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id="toc-Mouth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mouth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Mouth</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mouth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Salivary_glands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Salivary_glands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>Salivary glands</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Salivary_glands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Saliva" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Saliva"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1.1</span> <span>Saliva</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Saliva-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tongue" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tongue"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.2</span> <span>Tongue</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tongue-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Taste" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taste"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.2.1</span> <span>Taste</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Taste-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Teeth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Teeth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.3</span> <span>Teeth</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Teeth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epiglottis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epiglottis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.4</span> <span>Epiglottis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epiglottis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pharynx" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pharynx"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Pharynx</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pharynx-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Esophagus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Esophagus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Esophagus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Esophagus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diaphragm" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diaphragm"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Diaphragm</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diaphragm-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stomach" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stomach"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Stomach</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stomach-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spleen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spleen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Spleen</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spleen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Liver" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Liver"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>Liver</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Liver-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bile" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bile"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7.1</span> <span>Bile</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bile-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gallbladder" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallbladder"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7.2</span> <span>Gallbladder</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gallbladder-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pancreas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pancreas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.8</span> <span>Pancreas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pancreas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lower_gastrointestinal_tract" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lower_gastrointestinal_tract"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.9</span> <span>Lower gastrointestinal tract</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lower_gastrointestinal_tract-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Small_intestine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Small_intestine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.9.1</span> <span>Small intestine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Small_intestine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cecum" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cecum"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.9.2</span> <span>Cecum</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cecum-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Large_intestine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Large_intestine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.9.3</span> <span>Large intestine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Large_intestine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Blood_supply" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Blood_supply"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Blood supply</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Blood_supply-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nerve_supply" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nerve_supply"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Nerve supply</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nerve_supply-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clinical_significance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clinical_significance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Clinical significance</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Clinical_significance-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Clinical significance subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Clinical_significance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_pregnancy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_pregnancy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>In pregnancy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_pregnancy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Human digestive system</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 121 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-121" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">121 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spysverteringstelsel" title="Spysverteringstelsel – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Spysverteringstelsel" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verdauungstrakt" title="Verdauungstrakt – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Verdauungstrakt" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%A5%E1%88%AD%E1%8B%93%E1%89%B0_%E1%88%9D%E1%8C%8D%E1%89%A5" title="ሥርዓተ ምግብ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ሥርዓተ ምግብ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%B2_%D9%87%D8%B6%D9%85%D9%8A" title="جهاز هضمي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جهاز هضمي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aparato_dichestivo" title="Aparato dichestivo – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Aparato dichestivo" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0" title="পাচন তন্ত্ৰ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="পাচন তন্ত্ৰ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aparatu_dixestivu" title="Aparatu dixestivu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Aparatu dixestivu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manq%27a_kamana" title="Manq'a kamana – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Manq'a kamana" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aymar aru</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C9%99zm_sistemi" title="Həzm sistemi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Həzm sistemi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%B6%D9%85_%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%85%DB%8C" title="هضم سیستمی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="هضم سیستمی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%AC_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0" title="মানব পরিপাকতন্ত্র – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মানব পরিপাকতন্ত্র" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siau-h%C3%B2a_h%C4%93-th%C3%B3ng" title="Siau-hòa hē-thóng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Siau-hòa hē-thóng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D2%A3_%D0%B0%D1%88_%D2%BB%D0%B5%D2%A3%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D2%AF_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0%D2%BB%D1%8B" title="Кешенең аш һеңдереү системаһы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Кешенең аш һеңдереү системаһы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8D%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D1%87%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Стрававальная сістэма чалавека – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Стрававальная сістэма чалавека" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%9E%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0-%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%88%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82" title="Страўнікава-кішачны тракт – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Страўнікава-кішачны тракт" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B5_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="मानव पाचन तंत्र – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="मानव पाचन तंत्र" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistemang_panunaw" title="Sistemang panunaw – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Sistemang panunaw" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Храносмилателна система – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Храносмилателна система" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probavni_sistem_%C4%8Dovjeka" title="Probavni sistem čovjeka – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Probavni sistem čovjeka" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benvegad_koazha%C3%B1" title="Benvegad koazhañ – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Benvegad koazhañ" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aparell_digestiu" title="Aparell digestiu – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Aparell digestiu" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%C4%95%D0%BD_%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%82_%D0%B8%D1%80%C4%95%D0%BB%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%82%C4%83%D0%BC%C4%95" title="Этемĕн апат ирĕлтерекен тытăмĕ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Этемĕн апат ирĕлтерекен тытăмĕ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muronga_wechikafu" title="Muronga wechikafu – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Muronga wechikafu" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_dreulio" title="System dreulio – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="System dreulio" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford%C3%B8jelsessystemet" title="Fordøjelsessystemet – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Fordøjelsessystemet" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verdauungstrakt" title="Verdauungstrakt – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Verdauungstrakt" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%80%DE%A6%DE%96%DE%A6%DE%89%DE%AA%DE%86%DE%AA%DE%83%DE%A7_%DE%82%DE%A8%DE%92%DE%A7%DE%89%DE%B0" title="ހަޖަމުކުރާ ނިޒާމް – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ހަޖަމުކުރާ ނިޒާމް" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ދިވެހިބަސް</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inimese_seedeelundkond" title="Inimese seedeelundkond – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Inimese seedeelundkond" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B1%CF%83%CF%84%CF%81%CE%B5%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CF%83%CF%8D%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%B1" title="Γαστρεντερικό σύστημα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γαστρεντερικό σύστημα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aparato_digestivo" title="Aparato digestivo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Aparato digestivo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digesta_sistemo" title="Digesta sistemo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Digesta sistemo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_digestivu" title="Sistema digestivu – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Sistema digestivu" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digestio-aparatu" title="Digestio-aparatu – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Digestio-aparatu" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%AA%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%87_%DA%AF%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B4_%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86" title="دستگاه گوارش انسان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دستگاه گوارش انسان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insaan_ke_paachan_tantr" title="Insaan ke paachan tantr – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Insaan ke paachan tantr" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appareil_digestif_humain" title="Appareil digestif humain – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Appareil digestif humain" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiisfertarring" title="Spiisfertarring – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Spiisfertarring" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%B3ras_d%C3%ADle%C3%A1ite" title="Córas díleáite – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Córas díleáite" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aparello_dixestivo" title="Aparello dixestivo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Aparello dixestivo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%86%8C%ED%99%94%EA%B3%84" title="소화계 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="소화계" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%BD%D5%B8%D5%B2%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A3" title="Մարսողական համակարգ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մարսողական համակարգ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B5_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="मानव का पाचक तंत्र – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मानव का पाचक तंत्र" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ljudska_probava" title="Ljudska probava – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Ljudska probava" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digestiva_sistemo" title="Digestiva sistemo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Digestiva sistemo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistem_pencernaan" title="Sistem pencernaan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sistem pencernaan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apparato_digestive" title="Apparato digestive – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Apparato digestive" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amathumbu" title="Amathumbu – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="Amathumbu" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiXhosa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meltingarkerfi%C3%B0" title="Meltingarkerfið – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Meltingarkerfið" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apparato_digerente" title="Apparato digerente – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Apparato digerente" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%9B%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%9C" title="מערכת העיכול – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מערכת העיכול" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistem_pancernan" title="Sistem pancernan – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Sistem pancernan" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%A8_%E0%B2%AA%E0%B2%9A%E0%B2%A8_%E0%B2%B5%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A5%E0%B3%86" title="ಮಾನವನ ಪಚನ ವ್ಯವಸ್ಥೆ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಮಾನವನ ಪಚನ ವ್ಯವಸ್ಥೆ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastrointestinal_system" title="Gastrointestinal system – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Gastrointestinal system" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kapampangan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%AD%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90" title="საჭმლის მომნელებელი სისტემა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="საჭმლის მომნელებელი სისტემა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%9B%D9%94%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%8E%D9%86_%D8%AA%D9%8E%DA%AF" title="شرٛٔپرَن تَگ – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="شرٛٔپرَن تَگ" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>कॉशुर / کٲشُر</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81_%D2%9B%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%82%D1%83_%D0%B6%D2%AF%D0%B9%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%96" title="Ас қорыту жүйесі – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ас қорыту жүйесі" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mfumo_wa_mmeng%27enyo_wa_chakula" title="Mfumo wa mmeng'enyo wa chakula – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Mfumo wa mmeng'enyo wa chakula" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dijesyon" title="Dijesyon – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Dijesyon" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aparey_dijestif_moun" title="Aparey dijestif moun – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Aparey dijestif moun" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mij%C3%AEna_xurekan" title="Mijîna xurekan – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Mijîna xurekan" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apparatus_digestorius" title="Apparatus digestorius – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Apparatus digestorius" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gremo%C5%A1anas_org%C4%81nu_sist%C4%93ma" title="Gremošanas orgānu sistēma – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Gremošanas orgānu sistēma" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verdauungsapparat" title="Verdauungsapparat – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Verdauungsapparat" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vir%C5%A1kinimo_sistema" title="Virškinimo sistema – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Virškinimo sistema" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maag-dermsjt%C3%A8lsel" title="Maag-dermsjtèlsel – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Maag-dermsjtèlsel" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nzel%C3%A1_elekaka_bil%C3%ADa_na_l%C3%ADkund%C3%BA" title="Nzelá elekaka bilía na líkundú – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Nzelá elekaka bilía na líkundú" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingála</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistem_de_dijesta" title="Sistem de dijesta – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Sistem de dijesta" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/canti" title="canti – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="canti" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>La .lojban.</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Em%C3%A9szt%C5%91rendszer" title="Emésztőrendszer – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Emésztőrendszer" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC_%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%9A%D0%B5" title="Систем за варење – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Систем за варење" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A6%E0%B4%B9%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%B9%E0%B4%82" title="ദഹനവ്യൂഹം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ദഹനവ്യൂഹം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_di%C4%A1estiva" title="Sistema diġestiva – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Sistema diġestiva" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salur_perut_usus_manusia" title="Salur perut usus manusia – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Salur perut usus manusia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%BE%D0%BE%D0%BB_%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%80%D1%83%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%85_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Хоол боловсруулах систем – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Хоол боловсруулах систем" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9C%E1%80%B0%E1%81%8F_%E1%80%A1%E1%80%85%E1%80%AC%E1%80%A1%E1%80%AD%E1%80%99%E1%80%BA%E1%80%94%E1%80%BE%E1%80%84%E1%80%B7%E1%80%BA_%E1%80%A1%E1%80%B0%E1%80%9C%E1%80%99%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%80%E1%80%BC%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8" title="လူ၏ အစာအိမ်နှင့် အူလမ်းကြောင်း – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="လူ၏ အစာအိမ်နှင့် အူလမ်းကြောင်း" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spijsverteringsstelsel_(mens)" title="Spijsverteringsstelsel (mens) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Spijsverteringsstelsel (mens)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%AE" title="ग्यास्ट्रोइन्टेस्टिनल सिस्टम – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="ग्यास्ट्रोइन्टेस्टिनल सिस्टम" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B6%88%E5%8C%96%E5%99%A8" title="消化器 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="消化器" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford%C3%B8yelsessystem" title="Fordøyelsessystem – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Fordøyelsessystem" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford%C3%B8yingssystem" title="Fordøyingssystem – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Fordøyingssystem" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sist%C3%A8ma_digestiu_uman" title="Sistèma digestiu uman – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Sistèma digestiu uman" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirni_bullaa%E2%80%99insa_nyaataa" title="Sirni bullaa’insa nyaataa – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Sirni bullaa’insa nyaataa" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovqat_hazm_qilish_tizimi" title="Ovqat hazm qilish tizimi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Ovqat hazm qilish tizimi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%81%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%96%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%9A%E0%A8%A3_%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%8D%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%A3%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%80" title="ਮਨੁੱਖੀ ਪਾਚਣ ਪ੍ਰਣਾਲੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਮਨੁੱਖੀ ਪਾਚਣ ਪ੍ਰਣਾਲੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%DB%81%D8%A7%D8%B6%D9%85%D8%A7" title="انسانی ہاضما – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="انسانی ہاضما" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaschroyintestinal_chrak" title="Gaschroyintestinal chrak – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Gaschroyintestinal chrak" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verdausysteem" title="Verdausysteem – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Verdausysteem" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uk%C5%82ad_pokarmowy_cz%C5%82owieka" title="Układ pokarmowy człowieka – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Układ pokarmowy człowieka" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aparelho_digestivo" title="Aparelho digestivo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Aparelho digestivo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aparatul_digestiv" title="Aparatul digestiv – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Aparatul digestiv" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhuna_yawri" title="Mikhuna yawri – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Mikhuna yawri" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B8%D1%89%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Пищеварительная система человека – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Пищеварительная система человека" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81_%D0%B1%D1%83h%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%80_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Ас буhарар система – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Ас буhарар система" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistemi_i_tretjes" title="Sistemi i tretjes – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Sistemi i tretjes" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%9C%E0%B7%9A_%E0%B6%86%E0%B7%84%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BB_%E0%B6%A2%E0%B7%93%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%AB_%E0%B6%B4%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B0%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA" title="මිනිසාගේ ආහාර ජීරණ පද්ධතිය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="මිනිසාගේ ආහාර ජීරණ පද්ධතිය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digestive_system" title="Digestive system – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Digestive system" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A_%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%B6%D9%85%D9%8A_%D8%AC%D9%88_%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%B4%D8%AA%D9%88" title="انساني هاضمي جو سرشتو – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="انساني هاضمي جو سرشتو" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prebavna_cev" title="Prebavna cev – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Prebavna cev" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%86%D8%A6%DB%95%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C_%DA%BE%DB%95%D8%B1%D8%B3" title="کۆئەندامی ھەرس – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="کۆئەندامی ھەرس" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC_%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%9A%D0%B5" title="Систем органа за варење – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Систем органа за варење" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digestivni_trakt" title="Digestivni trakt – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Digestivni trakt" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saluran_cerna" title="Saluran cerna – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Saluran cerna" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruoansulatuskanava" title="Ruoansulatuskanava – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ruoansulatuskanava" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mag-_och_tarmkanalen" title="Mag- och tarmkanalen – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Mag- och tarmkanalen" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistemang_panunaw" title="Sistemang panunaw – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Sistemang panunaw" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A4_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="மனித சமிபாட்டு மண்டலம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மனித சமிபாட்டு மண்டலம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Ашкайнату системасы – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Ашкайнату системасы" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%B5_%E0%B0%9C%E0%B1%80%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A3%E0%B0%B5%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A5" title="మానవ జీర్ణవ్యవస్థ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="మానవ జీర్ణవ్యవస్థ" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" 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class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Digestive system in humans</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_tract" title="Gastrointestinal tract">Gastrointestinal tract</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Digestive system" and "alimentary system" redirect here. For digestive systems of non-human animals, see <a href="/wiki/Digestion" title="Digestion">Digestion</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white">Human digestive system</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Digestive_system_diagram_en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Digestive_system_diagram_en.svg/250px-Digestive_system_diagram_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="353" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Digestive_system_diagram_en.svg/375px-Digestive_system_diagram_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Digestive_system_diagram_en.svg/500px-Digestive_system_diagram_en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="876" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Human digestive system</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef">Details</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef">Identifiers</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><i>systema digestorium</i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004064">D004064</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Terminologia_Anatomica" title="Terminologia Anatomica">TA98</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ifaa.unifr.ch/Public/EntryPage/TA98%20Tree/Entity%20TA98%20EN/05.0.00.000%20Entity%20TA98%20EN.htm">A05.0.00.000</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Terminologia_Anatomica" title="Terminologia Anatomica">TA2</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ta2viewer.openanatomy.org/?id=2773">2773</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Terminologia_Histologica" title="Terminologia Histologica">TH</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ifaa.unifr.ch/Public/EntryPage/PDF/TH%20Chapter%20H3.04.pdf">H3.04 </a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Foundational_Model_of_Anatomy" title="Foundational Model of Anatomy">FMA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bioportal.bioontology.org/ontologies/FMA/?p=classes&conceptid=http%3A%2F%2Fpurl.org%2Fsig%2Font%2Ffma%2Ffma7152">7152</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below"><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terminology" title="Anatomical terminology">Anatomical terminology</a><div style="text-align: right;"><small class="noprint">[<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9649" class="extiw" title="d:Q9649">edit on Wikidata</a>]</small></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>human digestive system</b> consists of the <a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_tract" title="Gastrointestinal tract">gastrointestinal tract</a> plus the accessory organs of digestion (the <a href="/wiki/Tongue" title="Tongue">tongue</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salivary_gland" title="Salivary gland">salivary glands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pancreas" title="Pancreas">pancreas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">liver</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gallbladder" title="Gallbladder">gallbladder</a>). <a href="/wiki/Digestion" title="Digestion">Digestion</a> involves the breakdown of food into smaller and smaller components, until they can be absorbed and assimilated into the body. The process of digestion has three stages: the <a href="/wiki/Cephalic_phase" class="mw-redirect" title="Cephalic phase">cephalic phase</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Regulation_of_gastric_function#Gastric_phase" class="mw-redirect" title="Regulation of gastric function">gastric phase</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Regulation_of_gastric_function#Intestinal_phase" class="mw-redirect" title="Regulation of gastric function">intestinal phase</a>. </p><p>The first stage, the cephalic phase of digestion, begins with secretions from <a href="/wiki/Gastric_gland" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastric gland">gastric glands</a> in response to the sight and smell of food. This stage includes the mechanical breakdown of food by <a href="/wiki/Chewing" title="Chewing">chewing</a>, and the chemical breakdown by <a href="/wiki/Digestive_enzyme" title="Digestive enzyme">digestive enzymes</a>, that takes place in the <a href="/wiki/Human_mouth" title="Human mouth">mouth</a>. <a href="/wiki/Saliva" title="Saliva">Saliva</a> contains the digestive enzymes <a href="/wiki/Amylase" title="Amylase">amylase</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lingual_lipase" title="Lingual lipase">lingual lipase</a>, secreted by the salivary and <a href="/wiki/Serous_glands" class="mw-redirect" title="Serous glands">serous glands</a> on the tongue. Chewing, in which the food is mixed with saliva, begins the mechanical process of digestion. This produces a <a href="/wiki/Bolus_(digestion)" title="Bolus (digestion)">bolus</a> which is swallowed down the <a href="/wiki/Esophagus" title="Esophagus">esophagus</a> to enter the <a href="/wiki/Stomach" title="Stomach">stomach</a>. </p><p>The second stage, the gastric phase, happens in the stomach. Here, the food is further broken down by mixing with <a href="/wiki/Gastric_acid" title="Gastric acid">gastric acid</a> until it passes into the <a href="/wiki/Duodenum" title="Duodenum">duodenum</a>, the first part of the <a href="/wiki/Small_intestine" title="Small intestine">small intestine</a>. </p><p>The third stage, the intestinal phase, begins in the duodenum. Here, the partially digested food is mixed with a number of <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a> produced by the pancreas. </p><p>Digestion is helped by the chewing of food carried out by the <a href="/wiki/Muscles_of_mastication" title="Muscles of mastication">muscles of mastication</a>, the tongue, and the <a href="/wiki/Human_tooth" title="Human tooth">teeth</a>, and also by the <a href="/wiki/Muscle_contraction" title="Muscle contraction">contractions</a> of <a href="/wiki/Peristalsis" title="Peristalsis">peristalsis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Segmentation_contractions" title="Segmentation contractions">segmentation</a>. Gastric acid, and the production of <a href="/wiki/Mucus#Digestive_system" title="Mucus">mucus</a> in the stomach, are essential for the continuation of digestion. </p><p>Peristalsis is the rhythmic contraction of <a href="/wiki/Muscle" title="Muscle">muscles</a> that begins in the esophagus and continues along the wall of the stomach and the rest of the gastrointestinal tract. This initially results in the production of <a href="/wiki/Chyme" title="Chyme">chyme</a> which when fully broken down in the small intestine is absorbed as <a href="/wiki/Chyle" title="Chyle">chyle</a> into the <a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_system" title="Lymphatic system">lymphatic system</a>. Most of the digestion of food takes place in the small intestine. Water and some <a href="/wiki/Minerals" class="mw-redirect" title="Minerals">minerals</a> are reabsorbed back into the blood in the colon of the <a href="/wiki/Large_intestine" title="Large intestine">large intestine</a>. The waste products of digestion (<a href="/wiki/Human_feces" title="Human feces">feces</a>) are <a href="/wiki/Defecation" title="Defecation">defecated</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Rectum" title="Rectum">rectum</a> via the <a href="/wiki/Human_anus" title="Human anus">anus</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Components">Components</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GI_normal.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/GI_normal.jpg/180px-GI_normal.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/GI_normal.jpg/270px-GI_normal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/GI_normal.jpg/360px-GI_normal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2253" data-file-height="3075" /></a><figcaption>Adult digestive system</figcaption></figure> <p>There are several organs and other components involved in the digestion of food. The organs known as the <b>accessory digestive organs</b> are the <a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">liver</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gall_bladder" class="mw-redirect" title="Gall bladder">gall bladder</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pancreas" title="Pancreas">pancreas</a>. Other components include the <a href="/wiki/Human_mouth" title="Human mouth">mouth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salivary_gland" title="Salivary gland">salivary glands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tongue" title="Tongue">tongue</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human_tooth" title="Human tooth">teeth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Epiglottis" title="Epiglottis">epiglottis</a>. </p><p>The largest structure of the digestive <a href="/wiki/Biological_system" title="Biological system">system</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_tract" title="Gastrointestinal tract">gastrointestinal tract</a> (GI tract). This starts at the mouth and ends at the <a href="/wiki/Human_anus" title="Human anus">anus</a>, covering a distance of about nine metres (30 ft).<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A major digestive organ is the <a href="/wiki/Stomach" title="Stomach">stomach</a>. Within its <a href="/wiki/Gastric_mucosa" title="Gastric mucosa">mucosa</a> are millions of embedded <a href="/wiki/Gastric_glands" title="Gastric glands">gastric glands</a>. Their secretions are vital to the functioning of the organ. </p><p>Most of the digestion of food takes place in the <a href="/wiki/Small_intestine" title="Small intestine">small intestine</a> which is the longest part of the GI tract. </p><p>The largest part of the GI tract is the colon or <a href="/wiki/Large_intestine" title="Large intestine">large intestine</a>. Water is absorbed here and the remaining waste matter is stored prior to <a href="/wiki/Defecation" title="Defecation">defecation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-eb_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eb-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are many specialised <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a> of the GI tract. These include the various cells of the gastric glands, <a href="/wiki/Taste_receptor" title="Taste receptor">taste cells</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pancreatic_duct_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Pancreatic duct cell">pancreatic duct cells</a>, <a href="/wiki/Enterocyte" title="Enterocyte">enterocytes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Microfold_cell" title="Microfold cell">microfold cells</a>. </p><p>Some parts of the digestive system are also part of the <a href="/wiki/Excretory_system" title="Excretory system">excretory system</a>, including the large intestine.<sup id="cite_ref-eb_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eb-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mouth">Mouth</h3></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:3D_Medical_Animation_Oral_Cavity.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="3D Medical Illustration Explaining Oral Digestive System" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/3D_Medical_Animation_Oral_Cavity.jpg/260px-3D_Medical_Animation_Oral_Cavity.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/3D_Medical_Animation_Oral_Cavity.jpg/390px-3D_Medical_Animation_Oral_Cavity.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/3D_Medical_Animation_Oral_Cavity.jpg/520px-3D_Medical_Animation_Oral_Cavity.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>3D medical illustration explaining the oral digestive system</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Human_mouth" title="Human mouth">mouth</a> is the first part of the <a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_tract" title="Gastrointestinal tract">upper gastrointestinal tract</a> and is equipped with several structures that begin the first processes of digestion.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These include salivary glands, teeth and the tongue. The mouth consists of two regions; the vestibule and the oral cavity proper. The vestibule is the area between the teeth, lips and cheeks,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the rest is the oral cavity proper. Most of the oral cavity is lined with <a href="/wiki/Oral_mucosa" title="Oral mucosa">oral mucosa</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Mucous_membrane" title="Mucous membrane">mucous membrane</a> that produces a lubricating <a href="/wiki/Mucus" title="Mucus">mucus</a>, of which only a small amount is needed. Mucous membranes vary in structure in the different regions of the body but they all produce a lubricating mucus, which is either secreted by surface cells or more usually by underlying glands. The mucous membrane in the mouth continues as the thin mucosa which lines the bases of the teeth. The main component of mucus is a <a href="/wiki/Glycoprotein" title="Glycoprotein">glycoprotein</a> called <a href="/wiki/Mucin" title="Mucin">mucin</a> and the type secreted varies according to the region involved. Mucin is viscous, clear, and clinging. Underlying the mucous membrane in the mouth is a thin layer of <a href="/wiki/Smooth_muscle_tissue" class="mw-redirect" title="Smooth muscle tissue">smooth muscle tissue</a> and the loose connection to the membrane gives it its great elasticity.<sup id="cite_ref-Macpherson1999_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Macpherson1999-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It covers the cheeks, inner surfaces of the <a href="/wiki/Lip" title="Lip">lips</a>, and floor of the mouth, and the mucin produced is highly protective against <a href="/wiki/Tooth_decay" title="Tooth decay">tooth decay</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The roof of the mouth is termed the <a href="/wiki/Palate" title="Palate">palate</a> and it separates the oral cavity from the nasal cavity. The palate is hard at the front of the mouth since the overlying mucosa is covering a plate of <a href="/wiki/Bone" title="Bone">bone</a>; it is softer and more pliable at the back being made of muscle and connective tissue, and it can move to swallow food and liquids. The <a href="/wiki/Soft_palate" title="Soft palate">soft palate</a> ends at the <a href="/wiki/Palatine_uvula" class="mw-redirect" title="Palatine uvula">uvula</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The surface of the <a href="/wiki/Hard_palate" title="Hard palate">hard palate</a> allows for the pressure needed in eating food, to leave the nasal passage clear.<sup id="cite_ref-Britannica2007_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Britannica2007-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The opening between the lips is termed the oral fissure, and the opening into the throat is called the <a href="/wiki/Fauces_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fauces (anatomy)">fauces</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At either side of the soft palate are the <a href="/wiki/Palatoglossus_muscle" title="Palatoglossus muscle">palatoglossus muscles</a> which also reach into regions of the tongue. These muscles raise the back of the tongue and also close both sides of the fauces to enable food to be swallowed.<sup id="cite_ref-Dorland's_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dorland's-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1208">: 1208 </span></sup> Mucus helps in the mastication of food in its ability to soften and collect the food in the formation of the bolus. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Salivary_glands">Salivary glands</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blausen_0780_SalivaryGlands.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Blausen_0780_SalivaryGlands.png/180px-Blausen_0780_SalivaryGlands.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Blausen_0780_SalivaryGlands.png/270px-Blausen_0780_SalivaryGlands.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Blausen_0780_SalivaryGlands.png/360px-Blausen_0780_SalivaryGlands.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>The main salivary glands</figcaption></figure> <p>There are three pairs of main <a href="/wiki/Salivary_gland" title="Salivary gland">salivary glands</a> and between 800 and 1,000 minor salivary glands, all of which mainly serve the digestive process, and also play an important role in the maintenance of dental health and general mouth lubrication, without which speech would be impossible.<sup id="cite_ref-Ten_Cate_2013_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ten_Cate_2013-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The main glands are all <a href="/wiki/Exocrine_gland" title="Exocrine gland">exocrine glands</a>, secreting via ducts. All of these glands terminate in the mouth. The largest of these are the <a href="/wiki/Parotid_gland" title="Parotid gland">parotid glands</a>—their secretion is mainly <a href="/wiki/Serous" class="mw-redirect" title="Serous">serous</a>. The next pair are underneath the jaw, the <a href="/wiki/Submandibular_gland" title="Submandibular gland">submandibular glands</a>, these produce both serous fluid and mucus. The serous fluid is produced by <a href="/wiki/Serous_gland" title="Serous gland">serous glands</a> in these salivary glands which also produce <a href="/wiki/Lingual_lipase" title="Lingual lipase">lingual lipase</a>. They produce about 70% of the oral cavity saliva. The third pair are the <a href="/wiki/Sublingual_gland" title="Sublingual gland">sublingual glands</a> located underneath the tongue and their secretion is mainly mucous with a small percentage of saliva. </p><p>Within the oral mucosa, and also on the tongue, palates, and floor of the mouth, are the minor salivary glands; their secretions are mainly mucous and they are innervated by the <a href="/wiki/Facial_nerve" title="Facial nerve">facial nerve</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cranial_nerve" class="mw-redirect" title="Cranial nerve">CN7</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The glands also secrete <a href="/wiki/Amylase" title="Amylase">amylase</a> a first stage in the breakdown of food acting on the carbohydrate in the food to transform the starch content into maltose. There are other serous glands on the surface of the tongue that encircle <a href="/wiki/Taste_bud" title="Taste bud">taste buds</a> on the back part of the tongue and these also produce lingual <a href="/wiki/Lipase" title="Lipase">lipase</a>. Lipase is a <a href="/wiki/Digestive_enzyme" title="Digestive enzyme">digestive enzyme</a> that catalyses the <a href="/wiki/Hydrolysis" title="Hydrolysis">hydrolysis</a> of <a href="/wiki/Lipid" title="Lipid">lipids</a> (fats). These glands are termed <a href="/wiki/Von_Ebner%27s_glands" class="mw-redirect" title="Von Ebner's glands">Von Ebner's glands</a> which have also been shown to have another function in the secretion of <a href="/wiki/Histatin" title="Histatin">histatins</a> which offer an early defense (outside of the immune system) against microbes in food, when it makes contact with these glands on the tongue tissue.<sup id="cite_ref-Ten_Cate_2013_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ten_Cate_2013-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sensory information can stimulate the secretion of saliva providing the necessary fluid for the tongue to work with and also to ease swallowing of the food. </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Saliva">Saliva</h5></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Saliva" title="Saliva">Saliva</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Saliva" title="Saliva">Saliva</a> moistens and softens food, and along with the chewing action of the teeth, transforms the food into a smooth <a href="/wiki/Bolus_(digestion)" title="Bolus (digestion)">bolus</a>. The bolus is further helped by the lubrication provided by the saliva in its passage from the mouth into the esophagus. Also of importance is the presence in saliva of the digestive enzymes amylase and lipase. Amylase starts to work on the <a href="/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">starch</a> in <a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">carbohydrates</a>, breaking it down into the simple <a href="/wiki/Sugars" class="mw-redirect" title="Sugars">sugars</a> of <a href="/wiki/Maltose" title="Maltose">maltose</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dextrose" class="mw-redirect" title="Dextrose">dextrose</a> that can be further broken down in the small intestine. Saliva in the mouth can account for 30% of this initial starch digestion. Lipase starts to work on breaking down <a href="/wiki/Fat" title="Fat">fats</a>. Lipase is further produced in the pancreas where it is released to continue this digestion of fats. The presence of salivary lipase is of prime importance in young babies whose pancreatic lipase has yet to be developed.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As well as its role in supplying digestive enzymes, saliva has a cleansing action for the teeth and mouth.<sup id="cite_ref-Edgar_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edgar-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also has an <a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">immunological</a> role in supplying antibodies to the system, such as <a href="/wiki/Immunoglobulin_A" title="Immunoglobulin A">immunoglobulin A</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is seen to be key in preventing <a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">infections</a> of the salivary glands, importantly that of <a href="/wiki/Parotitis" title="Parotitis">parotitis</a>. </p><p>Saliva also contains a glycoprotein called <a href="/wiki/Haptocorrin" title="Haptocorrin">haptocorrin</a> which is a binding protein to vitamin B<sub>12</sub>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It binds with the vitamin in order to carry it safely through the acidic content of the stomach. When it reaches the duodenum, pancreatic enzymes break down the glycoprotein and free the vitamin which then binds with <a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_factor" title="Intrinsic factor">intrinsic factor</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tongue">Tongue</h4></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Illu01_head_neck.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Illu01_head_neck.jpg/240px-Illu01_head_neck.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Illu01_head_neck.jpg/360px-Illu01_head_neck.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Illu01_head_neck.jpg 2x" data-file-width="424" data-file-height="430" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure><p>Food enters the mouth where the first stage in the digestive process takes place, with the action of the <a href="/wiki/Tongue" title="Tongue">tongue</a> and the secretion of saliva. The tongue is a fleshy and <a href="/wiki/Muscular_hydrostat" title="Muscular hydrostat">muscular</a> <a href="/wiki/Sensory_organ" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory organ">sensory organ</a>, and the first sensory information is received via the taste buds in the <a href="/wiki/Lingual_papillae" title="Lingual papillae">papillae</a> on its surface. If the taste is agreeable, the tongue will go into action, manipulating the food in the mouth which stimulates the secretion of saliva from the salivary glands. The liquid quality of the saliva will help in the softening of the food and its enzyme content will start to break down the food whilst it is still in the mouth. The first part of the food to be broken down is the starch of carbohydrates (by the enzyme amylase in the saliva). </p><p>The tongue is attached to the floor of the mouth by a ligamentous band called the <a href="/wiki/Frenulum_of_the_tongue" title="Frenulum of the tongue">frenum</a><sup id="cite_ref-Macpherson1999_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Macpherson1999-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and this gives it great mobility for the manipulation of food (and <a href="/wiki/Speech" title="Speech">speech</a>); the range of manipulation is optimally controlled by the action of several muscles and limited in its external range by the stretch of the frenum. The tongue's two sets of muscles, are four <a href="/wiki/Tongue#Intrinsic_muscles" title="Tongue">intrinsic muscles</a> that originate in the tongue and are involved with its shaping, and four <a href="/wiki/Tongue#extrinsic_muscles" title="Tongue">extrinsic muscles</a> originating in bone that are involved with its movement. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Taste">Taste</h5></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Taste" title="Taste">Taste</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray1015.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Gray1015.png/220px-Gray1015.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Gray1015.png/330px-Gray1015.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Gray1015.png/440px-Gray1015.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="226" /></a><figcaption>Cross section of <a href="/wiki/Circumvallate_papilla" class="mw-redirect" title="Circumvallate papilla">circumvallate papilla</a> showing arrangement of nerves and taste buds</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Taste" title="Taste">Taste</a> is a form of <a href="/wiki/Chemoreceptor" title="Chemoreceptor">chemoreception</a> that takes place in the specialised <a href="/wiki/Taste_receptor" title="Taste receptor">taste receptors</a>, contained in structures called <a href="/wiki/Taste_buds" class="mw-redirect" title="Taste buds">taste buds</a> in the mouth. Taste buds are mainly on the upper surface (dorsum) of the tongue. The function of taste perception is vital to help prevent harmful or rotten foods from being consumed. There are also taste buds on the <a href="/wiki/Epiglottis" title="Epiglottis">epiglottis</a> and upper part of the <a href="/wiki/Esophagus" title="Esophagus">esophagus</a>. The taste buds are innervated by a branch of the facial nerve the <a href="/wiki/Chorda_tympani" title="Chorda tympani">chorda tympani</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Glossopharyngeal_nerve" title="Glossopharyngeal nerve">glossopharyngeal nerve</a>. Taste messages are sent via these <a href="/wiki/Cranial_nerves" title="Cranial nerves">cranial nerves</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Human_brain" title="Human brain">brain</a>. The brain can distinguish between the chemical qualities of the food. The five <a href="/wiki/Taste#Basic_tastes" title="Taste">basic tastes</a> are referred to as those of <a href="/wiki/Taste#Saltiness" title="Taste">saltiness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taste#Sourness" title="Taste">sourness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taste#Bitterness" title="Taste">bitterness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sweetness" title="Sweetness">sweetness</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Umami" title="Umami">umami</a>. The detection of saltiness and sourness enables the control of salt and acid balance. The detection of bitterness warns of poisons—many of a plant's defences are of poisonous compounds that are bitter. Sweetness guides to those foods that will supply energy; the initial breakdown of the energy-giving carbohydrates by salivary amylase creates the taste of sweetness since simple sugars are the first result. The taste of umami is thought to signal protein-rich food. Sour tastes are acidic which is often found in bad food. The brain has to decide very quickly whether the food should be eaten or not. It was the findings in 1991, describing the first <a href="/wiki/Olfactory" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfactory">olfactory</a> receptors that helped to prompt the research into taste. The olfactory receptors are located on cell surfaces in the <a href="/wiki/Human_nose" title="Human nose">nose</a> which bind to chemicals enabling the detection of smells. It is assumed that signals from taste receptors work together with those from the nose, to form an idea of complex food flavours.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Teeth">Teeth</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Human_tooth" title="Human tooth">Human tooth</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Human_tooth" title="Human tooth">Teeth</a> are complex structures made of materials specific to them. They are made of a bone-like material called <a href="/wiki/Dentin" title="Dentin">dentin</a>, which is covered by the hardest tissue in the body—<a href="/wiki/Tooth_enamel" title="Tooth enamel">enamel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Britannica2007_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Britannica2007-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Teeth have different shapes to deal with different aspects of <a href="/wiki/Mastication" class="mw-redirect" title="Mastication">mastication</a> employed in tearing and chewing pieces of food into smaller and smaller pieces. This results in a much larger surface area for the action of digestive enzymes. The teeth are named after their particular roles in the process of mastication—<a href="/wiki/Incisors" class="mw-redirect" title="Incisors">incisors</a> are used for cutting or biting off pieces of food; <a href="/wiki/Canine_tooth" title="Canine tooth">canines</a>, are used for tearing, <a href="/wiki/Premolars" class="mw-redirect" title="Premolars">premolars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Molars" class="mw-redirect" title="Molars">molars</a> are used for chewing and grinding. Mastication of the food with the help of saliva and mucus results in the formation of a soft bolus which can then be <a href="/wiki/Swallowed" class="mw-redirect" title="Swallowed">swallowed</a> to make its way down the <a href="/wiki/Upper_gastrointestinal_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Upper gastrointestinal tract">upper gastrointestinal tract</a> to the stomach.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The digestive enzymes in saliva also help in keeping the teeth clean by breaking down any lodged food particles.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Edgar_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edgar-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Epiglottis">Epiglottis</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Epiglottis" title="Epiglottis">Epiglottis</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray958.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Gray958.png/200px-Gray958.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Gray958.png/300px-Gray958.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Gray958.png 2x" data-file-width="363" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Epiglottis" title="Epiglottis">epiglottis</a> is a flap of <a href="/wiki/Elastic_cartilage" title="Elastic cartilage">elastic cartilage</a> attached to the entrance of the <a href="/wiki/Larynx" title="Larynx">larynx</a>. It is covered with a mucous membrane and there are taste buds on its lingual surface which faces into the mouth.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its laryngeal surface faces into the larynx. The epiglottis functions to guard the entrance of the <a href="/wiki/Glottis" title="Glottis">glottis</a>, the opening between the <a href="/wiki/Vocal_folds" class="mw-redirect" title="Vocal folds">vocal folds</a>. It is normally pointed upward during breathing with its underside functioning as part of the pharynx, but during swallowing, the epiglottis folds down to a more horizontal position, with its upper side functioning as part of the pharynx. In this manner it prevents food from going into the trachea and instead directs it to the esophagus, which is behind. During swallowing, the backward motion of the tongue forces the epiglottis over the glottis' opening to prevent any food that is being swallowed from entering the larynx which leads to the lungs; the larynx is also pulled upwards to assist this process. Stimulation of the larynx by ingested matter produces a strong <a href="/wiki/Cough_reflex" title="Cough reflex">cough reflex</a> in order to protect the lungs. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pharynx">Pharynx</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pharynx" title="Pharynx">Pharynx</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Pharynx" title="Pharynx">pharynx</a> is a part of the <a href="/wiki/Conducting_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Conducting zone">conducting zone</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system" title="Respiratory system">respiratory system</a> and also a part of the digestive system. It is the part of the throat immediately behind the <a href="/wiki/Nasal_cavity" title="Nasal cavity">nasal cavity</a> at the back of the mouth and above the esophagus and <a href="/wiki/Larynx" title="Larynx">larynx</a>. The pharynx is made up of three parts. The lower two parts—the <a href="/wiki/Pharynx#Oropharynx" title="Pharynx">oropharynx</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Pharynx#Laryngopharynx" title="Pharynx">laryngopharynx</a> are involved in the digestive system. The laryngopharynx connects to the esophagus and it serves as a passageway for both air and food. Air enters the larynx anteriorly but anything swallowed has priority and the passage of air is temporarily blocked. The pharynx is innervated by the <a href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_plexus_of_vagus_nerve" title="Pharyngeal plexus of vagus nerve">pharyngeal plexus of the vagus nerve</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Dorland's_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dorland's-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1465">: 1465 </span></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_muscles" title="Pharyngeal muscles">Muscles in the pharynx</a> push the food into the esophagus. The pharynx joins the esophagus at the oesophageal inlet which is located behind the <a href="/wiki/Cricoid_cartilage" title="Cricoid cartilage">cricoid cartilage</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Esophagus">Esophagus</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Esophagus" title="Esophagus">Esophagus</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Relations_of_the_aorta,_trachea,_esophagus_and_other_heart_structures.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Relations_of_the_aorta%2C_trachea%2C_esophagus_and_other_heart_structures.png/220px-Relations_of_the_aorta%2C_trachea%2C_esophagus_and_other_heart_structures.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Relations_of_the_aorta%2C_trachea%2C_esophagus_and_other_heart_structures.png/330px-Relations_of_the_aorta%2C_trachea%2C_esophagus_and_other_heart_structures.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Relations_of_the_aorta%2C_trachea%2C_esophagus_and_other_heart_structures.png/440px-Relations_of_the_aorta%2C_trachea%2C_esophagus_and_other_heart_structures.png 2x" data-file-width="2089" data-file-height="1645" /></a><figcaption>Esophagus shown in yellow passing behind the trachea and the heart</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Esophagus" title="Esophagus">esophagus</a>, commonly known as the foodpipe or gullet, consists of a muscular tube through which food passes from the pharynx to the stomach. The esophagus is continuous with the laryngopharynx. It passes through the posterior <a href="/wiki/Mediastinum" title="Mediastinum">mediastinum</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Thorax" title="Thorax">thorax</a> and enters the <a href="/wiki/Stomach" title="Stomach">stomach</a> through a hole in the <a href="/wiki/Thoracic_diaphragm" title="Thoracic diaphragm">thoracic diaphragm</a>—the <a href="/wiki/Esophageal_hiatus" title="Esophageal hiatus">esophageal hiatus</a>, at the level of the tenth <a href="/wiki/Thoracic_vertebra" class="mw-redirect" title="Thoracic vertebra">thoracic vertebra</a> (T10). Its length averages 25 cm, varying with an individual's height. It is divided into cervical, <a href="/wiki/Thoracic" class="mw-redirect" title="Thoracic">thoracic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abdominal" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdominal">abdominal</a> parts. The pharynx joins the esophagus at the esophageal inlet which is behind the <a href="/wiki/Cricoid_cartilage" title="Cricoid cartilage">cricoid cartilage</a>. </p><p>At rest the esophagus is closed at both ends, by the <a href="/wiki/Esophagus#Sphincters" title="Esophagus">upper and lower esophageal sphincters</a>. The opening of the upper sphincter is triggered by the <a href="/wiki/Swallowing_reflex" class="mw-redirect" title="Swallowing reflex">swallowing reflex</a> so that food is allowed through. The sphincter also serves to prevent back flow from the esophagus into the pharynx. The esophagus has a mucous membrane and the epithelium which has a protective function is continuously replaced due to the volume of food that passes inside the esophagus. During swallowing, food passes from the mouth through the pharynx into the esophagus. The epiglottis folds down to a more horizontal position to direct the food into the esophagus, and away from the <a href="/wiki/Trachea" title="Trachea">trachea</a>. </p><p>Once in the esophagus, the bolus travels down to the stomach via rhythmic contraction and relaxation of muscles known as <a href="/wiki/Peristalsis" title="Peristalsis">peristalsis</a>. The lower esophageal sphincter is a muscular sphincter surrounding the lower part of the esophagus. The <a href="/wiki/Stomach#Sections" title="Stomach">gastroesophageal junction</a> between the esophagus and the stomach is controlled by the lower esophageal sphincter, which remains constricted at all times other than during swallowing and vomiting to prevent the contents of the stomach from entering the esophagus. As the esophagus does not have the same protection from acid as the stomach, any failure of this sphincter can lead to heartburn. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diaphragm">Diaphragm</h3></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Thoracic_diaphragm" title="Thoracic diaphragm">diaphragm</a> is an important part of the body's digestive system. The muscular diaphragm separates the <a href="/wiki/Thoracic_cavity" title="Thoracic cavity">thoracic cavity</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Abdominal_cavity" title="Abdominal cavity">abdominal cavity</a> where most of the digestive organs are located. The <a href="/wiki/Suspensory_muscle_of_the_duodenum" class="mw-redirect" title="Suspensory muscle of the duodenum">suspensory muscle</a> attaches the ascending duodenum to the diaphragm. This muscle is thought to be of help in the digestive system in that its attachment offers a wider angle to the <a href="/wiki/Duodenojejunal_flexure" title="Duodenojejunal flexure">duodenojejunal flexure</a> for the easier passage of digesting material. The diaphragm also attaches to, and anchors the liver at its <a href="/wiki/Bare_area_of_the_liver" title="Bare area of the liver">bare area</a>. The esophagus enters the abdomen through a <a href="/wiki/Esophageal_hiatus" title="Esophageal hiatus">hole in the diaphragm</a> at the level of <a href="/wiki/Thoracic_vertebrae" title="Thoracic vertebrae">T10</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stomach">Stomach</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Stomach" title="Stomach">Stomach</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Regions_of_stomach.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Regions_of_stomach.svg/200px-Regions_of_stomach.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Regions_of_stomach.svg/300px-Regions_of_stomach.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Regions_of_stomach.svg/400px-Regions_of_stomach.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="105" data-file-height="81" /></a><figcaption>Areas of the stomach</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Stomach" title="Stomach">stomach</a> is a major organ of the gastrointestinal tract and digestive system. It is a consistently J-shaped organ joined to the esophagus at its upper end and to the duodenum at its lower end. <a href="/wiki/Gastric_acid" title="Gastric acid">Gastric acid</a> (informally <i>gastric juice</i>), produced in the stomach plays a vital role in the digestive process, and mainly contains <a href="/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid" title="Hydrochloric acid">hydrochloric acid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">sodium chloride</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Peptide_hormone" title="Peptide hormone">peptide hormone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gastrin" title="Gastrin">gastrin</a>, produced by <a href="/wiki/G_cell" title="G cell">G cells</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Gastric_glands" title="Gastric glands">gastric glands</a>, stimulates the production of gastric juice which activates the digestive enzymes. <a href="/wiki/Pepsinogen" class="mw-redirect" title="Pepsinogen">Pepsinogen</a> is a precursor enzyme (<a href="/wiki/Zymogen" title="Zymogen">zymogen</a>) produced by the <a href="/wiki/Gastric_chief_cell" title="Gastric chief cell">gastric chief cells</a>, and gastric acid activates this to the enzyme <a href="/wiki/Pepsin" title="Pepsin">pepsin</a> which begins the digestion of <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a>. As these two chemicals would damage the stomach wall, mucus is secreted by innumerable gastric glands in the stomach, to provide a slimy protective layer against the damaging effects of the chemicals on the inner layers of the stomach. </p><p>At the same time that protein is being digested, mechanical churning occurs through the action of peristalsis, waves of muscular contractions that move along the stomach wall. This allows the mass of food to further mix with the digestive enzymes. <a href="/wiki/Gastric_lipase" title="Gastric lipase">Gastric lipase</a> secreted by the chief cells in the fundic glands in the gastric mucosa of the stomach, is an acidic lipase, in contrast with the alkaline pancreatic lipase. This breaks down fats to some degree though is not as efficient as the pancreatic lipase. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Pylorus" title="Pylorus">pylorus</a>, the lowest section of the stomach which attaches to the <a href="/wiki/Duodenum" title="Duodenum">duodenum</a> via the <a href="/wiki/Pyloric_canal" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyloric canal">pyloric canal</a>, contains countless glands which secrete digestive enzymes including gastrin. After an hour or two, a thick semi-liquid called <a href="/wiki/Chyme" title="Chyme">chyme</a> is produced. When the <a href="/wiki/Pyloric_sphincter" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyloric sphincter">pyloric sphincter</a>, or valve opens, chyme enters the duodenum where it mixes further with digestive enzymes from the pancreas, and then passes through the small intestine, where digestion continues. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Parietal_cell" title="Parietal cell">parietal cells</a> in the fundus of the stomach, produce a glycoprotein called intrinsic factor which is essential for the absorption of <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_B12" title="Vitamin B12">vitamin B12</a>. Vitamin B12 (cobalamin), is carried to, and through the stomach, bound to a glycoprotein secreted by the salivary glands – <a href="/wiki/Transcobalamin" title="Transcobalamin">transcobalamin I</a> also called haptocorrin, which protects the acid-sensitive vitamin from the acidic stomach contents. Once in the more neutral duodenum, pancreatic enzymes break down the protective glycoprotein. The freed vitamin B12 then binds to intrinsic factor which is then absorbed by the enterocytes in the ileum. </p><p>The stomach is a distensible organ and can normally expand to hold about one litre of food.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This expansion is enabled by a series of <a href="/wiki/Gastric_folds" title="Gastric folds">gastric folds</a> in the inner walls of the stomach. The stomach of a newborn baby will only be able to expand to retain about 30 ml. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spleen">Spleen</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Spleen" title="Spleen">Spleen</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Spleen" title="Spleen">spleen</a> is the largest lymphoid organ in the body but has other functions.<sup id="cite_ref-Saladin3_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saladin3-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It breaks down both red and white <a href="/wiki/Blood_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood cells">blood cells</a> that are <i>spent</i>. This is why it is sometimes known as the 'graveyard of red blood cells'.<sup id="cite_ref-Saladin3_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saladin3-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A product of this <i>digestion</i> is the pigment <a href="/wiki/Bilirubin" title="Bilirubin">bilirubin</a>, which is sent to the <a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">liver</a> and secreted in the <a href="/wiki/Bile" title="Bile">bile</a>. Another product is <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>, which is used in the formation of new blood cells in the <a href="/wiki/Bone_marrow" title="Bone marrow">bone marrow</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Macpherson1999_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Macpherson1999-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">Medicine</a> treats the spleen solely as belonging to the <a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_system" title="Lymphatic system">lymphatic system</a>, though it is acknowledged that the full range of its important functions is not yet understood.<sup id="cite_ref-Dorland's_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dorland's-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1751">: 1751 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Liver">Liver</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">Liver</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anatomy_of_liver_and_gall_bladder.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Anatomy_of_liver_and_gall_bladder.png/320px-Anatomy_of_liver_and_gall_bladder.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Anatomy_of_liver_and_gall_bladder.png/480px-Anatomy_of_liver_and_gall_bladder.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Anatomy_of_liver_and_gall_bladder.png/640px-Anatomy_of_liver_and_gall_bladder.png 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>Liver and gall bladder</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Human_liver" class="mw-redirect" title="Human liver">liver</a> is the second largest organ (after the <a href="/wiki/Human_skin" title="Human skin">skin</a>) and is an accessory digestive gland which plays a role in the body's <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a>. The liver has many functions some of which are important to digestion. The liver can detoxify various <a href="/wiki/Metabolite" title="Metabolite">metabolites</a>; synthesise proteins and produce <a href="/wiki/Biochemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Biochemical">biochemicals</a> needed for digestion. It regulates the storage of <a href="/wiki/Glycogen" title="Glycogen">glycogen</a> which it can form from <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a> (<a href="/wiki/Glycogenesis" title="Glycogenesis">glycogenesis</a>). The liver can also synthesise glucose from certain <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acids</a>. Its digestive functions are largely involved with the breaking down of carbohydrates. It also maintains protein metabolism in its synthesis and degradation. In lipid metabolism it synthesises <a href="/wiki/Cholesterol" title="Cholesterol">cholesterol</a>. Fats are also produced in the process of <a href="/wiki/Lipogenesis" title="Lipogenesis">lipogenesis</a>. The liver synthesises the bulk of lipoproteins. The liver is located in the upper right quadrant of the abdomen and below the diaphragm to which it is attached at one part, the bare area of the liver. This is to the right of the stomach and it overlies the gall bladder. The liver synthesises <a href="/wiki/Bile_acid" title="Bile acid">bile acids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lecithin" title="Lecithin">lecithin</a> to promote the digestion of fat.<sup id="cite_ref-Saladin4_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saladin4-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bile">Bile</h4></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Bile" title="Bile">Bile</a> produced by the liver is made up of water (97%), <a href="/wiki/Bile_salt" class="mw-redirect" title="Bile salt">bile salts</a>, mucus and <a href="/wiki/Pigment_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pigment (biology)">pigments</a>, 1% fats and inorganic salts.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Bilirubin" title="Bilirubin">Bilirubin</a> is its major pigment. Bile acts partly as a <a href="/wiki/Surfactant" title="Surfactant">surfactant</a> which lowers the surface tension between either two liquids or a solid and a liquid and helps to <a href="/wiki/Emulsify" class="mw-redirect" title="Emulsify">emulsify</a> the fats in the chyme. Food fat is dispersed by the action of bile into smaller units called <a href="/wiki/Micelle" title="Micelle">micelles</a>. The breaking down into micelles creates a much larger surface area for the pancreatic enzyme, lipase to work on. Lipase digests the <a href="/wiki/Triglyceride" title="Triglyceride">triglycerides</a> which are broken down into two <a href="/wiki/Fatty_acid" title="Fatty acid">fatty acids</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Monoglyceride" title="Monoglyceride">monoglyceride</a>. These are then absorbed by <a href="/wiki/Intestinal_villi" class="mw-redirect" title="Intestinal villi">villi</a> on the intestinal wall. If fats are not absorbed in this way in the small intestine problems can arise later in the large intestine which is not equipped to absorb fats. Bile also helps in the absorption of <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_K" title="Vitamin K">vitamin K</a> from the diet. Bile is collected and delivered through the <a href="/wiki/Common_hepatic_duct" title="Common hepatic duct">common hepatic duct</a>. This duct joins with the <a href="/wiki/Cystic_duct" title="Cystic duct">cystic duct</a> to connect in a <a href="/wiki/Common_bile_duct" title="Common bile duct">common bile duct</a> with the gallbladder. Bile is stored in the gallbladder for release when food is discharged into the duodenum and also after a few hours.<sup id="cite_ref-Macpherson1999_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Macpherson1999-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gallbladder">Gallbladder</h4></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sobo_1906_405.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Sobo_1906_405.png/200px-Sobo_1906_405.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Sobo_1906_405.png/300px-Sobo_1906_405.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Sobo_1906_405.png/400px-Sobo_1906_405.png 2x" data-file-width="1947" data-file-height="1329" /></a><figcaption>Gallbladder shown in green below the liver</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Gallbladder" title="Gallbladder">gallbladder</a> is a hollow part of the <a href="/wiki/Biliary_tract" title="Biliary tract">biliary tract</a> that sits just beneath the liver, with the gallbladder body resting in a small depression.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is a small organ where the bile produced by the liver is stored, before being released into the small intestine. Bile flows from the liver through the <a href="/wiki/Bile_duct" title="Bile duct">bile ducts</a> and into the gall bladder for storage. The bile is released in response to <a href="/wiki/Cholecystokinin" title="Cholecystokinin">cholecystokinin</a> (CCK), a peptide hormone released from the duodenum. The production of CCK (by endocrine cells of the duodenum) is stimulated by the presence of fat in the duodenum.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is divided into three sections, a fundus, body and neck. The neck tapers and connects to the biliary tract via the <a href="/wiki/Cystic_duct" title="Cystic duct">cystic duct</a>, which then joins the common hepatic duct to form the common bile duct. At this junction is a mucosal fold called <i>Hartmann's pouch</i>, where <a href="/wiki/Gallstone" title="Gallstone">gallstones</a> commonly get stuck. The <a href="/wiki/Muscular_layer" title="Muscular layer">muscular layer</a> of the body is of smooth muscle tissue that helps the gallbladder contract, so that it can discharge its bile into the bile duct. The gallbladder needs to store bile in a natural, semi-liquid form at all times. <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_ions" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen ions">Hydrogen ions</a> secreted from the inner lining of the gallbladder keep the bile acidic enough to prevent hardening. To dilute the bile, water and <a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">electrolytes</a> from the digestion system are added. Also, salts attach themselves to cholesterol molecules in the bile to keep them from <a href="/wiki/Crystallization" title="Crystallization">crystallising</a>. If there is too much cholesterol or bilirubin in the bile, or if the gallbladder does not empty properly the systems can fail. This is how gallstones form when a small piece of calcium gets coated with either cholesterol or bilirubin and the bile crystallises and forms a gallstone. The main purpose of the gallbladder is to store and release bile, or <i>gall</i>. Bile is released into the small intestine in order to help in the digestion of fats by breaking down larger molecules into smaller ones. After the fat is absorbed, the bile is also absorbed and transported back to the liver for reuse. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pancreas">Pancreas</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pancreas" title="Pancreas">Pancreas</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray1100.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Gray1100.png/240px-Gray1100.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Gray1100.png/360px-Gray1100.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Gray1100.png/480px-Gray1100.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="427" /></a><figcaption>Pancreas, duodenum and bile duct</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Digestive_hormones.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Digestive_hormones.jpg/200px-Digestive_hormones.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Digestive_hormones.jpg/300px-Digestive_hormones.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Digestive_hormones.jpg/400px-Digestive_hormones.jpg 2x" data-file-width="716" data-file-height="499" /></a><figcaption>Action of digestive hormones</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Pancreas" title="Pancreas">pancreas</a> is a major organ functioning as an accessory digestive gland in the digestive system. It is both an <a href="/wiki/Endocrine_gland" title="Endocrine gland">endocrine gland</a> and an <a href="/wiki/Exocrine_gland" title="Exocrine gland">exocrine gland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The endocrine part secretes <a href="/wiki/Insulin" title="Insulin">insulin</a> when the <a href="/wiki/Blood_sugar" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood sugar">blood sugar</a> becomes high; insulin moves glucose from the blood into the muscles and other tissues for use as energy. The endocrine part releases <a href="/wiki/Glucagon" title="Glucagon">glucagon</a> when the blood sugar is low; glucagon allows stored sugar to be broken down into glucose by the liver in order to re-balance the sugar levels. The pancreas produces and releases important digestive enzymes in the <a href="/wiki/Pancreatic_juice" title="Pancreatic juice">pancreatic juice</a> that it delivers to the duodenum.<sup id="cite_ref-Saladin4_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saladin4-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The pancreas lies below and at the back of the stomach. It connects to the duodenum via the <a href="/wiki/Pancreatic_duct" title="Pancreatic duct">pancreatic duct</a> which it joins near to the bile duct's connection where both the bile and pancreatic juice can act on the chyme that is released from the stomach into the duodenum. Aqueous pancreatic secretions from <a href="/wiki/Pancreatic_duct_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Pancreatic duct cell">pancreatic duct cells</a> contain <a href="/wiki/Bicarbonate" title="Bicarbonate">bicarbonate</a> ions which are alkaline and help with the bile to neutralise the acidic chyme that is churned out by the stomach. </p><p>The pancreas is also the main source of enzymes for the digestion of fats and proteins. Some of these are released in response to the production of cholecystokinin in the duodenum. (The enzymes that digest polysaccharides, by contrast, are primarily produced by the walls of the intestines.) The cells are filled with secretory granules containing the precursor digestive enzymes. The major <a href="/wiki/Protease" title="Protease">proteases</a>, the pancreatic enzymes which work on proteins, are <a href="/wiki/Trypsinogen" title="Trypsinogen">trypsinogen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chymotrypsinogen" title="Chymotrypsinogen">chymotrypsinogen</a>. <a href="/wiki/Elastase" title="Elastase">Elastase</a> is also produced. Smaller amounts of lipase and amylase are secreted. The pancreas also secretes <a href="/wiki/Phospholipase_A2" title="Phospholipase A2">phospholipase A2</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lysophospholipase" title="Lysophospholipase">lysophospholipase</a>, and cholesterol <a href="/wiki/Esterase" title="Esterase">esterase</a>. The precursor <a href="/wiki/Zymogens" class="mw-redirect" title="Zymogens">zymogens</a>, are inactive variants of the enzymes; which avoids the onset of <a href="/wiki/Pancreatitis" title="Pancreatitis">pancreatitis</a> caused by autodegradation. Once released in the intestine, the enzyme <a href="/wiki/Enteropeptidase" title="Enteropeptidase">enteropeptidase</a> present in the intestinal mucosa activates trypsinogen by cleaving it to form trypsin; further cleavage results in chymotripsin. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lower_gastrointestinal_tract">Lower gastrointestinal tract</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_tract" title="Gastrointestinal tract">Gastrointestinal tract</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_physiology" title="Gastrointestinal physiology">Gastrointestinal physiology</a></div> <p>The lower gastrointestinal tract (GI), includes the <a href="/wiki/Small_intestine" title="Small intestine">small intestine</a> and all of the <a href="/wiki/Large_intestine" title="Large intestine">large intestine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The intestine is also called the bowel or the gut. The lower GI starts at the pyloric sphincter of the stomach and finishes at the anus. The small intestine is subdivided into the <a href="/wiki/Duodenum" title="Duodenum">duodenum</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Jejunum" title="Jejunum">jejunum</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ileum" title="Ileum">ileum</a>. The cecum marks the division between the small and large intestine. The large intestine includes the rectum and <a href="/wiki/Anal_canal" title="Anal canal">anal canal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-eb_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eb-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Small_intestine">Small intestine</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blausen_0817_SmallIntestine_Anatomy.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Blausen_0817_SmallIntestine_Anatomy.png/220px-Blausen_0817_SmallIntestine_Anatomy.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Blausen_0817_SmallIntestine_Anatomy.png/330px-Blausen_0817_SmallIntestine_Anatomy.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Blausen_0817_SmallIntestine_Anatomy.png/440px-Blausen_0817_SmallIntestine_Anatomy.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of small intestine</figcaption></figure> <p>Partially digested food starts to arrive in the <a href="/wiki/Small_intestine" title="Small intestine">small intestine</a> as semi-liquid <a href="/wiki/Chyme" title="Chyme">chyme</a>, one hour after it is eaten.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The stomach is half empty after an average of 1.2 hours.<sup id="cite_ref-Read_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Read-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After four or five hours the stomach has emptied.<sup id="cite_ref-Colorado_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Colorado-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the small intestine, the <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a> becomes crucial; it needs to be finely balanced in order to activate digestive enzymes. The chyme is very acidic, with a low pH, having been released from the stomach and needs to be made much more alkaline. This is achieved in the <b><a href="/wiki/Duodenum" title="Duodenum">duodenum</a></b> by the addition of bile from the gall bladder combined with the <a href="/wiki/Bicarbonate" title="Bicarbonate">bicarbonate</a> secretions from the pancreatic duct and also from secretions of bicarbonate-rich mucus from duodenal glands known as <a href="/wiki/Brunner%27s_glands" title="Brunner's glands">Brunner's glands</a>. The chyme arrives in the intestines having been released from the stomach through the opening of the <a href="/wiki/Pyloric_sphincter" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyloric sphincter">pyloric sphincter</a>. The resulting alkaline fluid mix neutralises the gastric acid which would damage the lining of the intestine. The mucus component lubricates the walls of the intestine. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Intestinal_layers.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Intestinal_layers.png/350px-Intestinal_layers.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Intestinal_layers.png/525px-Intestinal_layers.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Intestinal_layers.png 2x" data-file-width="576" data-file-height="288" /></a><figcaption>Layers of the small intestine</figcaption></figure> <p>When the digested food particles are reduced enough in size and composition, they can be absorbed by the intestinal wall and carried to the bloodstream. The first receptacle for this chyme is the <a href="/wiki/Duodenal_bulb" title="Duodenal bulb">duodenal bulb</a>. From here it passes into the first of the three sections of the small intestine, the duodenum (the next section is the <b><a href="/wiki/Jejunum" title="Jejunum">jejunum</a></b> and the third is the <b><a href="/wiki/Ileum" title="Ileum">ileum</a></b>). The duodenum is the first and shortest section of the small intestine. It is a hollow, jointed C-shaped tube connecting the stomach to the jejunum. It starts at the duodenal bulb and ends at the <a href="/wiki/Suspensory_muscle_of_duodenum" title="Suspensory muscle of duodenum">suspensory muscle of duodenum</a>. The attachment of the suspensory muscle to the diaphragm is thought to help the passage of food by making a wider angle at its attachment. </p><p>Most food digestion takes place in the small intestine. <a href="/wiki/Segmentation_contractions" title="Segmentation contractions">Segmentation contractions</a> act to mix and move the chyme more slowly in the small intestine allowing more time for absorption (and these continue in the large intestine). In the duodenum, pancreatic lipase is secreted together with a <a href="/wiki/Co-enzyme" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-enzyme">co-enzyme</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colipase" title="Colipase">colipase</a> to further digest the fat content of the chyme. From this breakdown, smaller particles of emulsified fats called <a href="/wiki/Chylomicron" title="Chylomicron">chylomicrons</a> are produced. There are also digestive cells called <a href="/wiki/Enterocyte" title="Enterocyte">enterocytes</a> lining the intestines (the majority being in the small intestine). They are unusual cells in that they have <a href="/wiki/Intestinal_villus" title="Intestinal villus">villi</a> on their surface which in turn have innumerable <a href="/wiki/Microvilli" class="mw-redirect" title="Microvilli">microvilli</a> on their surface. All these villi make for a greater surface area, not only for the absorption of chyme but also for its further digestion by large numbers of digestive enzymes present on the microvilli. </p><p>The chylomicrons are small enough to pass through the enterocyte villi and into their <a href="/wiki/Lymph" title="Lymph">lymph</a> capillaries called <a href="/wiki/Lacteal" title="Lacteal">lacteals</a>. A milky fluid called <a href="/wiki/Chyle" title="Chyle">chyle</a>, consisting mainly of the emulsified fats of the chylomicrons, results from the absorbed mix with the lymph in the lacteals.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (April 2016)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Chyle is then transported through the <a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_system" title="Lymphatic system">lymphatic system</a> to the rest of the body. </p><p>The suspensory muscle marks the end of the duodenum and the division between the upper gastrointestinal tract and the lower GI tract. The digestive tract continues as the jejunum which continues as the ileum. The jejunum, the midsection of the small intestine contains <a href="/wiki/Circular_folds" title="Circular folds">circular folds</a>, flaps of doubled mucosal membrane which partially encircle and sometimes completely encircle the <a href="/wiki/Lumen_(anatomy)" title="Lumen (anatomy)">lumen</a> of the intestine. These folds together with villi serve to increase the surface area of the jejunum enabling an increased absorption of digested sugars, amino acids and fatty acids into the bloodstream. The circular folds also slow the passage of food giving more time for nutrients to be absorbed. </p><p>The last part of the small intestine is the ileum. This also contains villi and <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_B12" title="Vitamin B12">vitamin B12</a>; bile acids and any residue nutrients are absorbed here. When the chyme is exhausted of its nutrients the remaining waste material changes into the semi-solids called <a href="/wiki/Human_feces" title="Human feces">feces</a>, which pass to the large intestine, where bacteria in the <a href="/wiki/Gut_flora" class="mw-redirect" title="Gut flora">gut flora</a> further break down residual proteins and starches.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Transit time through the small intestine is an average of 4 hours. Half of the food residues of a meal have emptied from the small intestine by an average of 5.4 hours after ingestion. Emptying of the small intestine is complete after an average of 8.6 hours.<sup id="cite_ref-Read_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Read-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cecum">Cecum</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray1075.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Gray1075.png/220px-Gray1075.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Gray1075.png/330px-Gray1075.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Gray1075.png/440px-Gray1075.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="329" /></a><figcaption>Cecum and beginning of ascending colon</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Cecum" title="Cecum">cecum</a> is a pouch marking the division between the small intestine and the large intestine. It lies below the <a href="/wiki/Ileocecal_valve" title="Ileocecal valve">ileocecal valve</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Quadrants_and_regions_of_abdomen" title="Quadrants and regions of abdomen">lower right quadrant</a> of the abdomen.<sup id="cite_ref-Saladin_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saladin-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cecum receives chyme from the last part of the small intestine, the <a href="/wiki/Ileum" title="Ileum">ileum</a>, and connects to the <a href="/wiki/Ascending_colon" title="Ascending colon">ascending colon</a> of the large intestine. At this junction there is a sphincter or valve, the ileocecal valve which slows the passage of chyme from the ileum, allowing further digestion. It is also the site of the <a href="/wiki/Vermiform_appendix" class="mw-redirect" title="Vermiform appendix">appendix</a> attachment.<sup id="cite_ref-Saladin_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saladin-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Large_intestine">Large intestine</h4></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gastro-intestinal_tract.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Gastro-intestinal_tract.png/200px-Gastro-intestinal_tract.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="403" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Gastro-intestinal_tract.png 1.5x" data-file-width="248" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>Lower GI tract - 3) Small intestine; 5) Cecum; 6) Large intestine</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Excretory_system" title="Excretory system">Excretory system</a></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Large_intestine" title="Large intestine">large intestine</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-eb_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eb-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the passage of the digesting food in the <a href="/wiki/Large_intestine#Structure" title="Large intestine">colon</a> is a lot slower, taking from 30 to 40 hours until it is removed by <a href="/wiki/Defecation" title="Defecation">defecation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Colorado_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Colorado-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The colon mainly serves as a site for the fermentation of digestible matter by the <a href="/wiki/Gut_flora" class="mw-redirect" title="Gut flora">gut flora</a>. The time taken varies considerably between individuals. The remaining semi-solid waste is termed <a href="/wiki/Human_feces" title="Human feces">feces</a> and is removed by the coordinated contractions of the intestinal walls, termed <a href="/wiki/Peristalsis" title="Peristalsis">peristalsis</a>, which propels the <a href="/wiki/Excreta" class="mw-redirect" title="Excreta">excreta</a> forward to reach the <a href="/wiki/Rectum" title="Rectum">rectum</a> and exit through the <a href="/wiki/Human_anus" title="Human anus">anus</a> via defecation. The wall has an outer layer of longitudinal muscles, the <a href="/wiki/Taeniae_coli" class="mw-redirect" title="Taeniae coli">taeniae coli</a>, and an inner layer of circular muscles. The circular muscle keeps the material moving forward and also prevents any back flow of waste. Also of help in the action of peristalsis is the <a href="/wiki/Basal_electrical_rhythm" title="Basal electrical rhythm">basal electrical rhythm</a> that determines the frequency of contractions.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The taeniae coli can be seen and are responsible for the bulges (<a href="/wiki/Haustrum_(anatomy)" title="Haustrum (anatomy)">haustra</a>) present in the colon. Most parts of the GI tract are covered with <a href="/wiki/Serous_membrane" title="Serous membrane">serous membranes</a> and have a <a href="/wiki/Mesentery" title="Mesentery">mesentery</a>. Other more muscular parts are lined with <a href="/wiki/Adventitia" title="Adventitia">adventitia</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Blood_supply">Blood supply</h2></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TIEU_0442.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/TIEU_0442.gif/173px-TIEU_0442.gif" decoding="async" width="173" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/TIEU_0442.gif/260px-TIEU_0442.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/TIEU_0442.gif/347px-TIEU_0442.gif 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption>Arteries and veins around the pancreas and spleen</figcaption></figure> <p>The digestive system is supplied by the <a href="/wiki/Celiac_artery" title="Celiac artery">celiac artery</a>. The celiac artery is the first major branch from the <a href="/wiki/Abdominal_aorta" title="Abdominal aorta">abdominal aorta</a>, and is the only major artery that nourishes the digestive organs. </p><p>There are three main divisions – the <a href="/wiki/Left_gastric_artery" title="Left gastric artery">left gastric artery</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Common_hepatic_artery" title="Common hepatic artery">common hepatic artery</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Splenic_artery" title="Splenic artery">splenic artery</a>. </p><p>The celiac artery supplies the liver, stomach, spleen and the upper 1/3 of the duodenum (to the <a href="/wiki/Sphincter_of_Oddi" title="Sphincter of Oddi">sphincter of Oddi</a>) and the pancreas with oxygenated blood. Most of the blood is returned to the liver via the <a href="/wiki/Portal_venous_system" title="Portal venous system">portal venous system</a> for further processing and detoxification before returning to the <a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">systemic circulation</a> via the <a href="/wiki/Hepatic_veins" title="Hepatic veins">hepatic veins</a>. </p><p>The next branch from the abdominal aorta is the <a href="/wiki/Superior_mesenteric_artery" title="Superior mesenteric artery">superior mesenteric artery</a>, which supplies the regions of the digestive tract derived from the midgut, which includes the distal 2/3 of the duodenum, jejunum, ileum, cecum, appendix, ascending colon, and the proximal 2/3 of the transverse colon. </p><p>The final branch which is important for the digestive system is the <a href="/wiki/Inferior_mesenteric_artery" title="Inferior mesenteric artery">inferior mesenteric artery</a>, which supplies the regions of the digestive tract derived from the hindgut, which includes the distal 1/3 of the transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, and the anus above the <a href="/wiki/Pectinate_line" title="Pectinate line">pectinate line</a>. </p><p>Blood flow to the digestive tract reaches its maximum 20–40 minutes after a meal and lasts for 1.5–2 hours.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nerve_supply">Nerve supply</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Neurogastroenterology" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurogastroenterology">Neurogastroenterology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gut-brain_axis" class="mw-redirect" title="Gut-brain axis">Gut-brain axis</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Enteric_nervous_system" title="Enteric nervous system">enteric nervous system</a> consists of some one hundred million <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neurons</a><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that are embedded in the <a href="/wiki/Peritoneum" title="Peritoneum">peritoneum</a>, the lining of the <a href="/wiki/Human_gastrointestinal_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Human gastrointestinal tract">gastrointestinal tract</a> extending from the esophagus to the anus.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These neurons are collected into two <a href="/wiki/Plexus" title="Plexus">plexuses</a> – the <a href="/wiki/Myenteric_plexus" title="Myenteric plexus">myenteric (or Auerbach's) plexus</a> that lies between the longitudinal and the smooth muscle layers, and the <a href="/wiki/Submucosal_plexus" title="Submucosal plexus">submucosal (or Meissner's) plexus</a> that lies between the circular smooth muscle layer and the mucosa.<sup id="cite_ref-urlThe_Enteric_Nervous_System_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-urlThe_Enteric_Nervous_System-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Parasympathetic_nervous_system" title="Parasympathetic nervous system">Parasympathetic innervation</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Ascending_colon" title="Ascending colon">ascending colon</a> is supplied by the <a href="/wiki/Vagus_nerve" title="Vagus nerve">vagus nerve</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sympathetic_nervous_system" title="Sympathetic nervous system">Sympathetic innervation</a> is supplied by the <a href="/wiki/Splanchnic_nerves" title="Splanchnic nerves">splanchnic nerves</a> that join the <a href="/wiki/Celiac_ganglia" title="Celiac ganglia">celiac ganglia</a>. Most of the digestive tract is innervated by the two large celiac ganglia, with the upper part of each ganglion joined by the <a href="/wiki/Thoracic_splanchnic_nerves" title="Thoracic splanchnic nerves">greater splanchnic nerve</a> and the lower parts joined by the <a href="/wiki/Thoracic_splanchnic_nerves" title="Thoracic splanchnic nerves">lesser splanchnic nerve</a>. It is from these ganglia that many of the <a href="/wiki/Gastric_plexuses" title="Gastric plexuses">gastric plexuses</a> arise. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development">Development</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_digestive_system" title="Development of the digestive system">Development of the digestive system</a></div> <p>Early in <a href="/wiki/Human_embryogenesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Human embryogenesis">embryonic development</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Embryo" title="Embryo">embryo</a> has three <a href="/wiki/Germ_layer" title="Germ layer">germ layers</a> and abuts a <a href="/wiki/Yolk_sac" title="Yolk sac">yolk sac</a>. During the second week of development, the embryo grows and begins to surround and envelop portions of this sac. The enveloped portions form the basis for the adult gastrointestinal tract. Sections of this <a href="/wiki/Foregut" title="Foregut">foregut</a> begin to differentiate into the organs of the gastrointestinal tract, such as the esophagus, stomach, and intestines.<sup id="cite_ref-LARSEN2009_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LARSEN2009-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the fourth week of development, the stomach rotates. The stomach, originally lying in the midline of the embryo, rotates so that its body is on the left. This rotation also affects the part of the gastrointestinal tube immediately below the stomach, which will go on to become the duodenum. By the end of the fourth week, the developing duodenum begins to spout a small outpouching on its right side, the <a href="/wiki/Hepatic_diverticulum" title="Hepatic diverticulum">hepatic diverticulum</a>, which will go on to become the <a href="/wiki/Hepatobiliary_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Hepatobiliary system">biliary tree</a>. Just below this is a second outpouching, known as the <i>cystic diverticulum</i>, that will eventually develop into the gallbladder.<sup id="cite_ref-LARSEN2009_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LARSEN2009-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Clinical_significance">Clinical significance</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_disease" title="Gastrointestinal disease">Gastrointestinal disease</a></div> <p>Each part of the digestive system is subject to a wide range of disorders many of which can be <a href="/wiki/Congenital_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Congenital disorder">congenital</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oral_and_maxillofacial_pathology" title="Oral and maxillofacial pathology">Mouth diseases</a> can also be caused by <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogenic</a> <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">fungi</a> and as a side effect of some <a href="/wiki/Medication" title="Medication">medications</a>. Mouth diseases include <a href="/wiki/Tongue_disease" title="Tongue disease">tongue diseases</a> and <a href="/wiki/Salivary_gland_pathology" class="mw-redirect" title="Salivary gland pathology">salivary gland diseases</a>. A common <a href="/wiki/Gums" title="Gums">gum</a> disease in the mouth is <a href="/wiki/Gingivitis" title="Gingivitis">gingivitis</a> which is caused by bacteria in <a href="/wiki/Dental_plaque" title="Dental plaque">plaque</a>. The most common viral infection of the mouth is <a href="/wiki/Herpetic_gingivostomatitis" title="Herpetic gingivostomatitis">gingivostomatitis</a> caused by <a href="/wiki/Herpes_simplex" class="mw-redirect" title="Herpes simplex">herpes simplex</a>. A common <a href="/wiki/Mycosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycosis">fungal</a> infection is <a href="/wiki/Oral_candidiasis" title="Oral candidiasis">candidiasis</a> commonly known as <i>thrush</i> which affects the <a href="/wiki/Mucous_membrane" title="Mucous membrane">mucous membranes</a> of the mouth. </p><p>There are a number of <a href="/wiki/Esophageal_disease" title="Esophageal disease">esophageal diseases</a> such as the development of <a href="/wiki/Schatzki_ring" title="Schatzki ring">Schatzki rings</a> that can restrict the passageway, causing difficulties in swallowing. They can also completely block the esophagus.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Stomach_disease" title="Stomach disease">Stomach diseases</a> are often chronic conditions and include <a href="/wiki/Gastroparesis" title="Gastroparesis">gastroparesis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gastritis" title="Gastritis">gastritis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Peptic_ulcer" class="mw-redirect" title="Peptic ulcer">peptic ulcers</a>. </p><p>A number of problems including <a href="/wiki/Malnutrition" title="Malnutrition">malnutrition</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anemia" title="Anemia">anemia</a> can arise from <a href="/wiki/Malabsorption" title="Malabsorption">malabsorption</a>, the abnormal absorption of nutrients in the GI tract. Malabsorption can have many causes ranging from <a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">infection</a>, to enzyme deficiencies such as <a href="/wiki/Exocrine_pancreatic_insufficiency" title="Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency">exocrine pancreatic insufficiency</a>. It can also arise as a result of other gastrointestinal diseases such as <a href="/wiki/Coeliac_disease" title="Coeliac disease">coeliac disease</a>. Coeliac disease is an <a href="/wiki/Autoimmune" class="mw-redirect" title="Autoimmune">autoimmune</a> disorder of the small intestine. This can cause <a href="/wiki/Avitaminosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Avitaminosis">vitamin deficiencies</a> due to the improper absorption of nutrients in the small intestine. The small intestine can also be <a href="/wiki/Bowel_obstruction" title="Bowel obstruction">obstructed</a> by a <a href="/wiki/Volvulus" title="Volvulus">volvulus</a>, a loop of intestine that becomes twisted enclosing its attached <a href="/wiki/Mesentery" title="Mesentery">mesentery</a>. This can cause <a href="/wiki/Mesenteric_ischemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesenteric ischemia">mesenteric ischemia</a> if severe enough. </p><p>A common disorder of the bowel is <a href="/wiki/Diverticulitis" title="Diverticulitis">diverticulitis</a>. <a href="/wiki/Diverticula" class="mw-redirect" title="Diverticula">Diverticula</a> are small pouches that can form inside the bowel wall, which can become inflamed to give diverticulitis. This disease can have complications if an inflamed diverticulum bursts and infection sets in. Any infection can spread further to the lining of the abdomen (<a href="/wiki/Peritoneum" title="Peritoneum">peritoneum</a>) and cause potentially fatal <a href="/wiki/Peritonitis" title="Peritonitis">peritonitis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Crohn%27s_disease" title="Crohn's disease">Crohn's disease</a> is a common chronic <a href="/wiki/Inflammatory_bowel_disease" title="Inflammatory bowel disease">inflammatory bowel disease</a> (IBD), which can affect any part of the GI tract,<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but it mostly starts in the <a href="/wiki/Terminal_ileum" class="mw-redirect" title="Terminal ileum">terminal ileum</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ulcerative_colitis" title="Ulcerative colitis">Ulcerative colitis</a>, an ulcerative form of <a href="/wiki/Colitis" title="Colitis">colitis</a>, is the other major inflammatory bowel disease which is restricted to the colon and rectum. Both of these IBDs can give an increased risk of the development of <a href="/wiki/Colorectal_cancer" title="Colorectal cancer">colorectal cancer</a>. Ulcerative colitis is the most common of the IBDs<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Irritable_bowel_syndrome" title="Irritable bowel syndrome">Irritable bowel syndrome</a> (IBS) is the most common of the <a href="/wiki/Functional_gastrointestinal_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Functional gastrointestinal disorders">functional gastrointestinal disorders</a>. These are <a href="/wiki/Idiopathic" class="mw-redirect" title="Idiopathic">idiopathic</a> disorders that the <a href="/wiki/Rome_process" title="Rome process">Rome process</a> has helped to define.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Giardiasis" title="Giardiasis">Giardiasis</a> is a disease of the small intestine caused by a <a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">protist</a> <a href="/wiki/Parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasite">parasite</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Giardia_lamblia" class="mw-redirect" title="Giardia lamblia">Giardia lamblia</a></i>. This does not spread but remains confined to the lumen of the small intestine.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It can often be <a href="/wiki/Asymptomatic" title="Asymptomatic">asymptomatic</a>, but as often can be indicated by a variety of symptoms. Giardiasis is the most common <a href="/wiki/Pathogenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pathogenic">pathogenic</a> <a href="/wiki/Parasitic_disease" title="Parasitic disease">parasitic infection</a> in humans.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are diagnostic tools mostly involving the ingestion of <a href="/wiki/Barium_sulphate" class="mw-redirect" title="Barium sulphate">barium sulphate</a> to investigate disorders of the GI tract.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These are known as <a href="/wiki/Upper_gastrointestinal_series" title="Upper gastrointestinal series">upper gastrointestinal series</a> that enable <a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">imaging</a> of the pharynx, larynx, oesophagus, stomach and small intestine<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Lower_gastrointestinal_series" title="Lower gastrointestinal series">lower gastrointestinal series</a> for imaging of the colon. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_pregnancy">In pregnancy</h3></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Gestation" title="Gestation">Gestation</a> can predispose for certain digestive disorders. <a href="/wiki/Gestational_diabetes" title="Gestational diabetes">Gestational diabetes</a> can develop in the mother as a result of <a href="/wiki/Pregnancy" title="Pregnancy">pregnancy</a> and while this often presents with few symptoms it can lead to <a href="/wiki/Pre-eclampsia" title="Pre-eclampsia">pre-eclampsia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yoshitsuna_-_Dietary_Life_Rules_(Inshoku_y%C3%B4j%C3%B4_kagami).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Yoshitsuna_-_Dietary_Life_Rules_%28Inshoku_y%C3%B4j%C3%B4_kagami%29.jpg/240px-Yoshitsuna_-_Dietary_Life_Rules_%28Inshoku_y%C3%B4j%C3%B4_kagami%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="313" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Yoshitsuna_-_Dietary_Life_Rules_%28Inshoku_y%C3%B4j%C3%B4_kagami%29.jpg/360px-Yoshitsuna_-_Dietary_Life_Rules_%28Inshoku_y%C3%B4j%C3%B4_kagami%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Yoshitsuna_-_Dietary_Life_Rules_%28Inshoku_y%C3%B4j%C3%B4_kagami%29.jpg/480px-Yoshitsuna_-_Dietary_Life_Rules_%28Inshoku_y%C3%B4j%C3%B4_kagami%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="529" data-file-height="689" /></a><figcaption>Dietary life rules, Japan, <a href="/wiki/Edo_period" title="Edo period">Edo period</a> Illustrating the ill effects of drinking alcohol on the digestive system.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:17th_century_Persian_digestive_system.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/17th_century_Persian_digestive_system.jpg/220px-17th_century_Persian_digestive_system.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="329" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/17th_century_Persian_digestive_system.jpg/330px-17th_century_Persian_digestive_system.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/17th_century_Persian_digestive_system.jpg/440px-17th_century_Persian_digestive_system.jpg 2x" data-file-width="508" data-file-height="760" /></a><figcaption>Historical depiction of the digestive system, 17th century Persia</figcaption></figure> <p>In the early 11th century, the Islamic medical philosopher <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> wrote extensively on many subjects including medicine. Forty of these treatises on medicine survive, and in the most famous one titled the <i>Canon of Medicine</i> he discusses "rising gas". Avicenna believed that digestive system dysfunction was responsible for the overproduction of gas in the gastrointestinal tract. He suggested lifestyle changes and a compound of herbal drugs for its treatment.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1497, <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Benedetti" title="Alessandro Benedetti">Alessandro Benedetti</a> viewed the stomach as an unclean organ separated off by the diaphragm. This view of the stomach and intestines as being base organs was generally held until the mid-17th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanford_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanford-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the Renaissance of the 16th century, <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a> produced some early drawings of the stomach and intestines. He thought that the digestive system aided the respiratory system.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanford_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanford-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Andreas_Vesalius" title="Andreas Vesalius">Andreas Vesalius</a> provided some early anatomical drawings of the abdominal organs in the 16th century. </p><p>In the middle of the 17th century, a Flemish physician <a href="/wiki/Jan_Baptist_van_Helmont" title="Jan Baptist van Helmont">Jan Baptist van Helmont</a> offered the first <a href="/wiki/Jan_Baptist_van_Helmont#Observations_on_digestion" title="Jan Baptist van Helmont">chemical account of digestion</a> which was later described as being very close to the later conceptualised enzyme.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanford_53-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanford-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1653, <a href="/wiki/William_Harvey" title="William Harvey">William Harvey</a> described the intestines in terms of their length, their blood supply, the mesenteries, and fat (adenylyl cyclase).<sup id="cite_ref-Stanford_53-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanford-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1823, <a href="/wiki/William_Prout" title="William Prout">William Prout</a> discovered <a href="/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid" title="Hydrochloric acid">hydrochloric acid</a> in the gastric juice.<sup id="cite_ref-Sródka_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sródka-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1895, <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Pavlov" title="Ivan Pavlov">Ivan Pavlov</a> described its secretion as being stimulated by a neurologic reflex with the <a href="/wiki/Vagus_nerve" title="Vagus nerve">vagus nerve</a> having a crucial role. Black in the 19th century suggested an association of histamine with this secretion. In 1916, Popielski described histamine as a gastric secretagogue of hydrochloric acid. </p><p><a href="/wiki/William_Beaumont" title="William Beaumont">William Beaumont</a> was an army surgeon who in 1825, was able to observe digestion as it took place in the stomach.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was made possible by experiments on a man with a stomach wound that did not fully heal leaving an opening into the stomach. The churning motion of the stomach was described among other findings.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanford_53-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanford-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 19th century, it was accepted that chemical processes were involved in the process of digestion. <a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_physiology" title="Gastrointestinal physiology">Physiological research</a> into secretion and the gastrointestinal tract was pursued with experiments undertaken by Claude Bernard, Rudolph Heidenhain and Ivan Pavlov. </p><p>The rest of the 20th century was dominated by research into enzymes. The first to be discovered was <a href="/wiki/Secretin" title="Secretin">secretin</a> by <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Starling" title="Ernest Starling">Ernest Starling</a> in 1902, with ensuing results from John Edkins in 1905 who first suggested <a href="/wiki/Gastrin" title="Gastrin">gastrin</a> with its structure being determined in 1964.<sup id="cite_ref-Sródka_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sródka-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Andre Latarjet and Lester Dragstedt found a role for <a href="/wiki/Acetylcholine" title="Acetylcholine">acetylcholine</a> in the digestive system.<sup id="cite_ref-Sródka_54-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sródka-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1972, <a href="/wiki/H%E2%82%82-receptor_antagonist" class="mw-redirect" title="H₂-receptor antagonist">H2 receptor agonists</a> were described by J. Black, that block the action of histamine and decrease the production of hydrochloric acid. In 1980, <a href="/wiki/Proton_pump_inhibitor" class="mw-redirect" title="Proton pump inhibitor">proton pump inhibitors</a> were described by Sachs. In 1983, the role of <i><a href="/wiki/Helicobacter_pylori" title="Helicobacter pylori">Helicobacter pylori</a></i> in the formation of ulcers was described by <a href="/wiki/Barry_Marshall" title="Barry Marshall">Barry Marshall</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Robin_Warren" title="Robin Warren">Robin Warren</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Art historians have often noted that <a href="/wiki/Banquet" title="Banquet">banqueters</a> on iconographic records of ancient Mediterranean societies almost always appear to be lying down on their left sides. One possible explanation could lie in the anatomy of the stomach and in the digestive mechanism. When lying on the left, the food has room to expand because the curvature of the stomach is enhanced in that position.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/12px-WHO_Rod.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/18px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/24px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="107" data-file-height="250" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Medicine" title="Portal:Medicine">Medicine portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abdominal_internal_oblique_muscle" title="Abdominal internal oblique muscle">Abdominal internal oblique muscle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulcerative_colitis" title="Ulcerative colitis">Ulcerative colitis</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFKongSingh2008" class="citation journal cs1">Kong F, Singh RP (June 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1750-3841.2008.00766.x">"Disintegration of solid foods in human stomach"</a>. <i>Journal of Food Science</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 November</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Avicenna%27s+diagnosis+of+Darwin%27s+disease&rft.date=2021-11-23&rft.aulast=Heydari&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=Hashempur%2C+MH&rft.au=Mosavat%2C+SH&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bmj.com%2Frapid-response%2F2011%2F11%2F03%2Favicennas-diagnosis-darwins-disease&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+digestive+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stanford-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stanford_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stanford_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stanford_53-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stanford_53-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stanford_53-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.stanford.edu/class/history13/earlysciencelab/body/stomachpages/stomachcolonintestines.html">"History of the Stomach and Intestines"</a>. <i>web.stanford.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Lancet&rft.atitle=Unidentified+curved+bacilli+in+the+stomach+of+patients+with+gastritis+and+peptic+ulceration&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=8390&rft.pages=1311-1315&rft.date=1984-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A10066001%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F6145023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2884%2991816-6&rft.aulast=Marshall&rft.aufirst=BJ&rft.au=Warren%2C+JR&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+digestive+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMazzarelloHarari2007" class="citation journal cs1">Mazzarello P, Harari M (2007-08-15). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F448753a">"Left to digest"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>448</b> (7155): 753. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F448753a">10.1038/448753a</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1476-4687">1476-4687</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Left+to+digest&rft.volume=448&rft.issue=7155&rft.pages=753&rft.date=2007-08-15&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F448753a&rft.issn=1476-4687&rft.aulast=Mazzarello&rft.aufirst=P&rft.au=Harari%2C+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252F448753a&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+digestive+system" 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.navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Anatomy_of_the_mouth" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Mouth_anatomy" title="Template:Mouth anatomy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Mouth_anatomy" title="Template talk:Mouth anatomy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Mouth_anatomy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Mouth anatomy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Anatomy_of_the_mouth" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Anatomy of the <a href="/wiki/Human_mouth" title="Human mouth">mouth</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lip" title="Lip">Lip</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vermilion_border" title="Vermilion border">Vermilion border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cupid%27s_bow" title="Cupid's bow">Cupid's bow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frenulum_of_lower_lip" title="Frenulum of lower lip">Frenulum of lower lip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labial_commissure_of_mouth" title="Labial commissure of mouth">Labial commissure of mouth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philtrum" title="Philtrum">Philtrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_roll" title="White roll">White roll</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cheek" title="Cheek">Cheek</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buccal_fat_pad" title="Buccal fat pad">Buccal fat pad</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Palate" title="Palate">Palate</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_palate" title="Hard palate">Hard palate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soft_palate" title="Soft palate">Soft palate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palatine_raphe" title="Palatine raphe">Palatine raphe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incisive_papilla" title="Incisive papilla">Incisive papilla</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gums" title="Gums">Gums</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interdental_papilla" title="Interdental papilla">Interdental papilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gingival_sulcus" title="Gingival sulcus">Gingival sulcus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gingival_margin" title="Gingival margin">Gingival margin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gingival_fibers" title="Gingival fibers">Gingival fibers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Junctional_epithelium" title="Junctional epithelium">Junctional epithelium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mucogingival_junction" title="Mucogingival junction">Mucogingival junction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulcular_epithelium" title="Sulcular epithelium">Sulcular epithelium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stippling_(dentistry)" title="Stippling (dentistry)">Stippling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodontium" title="Periodontium">Periodontium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cementum" title="Cementum">Cementum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philtrum" title="Philtrum">Philtrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gingiva" class="mw-redirect" title="Gingiva">Gingiva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodontal_fiber" title="Periodontal fiber">Periodontal ligament</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Salivary_gland" title="Salivary gland">Glands</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parotid_gland" title="Parotid gland">Parotid gland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parotid_duct" title="Parotid duct">duct</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submandibular_gland" title="Submandibular gland">Submandibular gland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Submandibular_duct" title="Submandibular duct">duct</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sublingual_gland" title="Sublingual gland">Sublingual gland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Major_sublingual_duct" title="Major sublingual duct">duct</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tubarial_salivary_gland" title="Tubarial salivary gland">Tubarial salivary gland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_tooth" title="Human tooth">Teeth</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>see <a href="/wiki/Template:Tooth_anatomy" title="Template:Tooth anatomy">tooth anatomy</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tongue" title="Tongue">Tongue</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Top <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taste_bud" title="Taste bud">Taste bud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongue#Upper_surface_of_the_tongue" title="Tongue">Median sulcus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongue#Upper_surface_of_the_tongue" title="Tongue">Terminal sulcus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongue#Upper_surface_of_the_tongue" title="Tongue">Foramen cecum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingual_tonsils" title="Lingual tonsils">Lingual tonsils</a></li></ul></li> <li>Underside <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frenulum_of_tongue" class="mw-redirect" title="Frenulum of tongue">Frenulum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fimbriated_fold_of_tongue" title="Fimbriated fold of tongue">Fimbriated fold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sublingual_caruncle" class="mw-redirect" title="Sublingual caruncle">Sublingual caruncle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossoepiglottic_folds" title="Glossoepiglottic folds">Glossoepiglottic folds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingual_septum" title="Lingual septum">Lingual septum</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Back of mouth</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oropharynx" class="mw-redirect" title="Oropharynx">Oropharynx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isthmus_of_the_fauces" class="mw-redirect" title="Isthmus of the fauces">fauces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plica_semilunaris_of_the_fauces" title="Plica semilunaris of the fauces">Plica semilunaris of the fauces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uvula" title="Uvula">Uvula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palatoglossal_arch" title="Palatoglossal arch">Palatoglossal arch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palatopharyngeal_arch" title="Palatopharyngeal arch">Palatopharyngeal arch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonsillar_fossa" title="Tonsillar fossa">Tonsillar fossa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palatine_tonsil" title="Palatine tonsil">Palatine tonsil</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Anatomy_of_the_gastrointestinal_tract,_excluding_the_mouth" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Gastrointestinal_tract" title="Template:Gastrointestinal tract"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Gastrointestinal_tract" title="Template talk:Gastrointestinal tract"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Gastrointestinal_tract" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Gastrointestinal tract"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Anatomy_of_the_gastrointestinal_tract,_excluding_the_mouth" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Anatomy of the <a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_tract" title="Gastrointestinal tract">gastrointestinal tract</a>, excluding the <a href="/wiki/Human_mouth" title="Human mouth">mouth</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_tract#Upper_gastrointestinal_tract" title="Gastrointestinal tract">Upper</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pharynx" title="Pharynx">Pharynx</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_muscles" title="Pharyngeal muscles">Muscles</a></li> <li>Spaces <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peripharyngeal_space" title="Peripharyngeal space">peripharyngeal </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retropharyngeal_space" title="Retropharyngeal space">retropharyngeal </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parapharyngeal_space" title="Parapharyngeal space">parapharyngeal </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrovisceral_space" title="Retrovisceral space">retrovisceral </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danger_space" title="Danger space">danger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prevertebral_space" title="Prevertebral space">prevertebral</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pterygomandibular_raphe" title="Pterygomandibular raphe">Pterygomandibular raphe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_raphe" title="Pharyngeal raphe">Pharyngeal raphe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buccopharyngeal_fascia" title="Buccopharyngeal fascia">Buccopharyngeal fascia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharyngobasilar_fascia" title="Pharyngobasilar fascia">Pharyngobasilar fascia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyriform_sinus" title="Pyriform sinus">Pyriform sinus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Esophagus" title="Esophagus">Esophagus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Sphincters <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Esophagus#Sphincters" title="Esophagus">upper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esophagus#Sphincters" title="Esophagus">lower</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esophageal_gland" title="Esophageal gland">glands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crop_(anatomy)" title="Crop (anatomy)">crop</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stomach" title="Stomach">Stomach</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Curvatures <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curvatures_of_the_stomach#Greater_curvature" title="Curvatures of the stomach">greater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curvatures_of_the_stomach#Lesser_curvature" title="Curvatures of the stomach">lesser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angular_incisure" title="Angular incisure">Angular incisure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stomach#Sections" title="Stomach">Cardia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stomach#Structure" title="Stomach">Body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stomach#Structure" title="Stomach">Fundus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pylorus" title="Pylorus">Pylorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastric_mucosa" title="Gastric mucosa">Gastric mucosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastric_folds" title="Gastric folds">Gastric folds</a></li> <li>Microanatomy <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gastric_pits" title="Gastric pits">Gastric pits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastric_glands" title="Gastric glands">Gastric glands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiac_glands" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardiac glands">Cardiac glands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundic_glands" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundic glands">Fundic glands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pylorus#Histology" title="Pylorus">Pyloric glands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foveolar_cell" title="Foveolar cell">Foveolar cells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parietal_cell" title="Parietal cell">Parietal cells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastric_chief_cell" title="Gastric chief cell">Gastric chief cells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enterochromaffin-like_cell" title="Enterochromaffin-like cell">Enterochromaffin-like cells</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_tract#Lower_gastrointestinal_tract" title="Gastrointestinal tract">Lower</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Small_intestine" title="Small intestine">Small intestine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Microanatomy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intestinal_villus" title="Intestinal villus">Intestinal villi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microvillus" title="Microvillus">Microvilli</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intestinal_gland" title="Intestinal gland">Intestinal glands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enterocyte" title="Enterocyte">Enterocytes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enteroendocrine_cell" title="Enteroendocrine cell">Enteroendocrine cells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goblet_cell" title="Goblet cell">Goblet cells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paneth_cell" title="Paneth cell">Paneth cells</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Duodenum" title="Duodenum">Duodenum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Suspensory_muscle_of_duodenum" title="Suspensory muscle of duodenum">Suspensory muscle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Major_duodenal_papilla" title="Major duodenal papilla">Major duodenal papilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minor_duodenal_papilla" title="Minor duodenal papilla">Minor duodenal papilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duodenojejunal_flexure" title="Duodenojejunal flexure">Duodenojejunal flexure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brunner%27s_glands" title="Brunner's glands">Brunner's glands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jejunum" title="Jejunum">Jejunum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>No substructures</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ileum" title="Ileum">Ileum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ileocecal_valve" title="Ileocecal valve">Ileocecal valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peyer%27s_patch" title="Peyer's patch">Peyer's patches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microfold_cell" title="Microfold cell">Microfold cells</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Large_intestine" title="Large intestine">Large intestine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cecum" title="Cecum">Cecum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appendix_(anatomy)" title="Appendix (anatomy)">Appendix</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Large_intestine#Structure" title="Large intestine">Colon</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ascending_colon" title="Ascending colon">Ascending colon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hepatic_flexure" class="mw-redirect" title="Hepatic flexure">Hepatic flexure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transverse_colon" title="Transverse colon">Transverse colon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Splenic_flexure" class="mw-redirect" title="Splenic flexure">Splenic flexure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descending_colon" title="Descending colon">Descending colon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigmoid_colon" title="Sigmoid colon">Sigmoid colon</a></li> <li>Continuous <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taenia_coli" title="Taenia coli">taenia coli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haustrum_(anatomy)" title="Haustrum (anatomy)">haustra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiploic_appendix" title="Epiploic appendix">epiploic appendix</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rectum" title="Rectum">Rectum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transverse_folds_of_rectum" title="Transverse folds of rectum">Transverse folds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rectal_ampulla" class="mw-redirect" title="Rectal ampulla">Ampulla</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anal_canal" title="Anal canal">Anal canal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_anus" title="Human anus">Anus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anal_columns" title="Anal columns">Anal columns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anal_valves" title="Anal valves">Anal valves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anal_sinuses" title="Anal sinuses">Anal sinuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pectinate_line" title="Pectinate line">Pectinate line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_anal_sphincter" title="Internal anal sphincter">Internal anal sphincter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersphincteric_groove" class="mw-redirect" title="Intersphincteric groove">Intersphincteric groove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/External_anal_sphincter" title="External anal sphincter">External anal sphincter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_wall" title="Gastrointestinal wall">Wall</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Serous_membrane" title="Serous membrane">Serosa</a> / <a href="/wiki/Adventitia" title="Adventitia">Adventitia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subserosa" title="Subserosa">Subserosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscular_layer" title="Muscular layer">Muscular layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submucosa" title="Submucosa">Submucosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circular_folds" title="Circular folds">Circular folds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mucous_membrane" title="Mucous membrane">Mucosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscularis_mucosae" title="Muscularis mucosae">Muscularis mucosa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Anatomy_of_the_liver,_pancreas_and_biliary_tree" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Accessory_digestive_glands" title="Template:Accessory digestive glands"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Accessory_digestive_glands" title="Template talk:Accessory digestive glands"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Accessory_digestive_glands" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Accessory digestive glands"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Anatomy_of_the_liver,_pancreas_and_biliary_tree" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Anatomy of the <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Components">liver, pancreas and biliary tree</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">Liver</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bare_area_of_the_liver" title="Bare area of the liver">Bare area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantlie_line" title="Cantlie line">Cantlie line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ligamentum_venosum" title="Ligamentum venosum">Ligamentum venosum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_hepatis" title="Porta hepatis">Porta hepatis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Round_ligament_of_liver" title="Round ligament of liver">Round ligament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lobes_of_liver" title="Lobes of liver">Lobes of liver</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caudate_lobe_of_liver" class="mw-redirect" title="Caudate lobe of liver">Caudate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrate_lobe_of_liver" class="mw-redirect" title="Quadrate lobe of liver">Quadrate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fibrous_capsule_of_Glisson" class="mw-redirect" title="Fibrous capsule of Glisson">Fibrous capsule of Glisson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perisinusoidal_space" title="Perisinusoidal space">Perisinusoidal space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liver_sinusoid" title="Liver sinusoid">Liver sinusoid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Periportal_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Periportal space">Periportal space</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal_triad" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal triad">Portal triad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lobules_of_liver" title="Lobules of liver">Lobules of liver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liver_segment" title="Liver segment">Liver segment</a></li> <li>Microanatomy <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hepatocyte" title="Hepatocyte">Hepatocyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hepatic_stellate_cell" title="Hepatic stellate cell">Hepatic stellate cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kupffer_cell" title="Kupffer cell">Kupffer cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liver_sinusoidal_endothelial_cell" title="Liver sinusoidal endothelial cell">Liver sinusoidal endothelial cell</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biliary_tract" title="Biliary tract">Biliary tract</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bile_duct" title="Bile duct">Bile ducts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intrahepatic_bile_ducts" title="Intrahepatic bile ducts">Intrahepatic bile ducts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bile_canaliculus" title="Bile canaliculus">Bile canaliculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canals_of_Hering" title="Canals of Hering">Canals of Hering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlobular_bile_ducts" title="Interlobular bile ducts">Interlobular</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left_hepatic_duct" class="mw-redirect" title="Left hepatic duct">Left hepatic duct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_hepatic_duct" class="mw-redirect" title="Right hepatic duct">Right hepatic duct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_hepatic_duct" title="Common hepatic duct">Common hepatic duct</a></li> <li>Cells <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cholangiocyte" title="Cholangiocyte">Cholangiocyte</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gallbladder" title="Gallbladder">Gallbladder</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cystic_duct" title="Cystic duct">Cystic duct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_bile_duct" title="Common bile duct">Common bile duct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ampulla_of_Vater" title="Ampulla of Vater">Ampulla of Vater</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sphincter_of_Oddi" title="Sphincter of Oddi">Sphincter of Oddi</a></li></ul></li> <li>Cells <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cholecystocyte" title="Cholecystocyte">Cholecystocyte</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pancreas" title="Pancreas">Pancreas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Gross <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tail_of_pancreas" class="mw-redirect" title="Tail of pancreas">Tail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_of_pancreas" class="mw-redirect" title="Body of pancreas">Body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neck_of_pancreas" class="mw-redirect" title="Neck of pancreas">Neck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head_of_pancreas" class="mw-redirect" title="Head of pancreas">Head</a> (<a href="/wiki/Uncinate_process_of_pancreas" title="Uncinate process of pancreas">Uncinate process</a>)</li></ul></li> <li>Ducts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pancreatic_duct" title="Pancreatic duct">main</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accessory_pancreatic_duct" class="mw-redirect" title="Accessory pancreatic duct">accessory</a></li></ul></li> <li>Microanatomy <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pancreatic_islets" title="Pancreatic islets">Pancreatic islets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centroacinar_cell" title="Centroacinar cell">Centroacinar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pancreatic_stellate_cell" title="Pancreatic stellate cell">Stellate cell</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Physiology_of_the_gastrointestinal_system" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Gastrointestinal_physiology" title="Template:Gastrointestinal physiology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Gastrointestinal_physiology" title="Template talk:Gastrointestinal physiology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Gastrointestinal_physiology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Gastrointestinal physiology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Physiology_of_the_gastrointestinal_system" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Physiology of the <a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastrointestinal system">gastrointestinal system</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_gastrointestinal_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Human gastrointestinal tract">GI tract</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Upper</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Exocrine_gland" title="Exocrine gland">Exocrine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gastric_chief_cell" title="Gastric chief cell">Chief cells</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pepsin" title="Pepsin">Pepsinogen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parietal_cell" title="Parietal cell">Parietal cells</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gastric_acid" title="Gastric acid">Gastric acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_factor" title="Intrinsic factor">Intrinsic factor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foveolar_cell" title="Foveolar cell">Foveolar cells</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bicarbonate" title="Bicarbonate">HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mucus" title="Mucus">Mucus</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swallowing" title="Swallowing">Swallowing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vomiting" title="Vomiting">Vomiting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_physiology#Motility" title="Gastrointestinal physiology">Gastric emptying</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fluids</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saliva" title="Saliva">Saliva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastric_acid" title="Gastric acid">Gastric acid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gastric_acid" title="Gastric acid">Gastric acid</a> secretion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gastrin" title="Gastrin">Gastrin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/G_cell" title="G cell">G cells</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histamine" title="Histamine">Histamine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enterochromaffin-like_cell" title="Enterochromaffin-like cell">ECL cells</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somatostatin" title="Somatostatin">Somatostatin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Delta_cell" title="Delta cell">D cells</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lower</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_system" title="Endocrine system">Endocrine</a>/<a href="/wiki/Paracrine_signalling" class="mw-redirect" title="Paracrine signalling">paracrine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Bile and pancreatic secretion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enterogastrone" title="Enterogastrone">Enterogastrone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cholecystokinin" title="Cholecystokinin">Cholecystokinin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enteroendocrine_cell#Intestinal_enteroendocrine_cells" title="Enteroendocrine cell">I cells</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretin" title="Secretin">Secretin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/S_cell" title="S cell">S cells</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glucose_homeostasis" class="mw-redirect" title="Glucose homeostasis">Glucose homeostasis</a> (<a href="/wiki/Incretin" title="Incretin">incretins</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gastric_inhibitory_polypeptide" title="Gastric inhibitory polypeptide">GIP</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enteroendocrine_cell#Intestinal_enteroendocrine_cells" title="Enteroendocrine cell">K cells</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GLP-1" class="mw-redirect" title="GLP-1">GLP-1</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/L_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="L cell">L cells</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Endocrine cell types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enteroendocrine_cell" title="Enteroendocrine cell">Enteroendocrine cells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enterochromaffin_cell" title="Enterochromaffin cell">Enterochromaffin cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/APUD_cell" title="APUD cell">APUD cell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Exocrine cell types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Goblet_cell" title="Goblet cell">Goblet cells</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fluids</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intestinal_juice" class="mw-redirect" title="Intestinal juice">Intestinal juice</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Segmentation_contractions" title="Segmentation contractions">Segmentation contractions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migrating_motor_complex" title="Migrating motor complex">Migrating motor complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stomach_rumble" title="Stomach rumble">Borborygmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defecation" title="Defecation">Defecation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Enteric_nervous_system" title="Enteric nervous system">Enteric nervous system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Submucous_plexus" class="mw-redirect" title="Submucous plexus">Submucous plexus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myenteric_plexus" title="Myenteric plexus">Myenteric plexus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Either/both</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Processes" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peristalsis" title="Peristalsis">Peristalsis</a> (<a href="/wiki/Interstitial_cell_of_Cajal" title="Interstitial cell of Cajal">Interstitial cell of Cajal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basal_electrical_rhythm" title="Basal electrical rhythm">Basal electrical rhythm</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastrocolic_reflex" title="Gastrocolic reflex">Gastrocolic reflex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digestion" title="Digestion">Digestion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enterocyte" title="Enterocyte">Enterocyte</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Accessory_digestive_gland" class="mw-redirect" title="Accessory digestive gland">Accessory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fluids</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bile" title="Bile">Bile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pancreatic_juice" title="Pancreatic juice">Pancreatic juice</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enterohepatic_circulation" title="Enterohepatic circulation">Enterohepatic circulation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Abdominopelvic_cavity" title="Abdominopelvic cavity">Abdominopelvic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peritoneal_fluid" title="Peritoneal fluid">Peritoneal fluid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Diseases_of_the_human_digestive_system" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Digestive_system_diseases" title="Template:Digestive system diseases"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Digestive_system_diseases" title="Template talk:Digestive system diseases"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Digestive_system_diseases" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Digestive system diseases"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Diseases_of_the_human_digestive_system" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Diseases of the <a class="mw-selflink selflink">human digestive system</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_tract#Upper_gastrointestinal_tract" title="Gastrointestinal tract">Upper GI tract</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Esophageal_disease" title="Esophageal disease">Esophagus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Esophagitis" title="Esophagitis">Esophagitis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Esophageal_candidiasis" title="Esophageal candidiasis">Candidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eosinophilic_esophagitis" title="Eosinophilic esophagitis">Eosinophilic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herpetiform_esophagitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Herpetiform esophagitis">Herpetiform</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>Rupture</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boerhaave_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Boerhaave syndrome">Boerhaave syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mallory%E2%80%93Weiss_syndrome" title="Mallory–Weiss syndrome">Mallory–Weiss syndrome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zenker%27s_diverticulum" title="Zenker's diverticulum">Zenker's diverticulum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barrett%27s_esophagus" title="Barrett's esophagus">Barrett's esophagus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esophageal_motility_disorder" title="Esophageal motility disorder">Esophageal motility disorder</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nutcracker_esophagus" title="Nutcracker esophagus">Nutcracker esophagus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achalasia" class="mw-redirect" title="Achalasia">Achalasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esophagogastric_junction_outflow_obstruction" title="Esophagogastric junction outflow obstruction">Esophagogastric junction outflow obstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diffuse_esophageal_spasm" title="Diffuse esophageal spasm">Diffuse esophageal spasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastroesophageal_reflux_disease" title="Gastroesophageal reflux disease">Gastroesophageal reflux disease</a> (GERD)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laryngopharyngeal_reflux" title="Laryngopharyngeal reflux">Laryngopharyngeal reflux</a> (LPR)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esophageal_stricture" title="Esophageal stricture">Esophageal stricture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esophageal_inlet_patch" title="Esophageal inlet patch">Inlet patch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megaesophagus" title="Megaesophagus">Megaesophagus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esophageal_intramural_pseudodiverticulosis" title="Esophageal intramural pseudodiverticulosis">Esophageal intramural pseudodiverticulosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acute_esophageal_necrosis" title="Acute esophageal necrosis">Acute esophageal necrosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stomach_disease" title="Stomach disease">Stomach</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gastritis" title="Gastritis">Gastritis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atrophic_gastritis" title="Atrophic gastritis">Atrophic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9n%C3%A9trier%27s_disease" title="Ménétrier's disease">Ménétrier's disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastroenteritis" title="Gastroenteritis">Gastroenteritis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peptic_ulcer" class="mw-redirect" title="Peptic ulcer">Peptic (gastric) ulcer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cushing_ulcer" title="Cushing ulcer">Cushing ulcer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dieulafoy%27s_lesion" title="Dieulafoy's lesion">Dieulafoy's lesion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dyspepsia" class="mw-redirect" title="Dyspepsia">Dyspepsia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Functional_dyspepsia" title="Functional dyspepsia">Functional dyspepsia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyloric_stenosis" title="Pyloric stenosis">Pyloric stenosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achlorhydria" title="Achlorhydria">Achlorhydria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastroparesis" title="Gastroparesis">Gastroparesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastroptosis" title="Gastroptosis">Gastroptosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal_hypertensive_gastropathy" title="Portal hypertensive gastropathy">Portal hypertensive gastropathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastric_antral_vascular_ectasia" title="Gastric antral vascular ectasia">Gastric antral vascular ectasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastric_dumping_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastric dumping syndrome">Gastric dumping syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastric_volvulus" title="Gastric volvulus">Gastric volvulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buried_bumper_syndrome" title="Buried bumper syndrome">Buried bumper syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastrinoma" title="Gastrinoma">Gastrinoma</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zollinger%E2%80%93Ellison_syndrome" title="Zollinger–Ellison syndrome">Zollinger–Ellison syndrome</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_tract#Lower_gastrointestinal_tract" title="Gastrointestinal tract">Lower GI tract</a> <br /> <a href="/wiki/Enteropathy" title="Enteropathy">Enteropathy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Small_intestine" title="Small intestine">Small intestine</a> <br /> (<a href="/wiki/Duodenum" title="Duodenum">Duodenum</a>/<a href="/wiki/Jejunum" title="Jejunum">Jejunum</a>/<a href="/wiki/Ileum" title="Ileum">Ileum</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enteritis" title="Enteritis">Enteritis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duodenitis" title="Duodenitis">Duodenitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jejunitis" title="Jejunitis">Jejunitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ileitis" title="Ileitis">Ileitis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peptic_ulcer" class="mw-redirect" title="Peptic ulcer">Peptic (duodenal) ulcer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curling%27s_ulcer" title="Curling's ulcer">Curling's ulcer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malabsorption" title="Malabsorption">Malabsorption</a>: <a href="/wiki/Coeliac_disease" title="Coeliac disease">Coeliac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_sprue" title="Tropical sprue">Tropical sprue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blind_loop_syndrome" title="Blind loop syndrome">Blind loop syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_intestinal_bacterial_overgrowth" title="Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth">Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whipple%27s_disease" title="Whipple's disease">Whipple's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Short_bowel_syndrome" title="Short bowel syndrome">Short bowel syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steatorrhea" title="Steatorrhea">Steatorrhea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milroy_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Milroy disease">Milroy disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bile_acid_malabsorption" title="Bile acid malabsorption">Bile acid malabsorption</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Large_intestine" title="Large intestine">Large intestine</a> <br /> (<a href="/wiki/Vermiform_appendix" class="mw-redirect" title="Vermiform appendix">Appendix</a>/<a href="/wiki/Colon_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Colon (anatomy)">Colon</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appendicitis" title="Appendicitis">Appendicitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colitis" title="Colitis">Colitis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pseudomembranous_colitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudomembranous colitis">Pseudomembranous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulcerative_colitis" title="Ulcerative colitis">Ulcerative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ischemic_colitis" title="Ischemic colitis">Ischemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microscopic_colitis" title="Microscopic colitis">Microscopic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collagenous_colitis" title="Collagenous colitis">Collagenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lymphocytic_colitis" title="Lymphocytic colitis">Lymphocytic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysentery" title="Dysentery">Dysentery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_colonic_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Functional colonic disease">Functional colonic disease</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irritable_bowel_syndrome" title="Irritable bowel syndrome">IBS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intestinal_pseudoobstruction" class="mw-redirect" title="Intestinal pseudoobstruction">Intestinal pseudoobstruction</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ogilvie_syndrome" title="Ogilvie syndrome">Ogilvie syndrome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megacolon" title="Megacolon">Megacolon</a> / <a href="/wiki/Toxic_megacolon" title="Toxic megacolon">Toxic megacolon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diverticulitis" title="Diverticulitis">Diverticulitis</a>/<a href="/wiki/Diverticulosis" title="Diverticulosis">Diverticulosis</a>/<a href="/wiki/Segmental_colitis_associated_with_diverticulosis" title="Segmental colitis associated with diverticulosis">SCAD</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Large and/or small</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enterocolitis" title="Enterocolitis">Enterocolitis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Necrotizing_enterocolitis" title="Necrotizing enterocolitis">Necrotizing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastroenterocolitis" title="Gastroenterocolitis">Gastroenterocolitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflammatory_bowel_disease" title="Inflammatory bowel disease">IBD</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crohn%27s_disease" title="Crohn's disease">Crohn's disease</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vascular_disease" title="Vascular disease">Vascular</a></i>: <a href="/wiki/Abdominal_angina" title="Abdominal angina">Abdominal angina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesenteric_ischemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesenteric ischemia">Mesenteric ischemia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angiodysplasia" title="Angiodysplasia">Angiodysplasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bowel_obstruction" title="Bowel obstruction">Bowel obstruction</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ileus" title="Ileus">Ileus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intussusception_(medical_disorder)" title="Intussusception (medical disorder)">Intussusception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volvulus" title="Volvulus">Volvulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fecal_impaction" title="Fecal impaction">Fecal impaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constipation" title="Constipation">Constipation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Functional_constipation" title="Functional constipation">Functional</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">Diarrhea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Infectious_diarrhea" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious diarrhea">Infectious</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adhesion_(medicine)" title="Adhesion (medicine)">Intestinal adhesions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rectum" title="Rectum">Rectum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proctitis" title="Proctitis">Proctitis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_proctitis" title="Radiation proctitis">Radiation proctitis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proctalgia_fugax" title="Proctalgia fugax">Proctalgia fugax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rectal_prolapse" title="Rectal prolapse">Rectal prolapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anismus" title="Anismus">Anismus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solitary_rectal_ulcer_syndrome" title="Solitary rectal ulcer syndrome">Solitary rectal ulcer syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rectal_stricture" title="Rectal stricture">Rectal stricture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anal_canal" title="Anal canal">Anal canal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anal_fissure" title="Anal fissure">Anal fissure</a>/<a href="/wiki/Anal_fistula" title="Anal fistula">Anal fistula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anal_abscess" class="mw-redirect" title="Anal abscess">Anal abscess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemorrhoid" title="Hemorrhoid">Hemorrhoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anal_dysplasia" title="Anal dysplasia">Anal dysplasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pruritus_ani" title="Pruritus ani">Pruritus ani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anal_stricture" title="Anal stricture">Anal stricture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_bleeding" title="Gastrointestinal bleeding">GI bleeding</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blood_in_stool" title="Blood in stool">Blood in stool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_gastrointestinal_bleeding" title="Upper gastrointestinal bleeding">Upper</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hematemesis" title="Hematemesis">Hematemesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melena" title="Melena">Melena</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_gastrointestinal_bleeding" title="Lower gastrointestinal bleeding">Lower</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hematochezia" title="Hematochezia">Hematochezia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Accessory_digestive_gland" class="mw-redirect" title="Accessory digestive gland">Accessory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Liver_disease" title="Liver disease">Liver</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hepatitis" title="Hepatitis">Hepatitis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viral_hepatitis" title="Viral hepatitis">Viral hepatitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autoimmune_hepatitis" title="Autoimmune hepatitis">Autoimmune hepatitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcoholic_hepatitis" title="Alcoholic hepatitis">Alcoholic hepatitis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cirrhosis" title="Cirrhosis">Cirrhosis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_biliary_cirrhosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary biliary cirrhosis">PBC</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatty_liver" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatty liver">Fatty liver</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metabolic_dysfunction%E2%80%93associated_steatotic_liver_disease" title="Metabolic dysfunction–associated steatotic liver disease">MASLD</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vascular_disease" title="Vascular disease">Vascular</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Budd%E2%80%93Chiari_syndrome" title="Budd–Chiari syndrome">Budd–Chiari syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hepatic_veno-occlusive_disease" title="Hepatic veno-occlusive disease">Hepatic veno-occlusive disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal_hypertension" title="Portal hypertension">Portal hypertension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutmeg_liver" class="mw-redirect" title="Nutmeg liver">Nutmeg liver</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcoholic_liver_disease" title="Alcoholic liver disease">Alcoholic liver disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liver_failure" title="Liver failure">Liver failure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hepatic_encephalopathy" title="Hepatic encephalopathy">Hepatic encephalopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acute_liver_failure" title="Acute liver failure">Acute liver failure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liver_abscess" title="Liver abscess">Liver abscess</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyogenic_liver_abscess" title="Pyogenic liver abscess">Pyogenic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amoebic_liver_abscess" title="Amoebic liver abscess">Amoebic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hepatorenal_syndrome" title="Hepatorenal syndrome">Hepatorenal syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peliosis_hepatis" title="Peliosis hepatis">Peliosis hepatis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolic_disorder" title="Metabolic disorder">Metabolic disorders</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wilson%27s_disease" title="Wilson's disease">Wilson's disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemochromatosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemochromatosis">Hemochromatosis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gallbladder_disease" title="Gallbladder disease">Gallbladder</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cholecystitis" title="Cholecystitis">Cholecystitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallstone" title="Gallstone">Gallstone / Cholelithiasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cholesterolosis_of_gallbladder" title="Cholesterolosis of gallbladder">Cholesterolosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adenomyomatosis" title="Adenomyomatosis">Adenomyomatosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcholecystectomy_syndrome" title="Postcholecystectomy syndrome">Postcholecystectomy syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porcelain_gallbladder" title="Porcelain gallbladder">Porcelain gallbladder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bile_duct" title="Bile duct">Bile duct</a>/ <br /> Other <a href="/wiki/Biliary_tree" class="mw-redirect" title="Biliary tree">biliary tree</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cholangitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Cholangitis">Cholangitis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_sclerosing_cholangitis" title="Primary sclerosing cholangitis">Primary sclerosing cholangitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_sclerosing_cholangitis" title="Secondary sclerosing cholangitis">Secondary sclerosing cholangitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ascending_cholangitis" title="Ascending cholangitis">Ascending</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cholestasis" title="Cholestasis">Cholestasis</a>/<a href="/wiki/Mirizzi%27s_syndrome" title="Mirizzi's syndrome">Mirizzi's syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biliary_fistula" title="Biliary fistula">Biliary fistula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haemobilia" title="Haemobilia">Haemobilia</a></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Common_bile_duct" title="Common bile duct">Common bile duct</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Choledocholithiasis" class="mw-redirect" title="Choledocholithiasis">Choledocholithiasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biliary_dyskinesia" title="Biliary dyskinesia">Biliary dyskinesia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sphincter_of_Oddi_dysfunction" title="Sphincter of Oddi dysfunction">Sphincter of Oddi dysfunction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pancreatic_disease" title="Pancreatic disease">Pancreatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pancreatitis" title="Pancreatitis">Pancreatitis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acute_pancreatitis" title="Acute pancreatitis">Acute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronic_pancreatitis" title="Chronic pancreatitis">Chronic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hereditary_pancreatitis" title="Hereditary pancreatitis">Hereditary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pancreatic_abscess" title="Pancreatic abscess">Pancreatic abscess</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pancreatic_pseudocyst" title="Pancreatic pseudocyst">Pancreatic pseudocyst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exocrine_pancreatic_insufficiency" title="Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency">Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pancreatic_fistula" title="Pancreatic fistula">Pancreatic fistula</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Hernia" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hernia" title="Hernia">Hernia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diaphragmatic_hernia" title="Diaphragmatic hernia">Diaphragmatic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congenital_diaphragmatic_hernia" title="Congenital diaphragmatic hernia">Congenital</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiatus_hernia" class="mw-redirect" title="Hiatus hernia">Hiatus</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inguinal_hernia" title="Inguinal hernia">Inguinal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indirect_inguinal_hernia" class="mw-redirect" title="Indirect inguinal hernia">Indirect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_inguinal_hernia" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct inguinal hernia">Direct</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbilical_hernia" title="Umbilical hernia">Umbilical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femoral_hernia" title="Femoral hernia">Femoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obturator_hernia" title="Obturator hernia">Obturator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spigelian_hernia" title="Spigelian hernia">Spigelian</a></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Lumbar_hernia" class="mw-redirect" title="Lumbar hernia">Lumbar</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Petit%27s_hernia" title="Petit's hernia">Petit's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grynfeltt%E2%80%93Lesshaft_hernia" title="Grynfeltt–Lesshaft hernia">Grynfeltt–Lesshaft</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><i>Undefined location</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Incisional_hernia" title="Incisional hernia">Incisional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_hernia" title="Internal hernia">Internal hernia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richter%27s_hernia" title="Richter's hernia">Richter's</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Peritoneal_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Peritoneal disease">Peritoneal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peritonitis" title="Peritonitis">Peritonitis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_bacterial_peritonitis" title="Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis">Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemoperitoneum" title="Hemoperitoneum">Hemoperitoneum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pneumoperitoneum" title="Pneumoperitoneum">Pneumoperitoneum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Development_of_the_digestive_system" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Development_of_digestive_system" title="Template:Development of digestive system"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Development_of_digestive_system" title="Template talk:Development of digestive system"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Development_of_digestive_system" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Development of digestive system"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Development_of_the_digestive_system" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_digestive_system" title="Development of the digestive system">Development of the digestive system</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Foregut" title="Foregut">Foregut</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stomodeum" title="Stomodeum">Stomodeum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buccopharyngeal_membrane" title="Buccopharyngeal membrane">Buccopharyngeal membrane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rathke%27s_pouch" title="Rathke's pouch">Rathke's pouch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tracheoesophageal_septum" title="Tracheoesophageal septum">Tracheoesophageal septum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pancreatic_bud" title="Pancreatic bud">Pancreatic bud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hepatic_diverticulum" title="Hepatic diverticulum">Hepatic diverticulum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Midgut" title="Midgut">Midgut</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Midgut" title="Midgut">Midgut</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hindgut" title="Hindgut">Hindgut</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urorectal_septum" title="Urorectal septum">Urorectal septum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proctodeum" title="Proctodeum">Proctodeum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloaca_(embryology)" title="Cloaca (embryology)">Cloaca</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cloacal_membrane" title="Cloacal membrane">Cloacal membrane</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Tests_and_procedures_involving_the_human_digestive_system" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Digestive_system_procedures" title="Template:Digestive system procedures"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Digestive_system_procedures" title="Template talk:Digestive system procedures"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Digestive_system_procedures" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Digestive system procedures"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Tests_and_procedures_involving_the_human_digestive_system" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Tests and procedures involving the <a class="mw-selflink selflink">human digestive system</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Digestive_system_surgery" title="Digestive system surgery">Digestive system surgery</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_gastrointestinal_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Human gastrointestinal tract">Digestive tract</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Upper_GI_tract" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_gastrointestinal_tract#Upper_gastrointestinal_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Human gastrointestinal tract">Upper GI tract</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Salivary_gland" title="Salivary gland">SGs</a> / <a href="/wiki/Esophagus" title="Esophagus">Esophagus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Esophagectomy" title="Esophagectomy">Esophagectomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heller_myotomy" title="Heller myotomy">Heller myotomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sialography" title="Sialography">Sialography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impedance%E2%80%93pH_monitoring" title="Impedance–pH monitoring">Impedance–pH monitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esophageal_pH_monitoring" title="Esophageal pH monitoring">Esophageal pH monitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esophageal_motility_study" title="Esophageal motility study">Esophageal motility study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_Lumen_Imaging_Probe" title="Functional Lumen Imaging Probe">Functional Lumen Imaging Probe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_resolution_manometry" class="mw-redirect" title="High resolution manometry">High resolution manometry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stomach" title="Stomach">Stomach</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sengstaken%E2%80%93Blakemore_tube" title="Sengstaken–Blakemore tube">Sengstaken–Blakemore tube</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasogastric_tube" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasogastric tube">Nasogastric tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastric_lavage" title="Gastric lavage">Gastric lavage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bariatric_surgery" title="Bariatric surgery">Bariatric surgery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adjustable_gastric_band" title="Adjustable gastric band">Adjustable gastric band</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endoscopic_sleeve_gastroplasty" title="Endoscopic sleeve gastroplasty">Endoscopic sleeve gastroplasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastric_bypass_surgery" title="Gastric bypass surgery">Gastric bypass surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sleeve_gastrectomy" title="Sleeve gastrectomy">Sleeve gastrectomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertical_banded_gastroplasty_surgery" title="Vertical banded gastroplasty surgery">Vertical banded gastroplasty surgery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collis_gastroplasty" title="Collis gastroplasty">Collis gastroplasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastrectomy" title="Gastrectomy">Gastrectomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Billroth_I" title="Billroth I">Billroth I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Billroth_II" title="Billroth II">Billroth II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roux-en-Y_anastomosis" title="Roux-en-Y anastomosis">Roux-en-Y</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastroenterostomy" title="Gastroenterostomy">Gastroenterostomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastropexy" title="Gastropexy">Gastropexy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastrostomy" title="Gastrostomy">Gastrostomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Percutaneous_endoscopic_gastrostomy" title="Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy">Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esophagogastric_dissociation" title="Esophagogastric dissociation">Esophagogastric dissociation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hill_repair" title="Hill repair">Hill repair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nissen_fundoplication" title="Nissen fundoplication">Nissen fundoplication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyloromyotomy" title="Pyloromyotomy">Pyloromyotomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schilling_test" title="Schilling test">Schilling test</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">Medical imaging</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endoscopy" title="Endoscopy">Endoscopy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Esophagogastroduodenoscopy" title="Esophagogastroduodenoscopy">Esophagogastroduodenoscopy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barium_swallow" class="mw-redirect" title="Barium swallow">Barium swallow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_gastrointestinal_series" title="Upper gastrointestinal series">Upper gastrointestinal series</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_gastrointestinal_tract#Lower_gastrointestinal_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Human gastrointestinal tract">Lower GI tract</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Small_bowel" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Small_intestine" title="Small intestine">Small bowel</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bariatric_surgery" title="Bariatric surgery">Bariatric surgery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duodenal_switch" title="Duodenal switch">Duodenal switch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jejunoileal_bypass" title="Jejunoileal bypass">Jejunoileal bypass</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bowel_resection" title="Bowel resection">Bowel resection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ileostomy" title="Ileostomy">Ileostomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intestine_transplantation" title="Intestine transplantation">Intestine transplantation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jejunostomy" title="Jejunostomy">Jejunostomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partial_ileal_bypass_surgery" title="Partial ileal bypass surgery">Partial ileal bypass surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strictureplasty" title="Strictureplasty">Strictureplasty</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Colon_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Colon (anatomy)">Large bowel</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appendectomy" title="Appendectomy">Appendectomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colectomy" title="Colectomy">Colectomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonic_polypectomy" title="Colonic polypectomy">Colonic polypectomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colostomy" title="Colostomy">Colostomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hartmann%27s_operation" title="Hartmann's operation">Hartmann's operation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rectum" title="Rectum">Rectum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abdominoperineal_resection" title="Abdominoperineal resection">Abdominoperineal resection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_anterior_resection" title="Lower anterior resection">Lower anterior resection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_mesorectal_excision" title="Total mesorectal excision">Total mesorectal excision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ventral_rectopexy" title="Ventral rectopexy">Ventral rectopexy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anal_canal" title="Anal canal">Anal canal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anal_sphincterotomy" title="Anal sphincterotomy">Anal sphincterotomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anorectal_manometry" title="Anorectal manometry">Anorectal manometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_internal_sphincterotomy" title="Lateral internal sphincterotomy">Lateral internal sphincterotomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubber_band_ligation" title="Rubber band ligation">Rubber band ligation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transanal_hemorrhoidal_dearterialization" title="Transanal hemorrhoidal dearterialization">Transanal hemorrhoidal dearterialization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">Medical imaging</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endoscopy" title="Endoscopy">Endoscopy</a>: <a href="/wiki/Colonoscopy" title="Colonoscopy">Colonoscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anoscopy" title="Anoscopy">Anoscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capsule_endoscopy" title="Capsule endoscopy">Capsule endoscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enteroscopy" title="Enteroscopy">Enteroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proctoscopy" title="Proctoscopy">Proctoscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigmoidoscopy" title="Sigmoidoscopy">Sigmoidoscopy</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abdominal_ultrasonography" title="Abdominal ultrasonography">Abdominal ultrasonography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defecography" title="Defecography">Defecography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double-contrast_barium_enema" title="Double-contrast barium enema">Double-contrast barium enema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endoanal_ultrasound" title="Endoanal ultrasound">Endoanal ultrasound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enteroclysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Enteroclysis">Enteroclysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_gastrointestinal_series" title="Lower gastrointestinal series">Lower gastrointestinal series</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small-bowel_follow-through" class="mw-redirect" title="Small-bowel follow-through">Small-bowel follow-through</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transrectal_ultrasonography" title="Transrectal ultrasonography">Transrectal ultrasonography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_colonoscopy" title="Virtual colonoscopy">Virtual colonoscopy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stool_test" title="Stool test">Stool tests</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fecal_fat_test" title="Fecal fat test">Fecal fat test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fecal_pH_test" title="Fecal pH test">Fecal pH test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stool_guaiac_test" title="Stool guaiac test">Stool guaiac test</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Accessory_digestive_gland" class="mw-redirect" title="Accessory digestive gland">Accessory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">Liver</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_extracorporeal_liver_support" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial extracorporeal liver support">Artificial extracorporeal liver support</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioartificial_liver_device" class="mw-redirect" title="Bioartificial liver device">Bioartificial liver devices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liver_dialysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Liver dialysis">Liver dialysis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hepatectomy" title="Hepatectomy">Hepatectomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liver_biopsy" title="Liver biopsy">Liver biopsy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liver_transplantation" title="Liver transplantation">Liver transplantation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal_hypertension" title="Portal hypertension">Portal hypertension</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transjugular_intrahepatic_portosystemic_shunt" title="Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt">Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt</a> [TIPS]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distal_splenorenal_shunt_procedure" title="Distal splenorenal shunt procedure">Distal splenorenal shunt procedure</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gallbladder" title="Gallbladder">Gallbladder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bile_duct" title="Bile duct">bile duct</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cholecystectomy" title="Cholecystectomy">Cholecystectomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cholecystostomy" title="Cholecystostomy">Cholecystostomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endoscopic_retrograde_cholangiopancreatography" title="Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography">ERCP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hepatoportoenterostomy" title="Hepatoportoenterostomy">Hepatoportoenterostomy</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">Medical imaging</a>: <a href="/wiki/Cholangiography" title="Cholangiography">Cholangiography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intravenous_cholangiography" title="Intravenous cholangiography">IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_cholangiopancreatography" title="Magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography">MRCP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Percutaneous_transhepatic_cholangiography" title="Percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography">PTC</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cholecystography" title="Cholecystography">Cholecystography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cholescintigraphy" title="Cholescintigraphy">Cholescintigraphy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pancreas" title="Pancreas">Pancreas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frey%27s_procedure" title="Frey's procedure">Frey's procedure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pancreas_transplantation" title="Pancreas transplantation">Pancreas transplantation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pancreatectomy" title="Pancreatectomy">Pancreatectomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pancreaticoduodenectomy" title="Pancreaticoduodenectomy">Pancreaticoduodenectomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puestow_procedure" title="Puestow procedure">Puestow procedure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Abdominopelvic_cavity" title="Abdominopelvic cavity">Abdominopelvic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Peritoneum" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Peritoneum" title="Peritoneum">Peritoneum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diagnostic_peritoneal_lavage" title="Diagnostic peritoneal lavage">Diagnostic peritoneal lavage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraperitoneal_injection" title="Intraperitoneal injection">Intraperitoneal injection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laparoscopy" title="Laparoscopy">Laparoscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omentopexy" title="Omentopexy">Omentopexy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paracentesis" title="Paracentesis">Paracentesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peritoneal_dialysis" title="Peritoneal dialysis">Peritoneal dialysis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hernia" title="Hernia">Hernia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hernia_repair" title="Hernia repair">Hernia repair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inguinal_hernia_surgery" title="Inguinal hernia surgery">Inguinal hernia surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femoral_hernia_repair" class="mw-redirect" title="Femoral hernia repair">Femoral hernia repair</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laparotomy" title="Laparotomy">Laparotomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exploratory_laparotomy" title="Exploratory laparotomy">Exploratory laparotomy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapid_urease_test" title="Rapid urease test">Rapid urease test</a> / <a href="/wiki/Urea_breath_test" title="Urea breath test">Urea breath test</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Clinical_prediction_rule" title="Clinical prediction rule">Clinical prediction rules</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Model_for_End-Stage_Liver_Disease" title="Model for End-Stage Liver Disease">MELD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pediatric_end-stage_liver_disease" title="Pediatric end-stage liver disease">PELD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_Model_for_End-Stage_Liver_Disease" title="United Kingdom Model for End-Stage Liver Disease">UKELD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child%E2%80%93Pugh_score" title="Child–Pugh score">Child–Pugh score</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ranson_criteria" title="Ranson criteria">Ranson criteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milan_criteria" title="Milan criteria">Milan criteria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Human_systems_and_organs" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Human_systems_and_organs" title="Template:Human systems and organs"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Human_systems_and_organs" title="Template talk:Human systems and organs"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Human_systems_and_organs" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Human systems and organs"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Human_systems_and_organs" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Human_body" title="Human body">Human systems</a> and <a href="/wiki/Organ_(biology)" title="Organ (biology)">organs</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_musculoskeletal_system" title="Human musculoskeletal system">Musculoskeletal system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_skeleton" title="Human skeleton">Skeletal system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bone" title="Bone">Bone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carpal_bones" title="Carpal bones">Carpus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clavicle" title="Clavicle">Collar bone</a> (clavicle)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femur" title="Femur">Thigh bone</a> (femur)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fibula" title="Fibula">Fibula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humerus" title="Humerus">Humerus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandible" title="Mandible">Mandible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metacarpal_bones" title="Metacarpal bones">Metacarpus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metatarsal_bones" title="Metatarsal bones">Metatarsus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ossicles" title="Ossicles">Ossicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patella" title="Patella">Patella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phalanx_bone" title="Phalanx bone">Phalanges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radius_(bone)" title="Radius (bone)">Radius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skull#Humans" title="Skull">Skull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarsus_(skeleton)" title="Tarsus (skeleton)">Tarsus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibia" title="Tibia">Tibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulna" title="Ulna">Ulna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rib" title="Rib">Rib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertebral_column" title="Vertebral column">Vertebra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelvis" title="Pelvis">Pelvis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sternum" title="Sternum">Sternum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartilage" title="Cartilage">Cartilage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Joint" title="Joint">Joints</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fibrous_joint" title="Fibrous joint">Fibrous joint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartilaginous_joint" title="Cartilaginous joint">Cartilaginous joint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synovial_joint" title="Synovial joint">Synovial joint</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Muscular_system" title="Muscular system">Muscular system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muscle" title="Muscle">Muscle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tendon" title="Tendon">Tendon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thoracic_diaphragm" title="Thoracic diaphragm">Diaphragm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">Circulatory system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">Cardiovascular system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>peripheral</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artery" title="Artery">Artery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vein" title="Vein">Vein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_vessel" title="Lymphatic vessel">Lymphatic vessel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heart" title="Heart">Heart</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_system" title="Lymphatic system">Lymphatic system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>primary</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bone_marrow" title="Bone marrow">Bone marrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thymus" title="Thymus">Thymus</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>secondary</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spleen" title="Spleen">Spleen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lymph_node" title="Lymph node">Lymph node</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>CNS equivalent</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glymphatic_system" title="Glymphatic system">Glymphatic system</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">Nervous system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_brain" title="Human brain">Brain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">Spinal cord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nerve" title="Nerve">Nerve</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensory_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory system">Sensory system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ear" title="Ear">Ear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_eye" title="Human eye">Eye</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somatic_nervous_system" title="Somatic nervous system">Somatic system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nervous_tissue" title="Nervous tissue">Tissue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Integumentary_system" title="Integumentary system">Integumentary system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_skin" title="Human skin">Skin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subcutaneous_tissue" title="Subcutaneous tissue">Subcutaneous tissue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breast" title="Breast">Breast</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mammary_gland" title="Mammary gland">Mammary gland</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Haematopoietic_system" title="Haematopoietic system">Haematopoietic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Myeloid" class="mw-redirect" title="Myeloid">Myeloid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">Myeloid immune system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lymphocyte" title="Lymphocyte">Lymphoid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">Lymphoid immune system</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system" title="Respiratory system">Respiratory system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_tract#Upper_respiratory_tract" title="Respiratory tract">Upper</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_nose" title="Human nose">Nose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharynx#Nasopharynx" title="Pharynx">Nasopharynx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larynx" title="Larynx">Larynx</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_tract#Lower_respiratory_tract" title="Respiratory tract">Lower</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trachea" title="Trachea">Trachea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronchus" title="Bronchus">Bronchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lung" title="Lung">Lung</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Digestive system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_mouth" title="Human mouth">Mouth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salivary_gland" title="Salivary gland">Salivary gland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongue" title="Tongue">Tongue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lip" title="Lip">Lip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_tooth" title="Human tooth">Tooth</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>upper GI</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharynx" title="Pharynx">Oropharynx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharynx" title="Pharynx">Laryngopharynx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esophagus" title="Esophagus">Esophagus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stomach" title="Stomach">Stomach</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>lower GI</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Small_intestine" title="Small intestine">Small intestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appendix_(anatomy)" title="Appendix (anatomy)">Appendix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_intestine#Structure" title="Large intestine">Colon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rectum" title="Rectum">Rectum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_anus" title="Human anus">Anus</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">accessory</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">Liver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biliary_tract" title="Biliary tract">Biliary tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pancreas" title="Pancreas">Pancreas</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Urinary_system" title="Urinary system">Urinary system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genitourinary_system" title="Genitourinary system">Genitourinary system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kidney" title="Kidney">Kidney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ureter" title="Ureter">Ureter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urinary_bladder" class="mw-redirect" title="Urinary bladder">Bladder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urethra" title="Urethra">Urethra</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_reproductive_system" title="Human reproductive system">Reproductive system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Male_reproductive_system" title="Male reproductive system">Male</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scrotum" title="Scrotum">Scrotum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_penis" title="Human penis">Penis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostate" title="Prostate">Prostate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testicle" title="Testicle">Testicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seminal_vesicle" class="mw-redirect" title="Seminal vesicle">Seminal vesicle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_reproductive_system" title="Female reproductive system">Female</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uterus" title="Uterus">Uterus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vagina" title="Vagina">Vagina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulva" title="Vulva">Vulva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovary" title="Ovary">Ovary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placenta" title="Placenta">Placenta</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_system" title="Endocrine system">Endocrine system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pituitary_gland" title="Pituitary gland">Pituitary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pineal_gland" title="Pineal gland">Pineal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thyroid" title="Thyroid">Thyroid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parathyroid_gland" title="Parathyroid gland">Parathyroid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrenal_gland" title="Adrenal gland">Adrenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pancreatic_islets" title="Pancreatic islets">Islets of Langerhans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output 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