie\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":4,"name":"Biologie animale","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-vie\/zoologie\/biologie-animale\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":5,"name":"Physiologie animale","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-vie\/zoologie\/biologie-animale\/physiologie-animale\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":6,"name":"Neurobiologie, physiologie animale","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-vie\/zoologie\/biologie-animale\/physiologie-animale\/neurobiologie-physiologie-animale\/"}],"numberOfItems":6,"itemListOrder":"Ascending","name":"Classification : Neurobiologie, physiologie animale"},{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"BreadcrumbList","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"name":"Classification","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"name":"Sciences de la vie","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-vie\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":3,"name":"Biologie humaine","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-vie\/biologie-humaine\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":4,"name":"Physiologie humaine","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-vie\/biologie-humaine\/physiologie-humaine\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":5,"name":"Neurobiologie, physiologie humaine","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-vie\/biologie-humaine\/physiologie-humaine\/neurobiologie-physiologie-humaine\/"}],"numberOfItems":5,"itemListOrder":"Ascending","name":"Classification : Neurobiologie, physiologie humaine"},{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"BreadcrumbList","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"name":"Classification","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"name":"Sciences de la vie","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-vie\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":3,"name":"Zoologie","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-vie\/zoologie\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":4,"name":"Biologie animale","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-vie\/zoologie\/biologie-animale\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":5,"name":"Anatomie animale","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-vie\/zoologie\/biologie-animale\/anatomie-animale\/"}],"numberOfItems":5,"itemListOrder":"Ascending","name":"Classification : Anatomie animale"},{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"BreadcrumbList","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"name":"Classification","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"name":"Sciences de la vie","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-vie\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":3,"name":"Histologie","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-vie\/histologie\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":4,"name":"Histologie animale et humaine","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-vie\/histologie\/histologie-animale-et-humaine\/"}],"numberOfItems":4,"itemListOrder":"Ascending","name":"Classification : Histologie animale et humaine"},{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"BreadcrumbList","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"name":"Classification","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"name":"Sciences de la vie","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-vie\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":3,"name":"Zoologie","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-vie\/zoologie\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":4,"name":"Biologie animale","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-vie\/zoologie\/biologie-animale\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":5,"name":"Histologie animale","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-vie\/zoologie\/biologie-animale\/histologie-animale\/"}],"numberOfItems":5,"itemListOrder":"Ascending","name":"Classification : Histologie animale"},{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"BreadcrumbList","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"name":"Classification","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"name":"Sciences de la vie","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-vie\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":3,"name":"Biologie humaine","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-vie\/biologie-humaine\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":4,"name":"Anatomie humaine","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-vie\/biologie-humaine\/anatomie-humaine\/"}],"numberOfItems":4,"itemListOrder":"Ascending","name":"Classification : Anatomie humaine"},{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"BreadcrumbList","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"name":"Classification","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"name":"Sciences de la vie","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-vie\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":3,"name":"Biologie humaine","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-vie\/biologie-humaine\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":4,"name":"Histologie humaine","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-vie\/biologie-humaine\/histologie-humaine\/"}],"numberOfItems":4,"itemListOrder":"Ascending","name":"Classification : Histologie humaine"}]</script> <meta name="apple-mobile-web-app-capable" content="yes"/> <meta name="mobile-web-app-capable" content="yes"/> <meta name="apple-mobile-web-app-status-bar-style" content="black"> <meta name="apple-mobile-web-app-title" content="Universalis"> <meta name="theme-color" content="#526D78"> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://statistiques.universalis.fr" /> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://cmp.inmobi.com" /> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" title="Universalis FR" href="/_web/static/search-fr.xml" /> <link rel="manifest" href="/_web/static/manifest.json"> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" href="/_web/static/icons/favicon.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon.png" /> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="57x57" href="/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon-57x57.png" /> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="72x72" href="/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon-72x72.png" /> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="76x76" href="/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon-76x76.png" /> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="114x114" href="/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon-114x114.png" /> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="120x120" href="/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon-120x120.png" /> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="144x144" href="/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon-144x144.png" /> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="152x152" href="/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon-152x152.png" /> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="180x180" href="/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon-180x180.png" /> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 834px) and (device-height: 1194px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/11__iPad_Pro__10.5__iPad_Pro_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 810px) and (device-height: 1080px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/10.2__iPad_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 744px) and (device-height: 1133px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/8.3__iPad_Mini_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 810px) and (device-height: 1080px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/10.2__iPad_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 820px) and (device-height: 1180px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/10.9__iPad_Air_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 744px) and (device-height: 1133px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/8.3__iPad_Mini_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 1024px) and (device-height: 1366px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/12.9__iPad_Pro_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 428px) and (device-height: 926px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_14_Plus__iPhone_13_Pro_Max__iPhone_12_Pro_Max_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 414px) and (device-height: 896px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_11_Pro_Max__iPhone_XS_Max_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 1024px) and (device-height: 1366px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/12.9__iPad_Pro_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 768px) and (device-height: 1024px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/9.7__iPad_Pro__7.9__iPad_mini__9.7__iPad_Air__9.7__iPad_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 375px) and (device-height: 812px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_13_mini__iPhone_12_mini__iPhone_11_Pro__iPhone_XS__iPhone_X_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 820px) and (device-height: 1180px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/10.9__iPad_Air_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 393px) and (device-height: 852px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_14_Pro_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 414px) and (device-height: 896px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_11_Pro_Max__iPhone_XS_Max_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 414px) and (device-height: 736px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_8_Plus__iPhone_7_Plus__iPhone_6s_Plus__iPhone_6_Plus_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 320px) and (device-height: 568px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/4__iPhone_SE__iPod_touch_5th_generation_and_later_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 393px) and (device-height: 852px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_14_Pro_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 414px) and (device-height: 896px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_11__iPhone_XR_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 375px) and (device-height: 667px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_8__iPhone_7__iPhone_6s__iPhone_6__4.7__iPhone_SE_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 320px) and (device-height: 568px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/4__iPhone_SE__iPod_touch_5th_generation_and_later_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 390px) and (device-height: 844px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_14__iPhone_13_Pro__iPhone_13__iPhone_12_Pro__iPhone_12_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 375px) and (device-height: 812px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_13_mini__iPhone_12_mini__iPhone_11_Pro__iPhone_XS__iPhone_X_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 834px) and (device-height: 1112px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/10.5__iPad_Air_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 390px) and (device-height: 844px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_14__iPhone_13_Pro__iPhone_13__iPhone_12_Pro__iPhone_12_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 768px) and (device-height: 1024px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/9.7__iPad_Pro__7.9__iPad_mini__9.7__iPad_Air__9.7__iPad_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 430px) and (device-height: 932px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_14_Pro_Max_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 428px) and (device-height: 926px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_14_Plus__iPhone_13_Pro_Max__iPhone_12_Pro_Max_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 414px) and (device-height: 896px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_11__iPhone_XR_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 375px) and (device-height: 667px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_8__iPhone_7__iPhone_6s__iPhone_6__4.7__iPhone_SE_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 834px) and (device-height: 1112px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/10.5__iPad_Air_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 834px) and (device-height: 1194px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/11__iPad_Pro__10.5__iPad_Pro_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 414px) and (device-height: 736px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_8_Plus__iPhone_7_Plus__iPhone_6s_Plus__iPhone_6_Plus_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 430px) and (device-height: 932px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_14_Pro_Max_landscape.png"> <script>!function(a,b,c){if(c in b&&b[c]){var d,e=a.location,f=/^(a|html)$/i;a.addEventListener("click",function(a){for(d=a.target;!f.test(d.nodeName);)d=d.parentNode;"href"in d&&(d.href.indexOf("http")||~d.href.indexOf(e.host))&&(a.preventDefault(),e.href=d.href)},!1),a.querySelector("html").classList.add("standalone")}}(document,window.navigator,"standalone")</script> <style> body{ padding-bottom: 2em; } .cta{ display: block; } .folio-block { width: 100%; max-width: 550px; margin: 1em auto; border: .25em solid var(--eu-color-rgb-cta); border-radius: .375em; background: #f5f5f5; padding: .5em 1em; } .folio-block-title { font-size: 1.25em; } @media(max-width: 767px) { .folio-block-title { font-size: 1.1em; } } .folio-block ul { width: 100%; max-width: 300px; margin: 1em auto; } .folio-block ul li { font-size: .95em; } .btn-cta { background: var(--eu-color-rgb-cta) !important; color: #fff !important; font-weight: bold !important; font-size: 1.15em !important; } .btn-cta:hover { background: var(--eu-color-hover-rgb-cta) !important; color: #fff !important; text-decoration: underline; } #bandeau-footer{ display: block !important; position: fixed; bottom: 0; width: 100%; background: rgb(108,51,131); padding: .25em; z-index: 900; border-top: 1px solid rgba(166, 143, 22, 0.72); } #bandeau-footer p{ font-size: 1.375em; margin: 0; background: url('/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon-57x57.png') no-repeat left center; background-size: 28px 28px; padding-left: 1.75em; } @media(max-width: 768px){ #bandeau-footer p{ font-size: 1.2em; margin-left: .5em; } body:not(#page_12) .login-link-container{ display: block !important; text-align: center; margin-top: -1em; } } #bandeau-footer a{ color: #fff; } .pub-container{ margin: 1em auto; display: block !important; } .pub-container .pub-placeholder{ display: flex; align-content: center; justify-content: center; align-items: center; background: #eee; color: #aaa; width: 100%; min-height: 100px; } .pub-container .pub-placeholder:before{ content: "contenu sponsoris茅"; text-shadow: 0 0 1px #fff; } #ad_rightslot .pub-placeholder{ min-height: 600px; } #ad_rightslot2 .pub-placeholder{ min-height: 250px; } @media (max-width: 768px){ .pub-container{ display: none !important } } </style> <script> const getCookieValue = (name) => ( document.cookie.match('(^|;)\\s*' + name + '\\s*=\\s*([^;]+)')?.pop() || '' ); var userprofile = 'anonymous'; if (getCookieValue('user_data')) { userprofile = 'subscriber'; } var _paq = window._paq = window._paq || []; _paq.push(['setCustomDimension', 1,userprofile]); /* tracker methods like "setCustomDimension" should be called before "trackPageView" */ _paq.push(['trackPageView']); _paq.push(['enableLinkTracking']); (function() { var u="//statistiques.universalis.fr/"; _paq.push(['setTrackerUrl', u+'matomo.php']); _paq.push(['setSiteId', '1']); var d=document, g=d.createElement('script'), s=d.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; g.async=true; g.src=u+'matomo.js'; s.parentNode.insertBefore(g,s); })(); </script> <style>.swiper-container[data-loaded=false] .swiper-wrapper .swiper-slide{display:none}.swiper-container[data-loaded=false] .swiper-wrapper .swiper-slide:first-child{display:block}img{max-width:100%;height:auto;max-height:250px}img.d-formule{max-height:none}strong{font-weight:bold !important}.dark-mode body{background:#29363a !important}.loader{display:none;height:100vh}.loader:after{display:block;margin:auto;content:"";background:url(/_web/assets/img/banniere-fr.png) no-repeat center;background-size:contain;width:50%;height:50%;position:absolute;top:50%;left:50%;transform:translate(-50%, -50%);opacity:.25}#page_3 #ad_topslot{display:none !important}#skip{padding:5px 15px;position:absolute;background:rgba(0,0,0,.85);color:#fff;left:10%;transform:translateY(-100%);transition:transform .3s;border-bottom-left-radius:6px;border-bottom-right-radius:6px;z-index:100;text-decoration:none}#skip:focus{transform:translateY(0%);box-shadow:0 0 10px #333}.login-form-wrapper-mobile{display:none}.site-fr .article-quote{display:none !important}@media(max-width: 768px){.login-form-wrapper-mobile{display:block;text-align:center;margin-top:-1em;margin-bottom:1em}}body.loading{overflow:hidden}body.loading>*{display:none}body.loading .loader{display:block}.dropdown-menu,.d-none,#podcast audio{display:none}.list-inline-item{display:inline-block}.offcanvas{visibility:hidden}.main-navbar-wrapper .btn-universalis{background-color:#e8eced;color:#000;font-weight:normal}.offcanvas{display:none !important;height:0 !important}.offcanvas[data-loaded=true]{display:inherit !important;height:inherit !important}.clearfix{clear:both}.fr .is-edu{display:none !important}#podcast{min-height:90px}#article-medias-strip-junior{min-height:255px}#callSommaire{position:fixed;bottom:10px;left:10px;z-index:2}.edu #callSommaire{bottom:60px}#qc-cmp2-ui{padding:10px !important}.qc-cmp2-summary-buttons{justify-content:space-around !important}.qc-cmp2-summary-buttons button[mode=secondary],.qc-cmp2-footer button[mode=secondary]{border:none;box-shadow:none}.eCBsvP.eCBsvP{height:auto !important}.qc-cmp-cleanslate{background-color:rgba(33,41,52,.95) !important}.fill-universalis{fill:#1c3479}.fill-universalis-up{fill:#526c78}@media(min-width: 768px){.qc-cmp2-publisher-logo-container{text-align:center}.qc-cmp2-publisher-logo-container figure img{display:block !important}}#page_14 .filter-article-container{display:none}#newsletter_subscription .text-light{color:#fff !important}#bandeau-footer{display:none}</style> <link rel="stylesheet" id="typo-css" href="/_web/assets/css/typo.css?t=20240418-1" /><script>let cssLoaded=!1,bodyLoaded=!1;const loadedTO=setTimeout((()=>{cssLoaded=!0,bodyLoaded=!0,loaded()}),5e3),loaded=function(){cssLoaded&&bodyLoaded&&document.body.classList.contains("loading")&&(document.body.className=document.body.className.replace("loading","").trim(),clearTimeout(loadedTO))};</script> <link rel="preload" href="/_web/assets/css/lazy.css?t=20240418-1" as="style" media="all" crossorigin onload="this.rel=`stylesheet`; cssLoaded = true; loaded()" /><style>.breadcrumb{--bs-breadcrumb-padding-x: 0;--bs-breadcrumb-padding-y: 0;--bs-breadcrumb-margin-bottom: 1rem;--bs-breadcrumb-bg: ;--bs-breadcrumb-border-radius: ;--bs-breadcrumb-divider-color: #6c757d;--bs-breadcrumb-item-padding-x: 0.5rem;--bs-breadcrumb-item-active-color: #6c757d;display:flex;flex-wrap:wrap;padding:var(--bs-breadcrumb-padding-y) var(--bs-breadcrumb-padding-x);margin-bottom:var(--bs-breadcrumb-margin-bottom);font-size:var(--bs-breadcrumb-font-size);list-style:none;background-color:var(--bs-breadcrumb-bg);border-radius:var(--bs-breadcrumb-border-radius)}.breadcrumb-item+.breadcrumb-item{padding-left:var(--bs-breadcrumb-item-padding-x)}.breadcrumb-item+.breadcrumb-item::before{float:left;padding-right:var(--bs-breadcrumb-item-padding-x);color:var(--bs-breadcrumb-divider-color);content:var(--bs-breadcrumb-divider, "/") /* rtl: var(--bs-breadcrumb-divider, "/") */}.breadcrumb-item.active{color:var(--bs-breadcrumb-item-active-color)}.breadcrumb{padding:.5rem 1rem !important;background-color:#f5f5f5 !important;border-radius:.375rem !important}.breadcrumb .breadcrumb-item i.label-sub{font-size:.85em;font-weight:normal}.breadcrumb .breadcrumb-item a{text-decoration:none}.breadcrumb .breadcrumb-item a:hover{text-decoration:underline}.breadcrumb .breadcrumb-item.active{font-weight:bold}.breadcrumb .breadcrumb-item+.breadcrumb-item::before{background-image:url('data:image/svg+xml;charset=UTF-8, <svg aria-hidden="true" focusable="false" data-prefix="far" data-icon="chevron-double-right" role="img" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 448 512" class="svg-inline--fa fa-chevron-double-right fa-w-14 fa-7x"><path style="fill: rgb(97, 104, 118);" d="M57.7 38.1l209.4 209.4c4.7 4.7 4.7 12.3 0 17L57.7 473.9c-4.7 4.7-12.3 4.7-17 0l-19.8-19.8c-4.7-4.7-4.7-12.3 0-17L201.6 256 20.9 74.9c-4.7-4.7-4.7-12.3 0-17l19.8-19.8c4.7-4.7 12.3-4.7 17 0zm143 0l-19.8 19.8c-4.7 4.7-4.7 12.3 0 17L361.6 256 180.9 437.1c-4.7 4.7-4.7 12.3 0 17l19.8 19.8c4.7 4.7 12.3 4.7 17 0l209.4-209.4c4.7-4.7 4.7-12.3 0-17L217.7 38.1c-4.7-4.7-12.3-4.7-17 0z" class=""></path></svg>');background-repeat:no-repeat;background-position:center;content:"";width:.5rem;height:100%;margin-right:.5rem}.list-group{--bs-list-group-color: #212529;--bs-list-group-bg: #fff;--bs-list-group-border-color: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.125);--bs-list-group-border-width: 1px;--bs-list-group-border-radius: 0.375rem;--bs-list-group-item-padding-x: 1rem;--bs-list-group-item-padding-y: 0.5rem;--bs-list-group-action-color: #495057;--bs-list-group-action-hover-color: #495057;--bs-list-group-action-hover-bg: #f8f9fa;--bs-list-group-action-active-color: #212529;--bs-list-group-action-active-bg: #e9ecef;--bs-list-group-disabled-color: #6c757d;--bs-list-group-disabled-bg: #fff;--bs-list-group-active-color: #fff;--bs-list-group-active-bg: #526c78;--bs-list-group-active-border-color: #526c78;display:flex;flex-direction:column;padding-left:0;margin-bottom:0;border-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius)}.list-group-numbered{list-style-type:none;counter-reset:section}.list-group-numbered>.list-group-item::before{content:counters(section, ".") ". ";counter-increment:section}.list-group-item-action{width:100%;color:var(--bs-list-group-action-color);text-align:inherit}.list-group-item-action:hover,.list-group-item-action:focus{z-index:1;color:var(--bs-list-group-action-hover-color);text-decoration:none;background-color:var(--bs-list-group-action-hover-bg)}.list-group-item-action:active{color:var(--bs-list-group-action-active-color);background-color:var(--bs-list-group-action-active-bg)}.list-group-item{position:relative;display:block;padding:var(--bs-list-group-item-padding-y) var(--bs-list-group-item-padding-x);color:var(--bs-list-group-color);text-decoration:none;background-color:var(--bs-list-group-bg);border:var(--bs-list-group-border-width) solid var(--bs-list-group-border-color)}.list-group-item:first-child{border-top-left-radius:inherit;border-top-right-radius:inherit}.list-group-item:last-child{border-bottom-right-radius:inherit;border-bottom-left-radius:inherit}.list-group-item.disabled,.list-group-item:disabled{color:var(--bs-list-group-disabled-color);pointer-events:none;background-color:var(--bs-list-group-disabled-bg)}.list-group-item.active{z-index:2;color:var(--bs-list-group-active-color);background-color:var(--bs-list-group-active-bg);border-color:var(--bs-list-group-active-border-color)}.list-group-item+.list-group-item{border-top-width:0}.list-group-item+.list-group-item.active{margin-top:calc(-1 * var(--bs-list-group-border-width));border-top-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width)}.list-group-horizontal{flex-direction:row}.list-group-horizontal>.list-group-item:first-child:not(:last-child){border-bottom-left-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-top-right-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal>.list-group-item:last-child:not(:first-child){border-top-right-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-bottom-left-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal>.list-group-item.active{margin-top:0}.list-group-horizontal>.list-group-item+.list-group-item{border-top-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width);border-left-width:0}.list-group-horizontal>.list-group-item+.list-group-item.active{margin-left:calc(-1 * var(--bs-list-group-border-width));border-left-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width)}@media(min-width: 576px){.list-group-horizontal-sm{flex-direction:row}.list-group-horizontal-sm>.list-group-item:first-child:not(:last-child){border-bottom-left-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-top-right-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal-sm>.list-group-item:last-child:not(:first-child){border-top-right-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-bottom-left-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal-sm>.list-group-item.active{margin-top:0}.list-group-horizontal-sm>.list-group-item+.list-group-item{border-top-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width);border-left-width:0}.list-group-horizontal-sm>.list-group-item+.list-group-item.active{margin-left:calc(-1 * var(--bs-list-group-border-width));border-left-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width)}}@media(min-width: 768px){.list-group-horizontal-md{flex-direction:row}.list-group-horizontal-md>.list-group-item:first-child:not(:last-child){border-bottom-left-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-top-right-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal-md>.list-group-item:last-child:not(:first-child){border-top-right-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-bottom-left-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal-md>.list-group-item.active{margin-top:0}.list-group-horizontal-md>.list-group-item+.list-group-item{border-top-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width);border-left-width:0}.list-group-horizontal-md>.list-group-item+.list-group-item.active{margin-left:calc(-1 * var(--bs-list-group-border-width));border-left-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width)}}@media(min-width: 992px){.list-group-horizontal-lg{flex-direction:row}.list-group-horizontal-lg>.list-group-item:first-child:not(:last-child){border-bottom-left-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-top-right-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal-lg>.list-group-item:last-child:not(:first-child){border-top-right-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-bottom-left-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal-lg>.list-group-item.active{margin-top:0}.list-group-horizontal-lg>.list-group-item+.list-group-item{border-top-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width);border-left-width:0}.list-group-horizontal-lg>.list-group-item+.list-group-item.active{margin-left:calc(-1 * var(--bs-list-group-border-width));border-left-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width)}}@media(min-width: 1200px){.list-group-horizontal-xl{flex-direction:row}.list-group-horizontal-xl>.list-group-item:first-child:not(:last-child){border-bottom-left-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-top-right-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal-xl>.list-group-item:last-child:not(:first-child){border-top-right-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-bottom-left-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal-xl>.list-group-item.active{margin-top:0}.list-group-horizontal-xl>.list-group-item+.list-group-item{border-top-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width);border-left-width:0}.list-group-horizontal-xl>.list-group-item+.list-group-item.active{margin-left:calc(-1 * var(--bs-list-group-border-width));border-left-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width)}}@media(min-width: 1400px){.list-group-horizontal-xxl{flex-direction:row}.list-group-horizontal-xxl>.list-group-item:first-child:not(:last-child){border-bottom-left-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-top-right-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal-xxl>.list-group-item:last-child:not(:first-child){border-top-right-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-bottom-left-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal-xxl>.list-group-item.active{margin-top:0}.list-group-horizontal-xxl>.list-group-item+.list-group-item{border-top-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width);border-left-width:0}.list-group-horizontal-xxl>.list-group-item+.list-group-item.active{margin-left:calc(-1 * var(--bs-list-group-border-width));border-left-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width)}}.list-group-flush{border-radius:0}.list-group-flush>.list-group-item{border-width:0 0 var(--bs-list-group-border-width)}.list-group-flush>.list-group-item:last-child{border-bottom-width:0}.list-group-item-primary{color:#314148;background-color:#dce2e4}.list-group-item-primary.list-group-item-action:hover,.list-group-item-primary.list-group-item-action:focus{color:#314148;background-color:#c6cbcd}.list-group-item-primary.list-group-item-action.active{color:#fff;background-color:#314148;border-color:#314148}.list-group-item-secondary{color:#192023;background-color:#d4d7d8}.list-group-item-secondary.list-group-item-action:hover,.list-group-item-secondary.list-group-item-action:focus{color:#192023;background-color:#bfc2c2}.list-group-item-secondary.list-group-item-action.active{color:#fff;background-color:#192023;border-color:#192023}.list-group-item-success{color:#0f5132;background-color:#d1e7dd}.list-group-item-success.list-group-item-action:hover,.list-group-item-success.list-group-item-action:focus{color:#0f5132;background-color:#bcd0c7}.list-group-item-success.list-group-item-action.active{color:#fff;background-color:#0f5132;border-color:#0f5132}.list-group-item-info{color:#055160;background-color:#cff4fc}.list-group-item-info.list-group-item-action:hover,.list-group-item-info.list-group-item-action:focus{color:#055160;background-color:#badce3}.list-group-item-info.list-group-item-action.active{color:#fff;background-color:#055160;border-color:#055160}.list-group-item-warning{color:#664d03;background-color:#fff3cd}.list-group-item-warning.list-group-item-action:hover,.list-group-item-warning.list-group-item-action:focus{color:#664d03;background-color:#e6dbb9}.list-group-item-warning.list-group-item-action.active{color:#fff;background-color:#664d03;border-color:#664d03}.list-group-item-danger{color:#851a31;background-color:#f8d5dc}.list-group-item-danger.list-group-item-action:hover,.list-group-item-danger.list-group-item-action:focus{color:#851a31;background-color:#dfc0c6}.list-group-item-danger.list-group-item-action.active{color:#fff;background-color:#851a31;border-color:#851a31}.list-group-item-light{color:#5d5e5f;background-color:#fafbfb}.list-group-item-light.list-group-item-action:hover,.list-group-item-light.list-group-item-action:focus{color:#5d5e5f;background-color:#e1e2e2}.list-group-item-light.list-group-item-action.active{color:#fff;background-color:#5d5e5f;border-color:#5d5e5f}.list-group-item-dark{color:#192023;background-color:#d4d7d8}.list-group-item-dark.list-group-item-action:hover,.list-group-item-dark.list-group-item-action:focus{color:#192023;background-color:#bfc2c2}.list-group-item-dark.list-group-item-action.active{color:#fff;background-color:#192023;border-color:#192023}.badge{--bs-badge-padding-x: 0.65em;--bs-badge-padding-y: 0.35em;--bs-badge-font-size:0.75em;--bs-badge-font-weight: 700;--bs-badge-color: #fff;--bs-badge-border-radius: 0.375rem;display:inline-block;padding:var(--bs-badge-padding-y) var(--bs-badge-padding-x);font-size:var(--bs-badge-font-size);font-weight:var(--bs-badge-font-weight);line-height:1;color:var(--bs-badge-color);text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;vertical-align:baseline;border-radius:var(--bs-badge-border-radius)}.badge:empty{display:none}.btn .badge{position:relative;top:-1px}.btn-group,.btn-group-vertical{position:relative;display:inline-flex;vertical-align:middle}.btn-group>.btn,.btn-group-vertical>.btn{position:relative;flex:1 1 auto}.btn-group>.btn-check:checked+.btn,.btn-group>.btn-check:focus+.btn,.btn-group>.btn:hover,.btn-group>.btn:focus,.btn-group>.btn:active,.btn-group>.btn.active,.btn-group-vertical>.btn-check:checked+.btn,.btn-group-vertical>.btn-check:focus+.btn,.btn-group-vertical>.btn:hover,.btn-group-vertical>.btn:focus,.btn-group-vertical>.btn:active,.btn-group-vertical>.btn.active{z-index:1}.btn-toolbar{display:flex;flex-wrap:wrap;justify-content:flex-start}.btn-toolbar .input-group{width:auto}.btn-group{border-radius:.375rem}.btn-group>:not(.btn-check:first-child)+.btn,.btn-group>.btn-group:not(:first-child){margin-left:-1px}.btn-group>.btn:not(:last-child):not(.dropdown-toggle),.btn-group>.btn.dropdown-toggle-split:first-child,.btn-group>.btn-group:not(:last-child)>.btn{border-top-right-radius:0;border-bottom-right-radius:0}.btn-group>.btn:nth-child(n+3),.btn-group>:not(.btn-check)+.btn,.btn-group>.btn-group:not(:first-child)>.btn{border-top-left-radius:0;border-bottom-left-radius:0}.dropdown-toggle-split{padding-right:.5625rem;padding-left:.5625rem}.dropdown-toggle-split::after,.dropup .dropdown-toggle-split::after,.dropend .dropdown-toggle-split::after{margin-left:0}.dropstart .dropdown-toggle-split::before{margin-right:0}.btn-sm+.dropdown-toggle-split,.btn-group-sm>.btn+.dropdown-toggle-split{padding-right:.375rem;padding-left:.375rem}.btn-lg+.dropdown-toggle-split,.btn-group-lg>.btn+.dropdown-toggle-split{padding-right:.75rem;padding-left:.75rem}.btn-group-vertical{flex-direction:column;align-items:flex-start;justify-content:center}.btn-group-vertical>.btn,.btn-group-vertical>.btn-group{width:100%}.btn-group-vertical>.btn:not(:first-child),.btn-group-vertical>.btn-group:not(:first-child){margin-top:-1px}.btn-group-vertical>.btn:not(:last-child):not(.dropdown-toggle),.btn-group-vertical>.btn-group:not(:last-child)>.btn{border-bottom-right-radius:0;border-bottom-left-radius:0}.btn-group-vertical>.btn~.btn,.btn-group-vertical>.btn-group:not(:first-child)>.btn{border-top-left-radius:0;border-top-right-radius:0}.pagination{--bs-pagination-padding-x: 0.75rem;--bs-pagination-padding-y: 0.375rem;--bs-pagination-font-size:0.95rem;--bs-pagination-color: var(--bs-link-color);--bs-pagination-bg: #fff;--bs-pagination-border-width: 1px;--bs-pagination-border-color: #dee2e6;--bs-pagination-border-radius: 0.375rem;--bs-pagination-hover-color: var(--bs-link-hover-color);--bs-pagination-hover-bg: #e9ecef;--bs-pagination-hover-border-color: #dee2e6;--bs-pagination-focus-color: var(--bs-link-hover-color);--bs-pagination-focus-bg: #e9ecef;--bs-pagination-focus-box-shadow: 0 0 0 0.25rem rgba(82, 108, 120, 0.25);--bs-pagination-active-color: #fff;--bs-pagination-active-bg: #526c78;--bs-pagination-active-border-color: #526c78;--bs-pagination-disabled-color: #6c757d;--bs-pagination-disabled-bg: #fff;--bs-pagination-disabled-border-color: #dee2e6;display:flex;padding-left:0;list-style:none}.page-link{position:relative;display:block;padding:var(--bs-pagination-padding-y) var(--bs-pagination-padding-x);font-size:var(--bs-pagination-font-size);color:var(--bs-pagination-color);text-decoration:none;background-color:var(--bs-pagination-bg);border:var(--bs-pagination-border-width) solid var(--bs-pagination-border-color);transition:color .15s ease-in-out,background-color .15s ease-in-out,border-color .15s ease-in-out,box-shadow .15s ease-in-out}@media(prefers-reduced-motion: reduce){.page-link{transition:none}}.page-link:hover{z-index:2;color:var(--bs-pagination-hover-color);background-color:var(--bs-pagination-hover-bg);border-color:var(--bs-pagination-hover-border-color)}.page-link:focus{z-index:3;color:var(--bs-pagination-focus-color);background-color:var(--bs-pagination-focus-bg);outline:0;box-shadow:var(--bs-pagination-focus-box-shadow)}.page-link.active,.active>.page-link{z-index:3;color:var(--bs-pagination-active-color);background-color:var(--bs-pagination-active-bg);border-color:var(--bs-pagination-active-border-color)}.page-link.disabled,.disabled>.page-link{color:var(--bs-pagination-disabled-color);pointer-events:none;background-color:var(--bs-pagination-disabled-bg);border-color:var(--bs-pagination-disabled-border-color)}.page-item:not(:first-child) .page-link{margin-left:-1px}.page-item:first-child .page-link{border-top-left-radius:var(--bs-pagination-border-radius);border-bottom-left-radius:var(--bs-pagination-border-radius)}.page-item:last-child .page-link{border-top-right-radius:var(--bs-pagination-border-radius);border-bottom-right-radius:var(--bs-pagination-border-radius)}.pagination-lg{--bs-pagination-padding-x: 1.5rem;--bs-pagination-padding-y: 0.75rem;--bs-pagination-font-size:1.1875rem;--bs-pagination-border-radius: 0.5rem}.pagination-sm{--bs-pagination-padding-x: 0.5rem;--bs-pagination-padding-y: 0.25rem;--bs-pagination-font-size:0.83125rem;--bs-pagination-border-radius: 0.25rem}.list-group a.list-group-item{border-color:#f8fafc}.list-group a.list-group-item.active{background-color:#526c78}.list-group a.list-group-item h3{margin:0;line-height:1.5;font-size:.95rem;font-family:system-ui,-apple-system,"Segoe UI",Roboto,"Helvetica Neue","Noto Sans","Liberation Sans",Arial,sans-serif,"Apple Color Emoji","Segoe UI Emoji","Segoe UI Symbol","Noto Color Emoji";padding-bottom:0}.list-group a.list-group-item h3:hover{color:#fff}.list-group a.list-group-item h3 .badge{line-height:1.25}.list-group a.list-group-item:hover{background-color:#526c78;color:#fff}.list-group a.list-group-item:hover h3{color:inherit}i.anchor{display:block;position:relative;visibility:hidden;top:calc(-25vh + 15px)}.article__props{font-size:.8rem;color:#000;font-style:italic;padding:.2rem 0;margin:0 auto;display:block}.content h6,.h6,h5,.h5,h4,.h4,h3,.h3,h2,.h2,h1,.h1{margin-bottom:0;padding-bottom:.5rem}titre_main+titre_subs{margin-left:.25em}pc,.pc{text-transform:uppercase;font-size:.8em}h2 .pc,h3 .pc,h4 .pc,h5 .pc,h6 .pc{font-size:inherit !important}.sup-sub{position:relative;margin-right:1rem}.sup-sub sup,.sup-sub sub,.sup-sub inf{position:absolute;display:block;left:0}.sup-sub sup{top:.25rem}.sup-sub sub,.sup-sub inf{bottom:.25rem}p:empty{display:none !important}.content.whole .read-more{display:none}blockquote{position:relative;text-align:center;padding:1rem 1.4rem;width:80%;margin:1rem auto 2rem;font-family:Times;font-style:italic;box-shadow:0 .5rem 1rem rgba(0,0,0,.15);border-radius:.375rem}blockquote:before{position:absolute;color:#526c78;font-size:3rem;content:"芦";top:-22px;margin-right:-28px;right:100%}blockquote:after{position:absolute;color:#526c78;font-size:3rem;content:"禄";margin-left:-28px;left:100%;top:auto;bottom:-12px}.offcanvas,.offcanvas-xxl,.offcanvas-xl,.offcanvas-lg,.offcanvas-md,.offcanvas-sm{--bs-offcanvas-zindex: 1045;--bs-offcanvas-width: 400px;--bs-offcanvas-height: 30vh;--bs-offcanvas-padding-x: 1rem;--bs-offcanvas-padding-y: 1rem;--bs-offcanvas-color: ;--bs-offcanvas-bg: #fff;--bs-offcanvas-border-width: 1px;--bs-offcanvas-border-color: var(--bs-border-color-translucent);--bs-offcanvas-box-shadow: 0 0.125rem 0.25rem rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.075)}@media(max-width: 575.98px){.offcanvas-sm{position:fixed;bottom:0;z-index:var(--bs-offcanvas-zindex);display:flex;flex-direction:column;max-width:100%;color:var(--bs-offcanvas-color);visibility:hidden;background-color:var(--bs-offcanvas-bg);background-clip:padding-box;outline:0;transition:transform .3s ease-in-out}}@media(max-width: 575.98px)and (prefers-reduced-motion: reduce){.offcanvas-sm{transition:none}}@media(max-width: 575.98px){.offcanvas-sm.offcanvas-start{top:0;left:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-right:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(-100%)}}@media(max-width: 575.98px){.offcanvas-sm.offcanvas-end{top:0;right:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-left:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(100%)}}@media(max-width: 575.98px){.offcanvas-sm.offcanvas-top{top:0;right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-bottom:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(-100%)}}@media(max-width: 575.98px){.offcanvas-sm.offcanvas-bottom{right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-top:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(100%)}}@media(max-width: 575.98px){.offcanvas-sm.showing,.offcanvas-sm.show:not(.hiding){transform:none}}@media(max-width: 575.98px){.offcanvas-sm.showing,.offcanvas-sm.hiding,.offcanvas-sm.show{visibility:visible}}@media(min-width: 576px){.offcanvas-sm{--bs-offcanvas-height: auto;--bs-offcanvas-border-width: 0;background-color:transparent !important}.offcanvas-sm .offcanvas-header{display:none}.offcanvas-sm .offcanvas-body{display:flex;flex-grow:0;padding:0;overflow-y:visible;background-color:transparent !important}}@media(max-width: 767.98px){.offcanvas-md{position:fixed;bottom:0;z-index:var(--bs-offcanvas-zindex);display:flex;flex-direction:column;max-width:100%;color:var(--bs-offcanvas-color);visibility:hidden;background-color:var(--bs-offcanvas-bg);background-clip:padding-box;outline:0;transition:transform .3s ease-in-out}}@media(max-width: 767.98px)and (prefers-reduced-motion: reduce){.offcanvas-md{transition:none}}@media(max-width: 767.98px){.offcanvas-md.offcanvas-start{top:0;left:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-right:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(-100%)}}@media(max-width: 767.98px){.offcanvas-md.offcanvas-end{top:0;right:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-left:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(100%)}}@media(max-width: 767.98px){.offcanvas-md.offcanvas-top{top:0;right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-bottom:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(-100%)}}@media(max-width: 767.98px){.offcanvas-md.offcanvas-bottom{right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-top:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(100%)}}@media(max-width: 767.98px){.offcanvas-md.showing,.offcanvas-md.show:not(.hiding){transform:none}}@media(max-width: 767.98px){.offcanvas-md.showing,.offcanvas-md.hiding,.offcanvas-md.show{visibility:visible}}@media(min-width: 768px){.offcanvas-md{--bs-offcanvas-height: auto;--bs-offcanvas-border-width: 0;background-color:transparent !important}.offcanvas-md .offcanvas-header{display:none}.offcanvas-md .offcanvas-body{display:flex;flex-grow:0;padding:0;overflow-y:visible;background-color:transparent !important}}@media(max-width: 991.98px){.offcanvas-lg{position:fixed;bottom:0;z-index:var(--bs-offcanvas-zindex);display:flex;flex-direction:column;max-width:100%;color:var(--bs-offcanvas-color);visibility:hidden;background-color:var(--bs-offcanvas-bg);background-clip:padding-box;outline:0;transition:transform .3s ease-in-out}}@media(max-width: 991.98px)and (prefers-reduced-motion: reduce){.offcanvas-lg{transition:none}}@media(max-width: 991.98px){.offcanvas-lg.offcanvas-start{top:0;left:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-right:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(-100%)}}@media(max-width: 991.98px){.offcanvas-lg.offcanvas-end{top:0;right:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-left:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(100%)}}@media(max-width: 991.98px){.offcanvas-lg.offcanvas-top{top:0;right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-bottom:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(-100%)}}@media(max-width: 991.98px){.offcanvas-lg.offcanvas-bottom{right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-top:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(100%)}}@media(max-width: 991.98px){.offcanvas-lg.showing,.offcanvas-lg.show:not(.hiding){transform:none}}@media(max-width: 991.98px){.offcanvas-lg.showing,.offcanvas-lg.hiding,.offcanvas-lg.show{visibility:visible}}@media(min-width: 992px){.offcanvas-lg{--bs-offcanvas-height: auto;--bs-offcanvas-border-width: 0;background-color:transparent !important}.offcanvas-lg .offcanvas-header{display:none}.offcanvas-lg .offcanvas-body{display:flex;flex-grow:0;padding:0;overflow-y:visible;background-color:transparent !important}}@media(max-width: 1199.98px){.offcanvas-xl{position:fixed;bottom:0;z-index:var(--bs-offcanvas-zindex);display:flex;flex-direction:column;max-width:100%;color:var(--bs-offcanvas-color);visibility:hidden;background-color:var(--bs-offcanvas-bg);background-clip:padding-box;outline:0;transition:transform .3s ease-in-out}}@media(max-width: 1199.98px)and (prefers-reduced-motion: reduce){.offcanvas-xl{transition:none}}@media(max-width: 1199.98px){.offcanvas-xl.offcanvas-start{top:0;left:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-right:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(-100%)}}@media(max-width: 1199.98px){.offcanvas-xl.offcanvas-end{top:0;right:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-left:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(100%)}}@media(max-width: 1199.98px){.offcanvas-xl.offcanvas-top{top:0;right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-bottom:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(-100%)}}@media(max-width: 1199.98px){.offcanvas-xl.offcanvas-bottom{right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-top:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(100%)}}@media(max-width: 1199.98px){.offcanvas-xl.showing,.offcanvas-xl.show:not(.hiding){transform:none}}@media(max-width: 1199.98px){.offcanvas-xl.showing,.offcanvas-xl.hiding,.offcanvas-xl.show{visibility:visible}}@media(min-width: 1200px){.offcanvas-xl{--bs-offcanvas-height: auto;--bs-offcanvas-border-width: 0;background-color:transparent !important}.offcanvas-xl .offcanvas-header{display:none}.offcanvas-xl .offcanvas-body{display:flex;flex-grow:0;padding:0;overflow-y:visible;background-color:transparent !important}}@media(max-width: 1399.98px){.offcanvas-xxl{position:fixed;bottom:0;z-index:var(--bs-offcanvas-zindex);display:flex;flex-direction:column;max-width:100%;color:var(--bs-offcanvas-color);visibility:hidden;background-color:var(--bs-offcanvas-bg);background-clip:padding-box;outline:0;transition:transform .3s ease-in-out}}@media(max-width: 1399.98px)and (prefers-reduced-motion: reduce){.offcanvas-xxl{transition:none}}@media(max-width: 1399.98px){.offcanvas-xxl.offcanvas-start{top:0;left:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-right:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(-100%)}}@media(max-width: 1399.98px){.offcanvas-xxl.offcanvas-end{top:0;right:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-left:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(100%)}}@media(max-width: 1399.98px){.offcanvas-xxl.offcanvas-top{top:0;right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-bottom:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(-100%)}}@media(max-width: 1399.98px){.offcanvas-xxl.offcanvas-bottom{right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-top:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(100%)}}@media(max-width: 1399.98px){.offcanvas-xxl.showing,.offcanvas-xxl.show:not(.hiding){transform:none}}@media(max-width: 1399.98px){.offcanvas-xxl.showing,.offcanvas-xxl.hiding,.offcanvas-xxl.show{visibility:visible}}@media(min-width: 1400px){.offcanvas-xxl{--bs-offcanvas-height: auto;--bs-offcanvas-border-width: 0;background-color:transparent !important}.offcanvas-xxl .offcanvas-header{display:none}.offcanvas-xxl .offcanvas-body{display:flex;flex-grow:0;padding:0;overflow-y:visible;background-color:transparent !important}}.offcanvas{position:fixed;bottom:0;z-index:var(--bs-offcanvas-zindex);display:flex;flex-direction:column;max-width:100%;color:var(--bs-offcanvas-color);visibility:hidden;background-color:var(--bs-offcanvas-bg);background-clip:padding-box;outline:0;transition:transform .3s ease-in-out}@media(prefers-reduced-motion: reduce){.offcanvas{transition:none}}.offcanvas.offcanvas-start{top:0;left:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-right:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(-100%)}.offcanvas.offcanvas-end{top:0;right:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-left:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(100%)}.offcanvas.offcanvas-top{top:0;right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-bottom:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(-100%)}.offcanvas.offcanvas-bottom{right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-top:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(100%)}.offcanvas.showing,.offcanvas.show:not(.hiding){transform:none}.offcanvas.showing,.offcanvas.hiding,.offcanvas.show{visibility:visible}.offcanvas-backdrop{position:fixed;top:0;left:0;z-index:1040;width:100vw;height:100vh;background-color:#000}.offcanvas-backdrop.fade{opacity:0}.offcanvas-backdrop.show{opacity:.5}.offcanvas-header{display:flex;align-items:center;justify-content:space-between;padding:var(--bs-offcanvas-padding-y) var(--bs-offcanvas-padding-x)}.offcanvas-header .btn-close{padding:calc(var(--bs-offcanvas-padding-y) * .5) calc(var(--bs-offcanvas-padding-x) * .5);margin-top:calc(-.5 * var(--bs-offcanvas-padding-y));margin-right:calc(-.5 * var(--bs-offcanvas-padding-x));margin-bottom:calc(-.5 * var(--bs-offcanvas-padding-y))}.offcanvas-title{margin-bottom:0;line-height:1.5}.offcanvas-body{flex-grow:1;padding:var(--bs-offcanvas-padding-y) var(--bs-offcanvas-padding-x);overflow-y:auto}.article__single__toc .float-end{float:right !important}.article__single__toc .list-group-item{border:none;border-radius:0}.article__single__toc .list-group-item i{transition:transform .2s;position:absolute;left:.25rem;margin-top:.25rem}.article__single__toc .list-group-item.expanded i{transform:rotateZ(90deg)}.article__single__toc>.list-group{background:transparent}.article__single__toc>.list-group>.list-group{margin-left:.5em}.article__single__toc>.list-group>.list-group>.list-group{margin-left:.75em;border-left:1px solid #ccc}.article__single__toc>.list-group>.list-group>.list-group>.list-group-item{padding:.5em}#callSommaire{position:fixed;bottom:10px;left:10px;z-index:2}.free-toc-container{position:fixed;bottom:3em;left:.5em;max-width:300px;z-index:10}@media(max-width: 768px){.free-toc-container{bottom:5em}}#free-toc{max-height:calc(100vh - 275px);overflow:auto}.free-toc-container .list-group a{text-decoration:none}.free-toc-container .list-group li:not(.active):hover{background-color:#f5f5f5;color:#fff}.free-toc-container .list-group .active a{color:#fff;pointer-events:none;font-weight:bold}.pagination{--bs-pagination-padding-x: 0.75rem;--bs-pagination-padding-y: 0.375rem;--bs-pagination-font-size:0.95rem;--bs-pagination-color: var(--bs-link-color);--bs-pagination-bg: #fff;--bs-pagination-border-width: 1px;--bs-pagination-border-color: #dee2e6;--bs-pagination-border-radius: 0.375rem;--bs-pagination-hover-color: var(--bs-link-hover-color);--bs-pagination-hover-bg: #e9ecef;--bs-pagination-hover-border-color: #dee2e6;--bs-pagination-focus-color: var(--bs-link-hover-color);--bs-pagination-focus-bg: #e9ecef;--bs-pagination-focus-box-shadow: 0 0 0 0.25rem rgba(82, 108, 120, 0.25);--bs-pagination-active-color: #fff;--bs-pagination-active-bg: #526c78;--bs-pagination-active-border-color: #526c78;--bs-pagination-disabled-color: #6c757d;--bs-pagination-disabled-bg: #fff;--bs-pagination-disabled-border-color: #dee2e6;display:flex;padding-left:0;list-style:none}.page-link{position:relative;display:block;padding:var(--bs-pagination-padding-y) var(--bs-pagination-padding-x);font-size:var(--bs-pagination-font-size);color:var(--bs-pagination-color);text-decoration:none;background-color:var(--bs-pagination-bg);border:var(--bs-pagination-border-width) solid var(--bs-pagination-border-color);transition:color .15s ease-in-out,background-color .15s ease-in-out,border-color .15s ease-in-out,box-shadow .15s ease-in-out}@media(prefers-reduced-motion: reduce){.page-link{transition:none}}.page-link:hover{z-index:2;color:var(--bs-pagination-hover-color);background-color:var(--bs-pagination-hover-bg);border-color:var(--bs-pagination-hover-border-color)}.page-link:focus{z-index:3;color:var(--bs-pagination-focus-color);background-color:var(--bs-pagination-focus-bg);outline:0;box-shadow:var(--bs-pagination-focus-box-shadow)}.page-link.active,.active>.page-link{z-index:3;color:var(--bs-pagination-active-color);background-color:var(--bs-pagination-active-bg);border-color:var(--bs-pagination-active-border-color)}.page-link.disabled,.disabled>.page-link{color:var(--bs-pagination-disabled-color);pointer-events:none;background-color:var(--bs-pagination-disabled-bg);border-color:var(--bs-pagination-disabled-border-color)}.page-item:not(:first-child) .page-link{margin-left:-1px}.page-item:first-child .page-link{border-top-left-radius:var(--bs-pagination-border-radius);border-bottom-left-radius:var(--bs-pagination-border-radius)}.page-item:last-child .page-link{border-top-right-radius:var(--bs-pagination-border-radius);border-bottom-right-radius:var(--bs-pagination-border-radius)}.pagination-lg{--bs-pagination-padding-x: 1.5rem;--bs-pagination-padding-y: 0.75rem;--bs-pagination-font-size:1.1875rem;--bs-pagination-border-radius: 0.5rem}.pagination-sm{--bs-pagination-padding-x: 0.5rem;--bs-pagination-padding-y: 0.25rem;--bs-pagination-font-size:0.83125rem;--bs-pagination-border-radius: 0.25rem}.table{--bs-table-color: var(--bs-body-color);--bs-table-bg: transparent;--bs-table-border-color: var(--bs-border-color);--bs-table-accent-bg: transparent;--bs-table-striped-color: var(--bs-body-color);--bs-table-striped-bg: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.05);--bs-table-active-color: var(--bs-body-color);--bs-table-active-bg: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.1);--bs-table-hover-color: var(--bs-body-color);--bs-table-hover-bg: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.075);width:100%;margin-bottom:1rem;color:var(--bs-table-color);vertical-align:top;border-color:var(--bs-table-border-color)}.table>:not(caption)>*>*{padding:.5rem .5rem;background-color:var(--bs-table-bg);border-bottom-width:1px;box-shadow:inset 0 0 0 9999px var(--bs-table-accent-bg)}.table>tbody{vertical-align:inherit}.table>thead{vertical-align:bottom}.table-group-divider{border-top:2px solid currentcolor}.caption-top{caption-side:top}.table-sm>:not(caption)>*>*{padding:.25rem .25rem}.table-bordered>:not(caption)>*{border-width:1px 0}.table-bordered>:not(caption)>*>*{border-width:0 1px}.table-borderless>:not(caption)>*>*{border-bottom-width:0}.table-borderless>:not(:first-child){border-top-width:0}.table-striped>tbody>tr:nth-of-type(odd)>*{--bs-table-accent-bg: var(--bs-table-striped-bg);color:var(--bs-table-striped-color)}.table-striped-columns>:not(caption)>tr>:nth-child(even){--bs-table-accent-bg: var(--bs-table-striped-bg);color:var(--bs-table-striped-color)}.table-active{--bs-table-accent-bg: var(--bs-table-active-bg);color:var(--bs-table-active-color)}.table-hover>tbody>tr:hover>*{--bs-table-accent-bg: var(--bs-table-hover-bg);color:var(--bs-table-hover-color)}.table-primary{--bs-table-color: #000;--bs-table-bg: #dce2e4;--bs-table-border-color: #c6cbcd;--bs-table-striped-bg: #d1d7d9;--bs-table-striped-color: #000;--bs-table-active-bg: #c6cbcd;--bs-table-active-color: #000;--bs-table-hover-bg: #ccd1d3;--bs-table-hover-color: #000;color:var(--bs-table-color);border-color:var(--bs-table-border-color)}.table-secondary{--bs-table-color: #000;--bs-table-bg: #e2e3e5;--bs-table-border-color: #cbccce;--bs-table-striped-bg: #d7d8da;--bs-table-striped-color: #000;--bs-table-active-bg: #cbccce;--bs-table-active-color: #000;--bs-table-hover-bg: #d1d2d4;--bs-table-hover-color: #000;color:var(--bs-table-color);border-color:var(--bs-table-border-color)}.table-success{--bs-table-color: #000;--bs-table-bg: #d1e7dd;--bs-table-border-color: #bcd0c7;--bs-table-striped-bg: #c7dbd2;--bs-table-striped-color: #000;--bs-table-active-bg: #bcd0c7;--bs-table-active-color: #000;--bs-table-hover-bg: #c1d6cc;--bs-table-hover-color: #000;color:var(--bs-table-color);border-color:var(--bs-table-border-color)}.table-info{--bs-table-color: #000;--bs-table-bg: #cff4fc;--bs-table-border-color: #badce3;--bs-table-striped-bg: #c5e8ef;--bs-table-striped-color: #000;--bs-table-active-bg: #badce3;--bs-table-active-color: #000;--bs-table-hover-bg: #bfe2e9;--bs-table-hover-color: #000;color:var(--bs-table-color);border-color:var(--bs-table-border-color)}.table-warning{--bs-table-color: #000;--bs-table-bg: #fff3cd;--bs-table-border-color: #e6dbb9;--bs-table-striped-bg: #f2e7c3;--bs-table-striped-color: #000;--bs-table-active-bg: #e6dbb9;--bs-table-active-color: #000;--bs-table-hover-bg: #ece1be;--bs-table-hover-color: #000;color:var(--bs-table-color);border-color:var(--bs-table-border-color)}.table-danger{--bs-table-color: #000;--bs-table-bg: #f8d5dc;--bs-table-border-color: #dfc0c6;--bs-table-striped-bg: #eccad1;--bs-table-striped-color: #000;--bs-table-active-bg: #dfc0c6;--bs-table-active-color: #000;--bs-table-hover-bg: #e5c5cc;--bs-table-hover-color: #000;color:var(--bs-table-color);border-color:var(--bs-table-border-color)}.table-light{--bs-table-color: #000;--bs-table-bg: #e8eced;--bs-table-border-color: #d1d4d5;--bs-table-striped-bg: #dce0e1;--bs-table-striped-color: #000;--bs-table-active-bg: #d1d4d5;--bs-table-active-color: #000;--bs-table-hover-bg: #d7dadb;--bs-table-hover-color: #000;color:var(--bs-table-color);border-color:var(--bs-table-border-color)}.table-dark{--bs-table-color: #fff;--bs-table-bg: #29363a;--bs-table-border-color: #3e4a4e;--bs-table-striped-bg: #344044;--bs-table-striped-color: #fff;--bs-table-active-bg: #3e4a4e;--bs-table-active-color: #fff;--bs-table-hover-bg: #394549;--bs-table-hover-color: #fff;color:var(--bs-table-color);border-color:var(--bs-table-border-color)}.table-responsive{overflow-x:auto;-webkit-overflow-scrolling:touch}@media(max-width: 575.98px){.table-responsive-sm{overflow-x:auto;-webkit-overflow-scrolling:touch}}@media(max-width: 767.98px){.table-responsive-md{overflow-x:auto;-webkit-overflow-scrolling:touch}}@media(max-width: 991.98px){.table-responsive-lg{overflow-x:auto;-webkit-overflow-scrolling:touch}}@media(max-width: 1199.98px){.table-responsive-xl{overflow-x:auto;-webkit-overflow-scrolling:touch}}@media(max-width: 1399.98px){.table-responsive-xxl{overflow-x:auto;-webkit-overflow-scrolling:touch}}span.rg{font-weight:bold}.lined-bg{background:repeating-linear-gradient(45deg, #606dbc, #606dbc 10px, #465298 10px, #465298 20px)}@media(min-width: 768px){.geography-list-group{grid-template-columns:repeat(2, 1fr);display:grid;grid-gap:.5rem}.geography-list-group .list-group-item+.list-group-item{border-top-width:1px}}@media(min-width: 1200px){.geography-list-group{grid-template-columns:repeat(3, 1fr);display:grid;grid-gap:.5rem}.geography-list-group .list-group-item+.list-group-item{border-top-width:1px}}table .note{font-size:.8rem;line-height:1.1;position:relative;padding-left:.8rem;display:block;margin-bottom:.5rem;font-style:italic}table .note b{position:absolute;font-style:normal;left:0;top:0}h1 em.label-sub{font-style:normal}.event-date{font-size:1rem;font-style:italic;color:#526c78}.event-label{font-weight:bold;margin-bottom:0}.event-label .event-date{font-size:.8em}.badge{background-color:#e8eced !important;border-radius:0;color:#526c78}.badge.text-bg-primary{color:#fff !important;background-color:#0d6efd !important}.badge.text-bg-success{color:#fff !important;background-color:#198754 !important}.badge .bad a{text-decoration:underline}.event-single .badge{font-size:.85rem;font-weight:normal;margin-top:-0.25rem;padding-left:1rem !important;padding-right:1rem !important}.figure{display:flex;flex-direction:column;justify-content:center}@media(max-width: 768px){.figure{background:#f5f5f5;box-shadow:0 .125rem .25rem rgba(0,0,0,.075);margin-bottom:1em !important;padding-top:.5em !important}.figure .popover{background:transparent}.figure .popover .popover-header{color:#222}}img.media_resized{max-width:100%;height:auto;width:auto;margin:0 auto;max-height:200px}.protected{position:relative}.protected:after{position:absolute;content:"";width:100%;height:100%;top:0;left:0;background:transparent}@media(min-width: 992px){.inline-media-group{display:flex;justify-content:space-around}}@media screen and (max-width: 480px){.nav.nav-tabs{display:block}.nav.nav-tabs .nav-item{display:block !important}.nav.nav-tabs .nav-link{border:none;width:100%;margin:0}.nav.nav-tabs .nav-link.active{background-color:#e8eced;margin:0}}.index-list{border:1px solid #dfdfdf;background-color:#fafafa;border-radius:.375em;box-shadow:0 .125rem .25rem rgba(0,0,0,.075) !important;margin-bottom:1rem !important;margin-right:.25rem !important;margin-left:.25rem !important;padding:1rem}.index-list a{padding:.125em .25em;border-radius:.375em;display:inline-block}.index-list a.active{background:#526c78;color:#fff;text-decoration:none}.index-list a.text-muted{color:#a4a9ae !important}.card{--bs-card-spacer-y: 1rem;--bs-card-spacer-x: 1rem;--bs-card-title-spacer-y: 0.5rem;--bs-card-border-width: 1px;--bs-card-border-color: var(--bs-border-color-translucent);--bs-card-border-radius: 0.375rem;--bs-card-box-shadow: ;--bs-card-inner-border-radius: calc(0.375rem - 1px);--bs-card-cap-padding-y: 0.5rem;--bs-card-cap-padding-x: 1rem;--bs-card-cap-bg: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.03);--bs-card-cap-color: ;--bs-card-height: ;--bs-card-color: ;--bs-card-bg: #fff;--bs-card-img-overlay-padding: 1rem;--bs-card-group-margin: 0.75rem;position:relative;display:flex;flex-direction:column;min-width:0;height:var(--bs-card-height);word-wrap:break-word;background-color:var(--bs-card-bg);background-clip:border-box;border:var(--bs-card-border-width) solid var(--bs-card-border-color);border-radius:var(--bs-card-border-radius)}.card>hr{margin-right:0;margin-left:0}.card>.list-group{border-top:inherit;border-bottom:inherit}.card>.list-group:first-child{border-top-width:0;border-top-left-radius:var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius);border-top-right-radius:var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius)}.card>.list-group:last-child{border-bottom-width:0;border-bottom-right-radius:var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius);border-bottom-left-radius:var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius)}.card>.card-header+.list-group,.card>.list-group+.card-footer{border-top:0}.card-body{flex:1 1 auto;padding:var(--bs-card-spacer-y) var(--bs-card-spacer-x);color:var(--bs-card-color)}.card-title{margin-bottom:var(--bs-card-title-spacer-y)}.card-subtitle{margin-top:calc(-.5 * var(--bs-card-title-spacer-y));margin-bottom:0}.card-text:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.card-link+.card-link{margin-left:var(--bs-card-spacer-x)}.card-header{padding:var(--bs-card-cap-padding-y) var(--bs-card-cap-padding-x);margin-bottom:0;color:var(--bs-card-cap-color);background-color:var(--bs-card-cap-bg);border-bottom:var(--bs-card-border-width) solid var(--bs-card-border-color)}.card-header:first-child{border-radius:var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius) var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius) 0 0}.card-footer{padding:var(--bs-card-cap-padding-y) var(--bs-card-cap-padding-x);color:var(--bs-card-cap-color);background-color:var(--bs-card-cap-bg);border-top:var(--bs-card-border-width) solid var(--bs-card-border-color)}.card-footer:last-child{border-radius:0 0 var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius) var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius)}.card-header-tabs{margin-right:calc(-.5 * var(--bs-card-cap-padding-x));margin-bottom:calc(-1 * var(--bs-card-cap-padding-y));margin-left:calc(-.5 * var(--bs-card-cap-padding-x));border-bottom:0}.card-header-tabs .nav-link.active{background-color:var(--bs-card-bg);border-bottom-color:var(--bs-card-bg)}.card-header-pills{margin-right:calc(-.5 * var(--bs-card-cap-padding-x));margin-left:calc(-.5 * var(--bs-card-cap-padding-x))}.card-img-overlay{position:absolute;top:0;right:0;bottom:0;left:0;padding:var(--bs-card-img-overlay-padding);border-radius:var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius)}.card-img,.card-img-top,.card-img-bottom{width:100%}.card-img,.card-img-top{border-top-left-radius:var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius);border-top-right-radius:var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius)}.card-img,.card-img-bottom{border-bottom-right-radius:var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius);border-bottom-left-radius:var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius)}.card-group>.card{margin-bottom:var(--bs-card-group-margin)}@media(min-width: 576px){.card-group{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap}.card-group>.card{flex:1 0 0%;margin-bottom:0}.card-group>.card+.card{margin-left:0;border-left:0}.card-group>.card:not(:last-child){border-top-right-radius:0;border-bottom-right-radius:0}.card-group>.card:not(:last-child) .card-img-top,.card-group>.card:not(:last-child) .card-header{border-top-right-radius:0}.card-group>.card:not(:last-child) .card-img-bottom,.card-group>.card:not(:last-child) .card-footer{border-bottom-right-radius:0}.card-group>.card:not(:first-child){border-top-left-radius:0;border-bottom-left-radius:0}.card-group>.card:not(:first-child) .card-img-top,.card-group>.card:not(:first-child) .card-header{border-top-left-radius:0}.card-group>.card:not(:first-child) .card-img-bottom,.card-group>.card:not(:first-child) .card-footer{border-bottom-left-radius:0}}.alert{--bs-alert-bg: transparent;--bs-alert-padding-x: 1rem;--bs-alert-padding-y: 1rem;--bs-alert-margin-bottom: 1rem;--bs-alert-color: inherit;--bs-alert-border-color: transparent;--bs-alert-border: 1px solid var(--bs-alert-border-color);--bs-alert-border-radius: 0.375rem;position:relative;padding:var(--bs-alert-padding-y) var(--bs-alert-padding-x);margin-bottom:var(--bs-alert-margin-bottom);color:var(--bs-alert-color);background-color:var(--bs-alert-bg);border:var(--bs-alert-border);border-radius:var(--bs-alert-border-radius)}.alert-heading{color:inherit}.alert-link{font-weight:700}.alert-dismissible{padding-right:3rem}.alert-dismissible .btn-close{position:absolute;top:0;right:0;z-index:2;padding:1.25rem 1rem}.alert-primary{--bs-alert-color: #314148;--bs-alert-bg: #dce2e4;--bs-alert-border-color: #cbd3d7}.alert-primary .alert-link{color:#27343a}.alert-secondary{--bs-alert-color: #192023;--bs-alert-bg: #d4d7d8;--bs-alert-border-color: #bfc3c4}.alert-secondary .alert-link{color:#141a1c}.alert-success{--bs-alert-color: #0f5132;--bs-alert-bg: #d1e7dd;--bs-alert-border-color: #badbcc}.alert-success .alert-link{color:#0c4128}.alert-info{--bs-alert-color: #055160;--bs-alert-bg: #cff4fc;--bs-alert-border-color: #b6effb}.alert-info .alert-link{color:#04414d}.alert-warning{--bs-alert-color: #664d03;--bs-alert-bg: #fff3cd;--bs-alert-border-color: #ffecb5}.alert-warning .alert-link{color:#523e02}.alert-danger{--bs-alert-color: #851a31;--bs-alert-bg: #f8d5dc;--bs-alert-border-color: #f5bfcb}.alert-danger .alert-link{color:#6a1527}.alert-light{--bs-alert-color: #5d5e5f;--bs-alert-bg: #fafbfb;--bs-alert-border-color: #f8f9fa}.alert-light .alert-link{color:#4a4b4c}.alert-dark{--bs-alert-color: #192023;--bs-alert-bg: #d4d7d8;--bs-alert-border-color: #bfc3c4}.alert-dark .alert-link{color:#141a1c}.media-landing .media-reference-copy{display:block;position:relative !important;top:auto;left:auto;width:auto;height:auto}.media-landing .media-reference-copy:after{content:"Afficher le m茅dia";background:rgba(255,255,255,.1);position:absolute;top:0;left:0;width:100%;height:100%;display:flex;align-items:center;justify-content:center;color:#222;font-size:2em;font-weight:bold;text-shadow:0 0 5px #fff;backdrop-filter:blur(5px)}.media-landing .media-reference-copy img{width:auto !important;height:auto !important}</style><script type="application/ld+json"> { "@context": "https://schema.org", "@type": "WebSite", "name": "Encyclop忙dia Universalis", "alternateName": "Universalis", "url": "https://www.universalis.fr", "sameAs": [ "https://www.facebook.com/EncyclopedieUniversalis/", "https://www.linkedin.com/company/encyclopaedia-universalis", "https://www.twitter.com/universalisfr", "https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC0srTZiJaRaDw3fAvtCo4Ow" ] } </script> </head> <body id="page_3" class="edu SENIOR loading" > <div class="loader"></div> <a href="#main-content" id="skip"> <i aria-hidden="true" class="fa fa-fw fa-arrow-down"></i> Acc茅der au contenu </a> <header class="d-none d-md-block d-print-none"> <div class="container row-between"> <a class="header-logo mr-3" title="Retour 脿 la page d'accueil" href="/"> <svg viewBox="0 0 370 76.44" height="70" width="277" id="logo-main"> <text class="fill-universalis text-darkblue" transform="translate(74.25 37.1)" font-family="Arial" font-size="43.37"> <tspan x="0" y="0">UNIVERSALIS</tspan> </text> <text class="text-darkblue subtitle" transform="translate(76.75 66.74)" font-family="Arial" font-size="35.8"> <tspan class="fill-universalis-up" x="0" y="0" font-size=".85em">.fr</tspan> </text> <g> <path class="fill-universalis-up" d="M57,6.36H4.25C1.9,6.36,0,8.27,0,10.62V62.51c0,2.35,1.9,4.25,4.25,4.25H57c2.35,0,4.25-1.9,4.25-4.25V10.62c0-2.35-1.9-4.25-4.25-4.25ZM29.63,31.87h7.33v8.06c-.77-1.77-1.61-2.99-2.96-4.38-1.41-1.44-2.42-2.35-4.36-3.29v-.39Zm2.37,29.2c-.85,.68-1.75,1.28-2.71,1.75-.11,.05-.22,.1-.33,.15H13.39c-1.67-.77-3.19-1.8-4.53-3.14-3.13-3.13-4.69-7.06-4.69-11.77s1.56-8.84,4.67-12.04c3.12-3.19,7.02-4.79,11.72-4.79,2.71,0,5.14,.49,7.3,1.43,1.81,.79,3.44,1.9,4.87,3.36,1.35,1.38,2.4,2.97,3.17,4.74,1,2.31,1.52,4.94,1.52,7.9l-.03,1.51H11.86c.37,2.25,1.36,4.04,2.95,5.37,1.6,1.33,3.64,1.99,6.13,1.99,2.79,0,4.96-.67,6.99-2.49l6.74,3.26c-.84,1.12-1.61,1.9-2.67,2.75Zm24.74-15.61c0,5.53-.44,9.31-1.31,11.35-1.07,2.49-2.64,4.39-4.72,5.72-.24,.15-.49,.3-.75,.44h-14.33c-.44-.23-.87-.49-1.26-.77-.26-.18-.43-.29-.66-.49,.29-.3,2.13-2.54,3.11-3.92,0,0-7.13-3.32-7.3-3.39-.22-1.04-.28-1.34-.44-2.83h7.98c.1,1.11,.27,1.26,.5,1.93,.41,1.15,1.07,2.05,1.97,2.69,.9,.64,2.02,.96,3.34,.96s2.45-.32,3.37-.95c.92-.63,1.61-1.55,2.06-2.78,.33-.91,.5-2.86,.5-5.85v-15.51h7.95v13.42Z"/> <path class="fill-universalis-up" d="M29.44,43.92c-.32-1.09-.87-2.04-1.58-2.88-.44-.52-.93-1-1.52-1.43-1.54-1.11-3.34-1.66-5.38-1.66-2.22,0-4.16,.62-5.83,1.86-1.05,.78-2.02,2.14-2.92,4.11H29.44Z"/> </g> </svg> </a> <div class="p-1 d-flex justify-content-end flex-column" style="height: 80px"> <div class="user-welcome"></div> <div class="login-form-wrapper" style="align-items: flex-end; display: flex; flex-direction: column" data-identification_uri="/identification/"> <div class="login-form"> <div class="btn btn-sm btn-primary keep-label-space-top"> <i aria-hidden="true" class="fa fa-user"></i> Mon Compte </div> </div> </div> <div id="toast-manager"></div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="d-print-none sticky-top"> <div role="navigation" aria-label="Navigation mobile" class="main-navbar-wrapper shadow"> <a class="navbar-brand-md d-none d-md-block" href="/"> <img alt="Universalis" src=" /typo3temp/assets/_processed_/e/b/csm_eu-blanc-2x_f21479e1ae.webp " width="32" height="32" alt=""> </a> <div class="container"> <nav class="navbar navbar-expand-lg navbar-dark"> <a class="navbar-brand d-md-none" href="/"> <img alt="Universalis" src=" /typo3temp/assets/_processed_/e/b/csm_eu-blanc-2x_f21479e1ae.webp " width="36" height="36" alt=""> </a> <div id="navbar-collapse-grid" class="navbar-collapse collapse pt-2 pt-md-0"> <ul class="navbar-nav me-auto"> <li><a href="/" title="Niveaux" class="nav-link">Accueil</a></li> <li><a href="/atlas/" title="Atlas" class="nav-link">Atlas</a></li><li><a href="/datapays/" title="DataPays" class="nav-link">DataPays</a></li><li><a href="/classification/" title="Classification" class="nav-link">Classification</a></li><li><a href="/dictionnaire/" title="Dictionnaire fran莽ais Universalis : retrouvez toutes les d茅finitions, 茅tymologies, expressions, synonymes, exemples, et flexions de plus de 120 000 mots de la langue fran莽aise." class="nav-link">Dictionnaire</a></li><li><a href="https://boutique.universalis.fr" title="Boutique" class="nav-link">Boutique</a></li> </ul> </div> <form method="get" name="searchQuery" class="flex-grow-1 my-1" id="search-form" autocomplete="off" action="/recherche/redirect/"> <div> <input type="hidden" name="tx_solrdata_pi1[__referrer][@extension]" value="SolrData" /> <input type="hidden" name="tx_solrdata_pi1[__referrer][@controller]" value="SearchForm" /> <input type="hidden" name="tx_solrdata_pi1[__referrer][@action]" value="showFr" /> <input type="hidden" name="tx_solrdata_pi1[__referrer][arguments]" value="YTowOnt9789d077876a7a0adeb4a9a4c4853f315af9bb201" /> <input type="hidden" name="tx_solrdata_pi1[__referrer][@request]" value="{"@extension":"SolrData","@controller":"SearchForm","@action":"showFr"}db953a457671272659a1e7710096726899d321a7" /> <input type="hidden" name="tx_solrdata_pi1[__trustedProperties]" value="{"data-action":1,"searchQuery":{"resultType":1,"searchedString":1}}36e15bfcc110b23d6ba91a6810381c8ec6b87146" /> </div> <input type="hidden" name="tx_solrdata_pi1[data-action]" value="https://www.universalis.fr/recherche/___searchedString___/article/1/" /> <input type="hidden" name="tx_solrdata_pi1[searchQuery][resultType]" value="ARTICLE" /> <div class="input-wrapper input-group"> <input placeholder="Rechercher sur Universalis" class="form-control" id="searchedString" autocomplete="off" type="text" name="tx_solrdata_pi1[searchQuery][searchedString]" value="" /> <button type="submit" class="btn btn-sm btn-light"> <span class="d-none d-md-block">Recherche</span> <span class="visually-hidden">Recherche</span> <span class="d-md-none"> <i aria-hidden="true" class="fa fa-fw fa-magnifying-glass"></i></span> </button> </div> </form> <button title="Afficher / masquer le menu du site" class="navbar-toggler ms-1" type="button" data-bs-toggle="collapse" data-bs-target="#navbar-collapse-grid"> <span class="navbar-toggler-icon"></span> </button> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <main class="site-fr container main rounded-bottom shadow mb-3"> <div class="user-welcome"></div> <div class="login-form-wrapper-mobile"> <div class="login-form"> <div class="btn btn-sm btn-primary keep-label-space-top"> <i aria-hidden="true" class="fa fa-user"></i> Mon Compte </div> </div> </div> <div class="d-lg-none text-center mb-3"> <a href="/abonnement" title="Je m'abonne" data-matomo-category="CTA" data-matomo-name="Clic" data-matomo-value="Top (mobile)"> <img src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/1/6/csm_banner-cta_534716667b.webp" width="728" height="90" alt="Abonnez-vous 脿 Universalis pour 1 euro" class="img-max shadow-sm"/> </a> </div> <div class="row"> <div id="main-content" class="col-lg-8 col-xl-9 pb-4"> <div class="free-toc-container"> <ul id="free-toc" class="collapse list-group shadow-sm mb-1" style="overflow: hidden"> <li class="list-group-item active"> <a class="d-block" title="H脡MISPH脠RES C脡R脡BRAUX, Anatomie et histologie" href="/encyclopedie/hemispheres-cerebraux/"> 1. Anatomie et histologie </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="H脡MISPH脠RES C脡R脡BRAUX, Localisations corticales sensorielles chez l'Homme" href="/encyclopedie/hemispheres-cerebraux/2-localisations-corticales-sensorielles-chez-l-homme/"> 2. Localisations corticales sensorielles chez l'Homme </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="H脡MISPH脠RES C脡R脡BRAUX, Les potentiels 茅voqu茅s d'origine sensorielle et leur utilit茅 dans la d茅termination des localisations corticales" href="/encyclopedie/hemispheres-cerebraux/3-les-potentiels-evoques-d-origine-sensorielle-et-leur-utilite-dans-la-determination-des-localisations-corticales/"> 3. Les potentiels 茅voqu茅s d'origine sensorielle et leur utilit茅 dans la d茅termination des localisations corticales </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="H脡MISPH脠RES C脡R脡BRAUX, H茅misph猫res c茅r茅braux et motricit茅" href="/encyclopedie/hemispheres-cerebraux/4-hemispheres-cerebraux-et-motricite/"> 4. H茅misph猫res c茅r茅braux et motricit茅 </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="H脡MISPH脠RES C脡R脡BRAUX, R茅gulations motrices 脿 partir des structures sous-corticales extrapyramidales" href="/encyclopedie/hemispheres-cerebraux/5-regulations-motrices-a-partir-des-structures-sous-corticales-extrapyramidales/"> 5. R茅gulations motrices 脿 partir des structures sous-corticales extrapyramidales </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="H脡MISPH脠RES C脡R脡BRAUX, H茅misph猫res c茅r茅braux et op茅rations intellectuelles" href="/encyclopedie/hemispheres-cerebraux/6-hemispheres-cerebraux-et-operations-intellectuelles/"> 6. H茅misph猫res c茅r茅braux et op茅rations intellectuelles </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="H脡MISPH脠RES C脡R脡BRAUX, Bibliographie" href="/encyclopedie/hemispheres-cerebraux/7-bibliographie/"> 7. Bibliographie </a> </li> </ul> <button class="btn btn-sm btn-universalis" data-bs-toggle="collapse" data-bs-target="#free-toc" aria-expanded="false" title="Afficher / masquer le sommaire"> <i aria-hidden="true" class="fa fa-fw fa-eye"></i> Sommaire </button> </div> <h1 class="mb-1"> <strong>H脡MISPH脠RES C脡R脡BRAUX</strong> </h1> <ul class="pagination justify-content-center public-links "><li class="page-item active"><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 1" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">1</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 2" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">2</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 3" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">3</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 4" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">4</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 5" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">5</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 6" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">6</a></li></ul><p class="text-sm text-muted mb-1">Article modifi茅 le <time datetime="2025-01-29"> 29/01/2025 </time></p><div class="content paged type-article" ><div class="block_1" data-ucode="yJ990731_0"><i class="anchor" id="yJ990731_0"></i><p>Bien des si猫cles avant l'Antiquit茅 classique, on admettait d茅j脿 un 茅troit rapport entre les h茅misph猫res c茅r茅braux et les fonctions mentales sup茅rieures聽: sensation consciente, <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="L'activit茅 motrice d'un organisme suppose un ensemble de m茅canismes qui lui permettent de mouvoir un ou plusieurs de ses segments et ainsi, 茅ventuellement, de se d茅tacher par rapport au substrat, ce qui, 脿 quelques rares exceptions pr猫s, est une caract茅ristique des animaux. Certes, on d茅crit des mouvements dans le r猫gne v茅g茅tal, mais il s'agit de ph茅nom猫nes limit茅s dont il ne sera pa..." title="Article : MOTRICIT脡" href="/encyclopedie/motricite/">motricit茅</a> volontaire, <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="De prime abord, la m茅moire renvoie 脿 une repr茅sentation de notre pass茅. Cette courte phrase 茅lude en fait de nombreuses facettes d鈥檜ne fonction mentale 茅minemment complexe. En termes de m茅canismes de fonctionnement, la m茅moire est une construction composite qui permet d鈥檈ncoder (ou enregistrer), de stocker (ou consolider) et de r茅cup茅rer (ou rappeler) des informations (ou tou..." title="Article : M脡MOIRE" href="/encyclopedie/memoire/">m茅moire</a>, etc. Les anciens auteurs ont abondamment sp茅cul茅 sur la r茅gion des h茅misph猫res o霉 pouvaient r茅sider ces facult茅s g茅n茅ralement d茅sign茅es par le terme global d'芒me ou de psych茅. Les uns les pla莽aient dans les cavit茅s c茅r茅brales que nous appelons aujourd'hui ventricules, d'autres sugg茅raient des localisations diverses et plus pr茅cises. D猫s le <span class="pc">xvii</span><sup>e</sup>聽si猫cle cependant, T. Willis (1621-1675) et R. Vieussens (1641-1715), 脿 la suite de quelques exp茅riences encore tr猫s grossi猫res, retiraient aux ventricules leur r么le de si猫ge de la <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Le mot latin conscientia est naturellement d茅compos茅 en 芦聽cum scientia聽禄. Cette 茅tymologie sugg猫re non seulement la connaissance de l'objet par le sujet , mais que cet objet fait toujours r茅f茅rence au sujet lui-m锚me. Le terme allemand Bewusstsein comporte la m锚me r茅sonance de sens.. L'emploi du substantif conscience fausse la solution du probl猫me qu'il implique, car la conscie..." title="Article : CONSCIENCE" href="/encyclopedie/conscience/">conscience</a> et liaient celle-ci 脿 la substance c茅r茅brale. Willis en particulier, tout en fournissant l'essentiel de la description anatomique du cerveau et de son irrigation, affirmait d茅j脿 que ce dernier renfermait les centres responsables de la motricit茅 volontaire, tandis qu'il attribuait au <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Le cervelet, ou petit cerveau, est un organe situ茅 en parall猫le sur les grandes voies sensorielles et motrices. Son atteinte ne se traduit ni par une paralysie, ni par une anesth茅sie , mais par un ensemble de signes qui attestent de perturbations importantes dans le maintien de l'茅quilibre et de la posture et dans l'ex茅cution et la coordination des mouvements. Ces donn茅es de base ont 茅..." title="Article : CERVELET" href="/encyclopedie/cervelet/">cervelet</a> le contr么le de la motricit茅 involontaire. Il est remarquable que cette distinction ait 茅t茅 largement confirm茅e, au moins dans son principe, par les travaux ult茅rieurs.</p><p>Dans le courant du <span class="pc">xix</span><sup>e</sup>聽si猫cle, neurologues et physiologistes sugg茅raient que telle ou telle r茅gion c茅r茅brale, et en particulier corticale, 茅tait reli茅e 脿 une fonction sp茅cialis茅e. Cette conception d'une grande originalit茅茅tait essentiellement due au neurologue fran莽ais P.聽Broca (1824-1880). Celui-ci, en 1861, rattachait en effet un ph茅nom猫ne pathologique, la perte de l'expression verbale (qu'il appelait 芦聽aph茅mie聽禄), 脿 des l茅sions ult茅rieurement observ茅es 脿 l'autopsie dans une r茅gion limit茅e de l'h茅misph猫re c茅r茅bral gauche. Une dizaine d'ann茅es plus tard, G. Fritsch et E.聽Hitzig (1870), puis D. Ferrier (1873) apportaient une donn茅e exp茅rimentale essentielle en montrant que la stimulation de certaines r茅gions de la surface du cerveau entra卯nait la production de mouvements localis茅s 脿 la t锚te ou 脿 un segment de membre d茅termin茅. Jusqu'脿 une 茅poque relativement r茅cente, nos conceptions sur le r么le des h茅misph猫res c茅r茅braux ont repos茅 pour l'essentiel sur ces deux types de m茅thodes聽: l'茅tablissement de corr茅lations anatomo-cliniques et les r茅sultats fournis par la stimulation.</p><p>Dans la mesure o霉 les travaux des physiologistes et des neurologues semblent indiquer que l'ensemble du manteau cortical ne poss猫de pas en tous points les m锚mes propri茅t茅s, on s'est tout naturellement efforc茅 de rechercher si l'on ne pourrait trouver un support 脿 des responsabilit茅s fonctionnelles distinctes dans des diff茅renciations structurales locales. Ainsi s'est d茅velopp茅e toute une s茅rie d'茅tudes anatomiques et histologiques de plus en plus fines visant 脿 diviser, 脿 morceler l'茅tendue du cortex en <em>aires</em> ou en champs, diff茅rant les uns des autres par de petites particularit茅s auxquelles se rattacheraient des r么les physiologiques bien d茅finis.</p><div class="clearfix"></div><div class="media-container float-md-start me-2 col-md-3 text-center"><figure class="figure text-center w-100 mb-0 p-1" style="position: relative"><a data-ucode="V110299A" data-showMediaPlayer="1" class="protected media-reference-copy " title="M茅dia : Champs corticaux" href="/media/champs-corticaux-v110299a/"><img id="V110299A" loading="lazy" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/9/9/csm_v110299a_42b3137ce7.webp" class="figure-img rounded mx-auto media_resized" alt="Champs corticaux - cr茅dits : Encyclop忙dia Universalis France" data-description="Carte des 芦聽champs聽禄 corticaux selon K. Brodman聽: aux num茅ros 1, 2 et 3 correspond la projection de la sensibilit茅 tactile, tandis que 41 est l'aire primaire de repr茅sentation auditive et 17 l'aire visuelle primaire (d'apr猫s Talayrac et coll. in 芦聽Atlas d'anatomie st茅r茅otaxique du t茅lenc茅phale聽禄,…" data-copyright="Encyclop忙dia Universalis France" width="1126" height="800" /></a><figcaption class="figure-caption"><p class="m-0 mt-1 fw-bold text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Champs corticaux </p><p class="m-0 copyright text-sm text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Encyclop忙dia Universalis France </p></figcaption></figure></div><p>Les anatomistes et histologistes du d茅but du si猫cle ont consacr茅 beaucoup de travaux 脿 cette 茅tude, faisant porter leurs efforts tant么t sur la r茅partition, le type, les dimensions du corps des cellules nerveuses corticales (cytoarchitectonie), tant么t sur la disposition et l'importance de leurs prolongements (my茅loarchitectonie). D猫s 1840, le neurologue fran莽ais J.鈥匞.鈥匜. Baillarger avait montr茅 qu'en pla莽ant une tranche fine de <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Dans l' enc茅phale des Vert茅br茅s , la pr茅sence de substance grise superficielle refl猫te la pr茅sence de neurones dits corticaux. Au cours de la neurogen猫se , ils viennent peupler la surface nerveuse par un processus migratoire apr猫s lequel interviendra leur diff茅renciation .. Chez l'animal adulte, la zone corticale existe dans deux r茅gions de l'enc茅phale聽: le cervelet et les h茅mi..." title="Article : CORTEX C脡R脡BRAL" href="/encyclopedie/cortex-cerebral/">cortex c茅r茅bral</a> entre deux lames de verre on pouvait y reconna卯tre sans autre pr茅paration, et aid茅 seulement d'une loupe, une s茅rie de couches alternativement plus fonc茅es et plus claires. Il avait not茅 ainsi que leurs largeurs respectives diff茅raient de fa莽on notable suivant la portion des h茅misph猫res 脿 laquelle on avait emprunt茅 la<a href="javascript:" title="Lire la suite" class="read-more ms-1">[...]</a></p></div><div class="clearfix"></div></div><ul class="pagination justify-content-center public-links "><li class="page-item active"><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 1" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">1</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 2" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">2</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 3" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">3</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 4" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">4</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 5" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">5</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 6" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">6</a></li></ul><div class="folio-block"><p class="folio-block-title text-center text-uc"><strong>La suite de cet article est accessible aux abonn茅s</strong></p><ul class="list-unstyled"><li><i class="fa fa-fw fa-check-circle"></i> Des contenus vari茅s, complets et fiables</li><li><i class="fa fa-fw fa-check-circle"></i> Accessible sur tous les 茅crans</li><li><i class="fa fa-fw fa-check-circle"></i> Pas de publicit茅</li></ul><p class="text-center"><a href="/abonnement/" class="btn btn-cta text-uc" id="folio-button" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="Block bottom">D茅couvrez nos offres </a></p><p class="text-center text-sm"> D茅j脿 abonn茅 ? <a href="/identification/" id="folio-login">Se connecter</a></p></div><div id="ad_mpuslot" class="pub-container text-center"><div class="pub-placeholder"></div></div><section class="mt-3 mb-5"><i class="anchor" id="J990731_AUTHORS"></i><p class="title-minor">脡crit par</p><ul class="list-group"><li class="list-group-item" data-dc-author="BUSER, Pierre"><a title="Auteur : Pierre BUSER" rel="author" href="/auteurs/pierre-buser/"><strong>Pierre BUSER</strong></a> : membre de l'Acad茅mie des sciences, professeur 茅m茅rite 脿 l'universit茅 de Paris-VI-Pierre-et-Marie-Curie </li><li class="list-group-item" data-dc-author="LAGET, Paul"><a title="Auteur : Paul LAGET" rel="author" href="/auteurs/paul-laget/"><strong>Paul LAGET</strong></a> : professeur de psychophysiologie 脿 l'universit茅 de Paris-VI-Pierre-et-Marie-Curie </li></ul></section><section class="mb-5"><div class="text-center mb-3 d-print-none"><a class="d-inline-flex flex-row justify-content-center align-items-center btn btn-light btn-large text-start" title="Carte mentale : H脡MISPH脠RES C脡R脡BRAUX" href="/carte-mentale/hemispheres-cerebraux/"><i class="fa fa-sitemap fa-rotate-270 me-1 fs-1 text-universalis"></i><p class="m-0"><strong class="fs-4">Carte mentale</strong><br /> 脡largissez votre recherche dans Universalis </p></a></div></section> <section class="mb-5 article-classification" data-print-label="la classification" data-print-target=".article-classification"> <i class="anchor" id="yJ990731_ROOT_LINES"></i> <p class="title-minor">Classification</p> <nav aria-label="Classification 1"> <ol class="breadcrumb"> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Sciences de la vie" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-vie/"> Sciences de la vie </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Physiologie" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-vie/physiologie/"> Physiologie </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Physiologie animale et humaine g茅n茅rale" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-vie/physiologie/physiologie-animale-et-humaine-generale/"> Physiologie animale et humaine g茅n茅rale </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item active" data-dc-subject="Neurobiologie, physiologie animale et humaine"> <a title="Classification : Neurobiologie, physiologie animale et humaine" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-vie/physiologie/physiologie-animale-et-humaine-generale/neurobiologie-physiologie-animale-et-humaine/"> Neurobiologie, physiologie animale et humaine </a> </li> </ol> </nav> <nav aria-label="Classification 2"> <ol class="breadcrumb"> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Sciences de la vie" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-vie/"> Sciences de la vie </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Zoologie" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-vie/zoologie/"> Zoologie </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Biologie animale" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-vie/zoologie/biologie-animale/"> Biologie animale </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Physiologie animale" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-vie/zoologie/biologie-animale/physiologie-animale/"> Physiologie animale </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item active" data-dc-subject="Neurobiologie, physiologie animale"> <a title="Classification : Neurobiologie, physiologie animale" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-vie/zoologie/biologie-animale/physiologie-animale/neurobiologie-physiologie-animale/"> Neurobiologie, physiologie animale </a> </li> </ol> </nav> <nav aria-label="Classification 3"> <ol class="breadcrumb"> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Sciences de la vie" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-vie/"> Sciences de la vie </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Biologie humaine" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-vie/biologie-humaine/"> Biologie humaine </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Physiologie humaine" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-vie/biologie-humaine/physiologie-humaine/"> Physiologie humaine </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item active" data-dc-subject="Neurobiologie, physiologie humaine"> <a title="Classification : Neurobiologie, physiologie humaine" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-vie/biologie-humaine/physiologie-humaine/neurobiologie-physiologie-humaine/"> Neurobiologie, physiologie humaine </a> </li> </ol> </nav> <nav aria-label="Classification 4"> <ol class="breadcrumb"> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Sciences de la vie" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-vie/"> Sciences de la vie </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Zoologie" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-vie/zoologie/"> Zoologie </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Biologie animale" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-vie/zoologie/biologie-animale/"> Biologie animale </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item active" data-dc-subject="Anatomie animale"> <a title="Classification : Anatomie animale" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-vie/zoologie/biologie-animale/anatomie-animale/"> Anatomie animale </a> </li> </ol> </nav> <nav aria-label="Classification 5"> <ol class="breadcrumb"> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Sciences de la vie" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-vie/"> Sciences de la vie </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Histologie" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-vie/histologie/"> Histologie </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item active" data-dc-subject="Histologie animale et humaine"> <a title="Classification : Histologie animale et humaine" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-vie/histologie/histologie-animale-et-humaine/"> Histologie animale et humaine </a> </li> </ol> </nav> <nav aria-label="Classification 6"> <ol class="breadcrumb"> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Sciences de la vie" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-vie/"> Sciences de la vie </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Zoologie" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-vie/zoologie/"> Zoologie </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Biologie animale" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-vie/zoologie/biologie-animale/"> Biologie animale </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item active" data-dc-subject="Histologie animale"> <a title="Classification : Histologie animale" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-vie/zoologie/biologie-animale/histologie-animale/"> Histologie animale </a> </li> </ol> </nav> <nav aria-label="Classification 7"> <ol class="breadcrumb"> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Sciences de la vie" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-vie/"> Sciences de la vie </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Biologie humaine" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-vie/biologie-humaine/"> Biologie humaine </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item active" data-dc-subject="Anatomie humaine"> <a title="Classification : Anatomie humaine" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-vie/biologie-humaine/anatomie-humaine/"> Anatomie humaine </a> </li> </ol> </nav> <nav aria-label="Classification 8"> <ol class="breadcrumb"> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Sciences de la vie" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-vie/"> Sciences de la vie </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Biologie humaine" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-vie/biologie-humaine/"> Biologie humaine </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item active" data-dc-subject="Histologie humaine"> <a title="Classification : Histologie humaine" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-vie/biologie-humaine/histologie-humaine/"> Histologie humaine </a> </li> </ol> </nav> </section> <section class="mb-5 d-print-none"> <i class="anchor" id="yJ990731_MEDIAS"></i> <p class="title-minor">M茅dias</p> <div class="row"> <div class="col-12 col-md-4 text-center p-1"> <figure class="figure text-center w-100 mb-0 p-1" style="position: relative"> <a data-ucode="V110299A" data-showMediaPlayer="1" class="protected media-reference-copy " title="M茅dia : Champs corticaux" href="/media/champs-corticaux-v110299a/"> <img id="V110299A" loading="lazy" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/9/9/csm_v110299a_42b3137ce7.webp" class="figure-img rounded mx-auto media_resized" alt="Champs corticaux - cr茅dits : Encyclop忙dia Universalis France" data-description="Carte des 芦聽champs聽禄 corticaux selon K. Brodman聽: aux num茅ros 1, 2 et 3 correspond la projection de la sensibilit茅 tactile, tandis que 41 est l'aire primaire de repr茅sentation auditive et 17 l'aire visuelle primaire (d'apr猫s Talayrac et coll. in 芦聽Atlas d'anatomie st茅r茅otaxique du t茅lenc茅phale聽禄,…" data-copyright="Encyclop忙dia Universalis France" width="1126" height="800" /> </a> <figcaption class="figure-caption"> <p class="m-0 mt-1 fw-bold text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Champs corticaux </p> <p class="m-0 copyright text-sm text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Encyclop忙dia Universalis France </p> </figcaption> </figure> </div> <div class="col-12 col-md-4 text-center p-1"> <figure class="figure text-center w-100 mb-0 p-1" style="position: relative"> <a data-ucode="V110299B" data-showMediaPlayer="1" class="protected media-reference-copy " title="M茅dia : Cortex c茅r茅bral : coupe en isocortex homotypique" href="/media/cortex-cerebral-coupe-en-isocortex-homotypique-v110299b/"> <img id="V110299B" loading="lazy" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/3/2/csm_v110299b_8b7343f7bb.webp" class="figure-img rounded mx-auto media_resized" alt="Cortex c茅r茅bral : coupe en isocortex homotypique - cr茅dits : Encyclop忙dia Universalis France" data-description="Sch茅ma d'une coupe d'isocortex homotypique vu au microscope et montrant en A les corps cellulaires des neurones et en B la disposition des prolongements de certains d'entre eux apr猫s impr茅gnation m茅tallique." data-copyright="Encyclop忙dia Universalis France" width="312" height="512" /> </a> <figcaption class="figure-caption"> <p class="m-0 mt-1 fw-bold text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Cortex c茅r茅bral : coupe en isocortex homotypique </p> <p class="m-0 copyright text-sm text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Encyclop忙dia Universalis France </p> </figcaption> </figure> </div> <div class="col-12 col-md-4 text-center p-1"> <figure class="figure text-center w-100 mb-0 p-1" style="position: relative"> <a data-ucode="V110300A" data-showMediaPlayer="1" class="protected media-reference-copy " title="M茅dia : Cortex c茅r茅bral : cytoarchitectonie" href="/media/cortex-cerebral-cytoarchitectonie-v110300a/"> <img id="V110300A" loading="lazy" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/0/0/csm_v110300a_f7eba3a315.webp" class="figure-img rounded mx-auto media_resized" alt="Cortex c茅r茅bral : cytoarchitectonie - cr茅dits : Encyclop忙dia Universalis France" data-description="Aspects r茅els de la cytoarchitectonie des diff茅rentes aires corticales." data-copyright="Encyclop忙dia Universalis France" width="760" height="2000" /> </a> <figcaption class="figure-caption"> <p class="m-0 mt-1 fw-bold text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Cortex c茅r茅bral : cytoarchitectonie </p> <p class="m-0 copyright text-sm text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Encyclop忙dia Universalis France </p> </figcaption> </figure> </div> </div> <div class="text-center"> <a class="btn btn-sm btn-primary" rel="related" href="/medias/hemispheres-cerebraux/"> Afficher les 8 m茅dias de l'article <span class="rg">HÉMISPHÈRES CÉRÉBRAUX</span> <i aria-hidden="true" class="fa fa-fw fa-chevron-right"></i> </a> </div> </section> <section class="mb-5 d-print-none learn-more"> <i class="anchor" id="yJ990731_REFERENCES"></i> <p class="title-minor">Autres r茅f茅rences</p> <ul class="list-group"> <li class="list-group-item"> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/specialisation-et-integration-interhemispherique/"> <span class="rg">SPÉCIALISATION ET INTÉGRATION INTERHÉMISPHÉRIQUE</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">脡crit par <span rel="author">Laura CARON-DESROCHERS</span> et <span rel="author">Anne GALLAGHER</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">3 032 mots</li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">2 m茅dias </li> </ul> <div class="d-none d-md-inline-block float-start me-3"> <a class="protected" title="Article : SP&Eacute;CIALISATION ET INT&Eacute;GRATION INTERH&Eacute;MISPH&Eacute;RIQUE" href="/encyclopedie/specialisation-et-integration-interhemispherique/"> <img class="rounded shadow" loading="lazy" alt="Sch茅matisation de la connectivit茅 intra- et interh茅misph茅rique dans le cerveau - cr茅dits : Encyclop忙dia Universalis France" width="125" height="125" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/9/c/csm_de190232_f9d540565d.webp"/> </a> </div> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> <p>C鈥檈st aux neurologues Marc Dax et <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Biographie de PAUL BROCA (1824-1880). Cr茅ateur de la chirurgie moderne du cerveau et fondateur de l' anthropologie , n茅脿 Sainte-Foy-la-Grande (Gironde). Paul Broca 茅tudie la m茅decine 脿 Paris en 1841, soutient sa th猫se de doctorat en 1849. Agr茅g茅 en 1853, il est alors chirurgien des h么pitaux et obtient, en 1867, la chaire de pathologie externe 脿 la facult茅 de m茅decine de Paris. ..." title="Article : PAUL BROCA (1824-1880)" href="/encyclopedie/paul-broca/">Paul Broca</a>, vers le milieu du <span class="pc">xix</span><sup>e</sup>聽si猫cle, que nous attribuons les premi猫res d茅couvertes li茅es 脿 la sp茅cialisation h茅misph茅rique c茅r茅brale. En observant des patients pr茅sentant des l茅sions c茅r茅brales dans l鈥檋茅misph猫re gauche et des difficult茅s langagi猫res importantes,...</p> </div> </li> </li> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/aphasie/"> <span class="rg">APHASIE</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">脡crit par <span rel="author">Jean-Luc NESPOULOUS</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">984 mots</li> </ul> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> <p>Ainsi nomm茅e en 1864 par le clinicien Armand Trousseau en opposition au terme aph茅mie retenu 脿 la m锚me 茅poque par <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Biographie de PAUL BROCA (1824-1880). Cr茅ateur de la chirurgie moderne du cerveau et fondateur de l' anthropologie , n茅脿 Sainte-Foy-la-Grande (Gironde). Paul Broca 茅tudie la m茅decine 脿 Paris en 1841, soutient sa th猫se de doctorat en 1849. Agr茅g茅 en 1853, il est alors chirurgien des h么pitaux et obtient, en 1867, la chaire de pathologie externe 脿 la facult茅 de m茅decine de Paris. ..." title="Article : PAUL BROCA (1824-1880)" href="/encyclopedie/paul-broca/">Paul Broca</a> et au terme alalie propos茅 plusieurs d茅cennies auparavant par Jacques Lordat, l鈥檃phasie est un trouble de la production et (ou) de la compr茅hension du langage oral et (ou)...</p> </div> </li> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/apraxie/#c23270"> <span class="rg">APRAXIE</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">脡crit par <span rel="author">Didier LE GALL</span> et <span rel="author">Fran莽ois OSIURAK</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">1 288 mots</li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">1 m茅dia </li> </ul> <div class="d-none d-md-inline-block float-start me-3"> <a class="protected" title="Article : APRAXIE" href="/encyclopedie/apraxie/"> <img class="rounded shadow" loading="lazy" alt="Exemples de gestes utilis茅s pour 茅valuer l鈥檃praxie - cr茅dits : Encyclop忙dia Universalis France" width="125" height="125" src="/media_src/ta151200.jpg"/> </a> </div> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> ...h茅misph茅riques gauches. Il existe cependant quelques cas dans lesquels l'apraxie id茅omotrice est unilat茅rale, le plus souvent pour les gestes 脿 faire du c么t茅 gauche, en particulier apr猫s une atteinte c茅r茅brale touchant le corps calleux. D鈥檃utre part, la qualit茅 des gestes d茅pend des conditions de l鈥檈xamen.... </div> </li> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/cerveau-et-langage-oral/#c23270"> <span class="rg">CERVEAU ET LANGAGE ORAL</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">脡crit par <span rel="author">Jean-Fran莽ois D脡MONET</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">2 869 mots</li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">5 m茅dias </li> </ul> <div class="d-none d-md-inline-block float-start me-3"> <a class="protected" title="Article : CERVEAU ET LANGAGE ORAL" href="/encyclopedie/cerveau-et-langage-oral/"> <img class="rounded shadow" loading="lazy" alt="Les principales aires du langage 脿 la surface du cortex de l鈥檋茅misph猫re c茅r茅bral gauche - cr茅dits : Encyclop忙dia Universalis France" width="125" height="125" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/7/d/csm_de160356_0156ef7510.webp"/> </a> </div> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> Les cortex temporal sup茅rieur et frontal post茅ro-inf茅rieur des<a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Bien des si猫cles avant l'Antiquit茅 classique, on admettait d茅j脿 un 茅troit rapport entre les h茅misph猫res c茅r茅braux et les fonctions mentales sup茅rieures聽: sensation consciente, motricit茅 volontaire, m茅moire , etc. Les anciens auteurs ont abondamment sp茅cul茅 sur la r茅gion des h茅misph猫res o霉 pouvaient r茅sider ces facult茅s g茅n茅ralement d茅sign茅es par le terme global d..." title="Article : H脡MISPH脠RES C脡R脡BRAUX" href="/encyclopedie/hemispheres-cerebraux/">h茅misph猫res c茅r茅braux</a> montrent tr猫s pr茅cocement des r茅ponses au signal de parole. Dans l鈥檋茅misph猫re droit, des r茅ponses aux 茅l茅ments prosodiques ont 茅t茅 enregistr茅es, alors que les r茅gions homologues de l鈥檋茅misph猫re gauche montrent... </div> </li> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/cerveau-et-production-ecrite/#c23270"> <span class="rg">CERVEAU ET PRODUCTION ÉCRITE</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">脡crit par <span rel="author">Marieke LONGCAMP</span> et <span rel="author">Jean-Luc VELAY</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">1 201 mots</li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">1 m茅dia </li> </ul> <div class="d-none d-md-inline-block float-start me-3"> <a class="protected" title="Article : CERVEAU ET PRODUCTION &Eacute;CRITE" href="/encyclopedie/cerveau-et-production-ecrite/"> <img class="rounded shadow" loading="lazy" alt="Localisation des r茅gions impliqu茅es dans les mouvements d鈥櫭ヽriture - cr茅dits : Encyclop忙dia Universalis France" width="125" height="125" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/c/9/csm_de170174_6df15a2aac.webp"/> </a> </div> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> ...du cortex pari茅tal post茅rieur, autour du sillon intrapari茅tal. Ces observations cliniques sugg猫rent donc fortement que certaines parties du cerveau, dans les lobes frontal et pari茅tal de l'h茅misph猫re gauche pour les droitiers, sont 芦聽sp茅cialis茅es聽禄 dans l鈥檕rganisation des gestes graphiques. </div> </li> <li class="list-unstyled text-center mt-3"> <a class="btn btn-sm btn-primary" title="Afficher la liste compl猫te des r茅f茅rences" rel="related" href="/index/hemispheres-cerebraux/"> Afficher les 32 r茅f茅rences <i aria-hidden="true" class="fa fa-fw fa-chevron-right"></i> </a> </li> </ul> </section> <section class="mb-5 d-print-none article-indexes learn-more"> <i class="anchor" id="yJ990731_INDEXES"></i> <p class="title-minor">Voir aussi</p> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet"> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : NEUROLOGIE CLINIQUE" href="/index/neurologie-clinique/"> <span class="rg">NEUROLOGIE CLINIQUE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : HISTOLOGIE ANIMALE" href="/index/histologie-animale/"> <span class="rg">HISTOLOGIE ANIMALE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : DOPAMINE" href="/index/dopamine/"> <span class="rg">DOPAMINE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : WILLIS THOMAS (1621-1675)" href="/index/thomas-willis/"> <span class="rg">WILLIS </span><span class="pc">THOMAS </span><span class="rm">(1621-1675)</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : NEUROCHIMIE" href="/index/neurochimie/"> <span class="rg">NEUROCHIMIE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : SENSIBILIT脡 TACTILE ou TOUCHER" href="/index/sensibilite-tactile-toucher/"> <span class="rg">SENSIBILITÉ TACTILE </span><span class="rm">ou </span><span class="rg">TOUCHER</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : PHYSIOLOGIE" href="/index/physiologie/"> <span class="rg">PHYSIOLOGIE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : CORPS STRI脡S" href="/index/corps-stries/"> <span class="rg">CORPS STRIÉS</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : PRAXIES & GNOSIES" href="/index/praxies-et-gnosies/"> <span class="rg">PRAXIES & GNOSIES</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : VIEUSSENS RAYMOND (1641-1715)" href="/index/raymond-vieussens/"> <span class="rg">VIEUSSENS </span><span class="pc">RAYMOND </span><span class="rm">(1641-1715)</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : PYRAMIDALE VOIE" href="/index/voie-pyramidale/"> <span class="rg">PYRAMIDALE </span><span class="pc">VOIE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : PUTAMEN" href="/index/putamen/"> <span class="rg">PUTAMEN</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : SENSORIELLES AIRES" href="/index/aires-sensorielles/"> <span class="rg">SENSORIELLES </span><span class="pc">AIRES</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : ROLANDO SCISSURE DE" href="/index/scissure-de-rolando/"> <span class="rg">ROLANDO </span><span class="pc">SCISSURE DE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : SYLVIUS SCISSURE DE" href="/index/scissure-de-sylvius/"> <span class="rg">SYLVIUS </span><span class="pc">SCISSURE DE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : AGNOSIE" href="/index/agnosie/"> <span class="rg">AGNOSIE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : BABINSKI SIGNE DE" href="/index/signe-de-babinski/"> <span class="rg">BABINSKI </span><span class="pc">SIGNE DE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : MOTRICES AIRES" href="/index/aires-motrices/"> <span class="rg">MOTRICES </span><span class="pc">AIRES</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : HOLISTIQUE CONCEPTION" href="/index/conception-holistique/"> <span class="rg">HOLISTIQUE </span><span class="pc">CONCEPTION</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : N脡OCORTEX" href="/index/neocortex/"> <span class="rg">NÉOCORTEX</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : NOYAU CAUD脡, anatomie" href="/index/noyau-caude-anatomie/"> <span class="rg">NOYAU CAUDÉ, </span><em class="it">anatomie</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : NOYAU LENTICULAIRE, anatomie" href="/index/noyau-lenticulaire-anatomie/"> <span class="rg">NOYAU LENTICULAIRE, </span><em class="it">anatomie</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : NEUROPHYSIOLOGIE" href="/index/neurophysiologie/"> <span class="rg">NEUROPHYSIOLOGIE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : GLOBUS PALLIDUS" href="/index/globus-pallidus/"> <span class="rg">GLOBUS PALLIDUS</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : SINGES" href="/index/singes/"> <span class="rg">SINGES</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : NEURONES DOPAMINERGIQUES" href="/index/neurones-dopaminergiques/"> <span class="rg">NEURONES DOPAMINERGIQUES</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : NEURONE ou CELLULE NERVEUSE" href="/index/neurone-cellule-nerveuse/"> <span class="rg">NEURONE </span><span class="rm">ou </span><span class="rg">CELLULE NERVEUSE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : SUBSTANTIA NIGRA" href="/index/substantia-nigra/"> <span class="rg">SUBSTANTIA NIGRA</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : NIGROSTRIATAL SYST脠ME" href="/index/systeme-nigrostriatal/"> <span class="rg">NIGROSTRIATAL </span><span class="pc">SYSTÈME</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : ANATOMO-CLINIQUE M脡THODE" href="/index/methode-anatomo-clinique/"> <span class="rg">ANATOMO-CLINIQUE </span><span class="pc">MÉTHODE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : POTENTIELS 脡VOQU脡S" href="/index/potentiels-evoques/"> <span class="rg">POTENTIELS ÉVOQUÉS</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : CHAT" href="/index/chat/"> <span class="rg">CHAT</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : ANATOMIE ANIMALE" href="/index/anatomie-animale/"> <span class="rg">ANATOMIE ANIMALE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : ENC脡PHALE" href="/index/encephale/"> <span class="rg">ENCÉPHALE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : PARALYSIE" href="/index/paralysie/"> <span class="rg">PARALYSIE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : NEUROBIOLOGIE" href="/index/neurobiologie/"> <span class="rg">NEUROBIOLOGIE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : STRIATUM" href="/index/striatum/"> <span class="rg">STRIATUM</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : NEUROCHIRURGIE" href="/index/neurochirurgie/"> <span class="rg">NEUROCHIRURGIE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : EFF脡RENCES, neurologie" href="/index/efferences-neurologie/"> <span class="rg">EFFÉRENCES, </span><em class="it">neurologie</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : PROJECTIONS, neurophysiologie" href="/index/projections-neurophysiologie/"> <span class="rg">PROJECTIONS, </span><em class="it">neurophysiologie</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : AFF脡RENCES, neurologie" href="/index/afferences-neurologie/"> <span class="rg">AFFÉRENCES, </span><em class="it">neurologie</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : STIMULUS, neurosciences" href="/index/stimulus-neurosciences/"> <span class="rg">STIMULUS, </span><em class="it">neurosciences</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : VOIES CONDUCTRICES, neurophysiologie" href="/index/voies-conductrices-neurophysiologie/"> <span class="rg">VOIES CONDUCTRICES, </span><em class="it">neurophysiologie</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : BRODMANN AIRES DE" href="/index/aires-de-brodmann/"> <span class="rg">BRODMANN </span><span class="pc">AIRES DE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : BETZ CELLULES DE" href="/index/cellules-de-betz/"> <span class="rg">BETZ </span><span class="pc">CELLULES DE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : SOMATOTOPIE" href="/index/somatotopie/"> <span class="rg">SOMATOTOPIE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : DYSKIN脡SIES" href="/index/dyskinesies/"> <span class="rg">DYSKINÉSIES</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : MOTONEURONE ou NEURONE MOTEUR" href="/index/motoneurone-neurone-moteur/"> <span class="rg">MOTONEURONE </span><span class="rm">ou </span><span class="rg">NEURONE MOTEUR</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : ANATOMIE HUMAINE" href="/index/anatomie-humaine/"> <span class="rg">ANATOMIE HUMAINE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : NOYAUX GRIS CENTRAUX ou GANGLIONS DE LA BASE" href="/index/noyaux-gris-centraux-ganglions-de-la-base/"> <span class="rg">NOYAUX GRIS CENTRAUX </span><span class="rm">ou </span><span class="rg">GANGLIONS DE LA BASE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : NEUROLOGIE HISTOIRE DE LA" href="/index/histoire-de-la-neurologie/"> <span class="rg">NEUROLOGIE </span><span class="pc">HISTOIRE DE LA</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : EXTRAPYRAMIDAL SYST脠ME" href="/index/systeme-extrapyramidal/"> <span class="rg">EXTRAPYRAMIDAL </span><span class="pc">SYSTÈME</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : OCULOMOTRICIT脡" href="/index/oculomotricite/"> <span class="rg">OCULOMOTRICITÉ</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : PARKINSONIEN SYNDROME" href="/index/syndrome-parkinsonien/"> <span class="rg">PARKINSONIEN </span><span class="pc">SYNDROME</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : LOBE TEMPORAL" href="/index/lobe-temporal/"> <span class="rg">LOBE TEMPORAL</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : FRITSCH GUSTAV (1838-1927)" href="/index/gustav-fritsch/"> <span class="rg">FRITSCH </span><span class="pc">GUSTAV </span><span class="rm">(1838-1927)</span> </a> </li> </ul> </section> </div> <div class="col-lg-4 col-xl-3 px-0 d-none d-lg-block side-bar position-relative"> <div id="ad_rightslot" class="pub-container text-center"> <div class="pub-placeholder"></div> </div> <div id="ad_rightslot2" class="pub-container text-center"> <div class="pub-placeholder"></div> </div> <a class="wrapper cta" href="/abonnement" title="Abonnez-vous 脿 Universalis pour 1 euro" data-matomo-category="CTA" data-matomo-name="Clic" data-matomo-value="Col right"> <img src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/b/6/csm_abo-3_74169bae4d.webp" class="full-height" loading="lazy" width="290" height="476" alt="Abonnez-vous 脿 Universalis pour 1 euro"> </a> <div id="newsletter_subscription" class="wrapper p-3"> <p class="fs-3 fw-bold text-center text-light mb-1">Rejoignez-nous</p> <p class="text-center"> Inscrivez-vous 脿 notre <strong>newsletter</strong></p> <div class="input-group mb-3"> <input type="text" class="form-control" placeholder="votre email"> <div class="input-group-append"> <button id="newsletter_subscription_button" class="btn btn-primary text-uppercase" type="button"> <strong>S'inscrire</strong></button> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </main> <div id="bandeau-footer"> <div class="container"> <p><a href="/abonnement" title="Abonnez-vous 脿 Universalis pour 1 euro">Acc茅dez 脿 l'int茅gralit茅 d'Universalis.fr <strong>sans publicit茅</strong></a></p> </div> </div> <footer class="container footer text-center d-print-none"> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-2"> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a href="http://www.encyclopaedia-universalis.fr/" title="Encyclop忙dia Universalis" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Encyclop忙dia Universalis </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a href="https://www.encyclopaedia-universalis.fr/nous-contacter/infos/" title="Contactez-nous" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank">Contact</a></li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a title="Mentions l茅gales" rel="nofollow" href="/mentions-legales/">Mentions l茅gales et politique de confidentialit茅</a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a title="Cr茅dits images Accueil" rel="nofollow" href="/credits-illustrations/">Cr茅dits images</a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a href="https://abonnement.universalis.fr/typo3conf/ext/mailer/Resources/Public/Pdf/cgv.pdf" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank" title="Conditions g茅n茅rales de vente">CGV</a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a href="javascript:" id="rgpd" rel="nofollow" title="Consentement RGPD">RGPD</a> </li> </ul> <p class="mb-2">Consulter le <a title="Dictionnaire de l'Encyclop忙dia Universalis" href="/dictionnaire/"> dictionnaire </a> de l'Encyclop忙dia Universalis </p> <p class="mb-3">漏 2025 Encyclop忙dia Universalis France. Tous droits de propri茅t茅 industrielle et intellectuelle r茅serv茅s.</p> </footer> <a href="javascript:" class="btn btn-primary" id="back-to-top" title="Retour en haut de page"><i aria-hidden="true" class="far fa-arrow-up"></i></a> <script> // noinspection ES6ConvertVarToLetConst,JSUnusedGlobalSymbols var subscription_uri = 'https://www.universalis.fr/abonnement/' bodyLoaded = true; loaded(); </script> <script>(()=>{var e,a,c,r,_,b={},d={};function __webpack_require__(e){var a=d[e];if(void 0!==a)return a.exports;var c=d[e]={id:e,loaded:!1,exports:{}};return b[e].call(c.exports,c,c.exports,__webpack_require__),c.loaded=!0,c.exports}__webpack_require__.m=b,__webpack_require__.n=e=>{var a=e&&e.__esModule?()=>e.default:()=>e;return __webpack_require__.d(a,),a},__webpack_require__.d=(e,a)=>{for(var c in a)__webpack_require__.o(a,c)&&!__webpack_require__.o(e,c)&&Object.defineProperty(e,c,{enumerable:!0,get:a[c]})},__webpack_require__.f={},__webpack_require__.e=e=>Promise.all(Object.keys(__webpack_require__.f).reduce(((a,c)=>(__webpack_require__.f[c](e,a),a)),[])),__webpack_require__.u=e=>"js/"+e+"."+{177:"333ddd8e201baf8b0ef8",190:"a2441ee3e33c1b0dfb46",227:"acdc7edf769672ab395c",305:"c88c90542337f7fdd2de",346:"425075e72748a674ccbf",477:"22a31b1dea1b4afd2f5b",741:"a93fdc8c8a0167d66f8f",780:"9353cebb460c5e2269f8",786:"f4a7bab54148096ad474",789:"2d5c1ea061f479250649",830:"3ed10eef4abea47b3440",849:"67c23bd45876db282f82",882:"da3184782d3541205108",883:"b504c671ee56b3f5edf8",1031:"71fa0551886a59bcf1ca",1095:"9e59e92f30df1ec926e4",1142:"fc1a3a90c8a7cd0d7807",1222:"77e66626c184b7d31555",1480:"fef98c6a57f99f65fda8",1641:"20b900e0adda4c80db1d",1752:"41f05fd71a4dd13c9c08",1800:"1379f1df3ace760a2e7c",1890:"22dc4ae68245cd61893b",1926:"cef6829613662fa0d351",1975:"036f60f531547d8fb303",2003:"f48ccb771cd49cb7cf66",2136:"60095022ee15cac44eb4",2307:"be05dd39a77150ede1ff",2357:"b90575dcf5ca8c8f1ef6",2385:"c3da4f2c357252c9df08",2528:"35cf15469387068e6a85",2864:"f4fc3b62492697c38f08",2895:"a8f0413fcf2fee539813",3015:"e1084ababa33d08a81f0",3138:"75edb076a18972355143",3157:"b5de2b39ea37d3133af0",3169:"bd110d3b5b35b2926832",3343:"95ea7335a61f647d7e16",3507:"0c9b809d4c154301d6b7",3630:"c01bae56eaef759dc47e",3706:"15030bd90e02872595a8",3758:"957c19e64d42e47c33c7",4010:"bf993b78bd832234df6e",4047:"da30a71b441aa46bb8e5",4116:"94b769711c17c522d8c9",4280:"a995ffa72fa330a58630",4354:"4e0a70f1a566added829",4415:"7b18d362eeeac2a0f13a",4441:"dca649f001491a2bd607",4465:"308ce3c81e5393f25865",4550:"0d0291bd658dcc1e4cb2",4595:"c37517f72707c874a2b1",4692:"b98cac1fb67e4e908d64",4709:"8c7f740c485202951444",4766:"50b40199b264532882fa",4793:"801bcc6ee25931aea123",4800:"976c343f52e42fa93fdc",4880:"541bc47ab333186eb00d",4882:"ac4bf9b5216b41e62db4",5015:"5e41b5ed1c14f8339ac3",5037:"45597a02f6e5efbbe8ab",5097:"70b5339794033b90dc7f",5107:"55931eae2cd4b39a0de0",5156:"dfe562b76cf0ff9f24e0",5263:"88eb3ab427a4cbc934b9",5366:"046ebce9f739eb2e0c89",5423:"c13018ad8a1f937349ca",5486:"93bbfe795b3084129f59",5506:"9e948f9be7ebe096eebf",5614:"c9a8ac19be4023b7b250",5738:"6466f626e725a42b3698",5865:"f1a798618f3b6f9903b0",5975:"88ee9cdd28f0245914f8",5977:"bf7db06c1133a66449f3",6036:"56ff12c9dd70677ce693",6037:"e7cdaffc1d87265d5627",6111:"c25dd0a941839ee93c38",6251:"36a514e5dc40273fc7e1",6423:"a8e0bb7db6d3fded7dda",6600:"f619d552df8bcc9fecb5",7033:"6a366be1fc4535fb0efb",7096:"25a463e58dd1075911f1",7204:"3e5234153f1f490db272",7278:"ab7009f38bbb5732c15d",7319:"c14f96c5a30814af47fa",7555:"a5f570d29bfea1ef7506",7700:"e6a6a14ecf4012ebdafc",7766:"6f944a74026e1fe1264f",7900:"05c142408eaaa8435ffd",8113:"1a49932d3f9f58a0e19b",8141:"0226899ac199d372352a",8220:"9d69310a1c5abbd2e07a",8264:"55490fb5d4a9513d0175",8515:"eedd52d13507ac3fc95b",8615:"b508710cbd8a37db7ec5",8642:"1b6778bd5cc7a3c2bc58",8776:"8830e16a52d7de41cbc0",8871:"37df2861ac3d33fe4501",8991:"2a744e08ba37c28a332a",9112:"8b5424231c22fe32757a",9207:"d925c96ca941b509bb11",9229:"5d03eb6d1503a7e3708e",9416:"6ee4ffb0e861caab07f2",9424:"6538e064c5cb624ae4c6",9577:"3fd42a3b577d256de596",9612:"48e1d8ac85448df568dc",9664:"195f68941847fc00c374",9759:"a6a9959235213314d1b6",9797:"d76c4091e0c7d0b6b3f9",9871:"f06db479356ec8fadfeb",9957:"75378c34d0a170e87382"}[e]+".bundle.js",__webpack_require__.miniCssF=e=>4826===e?"css/index.css":"css/"+e+".css",__webpack_require__.g=function(){if("object"==typeof globalThis)return globalThis;try{return this||new Function("return this")()}catch(e){if("object"==typeof window)return window}}(),__webpack_require__.o=(e,a)=>Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty.call(e,a),e={},a="@universalis/web_fr:",__webpack_require__.l=(c,r,_,b)=>{if(e[c])e[c].push(r);else{var d,f;if(void 0!==_)for(var t=document.getElementsByTagName("script"),i=0;i<t.length;i++){var n=t[i];if(n.getAttribute("src")==c||n.getAttribute("data-webpack")==a+_){d=n;break}}d||(f=!0,(d=document.createElement("script")).charset="utf-8",d.timeout=120,__webpack_require__.nc&&d.setAttribute("nonce",__webpack_require__.nc),d.setAttribute("data-webpack",a+_),d.src=c),e[c]=[r];var onScriptComplete=(a,r)=>{d.onerror=d.onload=null,clearTimeout(u);var _=e[c];if(delete e[c],d.parentNode&&d.parentNode.removeChild(d),_&&_.forEach((e=>e(r))),a)return a(r)},u=setTimeout(onScriptComplete.bind(null,void 0,{type:"timeout",target:d}),12e4);d.onerror=onScriptComplete.bind(null,d.onerror),d.onload=onScriptComplete.bind(null,d.onload),f&&document.head.appendChild(d)}},__webpack_require__.r=e=>{"undefined"!=typeof Symbol&&Symbol.toStringTag&&Object.defineProperty(e,Symbol.toStringTag,{value:"Module"}),Object.defineProperty(e,"__esModule",{value:!0})},__webpack_require__.nmd=e=>(e.paths=[],e.children||(e.children=[]),e),__webpack_require__.p="/_web/assets/",c=(e,a,c)=>{var r=document.createElement("link");return r.rel="stylesheet",r.type="text/css",r.onload=a,r.onerror=function(a){var _=a&&a.target&&a.target.src||e,b=new Error("Loading CSS chunk "+chunkId+" failed.\n("+_+")");b.code="CSS_CHUNK_LOAD_FAILED",b.request=_,r.parentNode.removeChild(r),c(b)},r.href=e,document.getElementsByTagName("head")[0].appendChild(r),r},r=e=>new Promise(((a,r)=>{var _=__webpack_require__.miniCssF(e),b=__webpack_require__.p+_;if(((e,a)=>{for(var c=document.getElementsByTagName("link"),r=0;r<c.length;r++){var _=(d=c[r]).getAttribute("data-href")||d.getAttribute("href");if("stylesheet"===d.rel&&(_===e||_===a))return d}var b=document.getElementsByTagName("style");for(r=0;r<b.length;r++){var d;if((_=(d=b[r]).getAttribute("data-href"))===e||_===a)return d}})(_,b))return a();c(b,a,r)})),_={4826:0},__webpack_require__.f.miniCss=(e,a)=>{_[e]?a.push(_[e]):0!==_[e]&&{2528:1,3157:1,3343:1,3507:1,3630:1,3706:1,5366:1,6036:1,8991:1}[e]&&a.push(_[e]=r(e).then((()=>{_[e]=0}),(a=>{throw delete _[e],a})))},(()=>{var e={4826:0};__webpack_require__.f.j=(a,c)=>{var r=__webpack_require__.o(e,a)?e[a]:void 0;if(0!==r)if(r)c.push(r[2]);else{var _=new Promise(((c,_)=>r=e[a]=[c,_]));c.push(r[2]=_);var b=__webpack_require__.p+__webpack_require__.u(a),d=new Error;__webpack_require__.l(b,(c=>{if(__webpack_require__.o(e,a)&&(0!==(r=e[a])&&(e[a]=void 0),r)){var _=c&&("load"===c.type?"missing":c.type),b=c&&c.target&&c.target.src;d.message="Loading chunk "+a+" failed.\n("+_+": "+b+")",d.name="ChunkLoadError",d.type=_,d.request=b,r[1](d)}}),"chunk-"+a,a)}};var webpackJsonpCallback=(a,c)=>{var r,_,[b,d,f]=c,t=0;if(b.some((a=>0!==e[a]))){for(r in d)__webpack_require__.o(d,r)&&(__webpack_require__.m[r]=d[r]);if(f)f(__webpack_require__)}for(a&&a(c);t<b.length;t++)_=b[t],__webpack_require__.o(e,_)&&e[_]&&e[_][0](),e[_]=0},a=self.webpackChunk_universalis_web_fr=self.webpackChunk_universalis_web_fr||[];a.forEach(webpackJsonpCallback.bind(null,0)),a.push=webpackJsonpCallback.bind(null,a.push.bind(a))})(),__webpack_require__.nc=void 0,document.addEventListener("DOMContentLoaded",(function(){__webpack_require__.e(3138).then(__webpack_require__.bind(__webpack_require__,73138)).then((function(){Promise.all([__webpack_require__.e(1890),__webpack_require__.e(786)]).then(__webpack_require__.bind(__webpack_require__,786)).then((function(e){e.default()}))}))}))})();</script> <script> let eu_article_ucode = "J990731"</script> </body> </html>

CINXE.COM

H脡MISPH脠RES C脡R脡BRAUX - Encyclop忙dia Universalis