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#36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Cleanup-lang plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article should <b>specify the language</b> of its non-English content, using <span class="nowrap">{{</span><a href="/wiki/Template:Lang" title="Template:Lang">lang</a><span class="nowrap">}}</span>, <span class="nowrap">{{</span><a href="/wiki/Template:Transliteration" title="Template:Transliteration">transliteration</a><span class="nowrap">}}</span> for transliterated languages, and <span class="nowrap">{{</span><a href="/wiki/Template:IPA" title="Template:IPA">IPA</a><span class="nowrap">}}</span> for phonetic transcriptions, with an appropriate <a href="/wiki/Lists_of_ISO_639_codes" title="Lists of ISO 639 codes">ISO 639 code</a>. Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_multilingual_support_templates" title="Category:Wikipedia multilingual support templates">multilingual support templates</a> may also be used.<span class="hide-when-compact"> <a href="/wiki/Template:Lang#Rationale" title="Template:Lang">See why</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2019</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Massachusett_language" title="Massachusett language">Massachusett language</a> shares similarities with the grammars of related Algonquian languages. Nouns have <a href="/wiki/Gender_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender (linguistics)">gender</a> based on <a href="/wiki/Animacy" title="Animacy">animacy</a>, based on the Massachusett world-view of what has spirit versus what does not. A body would be animate, but the parts of the body are inanimate. Nouns are also marked for <a href="/wiki/Obviative" title="Obviative">obviation</a>, with nouns subject to the topic marked apart from nouns less relevant to the discourse. Personal pronouns distinguish three <a href="/wiki/Persons" class="mw-redirect" title="Persons">persons</a>, two numbers (singular and plural), inclusive and exclusive first-person plural, and proximate/obviative third-persons. Nouns are also marked as absentative, especially when referring to lost items or deceased persons. </p><p>Sentence structures are typically SVO or SOV, but deviation from strict word order does not alter the meaning due to the synthetic structure.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Verbs are quite complex, and can be broken into four classes of verbs: animate-intransitive (AI), inanimate-intransitive (II), animate-transitive (AT), and inanimate-transitive (IT). Verbs are also prefixed and suffixed with various inflections, particles, and conjugations, so complex things can easily be described just by a verb.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Person">Person</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Massachusett_grammar&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Person"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th colspan="2">Animate </th> <th colspan="2">Inanimate </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="6">Proximate </td> <td>Singular </td> <td>Plural </td> <td>Singular </td> <td>Plural </td></tr> <tr> <td>1, 'I,' 'me' </td> <td>1p, 'we' (exclusive) </td> <td rowspan="5">0, 'it' </td> <td rowspan="5">0p, 'they' </td></tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td>12, 'we' (inclusive) </td></tr> <tr> <td>2, 'thou/you' </td> <td>2p, 'you' </td></tr> <tr> <td>3, 'he/she/it' </td> <td>3p, 'they' </td></tr> <tr> <td>X, 'someone/somebody' </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Obviate </td> <td>3", 'he/she/it' </td> <td>3", 'they' </td> <td rowspan="2" colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Prox. of obv. </td> <td>3, 'he/she/it' </td> <td>3p, 'they' </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Massachusett recognizes first, second and third person in singular and plural form. However, like other Algonquian languages, Massachusett makes a distinction between the first person plural exclusive, 'we, excluding you' and the first person plural inclusive, 'we, including you.' In general, the exclusive is more common when referring to oneself and one's family and network or when the audience is unknown, but the inclusive is used when the audience is definitely being referenced. </p><p>The obviate, a form of 'second third person' that disambiguates the activities of another third person in a sentence, may possess another noun which although technically a 'third third person,' has no forms that distinguish it from the unmarked proximate bare form of a noun, as opposed to more conservative languages like <a href="/wiki/Ojibwe_language" title="Ojibwe language">Ojibwe</a> which have a separate form for nouns in this rare position. Similarly, there are no attested forms for obviate inanimate nouns, as exist in Ojibwe.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Persons exist on an importance scale, which is often more important in establishing word order regarding synthetic placement of prefixes, suffixes and markers. For example, most words exist which generally follow a hierarchy of 2 > 1 > X > 3 > 3'.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nouns">Nouns</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Massachusett_grammar&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Nouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Person </th> <th rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;">Prefix </th> <th rowspan="2">Stem </th> <th rowspan="2">Central </th> <th rowspan="2">Infix </th> <th>Peripheral </th> <th colspan="3">Plural </th> <td rowspan="10"><small>or</small> </td> <th colspan="2">Absentative </th> <th rowspan="2">Locative </th> <th rowspan="2">Obviative </th></tr> <tr> <th>Diminutive </th> <th>Animate </th> <td rowspan="9"><small>or</small> </td> <th>Inanimate </th> <th>Singular </th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <td>1 </td> <td>(<i><b>nu-</b></i>) </td> <td rowspan="8"> </td> <td rowspan="3" colspan="2"> </td> <td rowspan="8">(<i><b>-ees</b></i>) <p>(<i><b>-amees</b></i>) </p> </td> <td rowspan="8">(<i><b>-ak</b></i>) </td> <td rowspan="8">(<i><b>-ash</b></i>) </td> <td rowspan="8">(<i><b>-ay</b></i>) </td> <td rowspan="8">(<i><b>-uk</b></i>) </td> <td rowspan="8">(<i><b>-ut</b></i>) <p>(<i><b>-uk</b></i>) </p> </td> <td rowspan="8">(<i><b>-ah</b></i>) </td></tr> <tr> <td>2 </td> <td>(<i><b>ku-</b></i>) </td></tr> <tr> <td>3 </td> <td>(<i><b>wu-</b></i>) <p>(<i><b>u-</b></i>) </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1p </td> <td>(<i><b>nu-</b></i>) </td> <td rowspan="2">(<i><b>-un</b></i>) </td> <td rowspan="2">(<i><b>-ôn-</b></i>) </td></tr> <tr> <td>12 </td> <td rowspan="2">(<i><b>ku-</b></i>) </td></tr> <tr> <td>2p </td> <td rowspan="2">(<i><b>-uw</b></i>) </td> <td rowspan="2">(<i><b>-ôw-</b></i>) </td></tr> <tr> <td>3p </td> <td>(<i><b>wu-</b></i>) <p>(<i><b>u-</b></i>) </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td>X </td> <td>(<i><b>mu-</b></i>) </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>(<i><b>wu-</b></i>) before <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/k/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/m/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/p/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/w/</span> alters to (<i><b>u-</b></i>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ə/</span>.</li></ul> <p>Nouns can only have an animate/inanimate plural or absentative animate/inanimate singular or plural terminations on a given word. In general, the locative is the same in the singular and plural and replaces the animate/inanimate plural if any. All nouns can have a diminutive, locative and obviative ending, although it would be rare for a word to exist with all possible forms, the order is usually diminutive, absentative/animate-inanimate plural (if any), locative, obviative. For example, *<i><b>wekeesiutoh</b></i> *(<i><b>weekeesayutah</b></i>), literally 'his-house-diminutive-absentative-locative-obviate' which would signify 'at the other man's/woman's small house—that is no more? that was destroyed?' </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Number">Number</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Massachusett_grammar&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Number"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Algonquian languages recognize two numbers, singular and plural. Although it is rare for a word to not have both a singular and plural form, a small number of nouns, as in English, are either uncountable or inherently plural or singular. This is clearest in loan words from English such as <i><b>monêash</b></i> (<b>money<i>ash</i></b>), from English 'moneys,' which always appears in the plural and <i><b>saut</b></i> (<b>salt</b>), from English '<a href="/wiki/Salt" title="Salt">salt</a>' which only appears in the singular.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nouns are unmarked in the singular, but can take one of two forms dependent on the noun's gender, which can be either <a href="/wiki/Animacy" title="Animacy">animate</a> and refer to something considered living, moving, divine or said to have spirit and <a href="/wiki/Animacy" title="Animacy">inanimate</a> including natural objects, tools and small plants.<sup id="cite_ref-GoddardAnimate_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GoddardAnimate-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Words that are animate have <i><b>-ack</b></i>/<i><b>-og</b></i>/<i><b>-ak</b></i> (<i><b>-ak</b></i>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/-ak/</span> and those that are inanimate have <i><b>-ash</b></i>/<i><b>-osh</b></i> (<i><b>-ash</b></i>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/-aʃ/</span> appended to the end, respectively. Although unmarked in the singular, words <i>must</i> have either an animate or inanimate plural, with only a few rare exceptions to this rule.<sup id="cite_ref-Silent_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Silent-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nouns in the singular often exist in a truncated form, but when any endings such as the plural are appended, many nouns will have consonants or syllables appear where unexpected, but were probably the original form of the word from its development from Proto-Algonquian. For instance, the words 'dog,' 'man' and 'chair' appear in Massachusett as <i><b>annum</b></i> (<i><b>anum</b></i>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/anəm/</span>, <i><b>wosketomp</b></i> (<i><b>waskeetôp</b></i>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/waskiːtãp/</span> and <i><b>appuonk</b></i> (<i><b>apuwôk</b></i>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/apəwãk/</span> in the singular but <i><b>anum<u>w</u>og</b></i> (<i><b>anum<u>w</u>ak</b></i>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/anəm<u>w</u>ak/</span>, <i><b>wosketomp<u>au</u>og</b></i> (<i><b>waskeetôp<u>â</u>ak</b></i>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/waskiːtãp<u>aː</u>ak/</span> and <i><b>appuonk<u>an</u>ash</b></i> (<i><b>apuwôk<u>an</u>ash</b></i>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/apəwãk<u>an</u>aʃ/</span> as 'dogs' and 'chairs,' respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Silent_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Silent-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the case of 'dog,' Massachusett <i><b>annum</b></i> (<i><b>anum</b></i>) developed from <a href="/wiki/Proto-Algonquian" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Algonquian">Proto-Algonquian</a> *<i><b>aθem<u>w</u>a</b></i><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with the final *<i><b>-wa</b></i> only re-appearing in the non-truncated forms of the plural, i.e., Proto-Algonquian *<i><b>aθemwaki</b></i> and Massachusett <i><b>annumwak</b></i> (<i><b>anumwak</b></i>). As they are based on etymology, words with these non-truncated finals must be learned individually.<sup id="cite_ref-Silent_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Silent-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gender_and_plural_formation">Gender and plural formation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Massachusett_grammar&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Gender and plural formation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As seen in the plural formations, all nouns have a <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">grammatical gender</a> based on <a href="/wiki/Animacy" title="Animacy">animacy</a>, thus nouns are either animate or inanimate. Animate objects include human beings and their bodies, animals, trees and bushes, planetary bodies—essentially things considered to be alive, possess spirit or are mobile—whereas inanimate nouns cover most objects, body parts, natural land forms, abstract things—essentially objects that do not move, do not possess spirit and generally unable to move.<sup id="cite_ref-GoddardAnimate_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GoddardAnimate-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Silent_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Silent-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Numerous exceptions to this general rule exist. The body parts <i><b>-ohpee</b></i> (<i><b>-apee</b></i>), 'hip,' <i><b>-úhkus</b></i> (<i><b>-uhkas</b></i>), 'finger nail' and <i><b>woskequah</b></i> (<i><b>wushkeeqâh</b></i>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/wəʃkiːkʷaːh/</span>, 'whale bone'; the English loan words <i><b>conner</b></i> (<b>corner</b>) and <i><b>Testament</b></i> (<b>Testament</b>) and the kitchen object <i><b>kunnommaog</b></i> (<i><b>kunumuwôk</b></i>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kənəməwãk/</span>, 'ladle' or 'spoon' are all animate. The sun and moon, despite being planetary bodies, are inanimate. Although standing trees are animate, names of trees and species are always inanimate, thus the plural form of <i><b>kꝏwa</b></i> (<i><b>k8wa</b></i>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kuːwa/</span>, 'pine tree,' is not *<i><b>kꝏwak</b></i> (*<i><b>k8wak</b></i>) but instead <i><b>kꝏwash</b></i> (<i><b>k8wash</b></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-GoddardAnimate_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GoddardAnimate-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Only a handful of words can appear with both genders, with subtle differences in meaning. For instance, the word for 'tree' is <i><b>mehtog</b></i> (<i><b>muhtuq</b></i>), but can also mean 'wood.' As gender is not overtly marked in the singular, this can be seen in the plural forms where <i><b>mehtogquog</b></i> (<i><b>muhtuqak</b></i>), 'trees' (that are still in the ground and living) and <i><b>mehtogquosh</b></i> (<i><b>muhtuqash</b></i>), 'trees' (that have been felled) but better translates as 'wood,' i.e., the product of a tree that is no longer living.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another rare form is to refer to land forms, structures or locales said to have a spiritual presence, or were considered the meeting place with or dwelling of <a href="/wiki/Tutelary_spirits" class="mw-redirect" title="Tutelary spirits">tutelary spirits</a> were discussed in the animate gender, in essence 'personifying' or linguistically 'animating' them. For example, <i><b>wadchuash</b></i> (<i><b>wachuwash</b></i>), 'mountains,' is the inanimate plural, but when it appears as *<i><b>wadchuog</b></i> (<i><b>wachuwak</b></i>) in the animate plural, it signifies 'mountains' but specifically the 'spirit(s) of the mountains.' This latter feature only appears in religious and ceremonial usage and is only known from a few examples, but was likely more common prior to the introduction of Christianity and the English missionary influences.<sup id="cite_ref-GoddardAnimate_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GoddardAnimate-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Case">Case</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Massachusett_grammar&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Case"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Obviation">Obviation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Massachusett_grammar&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Obviation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Massachusett, just as in other Algonquian languages, marks second third persons with an <a href="/wiki/Obviative" title="Obviative">obviative</a> marker <i><b>-oh</b></i> (<i><b>-ah</b></i>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ah/</span>. The proximate, usually the primary subject or more important topic is left unmarked. In English, for example, 'He gives the book to me, then I give the money to him,' it is ambiguous if the man receiving the money is the same as the giver of the book or a different man present, but in Massachusett, the person giving the book would be proximate and thus unmarked and the recipient of the money would be marked for obviation and removing the ambiguity. </p><p>The noun marked for obviation tends to be the possessed, not the possessor, and also tends to be the less animate or the recipient of a particular action. For example, <i><b>mosq nâau ahtuck<u>oh</u></b></i> (<i><b>masq nâwâw ahtuhq<u>ah</u></b></i>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/mask<span class="wrap"> </span>naːwaːw<span class="wrap"> </span>ahtəhkʷah/</span>, 'The bear sees the deer.'<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like the word 'deer' in English, which may refer to the animal in the singular and collectively, the obviative forms are identical in the singular and the plural and have to be differentiated by context. Nouns which are truncated are restored, as with the plural endings, so <i><b>anum</b></i> (<i><b>anum</b></i>), 'dog' and plural <i><b>anum<u>w</u>og</b></i> (<i><b>anum<u>w</u>ak</b></i>) and <i><b>appuonk</b></i> (<i><b>apuwônk</b></i>) and plural <i><b>appuonkanash</b></i> (<i><b>apuwônkanash</b></i>), 'chairs' become <i><b>annum<u>w</u>oh</b></i> (<i><b>anum<u>w</u>ah</b></i>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/anəm<u>w</u>ah/</span> and <i><b>appuonk<u>an</u>ah</b></i> (<i><b>apuwônkan<u>ah</u></b></i>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/apuːãnkanah/</span>, respectively, when marked for obviation. This can occur in verbs as well:<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Proximate</b> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1209690778">.mw-parser-output .interlinear .bold{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .interlinear .smallcaps{text-transform:uppercase;font-size:smaller}</style><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Nꝏwoman</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">(Nuwâmôn</p><p style="margin: 0px;">I-love-her.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="animate" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">AN</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kuh</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kah</p><p style="margin: 0px;">and</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nꝏwamanug.</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nuwâmônuq.)</p><p style="margin: 0px;">me-love-she</p></div><p style="display: none;">Nꝏwoman kuh nꝏwamanug.</p><p style="display: none;">(Nuwâmôn kah nuwâmônuq.)</p><p style="display: none;">I-love-her.AN and me-love-she</p><p style="clear: left;">'I love her and she loves me.'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nunnechanunnonog.</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">(nuneechônunônak.)</p><p style="margin: 0px;">my-child-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="exclusive person" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">EXCL</abbr>-[r]en</p></div><p style="display: none;">nunnechanunnonog.</p><p style="display: none;">(nuneechônunônak.)</p><p style="display: none;">my-child-PL.EXCL-[r]en</p><p style="clear: left;">'Our (exclusive) children'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p><b>Obviate</b> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Nꝏwoman</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">(Nuwamôn</p><p style="margin: 0px;">I-love-her.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="animate" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">AN</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kuh</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kah</p><p style="margin: 0px;">and</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nꝏwamanug<u>oh</u>.</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nuwamônuq<u>ah</u>.)</p><p style="margin: 0px;">me-love-she-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="obviative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">OBV</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">Nꝏwoman kuh nꝏwamanug<u>oh</u>.</p><p style="display: none;">(Nuwamôn kah nuwamônuq<u>ah</u>.)</p><p style="display: none;">I-love-her.AN and me-love-she-OBV</p><p style="clear: left;">'I love her and she loves me.' (obviative 'other she', suggesting a love triangle)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Nunnechanunnonog</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">(Nuneechanunônak</p><p style="margin: 0px;">our.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="exclusive person" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">EXCL</abbr>-child[r]-en</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">wunnechannooah</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">wuneechanuwôwah)</p><p style="margin: 0px;">their-child[r]-en-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="obviative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">OBV</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">Nunnechanunnonog wunnechannooah</p><p style="display: none;">(Nuneechanunônak wuneechanuwôwah)</p><p style="display: none;">our.EXCL-child[r]-en their-child[r]-en-OBV</p><p style="clear: left;">'Our (exclusive) children's children.' (obviative 'children of other they' distinct from 'our children')'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p><b>Proximate of obviate</b> (third third-person) </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Nunnechanunnonog</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">(Nuneechanunônak</p><p style="margin: 0px;">our.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="exclusive person" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">EXCL</abbr>-child[r]-en</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">wunnechannooah</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">wuneechanuwôwah</p><p style="margin: 0px;">their-child[r]-en-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="obviative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">OBV</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">wunnechanuwauwog.</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">wuneechanuwôwak.)</p><p style="margin: 0px;">their-child[r]-en</p></div><p style="display: none;">Nunnechanunnonog wunnechannooah wunnechanuwauwog.</p><p style="display: none;">(Nuneechanunônak wuneechanuwôwah wuneechanuwôwak.)</p><p style="display: none;">our.EXCL-child[r]-en their-child[r]-en-OBV their-child[r]-en</p><p style="clear: left;">'Our (exclusive) children's children's children.' (children of our children's children) (obviative 'children of other they' distinct from 'our children' but proximate 'their-children')</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Nꝏsh</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">(N8sh</p><p style="margin: 0px;">my-father</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ꝏshoh</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">8shah</p><p style="margin: 0px;">his-father-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="obviative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">OBV</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">umisses.</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">umuhsees.)</p><p style="margin: 0px;">his-sister</p></div><p style="display: none;">Nꝏsh ꝏshoh umisses.</p><p style="display: none;">(N8sh 8shah umuhsees.)</p><p style="display: none;">my-father his-father-OBV his-sister</p><p style="clear: left;">'my father's father's sister.' (referring to paternal great aunt) (obviative 'his-father' but proximate 'his-sister')</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Absentation">Absentation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Massachusett_grammar&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Absentation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Algonquian languages mark those objects that were, i.e., people or living things that are deceased and objects that are lost, stolen or destroyed, or 'absent,' as opposed to those that currently exist. For people and animate objects, it generally refers to something alive that has <a href="/wiki/Death" title="Death">passed away</a>. Items that are destroyed, beyond repair or lost forever tend to be inanimate objects.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All nouns, whether animate or inanimate, are marked with the suffixes <i><b>-i</b></i> or <i><b>-y</b></i> (<i><b>-ay</b></i>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/aj/</span> in the singular and <i><b>-uk</b></i> or <i><b>-ug</b></i> (<i><b>-uk</b></i>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/-ək/</span> in the plural. With the same forms, a noun's animacy must be known or determined from context. Truncated noun stems are also restored before absentative endings, so <i><b>woskétomp</b></i> (<i><b>waskeetôp</b></i>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/waskiːtãp/</span> is restored before becoming <i><b>woskétomp<u>á</u>ay</b></i> (<i><b>waskeetôp<u>â</u>ay</b></i>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/waskiːtãp<u>aː</u>aj/</span>, 'man' (that is passed away).<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Animate</b> </p> <ul><li><i><b>kꝏsh<u>i</u></b></i> (<i><b>k8sh<u>ay</u></b></i>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kuːʃaj/</span>, 'your (singular) late father'</li> <li><i><b>nussontimminon<u>uk</u></b></i> (<i><b>nusôtyumunôn<u>uk</u></b></i>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/nəsãtjəmənãnək/</span>, 'our (exclusive) deceased sachems'</li></ul> <p><b>Inanimate</b> </p> <ul><li><i><b>uméquonn<u>ai</u></b></i> (<i><b>umeequn<u>ay</u></b></i>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/əmiːkʷən<u>aj</u>/</span>, 'his feather' (that was lost? that was destroyed?)</li> <li><i><b>wuttuhquaunn<u>ick</u></b></i> (<i><b>wutuhqôn<u>uk</u></b></i>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/wətəhkʷãnək/</span> 'her hooks' (that were lost? that were destroyed?)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Diminution">Diminution</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Massachusett_grammar&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Diminution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Nouns can be marked with one of two <a href="/wiki/Diminutive" title="Diminutive">diminutive</a> endings, <i><b>-ees</b></i> (<i><b>-ees</b></i>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/iːs/</span> or <i><b>-emes</b></i> (<i><b>-âmees</b></i>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/aːmiːs/</span>, with the latter form chosen for more extreme examples or euphony. These endings indicate that the noun is smaller, littler or younger. For example, <i><b>nonkomp</b></i> (<i><b>nôkôp</b></i>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/nãkãp/</span>, 'boy,' <i><b>nonkomp<u>ees</u></b></i> (<i><b>nôkôp<u>ees</u></b></i>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/nãkãp<u>iːs</u>/</span>, 'young boy' and <i><b>nonkomp<u>amees</u></b></i> (<i><b>nôkôp<u>âmees</u></b></i>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/nãkãp<u>aːmiːs</u>/</span>, a 'very young boy.' Although rare in the written language, which may have thus protected against its complete intrusion in the spoken language, late-stage speakers along the western and northern transitional dialects permitted <a href="/wiki/Syncope_(phonology)" title="Syncope (phonology)">syncope</a> and the diminutive ending is often truncated, as seen in the surname of <a href="/wiki/Crispus_Attucks" title="Crispus Attucks">Crispus Attucks</a>, <i><b>Attuck</b></i>[<i><b>ee</b></i>]<i><b>s</b></i> (<i><b>Ahtuq</b></i>[<i><b>ee</b></i>]<i><b>s</b></i>), 'Little Deer,' and <i><b>wachu</b></i>[<i><b>ee</b></i>]<i><b>s</b></i> (<i><b>wachu</b></i>[<i><b>w</b></i>][<i><b>ee</b></i>]<i><b>s</b></i>), 'small mountain' or 'hill' as in the example of <a href="/wiki/Mount_Wachusett" title="Mount Wachusett">Mount Wachusett</a>, a Native toponym from the closely related Nipmuc-speaking peoples where syncope was generally permitted. </p><p>The use of the diminutive, as in extant Algonquian languages, may have had some semantic functions that varied between dialects. Although it is the general rule to use diminutive endings on small, young and little things, examples from other Algonquian languages such as <a href="/wiki/Ojibwe_language" title="Ojibwe language">Ojibwe</a> indicate that it can be used as a term of endearment, such as <i><b>n'nechan<u>emes</u></b></i> (<i><b>nuneechan<u>âmees</u></b></i>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/nəniːtʃan<u>aːmiːs</u>/</span>, 'my little child,' but can also be used, in certain contexts, to mark something as inferior or degrading, such as <i><b>keen wosketomp<u>ees</u></b></i> (<i><b>keeen waskeetôp<u>ees</u></b></i>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kiːn<span class="wrap"> </span>waskiːtãp<u>iːs</u>/</span>, 'you little man' but could have nuanced implied meanings of being weak, small in stature, inferior or unworthy dependent on context. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Location">Location</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Massachusett_grammar&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Location"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Nouns are suffixed with a <a href="/wiki/Locative_case" title="Locative case">locative</a> suffix <i><b>-et</b></i> (also <i><b>-ett</b></i>, <i><b>-it</b></i>, etc.) (<i><b>-ut</b></i>) to indicate 'in/on/at' (physically). It can be used to mark areas near certain geographical features, and survives in the name <i><b>Massachus<u>ett</u></b></i> (<i><b>Mâsach8s<u>ut</u></b></i>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/maːsatʃuːsət/</span> as well as most geographical place names and landmarks of Massachusett-language derivation. The locative is often, though not always, identical in singular and the plural and number has to be determined from context.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-GoddardLocative_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GoddardLocative-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The choice of locative seems to have some dialectal variation, where the older form <i><b>-uck</b></i>/<i><b>-og</b></i>/<i><b>-uk</b></i> (<i><b>-uk</b></i>) was generally more common in the speech of Nantucket and areas inhabited by the Nauset, and seems to have occurred with equal frequency in the related L-dialect Nipmuc language and areas inhabited by the Pawtucket. Areas inhabited by the Coweset, Massachusett and the closely related Y-dialect Narragansett seem to have been strongholds of the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/-ət/</span> termination, although documents in Natick seem to have also used the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/-ək/</span> variant, perhaps due to the influence of Nipmuc. As the written language of Eliot seems to have favored <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/-ət/</span>, most place names in the region in Massachusetts were 'standardized' under the influence of the literate Indians and the English missionaries.<sup id="cite_ref-GoddardLocative_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GoddardLocative-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is a rare secondary locative <i><b>-ehtu</b></i> (<i><b>-eehtyuw</b></i>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/iːhtʲᵊəw/</span> or <i><b>-uhkontu</b></i> (<i><b>-uhkôhtyuw</b></i>) that only appears in a handful of attestations in the Native documents.<sup id="cite_ref-GoddardLocative_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GoddardLocative-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It seems to have been somewhat more common in Eliot's translation of the Bible, where it seems to serve the purpose of a plural locative. For example, <i><b>ayeuwog<u>ut</u></b></i>, 'in/on/at the place,' and <i><b>nuppee<u>it</u></b></i>, 'in/on/at the water' and <i><b>ayeuongan<u>ehtu</u></b></i> (<i><b>ayuwôkan<u>eehtyuw</u></b></i>), 'in/on/at the places,' and <i><b>nippe<u>kontu</u></b></i> (<i><b>nupee<u>hkôhtyuw</u></b></i>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/nəpiː<u>hkãtjəw</u>/</span>, 'in/on/at the water<u>s</u>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-GoddardLocative_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GoddardLocative-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The locative can be used for abstract phrases, such as 'in his posterity' and 'on this day' and these phrases can be literally translated from English. The locative, however, is also mandatory for certain transitive verbs that do not have an English parallel. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Nupponam</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">(Nup8num</p><p style="margin: 0px;">/nəpuːnəm</p><p style="margin: 0px;">I-put-it</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">usquont</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">usqôt</p><p style="margin: 0px;">əskʷãt</p><p style="margin: 0px;">door</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">neek<u>itt</u></p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">neek<u>ut</u>)</p><p style="margin: 0px;">niːk<u>ət</u>/</p><p style="margin: 0px;">my-house-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="locative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">LOC</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">Nupponam usquont neek<u>itt</u></p><p style="display: none;">(Nup8num usqôt neek<u>ut</u>)</p><p style="display: none;">/nəpuːnəm əskʷãt niːk<u>ət</u>/</p><p style="display: none;">I-put-it door my-house-LOC</p><p style="clear: left;">'I place a door on my house.'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <dl><dd><dl><dd>dialectal <i><b>neek<u>uck</u></b></i> (<i><b>neek<u>uk</u></b></i>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/niːk<u>ək</u>/</span></dd></dl></dd></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">N'taumam</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">(Nutômôm</p><p style="margin: 0px;">/nətãmãm</p><p style="margin: 0px;">I-fish</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kumishꝏn<u>it</u></p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kumuhsh8nut)</p><p style="margin: 0px;">kəməhʃuːnət/</p><p style="margin: 0px;">you-canoe-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="locative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">LOC</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">N'taumam kumishꝏn<u>it</u></p><p style="display: none;">(Nutômôm kumuhsh8nut)</p><p style="display: none;">/nətãmãm kəməhʃuːnət/</p><p style="display: none;">I-fish you-canoe-LOC</p><p style="clear: left;">'I am fishing in your canoe.'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <dl><dd><dl><dd>dialectal kumishꝏn<u>ucke</u> (kumuhsh8n<u>uk</u>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kəməuhʃuːn<u>ək</u>/</span></dd></dl></dd></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">yeu</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">(y8</p><p style="margin: 0px;">/juː</p><p style="margin: 0px;">this</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kesuk<u>od</u></p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">keesuk<u>ut</u>)</p><p style="margin: 0px;">kiːsək<u>ət</u>/</p><p style="margin: 0px;">day-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="locative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">LOC</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">yeu kesuk<u>od</u></p><p style="display: none;">(y8 keesuk<u>ut</u>)</p><p style="display: none;">/juː kiːsək<u>ət</u>/</p><p style="display: none;">this day-LOC</p><p style="clear: left;">'On this day'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <dl><dd><dl><dd>dialectal keesuk<u>ok</u> (keesuk<u>uk</u>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kiːsək<u>ək</u>/</span></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>'We (inclusive) go to the sachem's village' </p> <ul><li>kutóminn sonchim ꝏtann<u>it</u> (kutômun sôtyum wut8tan<u>ut</u>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kətãmən<span class="wrap"> </span>sãtjəm<span class="wrap"> </span>wətuːtan<u>ət</u>/</span></li> <li>dialectal ꝏtann<u>uk</u> (wut8tan<u>uk</u>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/wətuːtan<u>ək</u>/</span></li> <li>Literally 'his-village-in' (locative 'in/on/at his village')</li> <li>In this case, the locative is used in directional verbs to mean 'to' as in 'towards the ....'</li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nutoqueneoquiss</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">(nutaquneôqus</p><p style="margin: 0px;">/nətakʷənjᵊãkʷəs</p><p style="margin: 0px;">I-resemble</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nꝏsh<u>utt</u></p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">n8sh<u>ut</u>)</p><p style="margin: 0px;">nuːʃ<u>ət</u>/</p><p style="margin: 0px;">my-father-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="locative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">LOC</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">nutoqueneoquiss nꝏsh<u>utt</u></p><p style="display: none;">(nutaquneôqus n8sh<u>ut</u>)</p><p style="display: none;">/nətakʷənjᵊãkʷəs nuːʃ<u>ət</u>/</p><p style="display: none;">I-resemble my-father-LOC</p><p style="clear: left;">'I resemble my father.'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <dl><dd><dl><dd>dialectal nꝏsh<u>ick</u> (n8sh<u>uk</u>)</dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genitive">Genitive</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Massachusett_grammar&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Genitive"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="9">Animate </th> <th>Person </th> <th>Stem </th> <th>Central </th> <th>Infix </th> <th>Peripheral<br />(plural) </th> <th>Complete form </th></tr> <tr> <td>1, (<i><b>nu-</b></i>) </td> <td rowspan="8">(<i><b>-8hkas</b></i>) <p>Noun dependent<br /> Vowel initial </p> </td> <td rowspan="3" colspan="2"> </td> <td rowspan="7">(<i><b>-ak</b></i>) </td> <td>(<i><b>n8hkas</b></i>), 'my mother' <p>(<i><b>n8hkasak</b></i>), 'my mothers' </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2, (<i><b>ku-</b></i>) </td> <td>(<i><b>k8hkas</b></i>), 'your (sing.) mother' <p>(<i><b>k8hkasak</b></i>), 'your (sing.) mothers' </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td>3, (<i><b>wu-</b></i>) </td> <td>(<i><b>8hkas</b></i>), 'his/her/its mother' <p>(<i><b>8hasak</b></i>), 'his/her/its mothers' </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1p, (<i><b>nu-</b></i>) </td> <td rowspan="2">(<i><b>-un</b></i>) </td> <td rowspan="2">(<i><b>-ôn-</b></i>) </td> <td>(<i><b>n8hkasun</b></i>), 'our (excl.) mother' <p>(<i><b>n8hkasunônak</b></i>), 'our (excl.) mothers' </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td>12, (<i><b>ku-</b></i>) </td> <td>(<i><b>k8hkasun</b></i>), 'our (incl.) mother' <p>(<i><b>k8hkasunônak</b></i>), 'our (incl.) mothers' </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2p, (<i><b>ku-</b></i>) </td> <td rowspan="2">(<i><b>-uw</b></i>) </td> <td rowspan="2">(<i><b>-ôw-</b></i>) </td> <td>(<i><b>k8hkasuwôwak</b></i>), 'your (pl.) mother' <p>(<i><b>k8hkasuwôwak</b></i>), 'your (pl.) mothers' </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td>3p, (<i><b>wu-</b></i>) </td> <td>(<i><b>8hkasuwôwak</b></i>), 'your (pl.) mother' <p>(<i><b>k8hkasuwôwak</b></i>), 'your (pl.) mothers' </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td>X, (<i><b>mu-</b></i>) </td> <td colspan="3"> </td> <td>(<i><b>m8hkas</b></i>), 'someone's mother' </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="8">Inanimate </th> <td>1, (<i><b>nu-</b></i>) </td> <td rowspan="8">(<i><b>apuwôk</b></i>[<i><b>an</b></i>]) <p>Noun independent<br /> Vowel-initial<br /> Intrusive 't'<br /> Truncated stem<br /> </p> </td> <td rowspan="3" colspan="2"> </td> <td rowspan="7">(<i><b>-ash</b></i>) </td> <td>(<i><b>nutapuwôk</b></i>), 'my chair' <p>(<i><b>nutapuwôkanash</b></i>), 'my chairs' </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2, (<i><b>ku-</b></i>) </td> <td>(<i><b>kutapuwôk</b></i>), 'your (sing.) chair' <p>(<i><b>kutapuwôkanash</b></i>), 'your (sing.) chairs' </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td>3, (<i><b>wu-</b></i>) </td> <td>(<i><b>wutapuwôk</b></i>), 'his/her/its chair' <p>(<i><b>wutapuwôkanash</b></i>), 'his/her/its chairs' </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1p, (<i><b>nu-</b></i>) </td> <td rowspan="2">(<i><b>-un</b></i>) </td> <td rowspan="2">(<i><b>-ôn-</b></i>) </td> <td>(<i><b>nutapuwôkanun</b></i>), 'our (excl.) chair' <p>(<i><b>nutapuwôkanunônash</b></i>), 'our (excl.) chairs' </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td>12, (<i><b>ku-</b></i>) </td> <td>(<i><b>kutapuwôkanun</b></i>), 'our (incl.) chair' <p>(<i><b>kutapuwôkanunônash</b></i>), 'our (incl.) chairs' </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2p, (<i><b>ku-</b></i>) </td> <td rowspan="2">(<i><b>-uw</b></i>) </td> <td rowspan="2">(<i><b>-ôw-</b></i>) </td> <td>(<i><b>kutapuwôkanuw</b></i>), 'our (incl.) chair' <p>(<i><b>kutapuwôkanuwôwash</b></i>), 'our (incl.) chairs' </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td>3p, (<i><b>wu-</b></i>) </td> <td>(<i><b>wutapuwôkanuw</b></i>), 'their chair' <p>(<i><b>wutapuwôkanuwôwash</b></i>), 'their chairs' </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td>X, (<i><b>mu-</b></i>) </td> <td colspan="3"> </td> <td>(<i><b>mutapuwôk</b></i>), 'someone's chair' </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The prefixes, suffixes and infixes on nouns shown in the table under nouns determine ownership are used as genitive constructions, equivalent to 'my,' 'our,' 'ours,' 'his,' 'her,' 'hers,' 'its', 'their,' 'theirs' used in English. As previously states, the third-person form <i><b>wu-</b></i> (<i><b>wu-</b></i>) is truncated to <i><b>u-</b></i> (<i><b>u-</b></i>) or, with sufficient context, sometimes dropped altogether in certain situations, so <i><b>meequon</b></i> (<i><b>meeqôn</b></i>) is <i><b>umeequon</b></i> (<i><b>umeeqôn</b></i>) and <i>never</i> *<i><b>wumeequon</b></i> (*<i><b>wumeeqôn</b></i>). Both of the first-person plural forms have an ending (<i><b>-un</b></i>), which are otherwise distinguished by (<i><b>nu-</b></i>), equivalent to 'I'.<sup id="cite_ref-pro_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pro-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Plural persons are formed with suffixes. For example, 'our' can be formed with <i><b>nu-</b></i>[stem]<i><b>-un</b></i>, 'I-[stem]-first-person plural' in the exclusive form or <i><b>ku-</b></i>[stem]<i><b>-un</b></i>, 'you-[stem]-[1st pl.] in the inclusive form. The inclusive form actually shares <i><b>ku-</b></i>, the second-person prefix, as the construction 'you-[stem]-[1st pl.],' somewhat suggesting 'you + us' as it would naturally include the audience or person being addressed in a description of a group action including the speaker. The second-person plural and third-person plural are formed with (<i><b>ku-</b></i>) and (<i><b>wu-</b></i>) or its variant (<i><b>u-</b></i>)—used before /m/, /p/, /k/ or /w/, but not /kʷ/—respectively. They also share use of the second/third-person plural suffix (<i><b>-uw</b></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-pro_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pro-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Plural personhood in the dependency markers requires an infix, which wedges itself between the suffix appended to the stem and the peripheral markers, such as those that indicate the animate or inanimate plural, depending on the word's gender or absentative, locative or obviative forms. The first-person exclusive and first-person inclusive plurals share (<i><b>-ôn-</b></i>) whilst the second- and third-person plurals share (<i><b>-ôw-</b></i>). This prevents the previous stem from truncation or elimination, according to the complicated sound rules for joining morphemes and the influence of surrounding vowels. Thus, 'our (exclusive) feet' is (<i><b>nuseetun<u>ôn</u>ash</b></i>) and not (*<i><b>nuseetunash</b></i>) and 'your (plural) feet' is (<i><b>kuseetuw<u>ôw</u>ash</b></i>) and not (*<i><b>kuseetuwash</b></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-pro_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pro-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dependent_and_Independent_nouns">Dependent and Independent nouns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Massachusett_grammar&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Dependent and Independent nouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Nouns are declined by person somewhat differently depending on whether or not the noun in question is dependent or independent. For example, a 'foot' always belongs to someone and therefore, in Algonquian languages, it can only exist in a genitive construction such as 'my foot,' 'your feet,' 'his foot,' etc., and is therefore 'dependent.' When the exact owner is unknown, (<i><b>mu-</b></i>) is attached and indicates 'someone's' or 'somebody's' foot. Dependency is a common feature of kinship terms such as 'mother' or 'father,' almost all body parts, including the body itself. Most other nouns are independent and can exist by themselves, although they can also be declined in genitive constructions, such as a 'tree' can be owned as 'my tree' or 'his tree' that do exist without implied ownership. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Intrusive_'t'"><span id="Intrusive_.27t.27"></span>Intrusive 't'</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Massachusett_grammar&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Intrusive 't'"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As a grammatical rule, a <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> is inserted before the prefix that implies the person and an independent noun stem that begins with a vowel. For example, <i><b>nu<u>t</u>ohkeem</b></i> (<i><b>nu<u>t</u>ahkeem</b></i>), 'my land' where <i><b>ohke</b></i> (<i><b>ahkee</b></i>), 'earth' or 'land' is independent. This is in contrast to <i><b>nꝏsh</b></i> (<i><b>n8sh</b></i>), 'my father,' which does not require the 'intrusive t' as it is a dependent noun, i.e., not *<i><b>nu<u>t</u>ꝏsh</b></i> (*<i><b>nu<u>t</u>8sh</b></i>) which are incorrect. </p><p>The example of 'my father' also shows that vowel-initial dependent noun roots assimilate the vowel of the person prefix, <i><b>nꝏsh</b></i> (<i><b>n8sh</b></i>) <i>not</i> *<i><b>nuꝏsh</b></i> (*<i><b>nu8sh</b></i>). When a dependent noun has ownership that is not implied or unknown, the Algonquian X person, it is prefixed with <i><b>mu-</b></i> which indicates that it is 'someone's' or 'somebody's,' for instance, <i><b><u>m</u>usseett</b></i> (<i><b><u>m</u>useet</b></i>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<u>m</u>əsiːt/</span>, 'someone's foot' or 'somebody's foot.' Dependent nouns that begin with a consonant do not assimilate the preceding vowel, e.g., <i><b>kunnutcheg</b></i> (<i><b>kunucheek</b></i>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kənətʃiːk/</span>, 'your (singular) hand.' Dependent nouns have to be learned separately. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="M-class">M-class</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Massachusett_grammar&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: M-class"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A small 'm-class' of independent nouns also exist. This small subset of words takes a final (<i><b>-m</b></i>) in words that end in a vowel or (<i><b>-um</b></i>) for words that end in a consonant, but only when the word is declined for person. This terminal is dropped when the noun exists in its, non-pronominally declined independent form. This was likely a retention of an archaic trait in the language that began to fade from the language around the time literacy was adopted, as the Indian documents show that many writers applied it inconsistently and seem to have been unsure, although it is just as likely that it may have varied by dialect or age of speaker. Where it was retained, the /m/ helps preserve noun stems from mutation or assimilation of vowels of various noun suffixes.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i><b>wadchu</b></i> (<i><b>wachuw</b></i>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/watʃəw/</span> 'mountain' </p> <ul><li><i><b>nuwadchu<u>m</u>ash</b></i> (<i><b>nuwachuw<u>um</u>ash</b></i>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/nəwatʃəw<u>əm</u>aʃ/</span> 'my mountains'</li> <li><i><b>wadchuwash</b></i> (<i><b>wachuwash</b></i>) 'mountains'</li></ul> <p><i><b>ohke</b></i> (<i><b>ahkee</b></i>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ahkiː/</span> 'land' </p> <ul><li><i><b>nutohke<u>m</u>i</b></i> (<i><b>nutahkee<u>m</u>ay</b></i>) 'my former land'</li> <li><i><b>ohkeash</b></i> (<i><b>ahkeeash</b></i>), 'lands.'</li></ul> <p><i><b>kehtassꝏt</b></i> (<i><b>keehtahs8t</b></i>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kiːhtahsuːt/</span> 'king' </p> <ul><li><i><b>kukehtassꝏta<u>m</u></b></i> (<i><b>kukeehtas8tu<u>m</u></b></i>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kəkiːhtahsuːtə<u>m</u>/</span> 'your king'</li> <li><i><b>kehtassꝏtak</b></i> (<i><b>keehtahs8tak</b></i>), 'kings'</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pronouns">Pronouns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Massachusett_grammar&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Pronouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Independent_personal_pronouns">Independent personal pronouns</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Massachusett_grammar&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Independent personal pronouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Person </th> <th>English </th> <th>Colonial<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th>Modern<sup id="cite_ref-FerminoPronoun_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FerminoPronoun-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th>Pronunciation </th></tr> <tr> <td>1 </td> <td>'I,' 'me' </td> <td><i><b>neen</b></i>, <i><b>nén</b></i> </td> <td>(<i><b>neen</b></i>) </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/niːn/</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2 </td> <td>'you' (sing), 'thou' </td> <td><i><b>keen</b></i>, <i><b>kén</b></i> </td> <td>(<i><b>keen</b></i>) </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kiːn/</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>3 </td> <td>'he,' 'she' or 'it' </td> <td><i><b>nâgum</b></i> </td> <td>(<i><b>nâkum</b></i>) </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/naːkəm/</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1p </td> <td>'we' (exclusive) </td> <td><i><b>neenawun</b></i>, <i><b>nenáuwin</b></i> </td> <td>(<i><b>neenawun</b></i>) </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/niːnawən/</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>12 </td> <td>'we' (inclusive) </td> <td><i><b>keenawun</b></i>, <i><b>kenauwin</b></i> </td> <td>(<i><b>keenawun</b></i>) </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kiːnawən/</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2p </td> <td>'you' (plural), 'ye' </td> <td><i><b>keenaw</b></i> </td> <td>(<i><b>keenaw</b></i>) </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kiːnaw/</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>3p </td> <td>'they' </td> <td><i><b>nagumaw</b></i> </td> <td>(<i><b>nâkumaw</b></i>) </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/naːkəmaw/</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The Algonquian languages are <a href="/wiki/Pro-drop_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Pro-drop languages">pro-drop languages</a> which means that independent pronouns are usually unnecessary in conversation. Nouns can be inflected for possession and verbs often encode the subject, and sometimes, even the object information, rendering the use of pronouns mostly redundant. There are several instances where pronouns cannot be omitted. For instance, Massachusett lacks a copula which is found in English as the various conjugations of the verb 'to be' that link the <a href="/wiki/Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">subject</a> and <a href="/wiki/Predicate_(grammar)" title="Predicate (grammar)">predicate</a>. Thus, a pronoun would be mandatory in sentences such as <i><b>kén nétop</b></i> (<i><b>keen neetôp</b></i>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kiːn<span class="wrap"> </span>niːtãp/</span>, 'you are my friend,' but literally 'you my-friend. The pronouns are also mandatory as the direct answers to questions involving figuring out who was doing what or what was done to whom. </p><p>In a sentence such as <i><b>nuwoman</b></i> (<i><b>nuwâmôn</b></i>), the transitive animate verb <i><b>woman</b></i> (<i><b>wâmôn</b></i>) is marked with the first-person prefix (<i><b>nu-</b></i>) marks the subject. The third-person recipient, 'her' or 'him' is assumed because it is an animate verb. Even though, <i><b>nen nuwoman nagum</b></i> or <i><b>neen nagum nuwoman</b></i> are possible, literally 'I I-love-[her/him] her/him' and 'I he/she I-love-[her/him],' respectively, enough information exists in the verb alone to warrant the exclusion of the pronouns. </p><p>Although the exact roles that the pronouns filled are not fully understood, in related Algonquian languages, pronouns seem to help clear ambiguity, such as the similarity of certain verb forms and noun stems, some of which may differ by only a short syllable at the end, such as (<i><b>kuseet</b></i>) 'your (singular) foot,' (<i><b>kuseetun</b></i>) 'our (inclusive) foot' and (<i><b>kuseetuw</b></i>), which in rapid conversation, may require the independent pronouns (<i><b>keen</b></i>) 'you (singular)', (<i><b>keenawun</b></i>) 'we (inclusive)' and (<i><b>keenaw</b></i>) 'you (plural)' to disambiguate. In other cases, the insertion of pronouns were probably used for emphasis, such as a topical marker, or to mark deference as is done in other Algonquian languages.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Emphasis</b><br /> The pronoun helps mark the topic and the emphasis of the statement. More important in the following example is not the canoe itself but the ownership of the canoe by the owner. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Numishꝏn.</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">(Numuhsh8n.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">My-canoe.</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Numishꝏn</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Numuhsh8n</p><p style="margin: 0px;">My-canoe</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><u>neen</u>.</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><u>neen</u>.)</p><p style="margin: 0px;">I.</p></div><p style="display: none;">Numishꝏn. Numishꝏn <u>neen</u>.</p><p style="display: none;">(Numuhsh8n. Numuhsh8n <u>neen</u>.)</p><p style="display: none;">My-canoe. My-canoe I.</p><p style="clear: left;">'My canoe. My canoe is <b>mine'</b></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p><b>Deference</b><br /> Possibly used to mark the noun (<i><b>sôtyum</b></i>), 'chief' or 'leader,' as someone worthy of respect or importance. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Kusontimman</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">(Kusôtyumun</p><p style="margin: 0px;">[He]</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">naum</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nâm</p><p style="margin: 0px;">sees</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">sépu.</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">seepuw.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">river.</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><u>Nâgum</u></p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><u>Nâkum</u></p><p style="margin: 0px;">He</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kusontimman</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kusôtyumun</p><p style="margin: 0px;">our-sachem-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="inclusive person" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INCL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">naum</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nâm</p><p style="margin: 0px;">he-sees</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">sépu.</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">seepuw.)</p><p style="margin: 0px;">river</p></div><p style="display: none;">Kusontimman naum sépu. <u>Nâgum</u> kusontimman naum sépu.</p><p style="display: none;">(Kusôtyumun nâm seepuw. <u>Nâkum</u> kusôtyumun nâm seepuw.)</p><p style="display: none;">[He] sees river. He our-sachem-INCL he-sees river</p><p style="clear: left;">'Our <i>sachem</i> (inclusive) sees the river. <b>He</b>, our (inclusive) sachem, sees the river.'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p><b>Disambiguation</b><br /> Although the difference between 'your father' and 'our (inclusive) fathers' (obviative) is slight, </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Kꝏsh</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">(K8sh</p><p style="margin: 0px;">Your-father</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">matta</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mata</p><p style="margin: 0px;">not</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kꝏshunocke.</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">k8shunak.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">our-father-s.</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><u>Keen</u></p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><u>Keen</u></p><p style="margin: 0px;">You</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kꝏsh</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">k8sh</p><p style="margin: 0px;">your-father</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">matta</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mata</p><p style="margin: 0px;">not</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kꝏshunog.</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><u>keenawun</u></p><p style="margin: 0px;">our-father-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="inclusive person" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INCL</abbr>-s-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="obviative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">OBV</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"> </p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">k8shunakah.)</p><p style="margin: 0px;"> </p></div><p style="display: none;">Kꝏsh matta kꝏshunocke. <u>Keen</u> kꝏsh matta kꝏshunog.</p><p style="display: none;">(K8sh mata k8shunak. <u>Keen</u> k8sh mata <u>keenawun</u> k8shunakah.)</p><p style="display: none;">Your-father not our-father-s. You your-father not our-father-INCL-s-OBV</p><p style="clear: left;">'Your father not our (inclusive) fathers. <b>You</b>, your father, not our (inclusive) fathers.' (not all of our (inclusive) fathers, only yours alone)<span class="error" style="font-size: inherit"> Mismatch in the number of words between lines: 7 word(s) in line 1, 8 word(s) in line 2, 7 word(s) in line 3 (<a href="/wiki/Template:Interlinear#mismatch" title="Template:Interlinear">help</a>);</span></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reflexive_pronouns">Reflexive pronouns</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Massachusett_grammar&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Reflexive pronouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Person </th> <th>English </th> <th>Colonial </th> <th>Modern </th> <th>Pronunciation </th></tr> <tr> <td>1 </td> <td>'myself' </td> <td style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;">nohhog </td> <td>(<i><b>nuhak</b></i>) </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/nəhak/</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2 </td> <td>'yourself' </td> <td style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;">kohhog </td> <td>(<i><b>kuhak</b></i>) </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kəhak/</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>3 </td> <td>'himself', 'herself' 'itself' </td> <td style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;">wohhog </td> <td>(<i><b>wuhak</b></i>) </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/wəhak/</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>12 </td> <td>'ourselves' (exclusive) </td> <td style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;">*nohhoggan </td> <td>*(<i><b>nuhakun</b></i>) </td> <td>*<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/nəhakən/</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1p </td> <td>'ourselves' (inclusive) </td> <td style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;">*kohhoggan </td> <td>*(<i><b>kuhakun</b></i>) </td> <td>*<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kəhakən/</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2p </td> <td>'yourselves' </td> <td style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;">*kohhoggu </td> <td>*(<i><b>kuhakuw</b></i>) </td> <td>*<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kəhakəw/</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>3p </td> <td>'themselves' </td> <td style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;">*wohhoggu </td> <td>*(<i><b>wuhakuw</b></i>) </td> <td>*<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/wəhakəw/</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>Only singular forms are attested in the Massachusett-language documents, but evidence from related languages suggest they may have occurred in the language, but this is uncertain.<sup id="cite_ref-NipmucReflexive_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NipmucReflexive-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Reflexive pronouns are relatively uncommon. Their only use appears with certain transitive animate verbs where the subject is also the recipient of the action. This is in stark contrast to languages such as Spanish or French, where reflexive verbs, and their accompanying reflexive pronoun markers, are quite common, often imbued with slightly different shades of meaning from their original non-reflexive counterparts.<sup id="cite_ref-FerminoPronoun_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FerminoPronoun-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Massachusett, reflexive pronouns are only known in singular form, but plural forms are attested in closely related language. For instance, in the <a href="/wiki/Loup_language" title="Loup language">Loup language</a> of Nipmuc refugees in <a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">New France</a>, <i><b>nahakanon</b></i>, 'ourselves' (first person exclusive plural reflexive) appears in Mathevet's word lists recorded in the mid-eighteenth century.<sup id="cite_ref-NipmucReflexive_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NipmucReflexive-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> if it existed in Massachusett would probably appear as *<i><b>nuhhoggan</b></i> (*<i><b>nuhakun</b></i>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/*nəhakən/</span> as Massachusett usually dropped the infix <i><b>-on</b></i> unless further suffixation as required but retained in Nipmuc which corresponds to Massachusett (<i><b>-ôn</b></i>), e.g., (<i><b>nuseetun</b></i>), 'our (exclusive) foot' and (<i><b>nuseetunônash</b></i>), 'our (exclusive) feet.'<sup id="cite_ref-NipmucReflexive_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NipmucReflexive-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Wussusséquin</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">(Wususeequn</p><p style="margin: 0px;">/wəsəsiːkʷən</p><p style="margin: 0px;">he-anoints</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">wuhhog</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">wuhak)</p><p style="margin: 0px;">wəhak/</p><p style="margin: 0px;">his-self</p></div><p style="display: none;">Wussusséquin wuhhog</p><p style="display: none;">(Wususeequn wuhak)</p><p style="display: none;">/wəsəsiːkʷən wəhak/</p><p style="display: none;">he-anoints his-self</p><p style="clear: left;">'He anoints himself.'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Nꝏwoman</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">(Nuwâmôn</p><p style="margin: 0px;">/nəwaːmãn</p><p style="margin: 0px;">I-love</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nuhhog</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nuhak)</p><p style="margin: 0px;">nəhak/</p><p style="margin: 0px;">my-self</p></div><p style="display: none;">Nꝏwoman nuhhog</p><p style="display: none;">(Nuwâmôn nuhak)</p><p style="display: none;">/nəwaːmãn nəhak/</p><p style="display: none;">I-love my-self</p><p style="clear: left;">'I love myself.'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Demonstrative_pronouns">Demonstrative pronouns</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Massachusett_grammar&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Demonstrative pronouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="6">Animate </th> <th colspan="6">Inanimate </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3">Singular </td> <th colspan="3">Plural </th> <th colspan="3">Singular </th> <th colspan="3">Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>Near deictic </th> <td><i><b>yeuoh</b></i> (<i><b>y8uh</b></i>) </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/juːəh/</span> </td> <td>this </td> <td><i><b>yeug</b></i> (<i><b>y8k</b></i>) </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/juːk/</span> </td> <td>these </td> <td><i><b>yeu</b></i> (<i><b>y8</b></i>) </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/juː/</span> </td> <td>this </td> <td><i><b>yeush</b></i> (<i><b>y8sh</b></i>) </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/juːʃ/</span> </td> <td>these </td></tr> <tr> <th>Further deictic </th> <td>(<i><b>nah</b></i>) </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/nah/</span> </td> <td>that </td> <td>(<i><b>neek</b></i>) </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/niːk/</span> </td> <td>those </td> <td>(<i><b>nee</b></i>) </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/niː/</span> </td> <td>that </td> <td>(<i><b>neesh</b></i>) </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/niːʃ/</span> </td> <td>those </td></tr> <tr> <th>Anaphoric </th> <td><i><b>unne</b></i> (<i><b>uneeh</b></i>) or <i><b>neh</b></i> (<i><b>neeh</b></i>) </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/əniːh/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/niːh/</span> </td> <td>this, that </td> <td>(<i><b>ukanah</b></i>) </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/əkanah/</span> </td> <td>these, those </td> <td>(<i><b>y8nuh</b></i>) </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/juːnəh/</span> </td> <td>this, that </td> <td>(<i><b>shanuh</b></i>) </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʃanəh/</span> </td> <td>these, those </td></tr> <tr> <th>Interrogative </th> <td><i><b>howan</b></i> (<i><b>hawân</b></i>) </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/hawaːn/</span> </td> <td>who, whom </td> <td><i><b>howan</b></i> (<i><b>hawanak</b></i>) </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/hawaːnak/</span> </td> <td>who, whom (plural) </td> <td><i><b>teague</b></i> (<i><b>tyaqa</b></i>) </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tjakʷa/</span> </td> <td>what </td> <td><i><b>teaguesh</b></i> (<i><b>tyaqash</b></i>) </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tjakʷaʃ/</span> </td> <td>what (plural) </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Deixis" title="Deixis">deictic</a> pronouns are used to express both specific objects and their physical distance in relation to the speaker, with the nearer deictic pronouns corresponding to English 'this' and plural 'these.' Objects that are too far for a speaker to use nearer deictic forms, such as objects 'over there' or 'yonder,' the farther deictic forms 'that' and 'those.' </p><p>The anaphoric pronouns were unknown to most dialects and is peculiar to the speech of Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket, but has been adopted as integral pronouns in the revived language. Their usage on the islands had two main uses. In some cases, they seem to represent 'furthest deictic,' roughly 'that'/'those' (over there) akin to the Spanish distinction between <i>ese</i>, 'that' and <i>aquel</i>, 'that yonder.' It also served in its anaphoric usage to reference 'this' or 'that' when the context was known and discussed earlier in conversation or in a written document. The anaphoric forms have obviate markings. As inanimate obviate marking is not used in Massachusett, the inanimate anaphoric forms (<i><b>y8nuh</b></i>) and (<i><b>shanuh</b></i>) perhaps have them by analogy to their animate counterparts. </p><p>The interrogative pronouns function as question words, such as 'who?', 'whom?' and 'what?' The interreogative pronouns in statements take different meanings, for instance <i><b>teague</b></i> (<i><b>tyaqa</b></i>) generally means 'what?' or 'what thing?' but also functions as 'something' as in <i><b>howan</b></i> (<i><b>hawân</b></i>) can, in non-interrogative functions, as 'somebody' or 'someone.' </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nominalization_of_verbs">Nominalization of verbs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Massachusett_grammar&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Nominalization of verbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As verbs are the basic and most important part of Massachusett word construction, nouns are often formed from verbs or can exist in verbal form, for example 'I am the chief' can be rendered with only nouns, and in an archaic style befitting a leader, <i><b>sachem neen</b></i> (<i><b>sôtyum neen</b></i>), literally <i><a href="/wiki/Sachem" title="Sachem">sachem</a></i> I,' or only with a verb as in <i><b>nusontimauw</b></i> (<i><b>nusôtyumâw</b></i>), literally 'I-chief-[animate intransitive verb]' or 'I-chief-be.' Although use of nominal versus verbal constructions were used interchangeably, they undoubtedly had distinct nuances in use that are unknown. </p><p>Conversion of nouns from verbal stems can occur in one of three ways. Nouns tend to be either the bare form of a verb, identical to the verbal form or modified with a nominalizing suffix. </p><p><b>Bare verb stem</b> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mꝏs</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">(m8s)</p><p style="margin: 0px;">'moose' or 'Eurasian elk'</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"> </p><p style="margin: 0px;"> </p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mꝏsua-</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">(m8swa-)</p><p style="margin: 0px;">'to shear' or 'to trim smooth'</p></div><p style="display: none;">mꝏs < mꝏsua-</p><p style="display: none;">(m8s) {} (m8swa-)</p><p style="display: none;">{'moose' or 'Eurasian elk'} {} {'to shear' or 'to trim smooth'}</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nꝏht</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">(n8ht)</p><p style="margin: 0px;">'fire'</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"> </p><p style="margin: 0px;"> </p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nꝏhtau</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">(n8htâw)</p><p style="margin: 0px;">'it burns.'</p></div><p style="display: none;">nꝏht < nꝏhtau</p><p style="display: none;">(n8ht) {} (n8htâw)</p><p style="display: none;">'fire' {} {'it burns.'}</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">chog</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">(chahk)</p><p style="margin: 0px;">'spot'</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"> </p><p style="margin: 0px;"> </p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">chogui</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">(chahkâyu-)</p><p style="margin: 0px;">'to be spotted'</p></div><p style="display: none;">chog < chogui</p><p style="display: none;">(chahk) {} (chahkâyu-)</p><p style="display: none;">'spot' {} {'to be spotted'}</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p><b>Identical to verbal form</b> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">pittu</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">(putyuw)</p><p style="margin: 0px;">'<a href="/wiki/Pitch_(resin)" title="Pitch (resin)">pitch</a>' (pine resin)</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">=</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"> </p><p style="margin: 0px;"> </p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">pittu</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">(putyuw)</p><p style="margin: 0px;">'it is pitch'</p></div><p style="display: none;">pittu = pittu</p><p style="display: none;">(putyuw) {} (putyuw)</p><p style="display: none;">{'<a href="/wiki/Pitch_(resin)" title="Pitch (resin)">pitch</a>' (pine resin)} {} {'it is pitch'}</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">sokunon</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">(s8kunôn)</p><p style="margin: 0px;">'<a href="/wiki/Rain" title="Rain">rain</a>'</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">=</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"> </p><p style="margin: 0px;"> </p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">sokunon</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">(s8kunôn)</p><p style="margin: 0px;">'it rains'</p></div><p style="display: none;">sokunon = sokunon</p><p style="display: none;">(s8kunôn) {} (s8kunôn)</p><p style="display: none;">'<a href="/wiki/Rain" title="Rain">rain</a>' {} {'it rains'}</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">sepu</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">(seepuw)</p><p style="margin: 0px;">'river'</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">=</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"> </p><p style="margin: 0px;"> </p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">sepu</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">(seepuw)</p><p style="margin: 0px;">'it spreads long.'</p></div><p style="display: none;">sepu = sepu</p><p style="display: none;">(seepuw) {} (seepuw)</p><p style="display: none;">'river' {} {'it spreads long.'}</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p><b>Nominalized with <i>-onk (-ôk)</i></b> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">chipwuttꝏnapwaonk</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">(chupwut8napwaôk)</p><p style="margin: 0px;">'kiss'</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">></p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"> </p><p style="margin: 0px;"> </p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">chipwuttꝏnapw-</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">(chupwut8napw-)</p><p style="margin: 0px;">'to kiss by mouth'</p></div><p style="display: none;">chipwuttꝏnapwaonk > chipwuttꝏnapw-</p><p style="display: none;">(chupwut8napwaôk) {} (chupwut8napw-)</p><p style="display: none;">'kiss' {} {'to kiss by mouth'}</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">appuonk</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">(apuwôk)</p><p style="margin: 0px;">'chair'</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">></p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"> </p><p style="margin: 0px;"> </p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">appu-</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">(apu-)</p><p style="margin: 0px;">'to sit'</p></div><p style="display: none;">appuonk > appu-</p><p style="display: none;">(apuwôk) {} (apu-)</p><p style="display: none;">'chair' {} {'to sit'}</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">wussohquohwonk</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">(wusuhqahwôk)</p><p style="margin: 0px;">'book'</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">></p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"> </p><p style="margin: 0px;"> </p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="wam" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"> </p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">(wusuhqahw-)</p><p style="margin: 0px;">'to write' (with a tool)</p></div><p style="display: none;">wussohquohwonk > {}</p><p style="display: none;">(wusuhqahwôk) {} (wusuhqahw-)</p><p style="display: none;">'book' {} {'to write' (with a tool)}</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Verbs">Verbs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Massachusett_grammar&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Verbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Massachusett_grammar&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2024</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Massachusett_grammar" title="Special:EditPage/Massachusett grammar">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verb_categories">Verb categories</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Massachusett_grammar&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Verb categories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Verbs are very complex and form the basis of a typical word. Like nouns, verbs are divided into animate and inanimate forms which are distinct in meaning and usage. For example, <i><b>chog-</b></i> (<i><b>chahk-</b></i>), 'spot,' has different conjugations based on the animacy of the subject. An inanimate object, such as a body part, rock, leaf, man-made products, annual plants, etc., would be described as <i><b>chogi</b></i> (<i><b>chahkây</b></i>), 'it is spotted' (i.e., 'it has spots') whereas when referring to people, animals, large trees, planetary bodies, etc., it would be described as <i><b>chogusu</b></i> (<i><b>chahkusuw</b></i>), 'he/she/it is blemished' (literally, 'he/she is spotted'). As different verb endings are used to distinguish animacy, the subject or equivalent pronoun can be dropped in conversation and writing if there is sufficient context. </p><p>Transitivity is another important division. Verbs are marked differently if they take an object or not. For example, the root <i><b>mꝏs-</b></i> (<i><b>m8hs-</b></i>) implies 'envy' or 'jealousy' but and can be found as intransitive, not requiring an object, <i><b>mꝏsumꝏau</b></i> (<i><b>m8hsumuwâw</b></i>), 'he/she is jealous' (i.e., 'he/she/it is a jealous person) or transitive, requiring an object, <i><b>mꝏsumꝏ</b></i> (<i><b>m8hsumuw</b></i>), 'he/she is jealous <u>of</u>' and requires an object, e.g., <i><b>mꝏsumꝏ sontimoh</b></i> (<i><b>m8hsumuw sôtyumah</b></i>), 'he/she is jealous <u>of</u> the chief.' </p><p>Transitive and intransitive verbs differ when the object in question is animate or inanimate. For example, the root <i><b>onch-</b></i> (<i><b>ôch-</b></i>), signifies 'mend,' 'fix' or 'repair,' and appears as transitive with animate object <i><b>onchheew</b></i> (<i><b>ôchuheew</b></i>), 'he/she repairs [something]' and transitive with inanimate object <i><b>onchuteaw</b></i> (<i><b>ôchuhteaw</b></i>), 'he/she fixes (someone).' Similarly, <i><b>quin-</b></i> (<i><b>qun-</b></i>), 'long' or 'tall,' appears in the intransitive, no object, with animate subject <i><b>qunôsu</b></i> (<i><b>qunôhsuw</b></i>), 'he/she is tall,' and inanimate subject, no object, <i><b>quinni</b></i> (<i><b>qunây</b></i>), 'it is long' or 'it is tall'. Thus, verbs generally fall into one of four categories: animate subject, no object or animate intransitive (AI), animate object or transitive animate (TA), inanimate with no object or inanimate intransitive (II) and inanimate object or transitive inanimate (TI). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Massachusett_grammar&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fermino, J. L. D. (2000). Introduction to the Wampanoag grammar. (Master's thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology). pp. 10–63.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pentland, David H. (2006). "Algonquian and Ritwan Languages", in Keith Brown, ed., Encyclopedia of Languages and Linguistics (2nd ed.), pp. 161–6. Amsterdam: Elsevier.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fermino, J. L. D. (2000). pp. 28–64.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Waasaagoneshkang (2001). 'Theft of Fire.' Recorded in 1974 by William Jones, translated by Rand Valentine. p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Macaulay, M. (2005). 'On the 2 > 1 Prominence Hierarchy of Algonquian' in LSO Working Papers in Linguistics 5: Proceedings of WIGL, 2005, 1–24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rees-Miller, J. (1996). Morphological Adaptation of English Loanwords in Algonquian. International Journal of American Linguistics, 62(2), 196–202. Retrieved 3 December 2017.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GoddardAnimate-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GoddardAnimate_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GoddardAnimate_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GoddardAnimate_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GoddardAnimate_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Goddard, I. & Bragdon, K. (1988). pp. 486–497.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Silent-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Silent_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Silent_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Silent_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Silent_8-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Fermino, J. L. D. (2000). p. 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Trumbull, J. H. (1903). pp. 12, 14, 292.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wiktionary. Proto-Algonquian *<i><a class="external text" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Algonquian/a%CE%B8emwa">aθemwa</a></i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Trumbull, J. H. (1903). pp. 54, 346.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fermino, J. L. D. (2000). pp. 12–13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fermino, J. L. D. (2000). pp. 54–56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Goddard, I., & Bragdon, K. (1988). pp. 494, 506–508.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fermino, J. L. D. (2000). p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fermino, J. L. D. (2000). p. 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GoddardLocative-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GoddardLocative_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GoddardLocative_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GoddardLocative_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GoddardLocative_17-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Goddard, I., & Bragdon, K. (1988). p. 506-507.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Trumbull, J. H. (1903). pp. 307, 341.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hicks, N. (2006). pp. 7, 12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pro-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pro_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pro_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pro_20-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Fermino, J. L. D. (2000). pp. 17–25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fermino, J. L. D. (2000). pp. 14–15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fermino, J. L. D. (2000). pp. 16, 24–25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Trumbull, J. H. (1903). <i>Natick Dictionary.</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FerminoPronoun-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FerminoPronoun_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FerminoPronoun_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Fermino, J. L. D. (2000). pp. 25–27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Goddard, I., & Bragdon, K. (1988). p. 507.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gustuffson, H. S. (2000). pp. 50–52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NipmucReflexive-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NipmucReflexive_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NipmucReflexive_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NipmucReflexive_27-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Gustuffson, H. S. 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href="/wiki/Lists_of_languages" title="Lists of languages">world's languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_phonologies" title="Template:Language phonologies">Phonologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_orthographies" title="Template:Language orthographies">Orthographies</a></li> <li><b>Grammars</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_adjectives" title="Template:Language adjectives">Adjectives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_determiners" title="Template:Language determiners">Determiners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_nouns" title="Template:Language nouns">Nouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_prepositions" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Language prepositions">Prepositions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_pronouns" title="Template:Language pronouns">Pronouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_verbs" title="Template:Language verbs">Verbs</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaans_grammar" title="Afrikaans grammar">Afrikaans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_grammar" title="Danish grammar">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_grammar" title="Dutch grammar">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_grammar" title="English grammar">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_English_grammar" title="Old English grammar">Old</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faroese_grammar" title="Faroese grammar">Faroese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_grammar" title="German grammar">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_grammar" title="Icelandic grammar">Icelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language#Grammar" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_morphology" title="Old Norse morphology">Old Norse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colognian_grammar" title="Colognian grammar">Ripuarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_grammar" title="Swedish grammar">Swedish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Frisian_grammar" title="West Frisian grammar">West Frisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_grammar" title="Yiddish grammar">Yiddish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breton_grammar" title="Breton grammar">Breton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_grammar" title="Cornish grammar">Cornish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_grammar" title="Irish grammar">Irish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Irish_grammar" title="Old Irish grammar">Old</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manx_grammar" title="Manx grammar">Manx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_grammar" title="Scottish Gaelic grammar">Scottish Gaelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_grammar" title="Welsh grammar">Welsh</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colloquial_Welsh_morphology" title="Colloquial Welsh morphology">colloquial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_Welsh_morphology" title="Literary Welsh morphology">literary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Italic_languages" title="Italic languages">Italic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catalan_grammar" title="Catalan grammar">Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalmatian_grammar" title="Dalmatian grammar">Dalmatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_grammar" title="French grammar">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istro-Romanian_grammar" title="Istro-Romanian grammar">Istro-Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_grammar" title="Italian grammar">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_grammar" title="Latin grammar">Latin</a></li> <li>Lombard <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Lombard_grammar" title="Eastern Lombard grammar">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Lombard_grammar" title="Western Lombard grammar">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_grammar" title="Portuguese grammar">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_grammar" title="Romanian grammar">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_grammar" title="Spanish grammar">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venetian_grammar" title="Venetian grammar">Venetian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Baltic_languages" title="Baltic languages">Baltic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_grammar" title="Latvian grammar">Latvian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_grammar" title="Lithuanian grammar">Lithuanian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_grammar" title="Belarusian grammar">Belarusian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_grammar" title="Bulgarian grammar">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_language#Grammar" title="Czech language">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_grammar" title="Macedonian grammar">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic_grammar" title="Old Church Slavonic grammar">Old Church Slavonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_grammar" title="Polish grammar">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_grammar" title="Russian grammar">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_grammar" title="Silesian grammar">Silesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbo-Croatian_grammar" title="Serbo-Croatian grammar">Serbo-Croatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_language#Morphology" title="Slovak language">Slovak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovene_grammar" title="Slovene grammar">Slovene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovincian_grammar" title="Slovincian grammar">Slovincian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_grammar" title="Ukrainian grammar">Ukrainian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_grammar" title="Kurdish grammar">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashto_grammar" title="Pashto grammar">Pashto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_grammar" title="Persian grammar">Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tajik_grammar" title="Tajik grammar">Tajik</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_grammar" title="Bengali grammar">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhojpuri_grammar" title="Bhojpuri grammar">Bhojpuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_grammar" title="Gujarati grammar">Gujarati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindustani_grammar" title="Hindustani grammar">Hindustani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maithili_grammar" title="Maithili grammar">Maithili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marathi_grammar" title="Marathi grammar">Marathi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepali_grammar" title="Nepali grammar">Nepali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odia_grammar" title="Odia grammar">Odia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_grammar" title="Punjabi grammar">Punjabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_grammar" title="Sanskrit grammar">Sanskrit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit_grammar" title="Vedic Sanskrit grammar">Vedic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_language#Grammar" title="Albanian language">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Greek_grammar" title="Modern Greek grammar">Greek</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_grammar" title="Ancient Greek grammar">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek_grammar" title="Koine Greek grammar">Koine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_grammar" title="Hittite grammar">Hittite</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Uralic_languages" title="Uralic languages">Uralic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_grammar" title="Estonian grammar">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_grammar" title="Finnish grammar">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_grammar" title="Hungarian grammar">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingrian_grammar" title="Ingrian grammar">Ingrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Komi_grammar" title="Komi grammar">Komi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livonian_grammar" title="Livonian grammar">Livonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Udmurt_grammar" title="Udmurt grammar">Udmurt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Me%C3%A4nkieli_grammar" title="Meänkieli grammar">Meänkieli</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_language#Morphology_and_syntax" title="Kazakh language">Kazakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_language#Morphology_and_syntax" title="Kyrgyz language">Kyrgyz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatar_language#Grammar" title="Tatar language">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_grammar" title="Turkish grammar">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkmen_grammar" title="Turkmen grammar">Turkmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_grammar" title="Uyghur grammar">Uyghur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzbek_language#Grammar" title="Uzbek language">Uzbek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakut_language#Grammar" title="Yakut language">Yakut</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abkhaz_language#Grammar" title="Abkhaz language">Abkhaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adyghe_grammar" title="Adyghe grammar">Adyghe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_grammar" title="Basque grammar">Basque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_grammar" title="Georgian grammar">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabardian_grammar" title="Kabardian grammar">Kabardian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laz_grammar" title="Laz grammar">Laz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mingrelian_grammar" title="Mingrelian grammar">Mingrelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubykh_grammar" title="Ubykh grammar">Ubykh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_grammar" title="Arabic grammar">Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Atlas_Tamazight_grammar" title="Central Atlas Tamazight grammar">Central Atlas Tamazight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew_grammar" title="Modern Hebrew grammar">Hebrew</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hebrew_grammar" title="History of Hebrew grammar">Historical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabyle_grammar" title="Kabyle grammar">Kabyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic_grammar" title="Levantine Arabic grammar">Levantine Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_grammar" title="Somali grammar">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigrinya_grammar" title="Tigrinya grammar">Tigrinya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugaritic_grammar" title="Ugaritic grammar">Ugaritic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages" title="Niger–Congo languages">Niger–Congo</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fula_language#Morphology" title="Fula language">Fula</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pular_grammar" title="Pular grammar">Pular</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otjiherero_grammar" title="Otjiherero grammar">Herero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sesotho_grammar" title="Sesotho grammar">Sotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swahili_grammar" title="Swahili grammar">Swahili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zulu_grammar" title="Zulu grammar">Zulu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kannada_grammar" title="Kannada grammar">Kannada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_grammar" title="Malayalam grammar">Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_grammar" title="Tamil grammar">Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telugu_grammar" title="Telugu grammar">Telugu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Japonic_languages" title="Japonic languages">Japonic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_grammar" title="Japanese grammar">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Japanese_grammar" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Japanese grammar">Classical Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okinawan_language#Grammar" title="Okinawan language">Okinawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hachij%C5%8D_grammar" title="Hachijō grammar">Hachijō</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_grammar" title="Burmese grammar">Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_grammar" title="Cantonese grammar">Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese_grammar" title="Classical Chinese grammar">Classical Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzongkha_grammar" title="Dzongkha grammar">Dzongkha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokborok_grammar" title="Kokborok grammar">Kokborok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_grammar" title="Chinese grammar">Mandarin Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizo_grammar" title="Mizo grammar">Mizo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Tibetan_grammar" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Standard Tibetan grammar">Tibetan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_grammar" title="Khmer grammar">Khmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_grammar" title="Vietnamese grammar">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kra%E2%80%93Dai_languages" title="Kra–Dai languages">Kra–Dai</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Has_Hlai_grammar" title="Has Hlai grammar">Has Hlai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lao_grammar" title="Lao grammar">Lao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_language#Grammar" title="Thai language">Thai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evenki_grammar" title="Evenki grammar">Evenki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_grammar" title="Korean grammar">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_language#Grammar" title="Mongolian language">Mongolian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cebuano_grammar" title="Cebuano grammar">Cebuano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_grammar" title="Hawaiian grammar">Hawaiian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilocano_grammar" title="Ilocano grammar">Ilocano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malay_grammar" title="Malay grammar">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagalog_grammar" title="Tagalog grammar">Tagalog</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Algic_languages" title="Algic languages">Algic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Massachusett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munsee_grammar" title="Munsee grammar">Munsee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ojibwe_grammar" title="Ojibwe grammar">Ojibwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Uto-Aztecan_languages" title="Uto-Aztecan languages">Uto-Aztecan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nahuatl#Morphology_and_syntax" title="Nahuatl">Nahuatl</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Nahuatl_grammar" title="Classical Nahuatl grammar">Classical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nawat_grammar" title="Nawat grammar">Nawat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Native American</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_language#Grammar" title="Cherokee language">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_grammar" title="Inuit grammar">Inuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miskito_grammar" title="Miskito grammar">Miskito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo_grammar" title="Navajo grammar">Navajo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otomi_grammar" title="Otomi grammar">Otomi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">sign</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language_grammar" title="American Sign Language grammar">American</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Artistic_language" title="Artistic language">artistic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Klingon_grammar" title="Klingon grammar">Klingon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%CA%BCvi_grammar" title="Naʼvi grammar">Naʼvi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quenya_grammar" class="mw-redirect" title="Quenya grammar">Quenya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/International_auxiliary_language" title="International auxiliary language">auxiliary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Esperanto_grammar" title="Esperanto grammar">Esperanto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlingua_grammar" title="Interlingua grammar">Interlingua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlingue_grammar" title="Interlingue grammar">Interlingue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingua_Franca_Nova_grammar" title="Lingua Franca Nova grammar">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Constructed_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructed languages">constructed</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lojban_grammar" title="Lojban grammar">Lojban</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Massachusett_grammar&oldid=1241261840">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Massachusett_grammar&oldid=1241261840</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" 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