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href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Testing_in_foods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Testing_in_foods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Testing in foods</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Testing_in_foods-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Testing in foods subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Testing_in_foods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Protein_quality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Protein_quality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Protein quality</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Protein_quality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Digestion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Digestion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Digestion</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Digestion-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Digestion subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Digestion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Newborn" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Newborn"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Newborn</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Newborn-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dietary_requirements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dietary_requirements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Dietary requirements</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dietary_requirements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dietary_recommendations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dietary_recommendations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Dietary recommendations</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Dietary_recommendations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Dietary recommendations subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Dietary_recommendations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Active_people" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Active_people"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Active people</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Active_people-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aerobic_exercise_protein_needs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aerobic_exercise_protein_needs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Aerobic exercise protein needs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aerobic_exercise_protein_needs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anaerobic_exercise_protein_needs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anaerobic_exercise_protein_needs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Anaerobic exercise protein needs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anaerobic_exercise_protein_needs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Special_populations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Special_populations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Special populations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Special_populations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Protein_allergies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Protein_allergies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4.1</span> <span>Protein allergies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Protein_allergies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chronic_kidney_disease" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chronic_kidney_disease"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4.2</span> <span>Chronic kidney disease</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chronic_kidney_disease-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phenylketonuria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phenylketonuria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4.3</span> <span>Phenylketonuria</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phenylketonuria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Excess_consumption" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Excess_consumption"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Excess consumption</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Excess_consumption-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Protein_deficiency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Protein_deficiency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Protein deficiency</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Protein_deficiency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" 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mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Protein (nutrient)</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 21 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-21" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">21 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%86_(%D8%AA%D8%BA%D8%B0%D9%8A%D8%A9)" title="بروتين (تغذية) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بروتين (تغذية)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B7" title="আমিষ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="আমিষ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prote%C3%AFna_(nutrient)" title="Proteïna (nutrient) – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Proteïna (nutrient)" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Протеин – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Протеин" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%81%CF%89%CF%84%CE%B5%CE%90%CE%BD%CE%B7_(%CF%84%CF%81%CF%8C%CF%86%CE%B9%CE%BC%CE%BF)" title="Πρωτεΐνη (τρόφιμο) – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πρωτεΐνη (τρόφιμο)" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prote%C3%ADna_(nutriente)" title="Proteína (nutriente) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Proteína (nutriente)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AA%D8%A6%DB%8C%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%B1%DA%98%DB%8C%D9%85_%D8%BA%D8%B0%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="پروتئین‌ها در رژیم غذایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پروتئین‌ها در رژیم غذایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protide" title="Protide – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Protide" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8_(_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5_)" title="प्रोटीन ( पोषक तत्व ) – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="प्रोटीन ( पोषक तत्व )" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabbisogno_proteico" title="Fabbisogno proteico – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Fabbisogno proteico" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_(nutrien)" title="Protein (nutrien) – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Protein (nutrien)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3" title="Уураг – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Уураг" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruw_eiwit" title="Ruw eiwit – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Ruw eiwit" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_(oziq_moddalar)" title="Protein (oziq moddalar) – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Protein (oziq moddalar)" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Протеин – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Протеин" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B1%DB%86%D8%AA%DB%8C%D9%86_(%D8%AE%DB%86%D8%B1%D8%A7%DA%A9)" title="پرۆتین (خۆراک) – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="پرۆتین (خۆراک)" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B8%D0%BD%D2%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80_%D1%80%D0%B5%D2%B7%D0%B0%D0%B8_%D2%93%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BE" title="Протеинҳо дар реҷаи ғизо – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Протеинҳо дар реҷаи ғизо" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_(besin)" title="Protein (besin) – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Protein (besin)" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BA_%D1%83_%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%87%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%96" title="Білок у харчуванні – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Білок у харчуванні" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_(dinh_d%C6%B0%E1%BB%A1ng)" title="Protein (dinh dưỡng) – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Protein (dinh dưỡng)" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%9B%8B%E7%99%BD%E8%B3%AA_(%E7%87%9F%E9%A4%8A%E7%B4%A0)" title="蛋白質 (營養素) – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="蛋白質 (營養素)" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q21296145#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Nutrient for the human body</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about protein as a nutrient. For protein as a class of molecule, see <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">Protein</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Bodybuilding_supplement" title="Bodybuilding supplement">Bodybuilding supplement</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AminoAcidball.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/AminoAcidball.svg/220px-AminoAcidball.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/AminoAcidball.svg/330px-AminoAcidball.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/AminoAcidball.svg/440px-AminoAcidball.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="702" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>Amino acids are the building blocks of protein.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Amino_acids.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Amino_acids.png/220px-Amino_acids.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Amino_acids.png/330px-Amino_acids.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Amino_acids.png/440px-Amino_acids.png 2x" data-file-width="3082" data-file-height="3995" /></a><figcaption>Amino acids are necessary nutrients. Present in every cell, they are also precursors to nucleic acids, co-enzymes, hormones, immune response, repair and other molecules essential for life.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Proteins</b> are essential <a href="/wiki/Nutrient" title="Nutrient">nutrients</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Human_body" title="Human body">human body</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-proteinbody_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-proteinbody-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are one of the building blocks of <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">body tissue</a> and can also serve as a <a href="/wiki/Fuel" title="Fuel">fuel source</a>. As a fuel, proteins provide as much <a href="/wiki/Energy_density" title="Energy density">energy density</a> as <a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">carbohydrates</a>: 17 <a href="/wiki/Joule" title="Joule">kJ</a> (4 <a href="/wiki/Calories" class="mw-redirect" title="Calories">kcal</a>) per gram; in contrast, <a href="/wiki/Lipid" title="Lipid">lipids</a> provide 37 kJ (9 kcal) per gram. The most important aspect and defining characteristic of protein from a nutritional standpoint is its <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acid</a> composition.<sup id="cite_ref-DRIProteinChpt_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DRIProteinChpt-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">Proteins</a> are <a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">polymer</a> chains made of amino acids linked together by <a href="/wiki/Peptide_bonds" class="mw-redirect" title="Peptide bonds">peptide bonds</a>. During human <a href="/wiki/Digestion" title="Digestion">digestion</a>, proteins are broken down in the <a href="/wiki/Stomach" title="Stomach">stomach</a> to smaller <a href="/wiki/Polypeptide" class="mw-redirect" title="Polypeptide">polypeptide</a> chains via <a href="/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid" title="Hydrochloric acid">hydrochloric acid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protease" title="Protease">protease</a> actions. This is crucial for the <a href="/wiki/Absorption_(small_intestine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Absorption (small intestine)">absorption</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Essential_amino_acid" title="Essential amino acid">essential amino acids</a> that cannot be <a href="/wiki/Biosynthesized" class="mw-redirect" title="Biosynthesized">biosynthesized</a> by the body.<sup id="cite_ref-genton_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-genton-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are nine essential amino acids which humans must obtain from their diet in order to prevent <a href="/wiki/Protein%E2%80%93energy_malnutrition" title="Protein–energy malnutrition">protein-energy malnutrition</a> and resulting death. They are <a href="/wiki/Phenylalanine" title="Phenylalanine">phenylalanine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Valine" title="Valine">valine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Threonine" title="Threonine">threonine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tryptophan" title="Tryptophan">tryptophan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Methionine" title="Methionine">methionine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leucine" title="Leucine">leucine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isoleucine" title="Isoleucine">isoleucine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lysine" title="Lysine">lysine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Histidine" title="Histidine">histidine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-DRIProteinChpt_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DRIProteinChpt-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There has been debate as to whether there are 8 or 9 essential amino acids.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The consensus seems to lean towards 9 since histidine is not synthesized in adults.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are five amino acids which humans are able to synthesize in the body. These five are <a href="/wiki/Alanine" title="Alanine">alanine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aspartic_acid" title="Aspartic acid">aspartic acid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asparagine" title="Asparagine">asparagine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glutamic_acid" title="Glutamic acid">glutamic acid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Serine" title="Serine">serine</a>. There are six conditionally essential amino acids whose synthesis can be limited under special pathophysiological conditions, such as prematurity in the infant or individuals in severe catabolic distress. These six are <a href="/wiki/Arginine" title="Arginine">arginine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cysteine" title="Cysteine">cysteine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glycine" title="Glycine">glycine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glutamine" title="Glutamine">glutamine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proline" title="Proline">proline</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tyrosine" title="Tyrosine">tyrosine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-DRIProteinChpt_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DRIProteinChpt-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dietary sources of protein include <a href="/wiki/Grain" title="Grain">grains</a>, <a href="/wiki/Legume" title="Legume">legumes</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Nut_(fruit)" title="Nut (fruit)">nuts</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-nih1_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nih1-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Seed" title="Seed">seeds</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Meat" title="Meat">meats</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dairy" title="Dairy">dairy</a> products, <a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eggs_as_food" title="Eggs as food">eggs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edible_insects" class="mw-redirect" title="Edible insects">edible insects</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Seaweed" title="Seaweed">seaweeds</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Protein_functions_in_human_body">Protein functions in human body</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Protein_(nutrient)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Protein functions in human body"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Protein is a nutrient needed by the human body for growth and maintenance. Aside from water, proteins are the most abundant kind of molecules in the body. Protein can be found in all cells of the body and is the major structural component of all cells in the body, especially <a href="/wiki/Muscle" title="Muscle">muscle</a>. This also includes body organs, hair and skin. Proteins are also used in membranes, such as <a href="/wiki/Glycoprotein" title="Glycoprotein">glycoproteins</a>. When broken down into amino acids, they are used as precursors to <a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid" title="Nucleic acid">nucleic acid</a>, co-enzymes, hormones, immune response, cellular repair, and other molecules essential for life. Additionally, protein is needed to form blood cells.<sup id="cite_ref-proteinbody_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-proteinbody-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-DRIProteinChpt_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DRIProteinChpt-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Protein_(nutrient)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti 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.trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Fish_(food)" title="Fish (food)"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Pesce_al_mercato_1.JPG/200px-Pesce_al_mercato_1.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Pesce_al_mercato_1.JPG/300px-Pesce_al_mercato_1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Pesce_al_mercato_1.JPG/400px-Pesce_al_mercato_1.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3156" data-file-height="1775" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Egg_(food)" title="Egg (food)"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Freerange_eggs.jpg/200px-Freerange_eggs.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Freerange_eggs.jpg/300px-Freerange_eggs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Freerange_eggs.jpg/400px-Freerange_eggs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="610" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Cheese" title="Cheese"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Blauschimmelk%C3%A4se_IMGP5469_wp.jpg/200px-Blauschimmelk%C3%A4se_IMGP5469_wp.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Blauschimmelk%C3%A4se_IMGP5469_wp.jpg/300px-Blauschimmelk%C3%A4se_IMGP5469_wp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Blauschimmelk%C3%A4se_IMGP5469_wp.jpg/400px-Blauschimmelk%C3%A4se_IMGP5469_wp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2008" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Some sources of animal-based protein</div></div></div></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238864702">.mw-parser-output .bar-chart{margin:0.5em;background-color:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid #c0c0c0}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart caption{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart th,.mw-parser-output .bar-chart td{padding:1px;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart th[scope="col"]:not(.bar-chart-label-type){width:15em}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart th[scope="row"]:not(.bar-chart-total){font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart-bar{height:1.25em;width:40em}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart-bar-line{background-color:#cedff2;height:1.25em;margin:0 0 0 0;z-index:0}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart-bar-comment{font-size:90%;padding-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart-bar-numbers{position:relative;top:-1.4em;height:1.25em;padding:0 0 0 2em;z-index:10;width:40em}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart-caption{border-top:1px solid #aaa}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .bar-chart-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart-right{float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart-center{margin:0.5em auto}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .bar-chart-bar-line{background-color:#74497e}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .bar-chart-bar-line{background-color:#74497e}}</style> <table class="bar-chart bar-chart-right"> <caption>Nutritional value and environmental impact of animal products, compared to agriculture overall<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col" class="bar-chart-label-type">Categories </th> <th scope="col" style="width: 20em">Contribution of farmed animal product [%] </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Calorie" title="Calorie">Calories</a> </th> <td><div class="bar-chart-bar" style="width: 20em;"><div class="bar-chart-bar-line" style="width:3.6em;"></div><span class="bar-chart-bar-numbers" style="width: 20em;"><span class="nowrap">18</span></span></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Proteins </th> <td><div class="bar-chart-bar" style="width: 20em;"><div class="bar-chart-bar-line" style="width:7.4em;"></div><span class="bar-chart-bar-numbers" style="width: 20em;"><span class="nowrap">37</span></span></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">Land use</a> </th> <td><div class="bar-chart-bar" style="width: 20em;"><div class="bar-chart-bar-line" style="width:16.6em;"></div><span class="bar-chart-bar-numbers" style="width: 20em;"><span class="nowrap">83</span></span></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">Greenhouse gases</a> </th> <td><div class="bar-chart-bar" style="width: 20em;"><div class="bar-chart-bar-line" style="width:11.6em;"></div><span class="bar-chart-bar-numbers" style="width: 20em;"><span class="nowrap">58</span></span></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water pollution</a> </th> <td><div class="bar-chart-bar" style="width: 20em;"><div class="bar-chart-bar-line" style="width:11.4em;"></div><span class="bar-chart-bar-numbers" style="width: 20em;"><span class="nowrap">57</span></span></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Air pollution</a> </th> <td><div class="bar-chart-bar" style="width: 20em;"><div class="bar-chart-bar-line" style="width:11.2em;"></div><span class="bar-chart-bar-numbers" style="width: 20em;"><span class="nowrap">56</span></span></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Water_footprint" title="Water footprint">Freshwater withdrawals</a> </th> <td><div class="bar-chart-bar" style="width: 20em;"><div class="bar-chart-bar-line" style="width:6.6em;"></div><span class="bar-chart-bar-numbers" style="width: 20em;"><span class="nowrap">33</span></span></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <p>Protein occurs in a wide range of food.<sup id="cite_ref-steinke_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-steinke-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-vernon_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vernon-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On a worldwide basis, plant protein foods contribute over 60% of the per capita supply of protein.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In North America, animal-derived foods contribute about 70% of protein sources.<sup id="cite_ref-vernon_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vernon-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Insects are a source of protein in many parts of the world.<sup id="cite_ref-Wiley_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wiley-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In parts of Africa, up to 50% of dietary protein derives from insects.<sup id="cite_ref-Wiley_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wiley-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is estimated that more than 2 billion <a href="/wiki/Entomophagy" title="Entomophagy">people eat insects</a> daily.<sup id="cite_ref-Pap_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pap-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Meat" title="Meat">Meat</a>, dairy, eggs, <a href="/wiki/Soybean" title="Soybean">soybeans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Whole_grain" title="Whole grain">whole grains</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cereal" title="Cereal">cereals</a> are sources of protein.<sup id="cite_ref-steinke_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-steinke-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Examples of <a href="/wiki/Food_staple" class="mw-redirect" title="Food staple">food staples</a> and cereal sources of protein, each with a concentration greater than 7%, are (in no particular order) buckwheat, oats, rye, millet, maize (corn), rice, wheat, sorghum, amaranth, and quinoa.<sup id="cite_ref-vernon_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vernon-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Game_meat" class="mw-redirect" title="Game meat">Game meat</a> is an affordable protein source in some countries.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Plant sources of proteins include <a href="/wiki/Legume" title="Legume">legumes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nut_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nut (food)">nuts</a>, seeds, grains, and some <a href="/wiki/Vegetable" title="Vegetable">vegetables</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">fruits</a>. Plant foods with protein concentrations greater than 7% include (but are not limited to) <a href="/wiki/Soybean" title="Soybean">soybeans</a>, lentils, kidney beans, white beans, mung beans, <a href="/wiki/Chickpea" title="Chickpea">chickpeas</a>, cowpeas, lima beans, pigeon peas, lupines, wing beans, <a href="/wiki/Almond" title="Almond">almonds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brazil_nut" title="Brazil nut">Brazil nuts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cashew" title="Cashew">cashews</a>, pecans, <a href="/wiki/Walnut" title="Walnut">walnuts</a>, cotton seeds, <a href="/wiki/Pumpkin_seed" title="Pumpkin seed">pumpkin seeds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hemp_seeds" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemp seeds">hemp seeds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sesame_seeds" class="mw-redirect" title="Sesame seeds">sesame seeds</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sunflower_seed" title="Sunflower seed">sunflower seeds</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-vernon_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vernon-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Photovoltaic-driven <a href="/wiki/Microbial_protein" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbial protein">microbial protein</a> production uses electricity from solar panels and carbon dioxide from the air to create fuel for microbes, which are grown in bioreactor vats and then processed into dry protein powders. The process makes highly efficient use of land, water and fertiliser.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright" style="background-color:white"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:326px;max-width:326px;background-color:white"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="background-color:white;width:102px;max-width:102px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Mung_bean" title="Mung bean"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/MungBean.jpg/100px-MungBean.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/MungBean.jpg/150px-MungBean.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/MungBean.jpg/200px-MungBean.jpg 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="263" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="background-color:white;width:116px;max-width:116px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Kidney_bean" title="Kidney bean"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Red_Rajma_BNC.jpg/114px-Red_Rajma_BNC.jpg" decoding="async" width="114" height="76" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Red_Rajma_BNC.jpg/171px-Red_Rajma_BNC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Red_Rajma_BNC.jpg/228px-Red_Rajma_BNC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4164" data-file-height="2776" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="background-color:white;width:102px;max-width:102px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Cowpea" title="Cowpea"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Nigeria_Cowpea_fro_F_IITA.jpg/100px-Nigeria_Cowpea_fro_F_IITA.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Nigeria_Cowpea_fro_F_IITA.jpg/150px-Nigeria_Cowpea_fro_F_IITA.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Nigeria_Cowpea_fro_F_IITA.jpg/200px-Nigeria_Cowpea_fro_F_IITA.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div></div></div></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright" style="background-color:white"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:326px;max-width:326px;background-color:white"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="background-color:white;width:120px;max-width:120px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Walnut" title="Walnut"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/English_Walnuts.jpg/118px-English_Walnuts.jpg" decoding="async" width="118" height="53" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/English_Walnuts.jpg/177px-English_Walnuts.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/English_Walnuts.jpg/236px-English_Walnuts.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3444" data-file-height="1555" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="background-color:white;width:116px;max-width:116px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Almond" title="Almond"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Mandel_Gr_99.jpg/114px-Mandel_Gr_99.jpg" decoding="async" width="114" height="55" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Mandel_Gr_99.jpg/171px-Mandel_Gr_99.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Mandel_Gr_99.jpg/228px-Mandel_Gr_99.jpg 2x" data-file-width="611" data-file-height="297" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="background-color:white;width:84px;max-width:84px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Sesame" title="Sesame"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Sa_white_sesame_seeds.jpg/82px-Sa_white_sesame_seeds.jpg" decoding="async" width="82" height="55" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Sa_white_sesame_seeds.jpg/123px-Sa_white_sesame_seeds.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Sa_white_sesame_seeds.jpg/164px-Sa_white_sesame_seeds.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3504" data-file-height="2336" /></a></span></div></div></div></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright" style="background-color:white"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:326px;max-width:326px;background-color:white"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="background-color:white;width:97px;max-width:97px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Sunflower" title="Sunflower"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Sonnenblumenkerne_sunflower_seeds.jpg/95px-Sonnenblumenkerne_sunflower_seeds.jpg" decoding="async" width="95" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Sonnenblumenkerne_sunflower_seeds.jpg/143px-Sonnenblumenkerne_sunflower_seeds.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Sonnenblumenkerne_sunflower_seeds.jpg/190px-Sonnenblumenkerne_sunflower_seeds.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1023" data-file-height="1024" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="background-color:white;width:144px;max-width:144px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Chickpea" title="Chickpea"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Sa-whitegreen-chickpea.jpg/142px-Sa-whitegreen-chickpea.jpg" decoding="async" width="142" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Sa-whitegreen-chickpea.jpg/213px-Sa-whitegreen-chickpea.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Sa-whitegreen-chickpea.jpg/284px-Sa-whitegreen-chickpea.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3504" data-file-height="2336" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="background-color:white;width:79px;max-width:79px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Lentil" title="Lentil"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Lens_culinaris_seeds.jpg/77px-Lens_culinaris_seeds.jpg" decoding="async" width="77" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Lens_culinaris_seeds.jpg/116px-Lens_culinaris_seeds.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Lens_culinaris_seeds.jpg/154px-Lens_culinaris_seeds.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1107" data-file-height="1367" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Plant sources of protein.</div></div></div></div> <p>People eating a balanced diet do not need <a href="/wiki/Dietary_supplement" title="Dietary supplement">protein supplements</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-nih1_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nih1-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-vernon_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vernon-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-fao85_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fao85-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The table below presents <a href="/wiki/Food_group" title="Food group">food groups</a> as protein sources. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Food source</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Lysine" title="Lysine">Lysine</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Threonine" title="Threonine">Threonine</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Tryptophan" title="Tryptophan">Tryptophan</a></th> <th>Sulfur-containing<br />amino acids </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Legumes" class="mw-redirect" title="Legumes">Legumes</a></td> <td>64</td> <td>38</td> <td>12</td> <td bgcolor="yellow">25 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cereals" class="mw-redirect" title="Cereals">Cereals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Whole_grain" title="Whole grain">whole grains</a></td> <td bgcolor="yellow">31</td> <td>32</td> <td>12</td> <td>37 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nut_(fruit)" title="Nut (fruit)">Nuts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seed" title="Seed">seeds</a></td> <td>45</td> <td>36</td> <td bgcolor="lightgreen"><b>17</b></td> <td bgcolor="lightgreen"><b>46</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">Fruits</a></td> <td>45</td> <td bgcolor="yellow">29</td> <td bgcolor="yellow">11</td> <td>27 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animal</a></td> <td bgcolor="lightgreen"><b>85</b></td> <td bgcolor="lightgreen"><b>44</b></td> <td>12</td> <td>38 </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p><b>Colour key:</b> </p> <dl><dd><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:lightgreen; color:black;"> </span> Protein source with highest density of respective amino acid.</dd> <dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:yellow; color:black;"> </span> Protein source with lowest density of respective amino acid.</dd></dl> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Protein_shake.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Protein_shake.jpg/220px-Protein_shake.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Protein_shake.jpg/330px-Protein_shake.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Protein_shake.jpg/440px-Protein_shake.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2300" data-file-height="2372" /></a><figcaption> Protein milkshakes, made from protein powder (center) and milk (left), are a common <a href="/wiki/Bodybuilding_supplement" title="Bodybuilding supplement">bodybuilding supplement</a> </figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Bodybuilding_supplement#Protein" title="Bodybuilding supplement">Protein powders</a> – such as <a href="/wiki/Casein" title="Casein">casein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Whey" title="Whey">whey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egg_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egg (food)">egg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rice" title="Rice">rice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soy" class="mw-redirect" title="Soy">soy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cricket_flour#Nutritional_information" title="Cricket flour">cricket flour</a>– are processed and manufactured sources of protein.<sup id="cite_ref-lemon_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lemon-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Testing_in_foods">Testing in foods</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Protein_(nutrient)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Testing in foods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The classic <a href="/wiki/Assays" class="mw-redirect" title="Assays">assays</a> for protein concentration in food are the <a href="/wiki/Kjeldahl_method" title="Kjeldahl method">Kjeldahl method</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Dumas_method" title="Dumas method">Dumas method</a>. These tests determine the total nitrogen in a sample. The only major component of most food which contains nitrogen is protein (fat, carbohydrate and dietary fiber do not contain nitrogen). If the amount of nitrogen is multiplied by a factor depending on the kinds of protein expected in the food the total protein can be determined. This value is known as the "<i>crude protein</i>" content. The use of correct conversion factors is heavily debated, specifically with the introduction of more plant-derived protein products.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, on food labels the protein is calculated by the nitrogen multiplied by 6.25, because the average nitrogen content of proteins is about 16%. The Kjeldahl test is typically used because it is the method the <a href="/wiki/AOAC_International" title="AOAC International">AOAC International</a> has adopted and is therefore used by many food standards agencies around the world, though the Dumas method is also approved by some standards organizations.<sup id="cite_ref-ProtAnaweb_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ProtAnaweb-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Accidental <a href="/wiki/Contamination" title="Contamination">contamination</a> and intentional adulteration of protein meals with <a href="/wiki/Non-protein_nitrogen" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-protein nitrogen">non-protein nitrogen</a> sources that inflate crude protein content measurements have been known to occur in the <a href="/wiki/Food_industry" title="Food industry">food industry</a> for decades. To ensure <a href="/wiki/Food_quality" title="Food quality">food quality</a>, purchasers of protein meals routinely conduct <a href="/wiki/Quality_control" title="Quality control">quality control</a> tests designed to detect the most common non-protein nitrogen contaminants, such as <a href="/wiki/Urea" title="Urea">urea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ammonium_nitrate" title="Ammonium nitrate">ammonium nitrate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-USAToday_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USAToday-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In at least one segment of the food industry, the dairy industry, some countries (at least the U.S., Australia, France and Hungary) have adopted "<i>true protein</i>" measurement, as opposed to crude protein measurement, as the standard for payment and testing: "True protein is a measure of only the proteins in milk, whereas crude protein is a measure of all sources of nitrogen and includes nonprotein nitrogen, such as urea, which has no food value to humans. ... Current milk-testing equipment measures peptide bonds, a direct measure of true protein."<sup id="cite_ref-USDAweb_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USDAweb-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Measuring peptide bonds in grains has also been put into practice in several countries including Canada, the UK, Australia, Russia and Argentina where near-infrared reflectance (NIR) technology, a type of <a href="/wiki/Infrared_spectroscopy" title="Infrared spectroscopy">infrared spectroscopy</a> is used.<sup id="cite_ref-SciAmProt_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SciAmProt-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization_of_the_United_Nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations">Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations</a> (FAO) recommends that only amino acid analysis be used to determine protein in, <i>inter alia</i>, foods used as the sole source of nourishment, such as infant formula, but also provides: "When data on amino acids analyses are not available, determination of protein based on total N content by Kjeldahl (AOAC, 2000) or similar method ... is considered acceptable."<sup id="cite_ref-UNFAOprot_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UNFAOprot-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The testing method for protein in beef cattle feed has grown into a science over the post-war years. The standard text in the United States, <i>Nutrient Requirements of Beef Cattle</i>, has been through eight editions over at least seventy years.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 1996 sixth edition substituted for the fifth edition's <i>crude protein</i> the concept of "<i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metabolizeable_protein&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Metabolizeable protein (page does not exist)">metabolizeable protein</a></i>", which was defined around the year 2000 as "the <i>true protein</i> absorbed by the intestine, supplied by microbial protein and undegraded intake protein".<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The limitations of the Kjeldahl method were at the heart of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_protein_adulteration#Protein_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese protein adulteration">Chinese protein export contamination</a> in 2007 and the <a href="/wiki/2008_China_milk_scandal" class="mw-redirect" title="2008 China milk scandal">2008 China milk scandal</a> in which the industrial chemical <a href="/wiki/Melamine" title="Melamine">melamine</a> was <a href="/wiki/2008_Chinese_milk_scandal#Melamine" title="2008 Chinese milk scandal">added to the milk</a> or glutens to increase the measured "protein".<sup id="cite_ref-melamine_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-melamine-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Protein_quality">Protein quality</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Protein_(nutrient)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Protein quality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Protein_quality" title="Protein quality">Protein quality</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid_score" title="Amino acid score">Amino acid score</a></div> <p>The most important aspect and defining characteristic of protein from a nutritional standpoint is its <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acid</a> composition.<sup id="cite_ref-DRIProteinChpt_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DRIProteinChpt-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are multiple systems which rate proteins by their usefulness to an organism based on their relative percentage of amino acids and, in some systems, the digestibility of the protein source. They include <a href="/wiki/Biological_value" title="Biological value">biological value</a>, <a href="/wiki/Net_protein_utilization" title="Net protein utilization">net protein utilization</a>, and <a href="/wiki/PDCAAS" class="mw-redirect" title="PDCAAS">PDCAAS</a> (Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acids Score) which was developed by the FDA as a modification of the <a href="/wiki/Protein_efficiency_ratio" title="Protein efficiency ratio">Protein efficiency ratio</a> (PER) method. The PDCAAS rating was adopted by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations/<a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> (FAO/WHO) in 1993 as "the preferred 'best'" method to determine protein quality. These organizations have suggested that other methods for evaluating the quality of protein are inferior.<sup id="cite_ref-FAO_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FAO-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2013 FAO proposed changing to <a href="/wiki/Digestible_Indispensable_Amino_Acid_Score" title="Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Score">Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Score</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Digestion">Digestion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Protein_(nutrient)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Digestion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most proteins are decomposed to single amino acids by digestion in the gastro-intestinal tract.<sup id="cite_ref-mehta_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mehta-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Digestion typically begins in the stomach when <a href="/wiki/Pepsinogen" class="mw-redirect" title="Pepsinogen">pepsinogen</a> is converted to <a href="/wiki/Pepsin" title="Pepsin">pepsin</a> by the action of <a href="/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid" title="Hydrochloric acid">hydrochloric acid</a>, and continued by <a href="/wiki/Trypsin" title="Trypsin">trypsin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chymotrypsin" title="Chymotrypsin">chymotrypsin</a> in the small intestine.<sup id="cite_ref-mehta_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mehta-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before the absorption in the <a href="/wiki/Small_intestine" title="Small intestine">small intestine</a>, most proteins are already reduced to single amino acid or peptides of several amino acids. Most peptides longer than four amino acids are not absorbed. Absorption into the <a href="/wiki/Enterocyte" title="Enterocyte">intestinal absorptive cells</a> is not the end. There, most of the peptides are broken into single amino acids. </p><p>Absorption of the amino acids and their <a href="/wiki/Derivative_(chemistry)" title="Derivative (chemistry)">derivatives</a> into which dietary protein is degraded is done by the <a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_tract" title="Gastrointestinal tract">gastrointestinal tract</a>. The absorption rates of individual amino acids are highly dependent on the protein source; for example, the digestibilities of many amino acids in humans, the difference between <a href="/wiki/Soy" class="mw-redirect" title="Soy">soy</a> and milk proteins<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and between individual milk proteins, <a href="/wiki/Beta-lactoglobulin" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta-lactoglobulin">beta-lactoglobulin</a> and casein.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For milk proteins, about 50% of the ingested protein is absorbed between the stomach and the <a href="/wiki/Jejunum" title="Jejunum">jejunum</a> and 90% is absorbed by the time the digested food reaches the <a href="/wiki/Ileum" title="Ileum">ileum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Biological value (BV) is a measure of the proportion of absorbed protein from a food which becomes incorporated into the proteins of the organism's body. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Newborn">Newborn</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Protein_(nutrient)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Newborn"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Newborns" class="mw-redirect" title="Newborns">Newborns</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mammals" class="mw-redirect" title="Mammals">mammals</a> are exceptional in protein digestion and <a href="/wiki/Assimilation_(biology)" title="Assimilation (biology)">assimilation</a> in that they can absorb intact proteins at the small intestine. This enables <a href="/wiki/Passive_immunity" title="Passive immunity">passive immunity</a>, i.e., transfer of immunoglobulins from the mother to the newborn, via milk.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dietary_requirements">Dietary requirements</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Protein_(nutrient)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Dietary requirements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%22Eat_More_Cottage_Cheese...You%27ll_Need_Less_Meat...A_Postal_Card_Will_Bring_Recipes...Cottage_Cheese_or_Meat%5E_Ask..._-_NARA_-_512542.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/%22Eat_More_Cottage_Cheese...You%27ll_Need_Less_Meat...A_Postal_Card_Will_Bring_Recipes...Cottage_Cheese_or_Meat%5E_Ask..._-_NARA_-_512542.jpg/220px-%22Eat_More_Cottage_Cheese...You%27ll_Need_Less_Meat...A_Postal_Card_Will_Bring_Recipes...Cottage_Cheese_or_Meat%5E_Ask..._-_NARA_-_512542.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="323" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/%22Eat_More_Cottage_Cheese...You%27ll_Need_Less_Meat...A_Postal_Card_Will_Bring_Recipes...Cottage_Cheese_or_Meat%5E_Ask..._-_NARA_-_512542.jpg/330px-%22Eat_More_Cottage_Cheese...You%27ll_Need_Less_Meat...A_Postal_Card_Will_Bring_Recipes...Cottage_Cheese_or_Meat%5E_Ask..._-_NARA_-_512542.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/%22Eat_More_Cottage_Cheese...You%27ll_Need_Less_Meat...A_Postal_Card_Will_Bring_Recipes...Cottage_Cheese_or_Meat%5E_Ask..._-_NARA_-_512542.jpg/440px-%22Eat_More_Cottage_Cheese...You%27ll_Need_Less_Meat...A_Postal_Card_Will_Bring_Recipes...Cottage_Cheese_or_Meat%5E_Ask..._-_NARA_-_512542.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2046" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>An education campaign launched by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Agriculture" title="United States Department of Agriculture">United States Department of Agriculture</a> about 100 years ago, on <a href="/wiki/Cottage_cheese" title="Cottage cheese">cottage cheese</a> as a lower-cost protein substitute for meat.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Average_Protein_Supply_By_Region_And_Origin.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Average_Protein_Supply_By_Region_And_Origin.svg/220px-Average_Protein_Supply_By_Region_And_Origin.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Average_Protein_Supply_By_Region_And_Origin.svg/330px-Average_Protein_Supply_By_Region_And_Origin.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Average_Protein_Supply_By_Region_And_Origin.svg/440px-Average_Protein_Supply_By_Region_And_Origin.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="262" /></a><figcaption>Average protein supply by region and origin</figcaption></figure> <p>Considerable debate has taken place regarding issues surrounding protein intake requirements.<sup id="cite_ref-IJSNEM_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IJSNEM-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-JACN_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JACN-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The amount of protein required in a person's diet is determined in large part by overall energy intake, the body's need for nitrogen and essential amino acids, body weight and composition, rate of growth in the individual, physical activity level, the individual's energy and carbohydrate intake, and the presence of illness or injury.<sup id="cite_ref-genton_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-genton-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-lemon_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lemon-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Physical activity and exertion as well as enhanced muscular mass increase the need for protein. Requirements are also greater during childhood for growth and development, during pregnancy, or when breastfeeding in order to nourish a baby or when the body needs to recover from malnutrition or trauma or after an operation.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO-TRS_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO-TRS-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dietary_recommendations">Dietary recommendations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Protein_(nutrient)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Dietary recommendations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to US & Canadian <a href="/wiki/Dietary_Reference_Intake" title="Dietary Reference Intake">Dietary Reference Intake</a> guidelines, women ages 19–70 need to consume 46 grams of protein per day while men ages 19–70 need to consume 56 grams of protein per day to minimize risk of deficiencies. These Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) were calculated based on 0.8 grams protein per kilogram body weight and average body weights of 57 kg (126 pounds) and 70 kg (154 pounds), respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-DRIProteinChpt_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DRIProteinChpt-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, this recommendation is based on structural requirements but disregards use of protein for <a href="/wiki/Energy_metabolism" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy metabolism">energy metabolism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-IJSNEM_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IJSNEM-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This requirement is for a normal sedentary person.<sup id="cite_ref-tarnopolsky_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tarnopolsky-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the United States, average protein consumption is higher than the RDA. According to results of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES 2013–2014), average protein consumption for women ages 20 and older was 69.8 grams and for men 98.3 grams/day.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to research from Harvard University, the National Academy of Medicine<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> suggests that adults should consume at least 0.8 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight daily, which is roughly equivalent to a little more than 7 grams for every 20 pounds of body weight. This recommendation is widely accepted by health professionals as a guideline for maintaining muscle mass, supporting metabolic functions, and promoting overall health. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Active_people">Active people</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Protein_(nutrient)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Active people"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several studies have concluded that active people and athletes may require elevated protein intake (compared to 0.8 g/kg) due to increase in muscle mass and sweat losses, as well as need for body repair and energy source.<sup id="cite_ref-IJSNEM_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IJSNEM-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-JACN_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JACN-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Suggested amounts vary from 1.2 to 1.4 g/kg for those doing endurance exercise to as much as 1.6-1.8 g/kg for strength exercise<sup id="cite_ref-JACN_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JACN-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-tarnopolsky_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tarnopolsky-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and up to 2.0 g/kg/day for older people,<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while a proposed <i>maximum</i> daily protein intake would be approximately 25% of energy requirements i.e. approximately 2 to 2.5 g/kg.<sup id="cite_ref-IJSNEM_36-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IJSNEM-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, many questions still remain to be resolved.<sup id="cite_ref-JACN_37-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JACN-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition, some have suggested that athletes using <a href="/wiki/Calorie_restriction" title="Calorie restriction">restricted-calorie</a> diets for weight loss should further increase their protein consumption, possibly to 1.8–2.0 g/kg, in order to avoid loss of lean muscle mass.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aerobic_exercise_protein_needs">Aerobic exercise protein needs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Protein_(nutrient)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Aerobic exercise protein needs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Endurance athletes differ from strength-building athletes in that endurance athletes do not build as much muscle mass from training as strength-building athletes do.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Research suggests that individuals performing endurance activity require more protein intake than sedentary individuals so that muscles broken down during endurance workouts can be repaired.<sup id="cite_ref-phillips_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-phillips-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the protein requirement for athletes still remains controversial (for instance see Lamont, Nutrition Research Reviews, pages 142 - 149, 2012), research does show that endurance athletes can benefit from increasing protein intake because the type of exercise endurance athletes participate in still alters the protein metabolism pathway. The overall protein requirement increases because of amino acid oxidation in endurance-trained athletes.<sup id="cite_ref-phillips_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-phillips-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Endurance athletes who exercise over a long period (2–5 hours per training session) use protein as a source of 5–10% of their total energy expended. Therefore, a slight increase in protein intake may be beneficial to endurance athletes by replacing the protein lost in energy expenditure and protein lost in repairing muscles. One review concluded that endurance athletes may increase daily protein intake to a maximum of 1.2–1.4 g per kg body weight.<sup id="cite_ref-lemon_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lemon-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anaerobic_exercise_protein_needs">Anaerobic exercise protein needs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Protein_(nutrient)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Anaerobic exercise protein needs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Research also indicates that individuals performing <a href="/wiki/Strength_training" title="Strength training">strength training</a> activity require more protein than sedentary individuals. Strength-training athletes may increase their daily protein intake to a maximum of 1.4–1.8 g per kg body weight to enhance muscle protein synthesis, or to make up for the loss of amino acid oxidation during exercise. Many athletes maintain a <a href="/wiki/High-protein_diet" title="High-protein diet">high-protein diet</a> as part of their training. In fact, some athletes who specialize in anaerobic sports (e.g., weightlifting) believe a very high level of protein intake is necessary, and so consume high protein meals and also protein supplements.<sup id="cite_ref-genton_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-genton-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-lemon_19-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lemon-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-phillips_44-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-phillips-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-IOC_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IOC-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Special_populations">Special populations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Protein_(nutrient)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Special populations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Protein_allergies">Protein allergies</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Protein_(nutrient)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Protein allergies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Food_allergy" title="Food allergy">Food allergy</a></div> <p>A food allergy is an abnormal <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune response</a> to proteins in food. The signs and symptoms may range from mild to severe. They may include <a href="/wiki/Pruritus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pruritus">itchiness</a>, swelling of the tongue, vomiting, diarrhea, hives, trouble breathing, or low blood pressure. These symptoms typically occurs within minutes to one hour after exposure. When the symptoms are severe, it is known as <a href="/wiki/Anaphylaxis" title="Anaphylaxis">anaphylaxis</a>. The following eight foods are responsible for about 90% of allergic reactions: <a href="/wiki/Cow%27s_milk" class="mw-redirect" title="Cow's milk">cow's milk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egg_as_food" class="mw-redirect" title="Egg as food">eggs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wheat" title="Wheat">wheat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shellfish" title="Shellfish">shellfish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peanut" title="Peanut">peanuts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tree_nuts" class="mw-redirect" title="Tree nuts">tree nuts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soybean" title="Soybean">soy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NIH2012pdf_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NIH2012pdf-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Chronic_kidney_disease">Chronic kidney disease</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Protein_(nutrient)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Chronic kidney disease"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While there is no conclusive evidence that a high protein diet can cause <a href="/wiki/Chronic_kidney_disease" title="Chronic kidney disease">chronic kidney disease</a>, there is a consensus that people with this disease should decrease consumption of protein. According to one 2009 review updated in 2018, people with chronic kidney disease who reduce protein consumption have less likelihood of progressing to end stage kidney disease.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, people with this disease while using a low protein diet (0.6 g/kg/d - 0.8 g/kg/d) may develop <a href="/wiki/Metabolism#Amino_acids_and_proteins" title="Metabolism">metabolic compensations</a> that preserve kidney function, although in some people, <a href="/wiki/Malnutrition" title="Malnutrition">malnutrition</a> may occur.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Phenylketonuria">Phenylketonuria</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Protein_(nutrient)&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Phenylketonuria"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Individuals with <a href="/wiki/Phenylketonuria" title="Phenylketonuria">phenylketonuria</a> (PKU) must keep their intake of phenylalanine – an essential amino acid – extremely low to prevent a mental disability and other metabolic complications. Phenylalanine is a component of the artificial sweetener aspartame, so people with PKU need to avoid low calorie beverages and foods with this ingredient.<sup id="cite_ref-NIH2016_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NIH2016-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Excess_consumption">Excess consumption</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Protein_(nutrient)&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Excess consumption"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Protein_poisoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Protein poisoning">Protein poisoning</a></div> <p>The U.S. and Canadian Dietary Reference Intake review for protein concluded that there was not sufficient evidence to establish a <a href="/wiki/Tolerable_upper_intake_level" class="mw-redirect" title="Tolerable upper intake level">Tolerable upper intake level</a>, i.e., an upper limit for how much protein can be safely consumed.<sup id="cite_ref-DRIProteinChpt_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DRIProteinChpt-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When amino acids are in excess of needs, the liver takes up the amino acids and <a href="/wiki/Deamination" title="Deamination">deaminates</a> them, a process converting the nitrogen from the amino acids into <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a>, further processed in the liver into urea via the <a href="/wiki/Urea_cycle" title="Urea cycle">urea cycle</a>. Excretion of urea occurs via the kidneys. Other parts of the amino acid molecules can be converted into <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a> and used for fuel.<sup id="cite_ref-tarnopolsky_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tarnopolsky-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-absorptionkinetics_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-absorptionkinetics-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-isbn0-495-11657-2_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isbn0-495-11657-2-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When food protein intake is periodically high or low, the body tries to keep protein levels at an equilibrium by using the "labile protein reserve" to compensate for daily variations in protein intake. However, unlike body fat as a reserve for future caloric needs, there is no protein storage for future needs.<sup id="cite_ref-DRIProteinChpt_2-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DRIProteinChpt-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Excessive protein intake may increase calcium excretion in urine, occurring to compensate for the pH imbalance from oxidation of sulfur amino acids. This may lead to a higher risk of kidney stone formation from calcium in the renal circulatory system.<sup id="cite_ref-DRIProteinChpt_2-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DRIProteinChpt-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One meta-analysis reported no <a href="/wiki/Adverse_effect" title="Adverse effect">adverse effects</a> of higher protein intakes on bone density.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another meta-analysis reported a small decrease in systolic and diastolic blood pressure with diets higher in protein, with no differences between animal and plant protein.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>High protein diets have been shown to lead to an additional 1.21 kg of weight loss over a period of 3 months versus a baseline protein diet in a meta-analysis.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Benefits of decreased <a href="/wiki/Body_mass_index" title="Body mass index">body mass index</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/HDL_cholesterol" class="mw-redirect" title="HDL cholesterol">HDL cholesterol</a> were more strongly observed in studies with only a slight increase in protein intake rather where high protein intake was classified as 45% of total energy intake.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Detrimental effects to cardiovascular activity were not observed in short-term diets of 6 months or less. There is little consensus on the potentially detrimental effects to healthy individuals of a long-term high protein diet, leading to caution advisories about using high protein intake as a form of <a href="/wiki/Weight_loss" title="Weight loss">weight loss</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_54-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_48-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i>2015–2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans</i> (DGA) recommends that men and teenage boys increase their consumption of fruits, vegetables and other under-consumed foods, and that a means of accomplishing this would be to reduce overall intake of protein foods.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 2015 - 2020 DGA report does not set a recommended limit for the intake of red and processed meat. While the report acknowledges research showing that lower intake of red and processed meat is correlated with reduced risk of <a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardiovascular diseases">cardiovascular diseases</a> in adults, it also notes the value of nutrients provided from these meats. The recommendation is not to limit intake of meats or protein, but rather to monitor and keep within daily limits the sodium (< 2300 mg), <a href="/wiki/Saturated_fat" title="Saturated fat">saturated fats</a> (less than 10% of total calories per day), and added sugars (less than 10% of total calories per day) that may be increased as a result of consumption of certain meats and proteins. While the 2015 DGA report does advise for a reduced level of consumption of red and processed meats, the 2015-2020 DGA key recommendations recommend that a variety of protein foods be consumed, including both vegetarian and non-vegetarian sources of protein.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Protein_deficiency">Protein deficiency</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Protein_(nutrient)&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Protein deficiency"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Starved_girl.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Starved_girl.jpg/139px-Starved_girl.jpg" decoding="async" width="139" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Starved_girl.jpg/209px-Starved_girl.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Starved_girl.jpg/279px-Starved_girl.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1177" data-file-height="1788" /></a><figcaption>A child in Nigeria during the <a href="/wiki/Biafra_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Biafra War">Biafra War</a> with <a href="/wiki/Kwashiorkor" title="Kwashiorkor">kwashiorkor</a> – one of the <a href="/wiki/Protein-energy_malnutrition" class="mw-redirect" title="Protein-energy malnutrition">three protein energy malnutrition ailments</a> affecting over 10 million children in developing countries.<sup id="cite_ref-pem1_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pem1-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Protein-energy_malnutrition" class="mw-redirect" title="Protein-energy malnutrition">Protein-energy malnutrition</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Protein-energy_malnutrition" class="mw-redirect" title="Protein-energy malnutrition">Protein deficiency and malnutrition</a> (PEM) can lead to variety of ailments including <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_disability" title="Intellectual disability">Intellectual disability</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kwashiorkor" title="Kwashiorkor">kwashiorkor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-latham_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-latham-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Symptoms of kwashiorkor include apathy, diarrhea, inactivity, failure to grow, flaky skin, fatty liver, and edema of the belly and legs. This edema is explained by the action of lipoxygenase on arachidonic acid to form leukotrienes and the normal functioning of proteins in fluid balance and lipoprotein transport.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>PEM is fairly common worldwide in both children and adults and accounts for 6 million deaths annually. In the industrialized world, PEM is predominantly seen in hospitals, is associated with disease, or is often found in the elderly.<sup id="cite_ref-DRIProteinChpt_2-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DRIProteinChpt-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Protein_(nutrient)&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Foodlogo2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Foodlogo2.svg/32px-Foodlogo2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="23" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Foodlogo2.svg/48px-Foodlogo2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Foodlogo2.svg/64px-Foodlogo2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="146" data-file-height="106" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Food" title="Portal:Food">Food portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azotorrhea" title="Azotorrhea">Azotorrhea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_value" title="Biological value">Biological value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodybuilding_supplement" title="Bodybuilding supplement">Bodybuilding supplement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaf_protein_concentrate" title="Leaf protein concentrate">Leaf protein concentrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-protein_diet" title="Low-protein diet">Low-protein diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ninja_diet" class="mw-redirect" title="Ninja diet">Ninja diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein_bar" title="Protein bar">Protein bar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-cell_protein" title="Single-cell protein">Single-cell protein</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_proteins_in_the_human_body&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of proteins in the human body (page does not exist)">List of proteins in the human body</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Protein_(nutrient)&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-proteinbody-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-proteinbody_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-proteinbody_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHermann2021" class="citation journal cs1">Hermann, Janice R. (April 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pods.dasnr.okstate.edu/docushare/dsweb/Get/Document-2473/T-3163web.pdf">"Protein and the Body"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service, Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources • Oklahoma State University</i>: T–3163–1 – T–3163–4.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oklahoma+Cooperative+Extension+Service%2C+Division+of+Agricultural+Sciences+and+Natural+Resources+%E2%80%A2+Oklahoma+State+University&rft.atitle=Protein+and+the+Body&rft.pages=T-3163-1+-+T-3163-4&rft.date=2021-04&rft.aulast=Hermann&rft.aufirst=Janice+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpods.dasnr.okstate.edu%2Fdocushare%2Fdsweb%2FGet%2FDocument-2473%2FT-3163web.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProtein+%28nutrient%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DRIProteinChpt-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DRIProteinChpt_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DRIProteinChpt_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DRIProteinChpt_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DRIProteinChpt_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DRIProteinChpt_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DRIProteinChpt_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DRIProteinChpt_2-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DRIProteinChpt_2-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DRIProteinChpt_2-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DRIProteinChpt_2-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nap.edu/read/10490/chapter/12"><i>Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein and Amino Acids</i></a>, Institute of Medicine. 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