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aria-controls="toc-Nomination_to_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_(2005)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Nomination to the Supreme Court of the United States (2005) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Nomination_to_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_(2005)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Roberts's_testimony_on_his_jurisprudence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roberts's_testimony_on_his_jurisprudence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Roberts's testimony on his jurisprudence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roberts's_testimony_on_his_jurisprudence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Commerce_Clause" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commerce_Clause"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1 Commerce Clause </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commerce_Clause-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Federalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Federalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.2 Federalism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Federalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reviewing_Acts_of_Congress" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reviewing_Acts_of_Congress"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.3 Reviewing Acts of Congress </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reviewing_Acts_of_Congress-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stare_decisis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stare_decisis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.4 Stare decisis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stare_decisis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roe_v._Wade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roe_v._Wade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.5 Roe v. Wade </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roe_v._Wade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Confirmation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Confirmation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Confirmation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Confirmation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-U.S._Supreme_Court" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#U.S._Supreme_Court"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 U.S. Supreme Court </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-U.S._Supreme_Court-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle U.S. Supreme Court subsection </button> <ul id="toc-U.S._Supreme_Court-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Presidential_power" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Presidential_power"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Presidential power </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Presidential_power-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Campaign_finance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Campaign_finance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Campaign finance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Campaign_finance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fourth_Amendment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fourth_Amendment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Fourth Amendment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fourth_Amendment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abortion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abortion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Abortion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abortion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Capital_punishment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Capital_punishment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Capital punishment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Capital_punishment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Affirmative_action" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Affirmative_action"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6 Affirmative action </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Affirmative_action-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Free_speech" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Free_speech"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.7 Free speech </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Free_speech-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health_care_reform" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health_care_reform"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.8 Health care reform </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Health_care_reform-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-LGBT_rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#LGBT_rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.9 LGBT rights </div> </a> <ul id="toc-LGBT_rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Voting_Rights_Act" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Voting_Rights_Act"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.10 Voting Rights Act </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Voting_Rights_Act-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Awards_and_honors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Awards_and_honors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Awards and honors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Awards_and_honors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Personal life </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Personal_life-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Personal life subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Personal_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Health" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Health </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Health-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Selected_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Selected_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Selected works </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Selected_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Additional_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Additional_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Additional sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Additional_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Further reading </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Further reading subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-News_articles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#News_articles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.1 News articles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-News_articles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.2 Other </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">John Roberts</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 51 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-51" aria-hidden="true" > 51 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AA%D8%B3" title="جون روبرتس – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جون روبرتس" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Con_Roberts" title="Con Roberts – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Con Roberts" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%8A%D1%80%D1%82%D1%81" title="Джон Робъртс – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Джон Робъртс" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_G._Roberts" title="John G. Roberts – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="John G. Roberts" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="John Roberts" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="John Roberts" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CE%B6%CE%BF%CE%BD_%CE%A1%CF%8C%CE%BC%CF%80%CE%B5%CF%81%CF%84%CF%82" title="Τζον Ρόμπερτς – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Τζον Ρόμπερτς" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="John Roberts" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AA%D8%B3" title="جان رابرتس – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جان رابرتس" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_G._Roberts,_Jr." title="John G. Roberts, Jr. – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="John G. Roberts, Jr." data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A1%B4_%EB%A1%9C%EB%B2%84%EC%B8%A0" title="존 로버츠 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="존 로버츠" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8B%D5%B8%D5%B6_%D5%8C%D5%B8%D5%A2%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%BF%D5%BD" title="Ջոն Ռոբերտս – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ջոն Ռոբերտս" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8" title="जॉन रॉबर्ट्स – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="जॉन रॉबर्ट्स" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_G._Roberts" title="John G. Roberts – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="John G. Roberts" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="John Roberts" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_G._Roberts" title="John G. Roberts – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="John G. Roberts" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_G._Roberts" title="John G. Roberts – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="John G. Roberts" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%27%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%98%D7%A1" title="ג'ון רוברטס – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ג'ון רוברטס" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%9C%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%AC%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9F%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D" title="ಜಾನ್ ರಾಬರ್ಟ್ಸ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಜಾನ್ ರಾಬರ್ಟ್ಸ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C5%BEons_Robertss" title="Džons Robertss – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Džons Robertss" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="John Roberts" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_G._Roberts" title="John G. Roberts – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="John G. Roberts" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_G._Roberts" title="John G. Roberts – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="John G. Roberts" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%8F%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82%D1%81" title="Џон Робертс – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Џон Робертс" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E2%80%8C%E0%A4%B8" title="जॉन रॉबर्ट्‌स – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="जॉन रॉबर्ट्‌स" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AA%D8%B3_(%D9%85%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%89)" title="جون روبرتس (محامى) – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="جون روبرتس (محامى)" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="John Roberts" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Roberts_(rechter)" title="John Roberts (rechter) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="John Roberts (rechter)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B8%E3%83%A7%E3%83%B3%E3%83%BB%E3%83%AD%E3%83%90%E3%83%BC%E3%83%84" title="ジョン・ロバーツ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ジョン・ロバーツ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="John Roberts" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="John Roberts" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Glover_Roberts" title="John Glover Roberts – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="John Glover Roberts" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="John Roberts" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_G._Roberts,_Jr." title="John G. Roberts, Jr. – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="John G. Roberts, Jr." data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82%D1%81,_%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%93%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Робертс, Джон Гловер – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Робертс, Джон Гловер" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="John Roberts" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_G._Roberts" title="John G. Roberts – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="John G. Roberts" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%86%D9%86_%DA%95%DB%86%D8%A8%DB%8E%D8%B1%D8%AA%D8%B3" title="جۆن ڕۆبێرتس – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="جۆن ڕۆبێرتس" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%8F%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82%D1%81" title="Џон Робертс – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Џон Робертс" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="John Roberts" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="John Roberts" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="John Roberts" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="John Roberts" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%AB%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%99_%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%AD%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%8C" title="จอห์น รอเบิตส์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="จอห์น รอเบิตส์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="John Roberts" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82%D1%81" title="Джон Робертс – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Джон Робертс" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%B9%D8%B3" title="جان رابرٹس – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="جان رابرٹس" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="John Roberts" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Chief Justice of the United States since 2005</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other people named John Roberts, see <a href="/wiki/John_Roberts_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="John Roberts (disambiguation)">John Roberts (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%;"><div class="fn" style="font-size:125%;">John Roberts</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Official_roberts_CJ.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Official portrait of John Roberts as Chief Justice of the United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Official_roberts_CJ.jpg/220px-Official_roberts_CJ.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Official_roberts_CJ.jpg/330px-Official_roberts_CJ.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Official_roberts_CJ.jpg/440px-Official_roberts_CJ.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="3000" /></a><div class="infobox-caption" style="line-height:normal;padding-top:0.2em;">Official portrait, 2005</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">17th <a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief Justice of the United States</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><div class="skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="width:100%; margin:0; color: black; background-color: lavender"><a href="/wiki/Incumbent" title="Incumbent">Incumbent</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">Assumed office September 29, 2005</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Nominated by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/William_Rehnquist" title="William Rehnquist">William Rehnquist</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">Judge of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_District_of_Columbia_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit">United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office June 2, 2003 – September 29, 2005</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Nominated by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/James_L._Buckley" title="James L. Buckley">James L. Buckley</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Millett" title="Patricia Millett">Patricia Millett</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Solicitor_General_of_the_United_States#List_of_notable_principal_deputy_solicitors_general" title="Solicitor General of the United States">Principal Deputy Solicitor General of the United States</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office October 24, 1989 – January 20, 1993</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">President</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Donald_B._Ayer" title="Donald B. Ayer">Donald B. Ayer</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Bender_(jurist)" title="Paul Bender (jurist)">Paul Bender</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/White_House_Counsel" title="White House Counsel">Associate Counsel to the President</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office November 28, 1982 – April 11, 1986</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">President</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/J._Michael_Luttig" title="J. Michael Luttig">J. Michael Luttig</a><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data">Robert Kruger<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender">Personal details</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">John Glover Roberts Jr.</div> (1955-01-27) January 27, 1955 (age 70) <a href="/wiki/Buffalo,_New_York" title="Buffalo, New York">Buffalo, New York</a>, U.S.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouse</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;">Jane Sullivan</div> <div style="display:inline-block;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style>1996)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Children</th><td class="infobox-data">2 (adopted)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Education</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" title="Bachelor of Arts">BA</a>, <a href="/wiki/Juris_Doctor" title="Juris Doctor">JD</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Awards</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Henry_J._Friendly_Medal" title="Henry J. Friendly Medal">Henry J. Friendly Medal</a> (2023)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Signature</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Roberts_signature.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="John Roberts's signature"><img alt="Cursive signature in ink" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/John_Roberts_signature.svg/128px-John_Roberts_signature.svg.png" decoding="async" width="128" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/John_Roberts_signature.svg/192px-John_Roberts_signature.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/John_Roberts_signature.svg/256px-John_Roberts_signature.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="121" /></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1096940132">.mw-parser-output .listen .side-box-text{line-height:1.1em}.mw-parser-output .listen-plain{border:none;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded{width:100%;margin:0;border-width:1px 0 0 0;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-header{padding:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded .listen-header{padding:2px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen-file-header{padding:4px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen .description{padding-top:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen .mw-tmh-player{max-width:100%}@media(max-width:719px){.mw-parser-output .listen{clear:both}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .listen:not(.listen-noimage){width:320px}.mw-parser-output .listen-left{overflow:visible;float:left}.mw-parser-output .listen-center{float:none;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-left listen noprint listen-embedded listen-noimage listen-center"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Roberts_delivers_the_opinion_of_the_Court_in_United_States_v._Rahimi.ogg" title="File:John Roberts delivers the opinion of the Court in United States v. Rahimi.ogg">Roberts's voice</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="215" style="width:215px;" data-durationhint="301" data-mwtitle="John_Roberts_delivers_the_opinion_of_the_Court_in_United_States_v._Rahimi.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/John_Roberts_delivers_the_opinion_of_the_Court_in_United_States_v._Rahimi.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/1b/John_Roberts_delivers_the_opinion_of_the_Court_in_United_States_v._Rahimi.ogg/John_Roberts_delivers_the_opinion_of_the_Court_in_United_States_v._Rahimi.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></div> <div class="description">John Roberts delivers the opinion of the Court in <a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Rahimi" title="United States v. Rahimi">United States v. Rahimi</a> Recorded June 21, 2024</div></div></div></div> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="border-top: 1px solid right;"><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> John Glover Roberts Jr. (born January 27, 1955) is an American jurist serving since 2005 as the 17th <a href="/wiki/Chief_justice_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Chief justice of the United States">chief justice of the United States</a>. He has been described as having a <a href="/wiki/Moderate_conservatism" title="Moderate conservatism">moderate conservative</a> <a href="/wiki/Judicial_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Judicial philosophy">judicial philosophy</a>, though he is primarily an <a href="/wiki/Institutionalism_in_political_parties" title="Institutionalism in political parties">institutionalist</a>.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> Regarded as a <a href="/wiki/Swing_vote" title="Swing vote">swing vote</a> in some cases,<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> Roberts has presided over an ideological shift toward conservative jurisprudence on the high court, in which he has authored key opinions.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> Born in <a href="/wiki/Buffalo,_New_York" title="Buffalo, New York">Buffalo, New York</a>, Roberts was raised <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a> in <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Indiana" title="Northwest Indiana">Northwest Indiana</a> and studied at <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a> with the initial intent to become a historian, graduating in three years with highest distinction, then attended <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_School" title="Harvard Law School">Harvard Law School</a>, where he was an editor of the <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_Review" title="Harvard Law Review">Harvard Law Review</a>. Later, Roberts served as a <a href="/wiki/Law_clerk" title="Law clerk">law clerk</a> for Judge <a href="/wiki/Henry_Friendly" title="Henry Friendly">Henry Friendly</a> and Justice <a href="/wiki/William_Rehnquist" title="William Rehnquist">William Rehnquist</a>. From 1989 to 1993, he held positions in the Department of Justice of the <a href="/wiki/Reagan_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Reagan administration">Reagan</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="George H. W. Bush administration">H.W. Bush administrations</a>. He was <a href="/wiki/Principal_Deputy_Solicitor_General_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Principal Deputy Solicitor General of the United States">Principal Deputy Solicitor General</a>, after which he built a leading appellate practice and argued 39 cases before the Supreme Court.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenburg2007186–187-8">[8]</a> In 1992, President <a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a> nominated Roberts to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_District_of_Columbia_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit">U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit</a>, but the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a> did not hold a vote on his confirmation. In 2003, President <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> appointed Roberts to the D.C. Circuit. In 2005, Bush nominated Roberts to the Supreme Court, initially as an <a href="/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States">associate justice</a> to fill the vacancy left by Justice <a href="/wiki/Sandra_Day_O%27Connor" title="Sandra Day O'Connor">Sandra Day O'Connor</a>, but promoted him to chief justice after Rehnquist's death. Roberts was confirmed by a Senate vote of 78–22. At the age of 50, he became the youngest to serve in the position since <a href="/wiki/John_Marshall" title="John Marshall">John Marshall</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:3-9">[9]</a> As chief justice, Roberts has authored majority opinions in many <a href="/wiki/List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States" title="List of landmark court decisions in the United States">landmark cases</a>, including <a href="/wiki/National_Federation_of_Independent_Business_v._Sebelius" title="National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius">National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius</a> (upholding most sections of the <a href="/wiki/Affordable_Care_Act" title="Affordable Care Act">Affordable Care Act</a>), <a href="/wiki/Shelby_County_v._Holder" title="Shelby County v. Holder">Shelby County v. Holder</a> (limiting the <a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a>), <a href="/wiki/Trump_v._Hawaii" title="Trump v. Hawaii">Trump v. Hawaii</a> (expanding presidential powers over immigration), <a href="/wiki/Carpenter_v._United_States" title="Carpenter v. United States">Carpenter v. United States</a> (expanding <a href="/wiki/Digital_privacy" title="Digital privacy">digital privacy</a>), <a href="/wiki/Students_for_Fair_Admissions_v._Harvard" title="Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard">Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard</a> (overruling <a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">race-based admission</a> programs), and <a href="/wiki/Trump_v._United_States_(2024)" title="Trump v. United States (2024)">Trump v. United States</a> (outlining the extent of presidential immunity from criminal prosecution). Roberts also presided over the <a href="/wiki/First_impeachment_trial_of_Donald_Trump" title="First impeachment trial of Donald Trump">first impeachment trial</a> of President <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a>. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life_and_education">Early life and education</h2></div> Roberts was born on January 27, 1955, in <a href="/wiki/Buffalo,_New_York" title="Buffalo, New York">Buffalo, New York</a>, to Rosemary (<a href="/wiki/N%C3%A9e" class="mw-redirect" title="Née">née</a> Podrasky) and John Glover "Jack" Roberts Sr., both devout Catholics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFriedmanIsrael2013466,_468-10">[10]</a> His father had <a href="/wiki/Irish_people" title="Irish people">Irish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Welsh_people" title="Welsh people">Welsh</a> ancestry and his mother was a descendant of <a href="/wiki/Slovaks" title="Slovaks">Slovak</a> immigrants from <a href="/wiki/Szepes" class="mw-redirect" title="Szepes">Szepes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiskupic201917-11">[11]</a> He has two younger sisters, Margaret and Barbara, and an elder sister, Kathy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiskupic201918,_21-12">[12]</a> Roberts spent his early childhood years in <a href="/wiki/Hamburg,_New_York" title="Hamburg, New York">Hamburg, New York</a>, where his father worked as an <a href="/wiki/Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering">electrical engineer</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Bethlehem_Steel" title="Bethlehem Steel">Bethlehem Steel Corporation</a>'s factory in <a href="/wiki/Lackawanna,_New_York" title="Lackawanna, New York">Lackawanna</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiskupic201921-13">[13]</a> In 1965, ten-year-old Roberts and his family moved to <a href="/wiki/Long_Beach,_Indiana" title="Long Beach, Indiana">Long Beach, Indiana</a>, where his father became the manager of a new steel plant in nearby <a href="/wiki/Burns_Harbor,_Indiana" title="Burns Harbor, Indiana">Burns Harbor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-nytimes-14">[14]</a> By age 13, Roberts "already had a clear plan for his life."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStone20201015–1016-15">[15]</a> He attended the parochial <a href="/wiki/La_Lumiere_School" title="La Lumiere School">La Lumiere School</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:1-16">[16]</a> an academically rigorous <a href="/wiki/Catholic_school" title="Catholic school">Catholic boarding school</a> in <a href="/wiki/La_Porte,_Indiana" title="La Porte, Indiana">La Porte, Indiana</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStone20201015-17">[17]</a> where he captained the school's <a href="/wiki/American_football" title="American football">football</a> team, participated in <a href="/wiki/Track_and_field" title="Track and field">track and field</a>, and was a regional champion in <a href="/wiki/Scholastic_wrestling" title="Scholastic wrestling">wrestling</a>. He also participated in <a href="/wiki/Choir" title="Choir">choir</a> and <a href="/wiki/Drama" title="Drama">drama</a>, and was a co-editor of the school newspaper.<a href="#cite_note-nytimes-14">[14]</a> He graduated in 1973 as class <a href="/wiki/Valedictorian" title="Valedictorian">valedictorian</a>, becoming the first graduate of the La Lumiere School to enroll at Harvard University.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiskupic201929-18">[18]</a> At <a href="/wiki/Harvard_College" title="Harvard College">Harvard College</a>, Roberts dedicated himself to studying history, his <a href="/wiki/Academic_major" title="Academic major">academic major</a>. He had entered Harvard as a <a href="/wiki/Sophomore" title="Sophomore">sophomore</a> with second-year standing based on his academic achievements in high school.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiskupic201935–36-19">[19]</a> Roberts first roomed in <a href="/wiki/Straus_Hall" class="mw-redirect" title="Straus Hall">Straus Hall</a> before moving to <a href="/wiki/Leverett_House" title="Leverett House">Leverett House</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:2-20">[20]</a> Every summer, he returned home to work at the steel plant his father managed.<a href="#cite_note-nytimes-14">[14]</a> Although he initially felt obscured among other students, Roberts distinguished himself with professors, meriting multiple distinctions for his scholarly writing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiskupic201938-21">[21]</a> He gained a reputation as a serious student who valued formalism.<a href="#cite_note-:2-20">[20]</a> Every Sunday, he attended <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Mass" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Mass">Catholic Mass</a> at <a href="/wiki/St._Paul_Church_(Cambridge,_Massachusetts)" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Paul Church (Cambridge, Massachusetts)">St. Paul Church</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiskupic201936-22">[22]</a> As an undergraduate, Roberts excelled academically.<a href="#cite_note-nytimes-14">[14]</a> He focused on modern European history and maintained an interest in politics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiskupic201935-23">[23]</a> In his first year, he won the university's Edwards Whitaker Scholarship for outstanding scholastic achievement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiskupic201938-21">[21]</a> He intended to pursue a Ph.D. in history to be a professor but also contemplated a legal career.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiskupic201940,_44-24">[24]</a> One of Roberts's first papers, "Marxism and Bolshevism: Theory and Practice," won Harvard's William Scott Ferguson Prize for the most outstanding essay by a sophomore history major.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiskupic201938-21">[21]</a> An early interest in <a href="/wiki/Oral_advocacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Oral advocacy">oral advocacy</a> also led him to study <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Webster" title="Daniel Webster">Daniel Webster</a>, a prominent <a href="/wiki/Legal_advocate" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal advocate">advocate</a> before the Supreme Court.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiskupic201939-25">[25]</a> His senior year paper, "The Utopian Conservative: A Study of Continuity and Change in the Thought of Daniel Webster," won a <a href="/wiki/Bowdoin_Prize" class="mw-redirect" title="Bowdoin Prize">Bowdoin Prize</a>.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> In 1976, Roberts obtained his <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" title="Bachelor of Arts">Bachelor of Arts</a> degree in history, <a href="/wiki/Latin_honors#North_America" title="Latin honors">summa cum laude</a>, with membership in <a href="/wiki/Phi_Beta_Kappa" title="Phi Beta Kappa">Phi Beta Kappa</a>. A recent surplus of history graduate students convinced him to attend <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_School" title="Harvard Law School">Harvard Law School</a> for better career prospects, though he maintained his original goal to become a professor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiskupic201944–45-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[a]</a> His first-year performance in law school placed him in the top 15 students in a class of 550 and won him membership on the <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_Review" title="Harvard Law Review">Harvard Law Review</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder20101217-28">[28]</a> The journal's president, <a href="/wiki/David_Leebron" title="David Leebron">David Leebron</a>, chose Roberts as its <a href="/wiki/Managing_editor" title="Managing editor">managing editor</a>, despite their differing political views.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiskupic201944–45-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[b]</a> Classmate <a href="/wiki/David_B._Wilkins" title="David B. Wilkins">David Wilkins</a> described Roberts as "more conservative than the typical Harvard Law student in the 1970s" but well-liked by fellow students.<a href="#cite_note-:2-20">[20]</a> In 1979, Roberts graduated at the top of his class with a <a href="/wiki/Juris_Doctor" title="Juris Doctor">Juris Doctor</a>, magna cum laude, despite once having to admit himself to a local hospital for exhaustion. He later regretted that he traveled into Boston on only a couple of occasions during his time at Harvard, being too preoccupied with his studies.<a href="#cite_note-32">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_legal_career">Early legal career</h2></div> After graduating from law school, Roberts was a <a href="/wiki/Law_clerk" title="Law clerk">law clerk</a> for Judge <a href="/wiki/Henry_Friendly" title="Henry Friendly">Henry Friendly</a>,<a href="#cite_note-34">[c]</a> one of the most influential judges of the century, at the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Second_Circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit">U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit</a> from 1979 to 1980.<a href="#cite_note-35">[32]</a> Friendly was impressed by Roberts's performance; they shared similar backgrounds,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder20101218–1219-36">[33]</a> and co-clerk <a href="/wiki/Reinier_Kraakman" title="Reinier Kraakman">Reinier Kraakman</a> recalled that "there was a bond between them."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder20101221-37">[34]</a> When Roberts became a federal judge years later, he identified with Friendly's nonpartisan approach to law and maintained a correspondence with him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiskupic201951–52,_85–86-38">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[d]</a> After finishing his clerkship at the Second Circuit in May,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder20101221-37">[34]</a> Roberts went to clerk for Justice (later Chief Justice) <a href="/wiki/William_Rehnquist" title="William Rehnquist">William Rehnquist</a> at the U.S. Supreme Court from 1980 to 1981.<a href="#cite_note-nytimes-14">[14]</a> At the end of his clerkship with Rehnquist, Roberts worked to gain <a href="/wiki/Admission_to_the_bar" class="mw-redirect" title="Admission to the bar">admission to the bar</a>, studying with <a href="/wiki/Michael_W._McConnell" title="Michael W. McConnell">Michael W. McConnell</a>, a law clerk of Justice <a href="/wiki/William_J._Brennan_Jr." title="William J. Brennan Jr.">William Brennan</a>. After the <a href="/wiki/1980_United_States_presidential_election" title="1980 United States presidential election">1980 presidential election</a>, he resolved to work under the new <a href="/wiki/Reagan_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Reagan Administration">Reagan administration</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiskupic201961,_63–64-41">[37]</a> Rehnquist recommended him to <a href="/wiki/Ken_Starr" title="Ken Starr">Ken Starr</a>, who was chief of staff to attorney general <a href="/wiki/William_French_Smith" title="William French Smith">William French Smith</a>, and Roberts was named a <a href="/wiki/Special_Assistant_United_States_Attorney" class="mw-redirect" title="Special Assistant United States Attorney">special assistant</a> to the attorney general. After being admitted to the <a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_Bar" title="District of Columbia Bar">District of Columbia bar</a> and arriving to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice" title="United States Department of Justice">Department of Justice</a> in August 1981, he helped <a href="/wiki/Sandra_Day_O%27Connor" title="Sandra Day O'Connor">Sandra Day O'Connor</a> prepare for her confirmation hearings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiskupic201965-42">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[e]</a><figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ronald_Reagan_Greets_John_Roberts.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Ronald_Reagan_Greets_John_Roberts.jpg/231px-Ronald_Reagan_Greets_John_Roberts.jpg" decoding="async" width="231" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Ronald_Reagan_Greets_John_Roberts.jpg/347px-Ronald_Reagan_Greets_John_Roberts.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Ronald_Reagan_Greets_John_Roberts.jpg/462px-Ronald_Reagan_Greets_John_Roberts.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2658" /></a><figcaption>President Ronald Reagan greeting Roberts in the <a href="/wiki/Oval_Office" title="Oval Office">Oval Office</a> while Roberts was serving as an associate White House Counsel (1983)</figcaption></figure> As an assistant to the attorney general, Roberts concentrated on the scope of the <a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a>, especially Section 2 and <a href="/wiki/Section_5_of_the_Voting_Rights_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 5 of the Voting Rights Act">Section 5</a>, both of which Roberts and other Reagan lawyers believed to have unnecessarily intruded on state regulations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiskupic201970-45">[40]</a> He wrote to Friendly, "this is an exciting time to be at the Justice Department, when so much that has been taken for granted for so long is being seriously reconsidered."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiskupic201969-46">[41]</a> Among those he worked with were <a href="/wiki/William_Bradford_Reynolds" title="William Bradford Reynolds">William Bradford Reynolds</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Division" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights Division">Civil Rights Division</a>, former classmate <a href="/wiki/Richard_Lazarus_(law_professor)" title="Richard Lazarus (law professor)">Richard Lazarus</a>, <a href="/wiki/J._Harvie_Wilkinson_III" title="J. Harvie Wilkinson III">J. Harvie Wilkinson III</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Olson" title="Theodore Olson">Theodore Olson</a>, and fellow special assistant <a href="/wiki/Carolyn_Kuhl" title="Carolyn Kuhl">Carolyn Kuhl</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiskupic201973,_76,_81,_96,_124–125-47">[42]</a> In 1982, Reagan advisor <a href="/wiki/Fred_Fielding" class="mw-redirect" title="Fred Fielding">Fred Fielding</a> recruited Roberts to work at the <a href="/wiki/White_House" title="White House">White House</a>. Fielding gathered a group of lawyers that also included <a href="/wiki/J._Michael_Luttig" title="J. Michael Luttig">J. Michael Luttig</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henry_L._Garrett_III" title="Henry L. Garrett III">Henry Garrett</a>.<a href="#cite_note-48">[43]</a> From 1982 to 1986, Roberts was an associate with the <a href="/wiki/White_House_Counsel" title="White House Counsel">White House Counsel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-nytimes-14">[14]</a> He then entered private practice in <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>, as an associate at the law firm Hogan & Hartson (now <a href="/wiki/Hogan_Lovells" title="Hogan Lovells">Hogan Lovells</a>), working in <a href="/wiki/Corporate_law" title="Corporate law">corporate law</a>.<a href="#cite_note-49">[44]</a> <a href="/wiki/E._Barrett_Prettyman" title="E. Barrett Prettyman">E. Barrett Prettyman</a>, under whom he was first assigned, was one of the most prominent <a href="/wiki/Advocate" title="Advocate">advocates</a> in the country along with <a href="/wiki/Rex_E._Lee" title="Rex E. Lee">Rex E. Lee</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiskupic201993-50">[45]</a> Roberts also built a successful practice as an <a href="/wiki/Appellate_court" title="Appellate court">appellate</a> lawyer,<a href="#cite_note-:1-16">[16]</a> heading the firm's division for appellate advocacy.<a href="#cite_note-51">[46]</a> He made his first appearance before the Supreme Court in United States v. Halper, arguing against the government, and the Court unanimously upheld his arguments.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFriedmanIsrael2013470-52">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Appellate_advocacy">Appellate advocacy</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Reagan_Contact_Sheet_C29875_(cropped3).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Reagan_Contact_Sheet_C29875_%28cropped3%29.jpg/220px-Reagan_Contact_Sheet_C29875_%28cropped3%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Reagan_Contact_Sheet_C29875_%28cropped3%29.jpg/330px-Reagan_Contact_Sheet_C29875_%28cropped3%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Reagan_Contact_Sheet_C29875_%28cropped3%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="424" data-file-height="281" /></a><figcaption>Roberts with President Reagan on <a href="/wiki/Air_Force_One" title="Air Force One">Air Force One</a> in 1985</figcaption></figure> In 1989, Ken Starr relinquished his judgeship on the D.C. Circuit to become <a href="/wiki/Solicitor_General_of_the_United_States" title="Solicitor General of the United States">U.S. Solicitor General</a> under President <a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a>. Needing a deputy, Starr chose Roberts to join the administration as <a href="/wiki/Solicitor_General_of_the_United_States#Composition_of_the_Office_of_the_Solicitor_General" title="Solicitor General of the United States">Principal Deputy Solicitor General</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiskupic201994–95-53">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[49]</a> "I felt that his experience was good for the political deputy position. [Roberts] was a steady hand, a wise hand. He came in as a person not of vast experience but of vast ability," Starr recalled.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiskupic201995-55">[50]</a> With the new appointment, Roberts, whose work had previously been confidential, became a prominent figure at the Supreme Court, leading the filings of the Bush administration and representing it in the media.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiskupic201996-56">[51]</a> As deputy solicitor general, Roberts frequently appeared before the Supreme Court.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFriedmanIsrael2013471-57">[52]</a> He argued for a number of conservative positions, including those against abortion, an extensive <a href="/wiki/Federal_jurisdiction" title="Federal jurisdiction">federal jurisdiction</a> and policies that afforded special benefits to minority groups.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiskupic2019102–104-58">[53]</a> In 1990, he successfully argued his first case in Atlantic Richfield Company v. USA Petroleum Company, which concerned <a href="/wiki/Antitrust" class="mw-redirect" title="Antitrust">anti-trust</a> law, and then successfully argued the <a href="/wiki/Standing_(law)" title="Standing (law)">standing</a> case of Lujan v. National Wildlife Federation, which became a hallmark in the field.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFriedmanIsrael2013470–471-59">[54]</a> When Starr recused himself in <a href="/wiki/Metro_Broadcasting,_Inc._v._FCC" title="Metro Broadcasting, Inc. v. FCC">Metro Broadcasting, Inc. v. FCC</a>, Roberts took his place, arguing that the use of racial preferences by the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission" title="Federal Communications Commission">Federal Communications Commission</a> (FCC) was unconstitutional. The position failed to convince the Court, which announced on June 27, 1990, that it had sided with the FCC. Government attorneys, surprised by Roberts's stance against the FCC, discussed whether it contributed to a politicization of the office, as the Solicitor General traditionally defended the government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiskupic201997–99-60">[55]</a> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_W._Merrill" title="Thomas W. Merrill">Thomas Merrill</a>, a deputy for the Solicitor General, described Roberts's candid position simply as: "This affirmative action program violated the Constitution, and we should present that to the Supreme Court."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiskupic201999-61">[56]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Judge_Henry_Friendly.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Judge_Henry_Friendly.jpg/220px-Judge_Henry_Friendly.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="308" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Judge_Henry_Friendly.jpg/330px-Judge_Henry_Friendly.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Judge_Henry_Friendly.jpg/440px-Judge_Henry_Friendly.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="2100" /></a><figcaption>Roberts idealized his judicial mentor, Judge <a href="/wiki/Henry_Friendly" title="Henry Friendly">Henry Friendly</a>, and described Friendly as the "exemplar of judicial modesty".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder20101149,_1151,_1215–1216-62">[57]</a></figcaption></figure> When <a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</a> was confirmed to the Supreme Court in 1991, Roberts's proven experience in complex litigation for the Bush administration made him a leading candidate to fill Thomas's vacancy on the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Court_of_Appeals_for_the_District_of_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia">U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiskupic2019109–110-63">[58]</a> On January 27, 1992, Bush nominated Roberts, who had just turned 37 years old, to the D.C. Circuit, and Starr urged Senator <a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden" title="Joe Biden">Joe Biden</a>, chair of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_Committee_on_the_Judiciary" title="United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary">Senate Judiciary Committee</a>, to schedule a hearing despite an upcoming election year. Democratic lobbyists and progressive interest groups successfully encouraged Biden to stall the process.<a href="#cite_note-64">[59]</a> As <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> defeated Bush in the <a href="/wiki/1992_United_States_presidential_election" title="1992 United States presidential election">1992 presidential election</a>, Roberts's nomination lapsed with no Senate vote and expired at the end of the <a href="/wiki/102nd_Congress" class="mw-redirect" title="102nd Congress">102nd Congress</a>.<a href="#cite_note-georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov-65">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenburg2007186-66">[61]</a> In January 1993, Roberts returned to Hogan and Hartson, where, finding great success as an advocate, he began to regularly appear again before the Supreme Court.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiskupic2019112-67">[62]</a> With a reputation as the leading private Supreme Court litigator, Roberts often represented corporations that sued individuals or the government. He was Hogan and Hartson's most prominent <a href="/wiki/Partner_lawyer" class="mw-redirect" title="Partner lawyer">partner</a>, arguing 18 Supreme Court cases from 1993 to 2003 and 20 in nationwide appellate courts while also doing work <a href="/wiki/Pro_bono" title="Pro bono">pro bono</a>, demonstrating expertise in a wide variety of different fields.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFriedmanIsrael2013471–473-68">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStone20201019-69">[64]</a> In June 1995, to Roberts's satisfaction, the Supreme Court overruled his previous loss of Metro Broadcasting, Inc. v. FCC in <a href="/wiki/Adarand_Constructors,_Inc._v._Pe%C3%B1a" title="Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Peña">Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Peña</a>, establishing that the government must treat people on an individual basis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiskupic2019113-70">[65]</a> The next year, his pro bono contributions included giving fundamental aid to <a href="/wiki/Gay_rights_activists" class="mw-redirect" title="Gay rights activists">gay rights activists</a> in the landmark case of <a href="/wiki/Romer_v._Evans" title="Romer v. Evans">Romer v. Evans</a> (1996).<a href="#cite_note-71">[66]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/2000_United_States_presidential_election" title="2000 United States presidential election">2000 presidential election</a>, Roberts went to <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a> to assist <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStone20201019–1020-72">[67]</a> by which time <a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Toobin" title="Jeffrey Toobin">Jeffrey Toobin</a> identified him as "among the top advocates of his generation".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEToobin2007149-73">[68]</a> According to biographer <a href="/wiki/Joan_Biskupic" title="Joan Biskupic">Joan Biskupic</a>, he built a reputation "for his powers of persuasion and tireless preparation", and "his meticulous preparation and unflagging composure inspired confidence among his well-heeled clients."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiskupic20191–2,_119-74">[69]</a> His arguments against government regulation often appealed to Rehnquist and the Court's conservatives while his style and skill in rhetoric won him the respect of <a href="/wiki/John_Paul_Stevens" title="John Paul Stevens">John Paul Stevens</a> and the Court's liberals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiskupic2019119–120-75">[70]</a> Democrats and Republicans alike widely viewed Roberts as one of the Supreme Court's most distinguished advocates.<a href="#cite_note-76">[71]</a> <table class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders"> <caption>Selected cases </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Case </th> <th>Argued </th> <th>Decided </th> <th>Represented </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/First_Options_v._Kaplan" class="mw-redirect" title="First Options v. Kaplan">First Options v. Kaplan</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130102142458/http://laws.findlaw.com/us/514/938.html">514 U.S. 938</a> </td> <td>March 22, 1995 </td> <td>May 22, 1995 </td> <td>Respondent </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Adams_v._Robertson" title="Adams v. Robertson">Adams v. Robertson</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://laws.findlaw.com/us/520/83.html">520 U.S. 83</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </td> <td>January 14, 1997 </td> <td>March 3, 1997 </td> <td>Respondent </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Alaska_v._Native_Village_of_Venetie_Tribal_Government" title="Alaska v. Native Village of Venetie Tribal Government">Alaska v. Native Village of Venetie Tribal Government</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130102194617/http://laws.findlaw.com/us/522/520.html">522 U.S. 520</a> </td> <td>December 10, 1997 </td> <td>February 25, 1999 </td> <td>Petitioner </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Feltner_v._Columbia_Pictures_Television,_Inc." title="Feltner v. Columbia Pictures Television, Inc.">Feltner v. Columbia Pictures Television, Inc.</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130104051131/http://laws.findlaw.com/us/523/340.html">523 U.S. 340</a> </td> <td>January 21, 1998 </td> <td>March 31, 1998 </td> <td>Petitioner </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/National_Collegiate_Athletic_Association_v._Smith" class="mw-redirect" title="National Collegiate Athletic Association v. Smith">National Collegiate Athletic Association v. Smith</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130102152947/http://laws.findlaw.com/us/525/459.html">525 U.S. 459</a> </td> <td>January 20, 1999 </td> <td>February 23, 1999 </td> <td>Petitioner </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rice_v._Cayetano" title="Rice v. Cayetano">Rice v. Cayetano</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130103025617/http://laws.findlaw.com/us/528/495.html">528 U.S. 495</a> </td> <td>October 6, 1999 </td> <td>February 23, 2000 </td> <td>Respondent </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Associated_Coal_Corp._v._Mine_Workers" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Associated Coal Corp. v. Mine Workers">Eastern Associated Coal Corp. v. Mine Workers</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130102234430/http://laws.findlaw.com/us/531/57.html">531 U.S. 57</a> </td> <td>October 2, 2000 </td> <td>November 28, 2000 </td> <td>Petitioner </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/TrafFix_Devices,_Inc._v._Marketing_Displays,_Inc." title="TrafFix Devices, Inc. v. Marketing Displays, Inc.">TrafFix Devices, Inc. v. Marketing Displays, Inc.</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130102140555/http://laws.findlaw.com/us/532/23.html">532 U.S. 23</a> </td> <td>November 29, 2000 </td> <td>March 20, 2001 </td> <td>Petitioner </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Toyota_Motor_Manufacturing_v._Williams" class="mw-redirect" title="Toyota Motor Manufacturing v. Williams">Toyota Motor Manufacturing v. Williams</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130102171315/http://laws.findlaw.com/us/534/184.html">534 U.S. 184</a> </td> <td>November 7, 2001 </td> <td>January 8, 2002 </td> <td>Petitioner </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tahoe-Sierra_Preservation_Council,_Inc._v._Tahoe_Regional_Planning_Agency" title="Tahoe-Sierra Preservation Council, Inc. v. Tahoe Regional Planning Agency">Tahoe-Sierra Preservation Council, Inc. v. Tahoe Regional Planning Agency</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130102171615/http://laws.findlaw.com/us/535/302.html">535 U.S. 302</a> </td> <td>January 7, 2002 </td> <td>April 23, 2002 </td> <td>Respondent </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rush_Prudential_HMO,_Inc._v._Moran" title="Rush Prudential HMO, Inc. v. Moran">Rush Prudential HMO, Inc. v. Moran</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130102231141/http://laws.findlaw.com/us/536/355.html">536 U.S. 355</a> </td> <td>January 16, 2002 </td> <td>June 20, 2002 </td> <td>Petitioner </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Gonzaga_University_v._Doe" title="Gonzaga University v. Doe">Gonzaga University v. Doe</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130102153408/http://laws.findlaw.com/us/536/273.html">536 U.S. 273</a> </td> <td>April 24, 2002 </td> <td>June 20, 2002 </td> <td>Petitioner </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Barnhart_v._Peabody_Coal_Co." title="Barnhart v. Peabody Coal Co.">Barnhart v. Peabody Coal Co.</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130102141112/http://laws.findlaw.com/us/537/149.html">537 U.S. 149</a> </td> <td>October 8, 2002 </td> <td>January 15, 2003 </td> <td>Respondent </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Smith_v._Doe" title="Smith v. Doe">Smith v. Doe</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130103022823/http://laws.findlaw.com/us/538/84.html">538 U.S. 84</a> </td> <td>November 13, 2002 </td> <td>March 5, 2003 </td> <td>Petitioner </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="U.S._Court_of_Appeals_for_the_District_of_Columbia_Circuit">U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Federal_judicial_nominees_listen_to_President_George_W._Bush_as_he_announces_their_nominations.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Federal_judicial_nominees_listen_to_President_George_W._Bush_as_he_announces_their_nominations.jpg/220px-Federal_judicial_nominees_listen_to_President_George_W._Bush_as_he_announces_their_nominations.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Federal_judicial_nominees_listen_to_President_George_W._Bush_as_he_announces_their_nominations.jpg/330px-Federal_judicial_nominees_listen_to_President_George_W._Bush_as_he_announces_their_nominations.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Federal_judicial_nominees_listen_to_President_George_W._Bush_as_he_announces_their_nominations.jpg/440px-Federal_judicial_nominees_listen_to_President_George_W._Bush_as_he_announces_their_nominations.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="396" /></a><figcaption>Roberts (second row, rightmost) listens with other candidates as Bush announces their judicial nominations in May 2001.</figcaption></figure> When <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> won the contested <a href="/wiki/2000_United_States_presidential_election" title="2000 United States presidential election">2000 presidential election</a>, journalists speculated about whom he might consider as possible nominees for the Supreme Court.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiskupic2019117-77">[72]</a> Luttig, Wilkinson, and other Reagan officials were leading candidates, but Judge <a href="/wiki/Alberto_Gonzales" title="Alberto Gonzales">Alberto Gonzales</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Texas_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="Texas Supreme Court">Texas Supreme Court</a>, a close supporter of Bush, also emerged and had a chance to be the first Latino nominee.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiskupic2019118–119-78">[73]</a> Roberts, who had not worked in government while <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> was in office, did not appear on lists compiled by Bush supporters, advocacy groups, or the media, but nonetheless remained a strong candidate for a Republican nomination and was poised to be re-nominated to the D.C. Circuit, often used as a platform for Supreme Court nomination.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiskupic2019119-79">[74]</a> On May 9, 2001, Bush nominated Roberts to a seat on the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_District_of_Columbia_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit">U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit</a> to replace Judge <a href="/wiki/James_L._Buckley" title="James L. Buckley">James L. Buckley</a>, who had retired.<a href="#cite_note-80">[75]</a> Unlike in 1992 when his first nomination stalled in the Democratic-majority Senate, Roberts's nomination came when Republicans had secured a one-vote Senate majority. But it soon lost that majority when Senator <a href="/wiki/Jim_Jeffords" title="Jim Jeffords">Jim Jeffords</a> left the party to become an <a href="/wiki/Independent_politician" title="Independent politician">independent</a>, jeopardizing Roberts's candidacy, which stalled once again when Senate Democrats refused to hold any nomination hearings.<a href="#cite_note-81">[76]</a> In 2002, <a href="/wiki/2002_United_States_Senate_elections" title="2002 United States Senate elections">Republicans regained control of the Senate</a> and Roberts finally received a hearing by the Senate Judiciary Committee.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiskupic2019132-82">[77]</a><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Roberts.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/John_Roberts.jpg/202px-John_Roberts.jpg" decoding="async" width="202" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/John_Roberts.jpg/303px-John_Roberts.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/John_Roberts.jpg/403px-John_Roberts.jpg 2x" data-file-width="568" data-file-height="724" /></a><figcaption>Roberts as a judge on the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Court_of_Appeals_for_the_District_of_Columbia_Circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit">U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2003)</figcaption></figure> Supported by a bipartisan letter of support signed by more than 150 members of the <a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_Bar" title="District of Columbia Bar">District of Columbia Bar</a>—including White House counsels <a href="/wiki/Lloyd_Cutler" title="Lloyd Cutler">Lloyd Cutler</a>, <a href="/wiki/C._Boyden_Gray" title="C. Boyden Gray">C. Boyden Gray</a>, and Solicitor General <a href="/wiki/Seth_Waxman" class="mw-redirect" title="Seth Waxman">Seth Waxman</a>—the Judiciary Committee recommended Roberts by a vote of 16 to 3,<a href="#cite_note-84">[f]</a> and the Senate confirmed him unanimously by <a href="/wiki/Voice_vote" title="Voice vote">voice vote</a> on May 8, 2003.<a href="#cite_note-85">[79]</a> On June 2, he received his judicial commission.<a href="#cite_note-86">[80]</a> Even when Roberts had not yet fully assumed his role as a circuit judge, White House Counsel officers listed him on their shortlist of Supreme Court candidates.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEToobin2007264–265-87">[81]</a> Roberts authored 49 opinions during his two-year service on the D.C. Circuit, many of which concerned decisions by the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission" title="Federal Communications Commission">Federal Communications Commission</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Energy_Regulatory_Commission" title="Federal Energy Regulatory Commission">Federal Energy Regulatory Commission</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFriedmanIsrael2013473-88">[82]</a> His opinions often employed a "characteristically crisp, clear writing style" that favored the use of imagery and idioms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiskupic2019136-89">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[g]</a> Most of the disputes he reviewed concerned government regulation, union rights, and <a href="/wiki/Collective_bargaining" title="Collective bargaining">collective bargaining</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiskupic2019136-89">[83]</a> but he also wrote on environmental law,<a href="#cite_note-91">[h]</a> criminal law,<a href="#cite_note-93">[i]</a> and procedural matters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFriedmanIsrael2013473–475-94">[85]</a> One case, Hedgepeth ex rel Hedgepeth v. Washington Metropolitan Area Transit (2004), garnered media attention when Roberts found that Washington police properly detained a 12-year-old girl who ate in violation of a <a href="/wiki/Zero_tolerance_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="Zero tolerance policy">zero tolerance policy</a> against eating in a metro station.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFriedmanIsrael2013474-92">[84]</a> His opinions generally reflected a conservative judicial philosophy, including in areas of civil rights and executive power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFriedmanIsrael2013475-95">[86]</a> The brevity of his tenure and his cautiousness in deciding cases left little for potential opponents to scrutinize while he made rulings as a circuit judge.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiskupic2019138-96">[87]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nomination_to_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_(2005)">Nomination to the Supreme Court of the United States (2005)</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/John_Roberts_Supreme_Court_nomination" class="mw-redirect" title="John Roberts Supreme Court nomination">John Roberts Supreme Court nomination</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Robertsoath6.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Robertsoath6.jpg/220px-Robertsoath6.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Robertsoath6.jpg/330px-Robertsoath6.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Robertsoath6.jpg/440px-Robertsoath6.jpg 2x" data-file-width="515" data-file-height="345" /></a><figcaption>President <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> announces Roberts's nomination to be Chief Justice (2005).</figcaption></figure> By the time of the <a href="/wiki/2004_United_States_presidential_election" title="2004 United States presidential election">2004 presidential election</a>, Justice Rehnquist had been fatally ill and senior Bush administration advisors under <a href="/wiki/Karl_Rove" title="Karl Rove">Karl Rove</a> began assessing the potential candidates to replace him. Among them, Roberts stood out for his experience as a Supreme Court advocate, which had brought him the favorable attention of not just conservatives but also liberals such as <a href="/wiki/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg" title="Ruth Bader Ginsburg">Ruth Bader Ginsburg</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenburg2007185–186,_188-97">[88]</a> On July 19, 2005, <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush_Supreme_Court_candidates" title="George W. Bush Supreme Court candidates">President Bush nominated</a> Roberts to the U.S. Supreme Court to fill a vacancy to be created by the impending retirement of Justice <a href="/wiki/Sandra_Day_O%27Connor" title="Sandra Day O'Connor">Sandra Day O'Connor</a>. Roberts's nomination was the first Supreme Court nomination since <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Breyer" title="Stephen Breyer">Stephen Breyer</a>'s in 1994. On September 3, 2005, while Roberts's confirmation was pending before the Senate, Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/William_H._Rehnquist" class="mw-redirect" title="William H. Rehnquist">William H. Rehnquist</a> died. Two days later, Bush withdrew Roberts's nomination as O'Connor's successor and nominated Roberts to succeed Rehnquist as chief justice.<a href="#cite_note-98">[89]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roberts's_testimony_on_his_jurisprudence">Roberts's testimony on his jurisprudence</h3></div> During his confirmation hearings, Roberts said he did not have a comprehensive jurisprudential philosophy and did "not think beginning with an all-encompassing approach to constitutional interpretation is the best way to faithfully construe the document."<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-99">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-multiple1-100">[91]</a> Roberts compared judges to baseball umpires: "[I]t's my job to call balls and strikes, and not to pitch or bat."<a href="#cite_note-101">[92]</a> Among the issues he discussed during the hearings were: <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Roberts_Confirmation_Hearings.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/John_Roberts_Confirmation_Hearings.jpg/220px-John_Roberts_Confirmation_Hearings.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/John_Roberts_Confirmation_Hearings.jpg/330px-John_Roberts_Confirmation_Hearings.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/John_Roberts_Confirmation_Hearings.jpg/440px-John_Roberts_Confirmation_Hearings.jpg 2x" data-file-width="610" data-file-height="407" /></a><figcaption>Roberts testifying before the Senate Judiciary Committee</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Commerce_Clause">Commerce Clause</h4></div> In Senate hearings, Roberts said: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Starting with <a href="/wiki/McCulloch_v._Maryland" title="McCulloch v. Maryland">McCulloch v. Maryland</a>, Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/John_Marshall" title="John Marshall">John Marshall</a> gave a very broad and expansive reading to the powers of the federal government and explained generally that if the ends be legitimate, then any means chosen to achieve them are within the power of the federal government, and cases interpreting that, throughout the years, have come down. Certainly, by the time <a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Lopez" title="United States v. Lopez">Lopez</a> was decided, many of us had learned in law school that it was just sort of a formality to say that <a href="/wiki/Commerce_Clause" title="Commerce Clause">interstate commerce</a> was affected and that cases weren't going to be thrown out that way. Lopez certainly breathed new life into the <a href="/wiki/Commerce_Clause" title="Commerce Clause">Commerce Clause</a>. I think it remains to be seen, in subsequent decisions, how rigorous a showing, and in many cases, it is just a showing. It's not a question of an abstract fact—does this affect interstate commerce or not—but has this body, the Congress, demonstrated the impact on interstate commerce that drove them to legislate? That's a very important factor. It wasn't present in Lopez at all. I think the members of Congress had heard the same thing I had heard in law school, that this is unimportant—and they hadn't gone through the process of establishing a record in that case.<a href="#cite_note-multiple1-100">[91]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Federalism">Federalism</h4></div> Roberts said the following about <a href="/wiki/Federalism_in_the_United_States" title="Federalism in the United States">federalism</a> in a 1999 radio interview: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">We have gotten to the point these days where we think the only way we can show we're serious about a problem is if we pass a federal law, whether it is the Violence Against Women Act or anything else. The fact of the matter is conditions are different in different states, and state laws can be more—relevant is I think exactly the right term, more attuned to the different situations in New York, as opposed to Minnesota, and that is what the federal system is based on.<a href="#cite_note-102">[93]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reviewing_Acts_of_Congress">Reviewing Acts of Congress</h4></div> At a Senate hearing, Roberts said: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The Supreme Court has, throughout its history, on many occasions described the deference that is due to legislative judgments. Justice Holmes described assessing the constitutionality of an act of Congress as the gravest duty that the Supreme Court is called upon to perform. ... It's a principle that is easily stated and needs to be observed in practice, as well as in theory. Now, the Court, of course, has the obligation, and has been recognized since <a href="/wiki/Marbury_v._Madison" title="Marbury v. Madison">Marbury v. Madison</a>, to assess the constitutionality of acts of Congress, and when those acts are challenged, it is the obligation of the Court to say what the law is. The determination of when deference to legislative policy judgments goes too far and becomes abdication of the judicial responsibility, and when scrutiny of those judgments goes too far on the part of the judges and becomes what I think is properly called <a href="/wiki/Judicial_activism" title="Judicial activism">judicial activism</a>—that is certainly the central dilemma of having an unelected, as you describe it correctly, undemocratic judiciary in a democratic republic.<a href="#cite_note-multiple1-100">[91]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Stare_decisis">Stare decisis</h4></div> On the subject of <a href="/wiki/Stare_decisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Stare decisis">stare decisis</a>, referring to <a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a>, the decision overturning school <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">segregation</a>, Roberts said: "the Court in that case, of course, overruled a prior decision. I don't think that constitutes judicial activism because obviously if the decision is wrong, it should be overruled. That's not activism. That's applying the law correctly."<a href="#cite_note-103">[94]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Roe_v._Wade">Roe v. Wade</h4></div> As a lawyer for the Reagan administration, Roberts wrote legal memos defending administration policies on <a href="/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">abortion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenburg2007232-104">[95]</a> At his nomination hearing, he testified that the legal memos represented the views of the administration he was representing at the time and not necessarily his own.<a href="#cite_note-rasoai-105">[96]</a> "I was a staff lawyer; I didn't have a position," Roberts said.<a href="#cite_note-rasoai-105">[96]</a> As a lawyer in the <a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="George H. W. Bush administration">George H. W. Bush administration</a>, Roberts signed a legal brief urging the court to overturn <a href="/wiki/Roe_v._Wade" title="Roe v. Wade">Roe v. Wade</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenburg2007226-106">[97]</a> In private meetings with senators before his confirmation, Roberts testified that Roe was settled law, but added that it was subject to the legal principle of <a href="/wiki/Stare_decisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Stare decisis">stare decisis</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenburg2007233-107">[98]</a> meaning that while the Court must give some weight to the precedent, it was not legally bound to uphold it. In his Senate testimony, Roberts said that, while sitting on the <a href="/wiki/Circuit_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="Circuit Court">Appellate Court</a>, he had an obligation to respect precedents established by the Supreme Court, including the right to abortion. He said: "<a href="/wiki/Roe_v._Wade" title="Roe v. Wade">Roe v. Wade</a> is the settled law of the land. ... There is nothing in my personal views that would prevent me from fully and faithfully applying that precedent, as well as <a href="/wiki/Planned_Parenthood_v._Casey" title="Planned Parenthood v. Casey">Casey</a>." Following nominees' traditional reluctance to indicate which way they might vote on an issue likely to come before the Supreme Court, he did not explicitly say whether he would vote to overturn either.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-99">[90]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Rosen_(legal_academic)" title="Jeffrey Rosen (legal academic)">Jeffrey Rosen</a> said, "I wouldn't bet on Chief Justice Roberts's siding unequivocally with the anti-Roe forces."<a href="#cite_note-AtlanticRosen-108">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Confirmation">Confirmation</h3></div> On September 22, 2005, the <a href="/wiki/Senate_Judiciary_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="Senate Judiciary Committee">Senate Judiciary Committee</a> approved Roberts's nomination by a vote of 13–5, with Senators <a href="/wiki/Ted_Kennedy" title="Ted Kennedy">Ted Kennedy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dick_Durbin" title="Dick Durbin">Richard Durbin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Schumer" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Schumer">Charles Schumer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden" title="Joe Biden">Joe Biden</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dianne_Feinstein" title="Dianne Feinstein">Dianne Feinstein</a> opposed. The full Senate confirmed Roberts on September 29 by a margin of 78–22.<a href="#cite_note-109">[100]</a> All Republicans and the one Independent voted for Roberts; the Democrats split evenly, 22–22. Roberts was confirmed by what was, historically, a narrow margin for a Supreme Court justice,<a href="#cite_note-:3-9">[9]</a> but all subsequent confirmation votes have been even narrower.<a href="#cite_note-110">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-112">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[104]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="U.S._Supreme_Court">U.S. Supreme Court</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Roberts_Court" title="Roberts Court">Roberts Court</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Swearing-In_of_Supreme_Court_Chief_Justice_John_Roberts.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Swearing-In_of_Supreme_Court_Chief_Justice_John_Roberts.jpg/220px-Swearing-In_of_Supreme_Court_Chief_Justice_John_Roberts.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Swearing-In_of_Supreme_Court_Chief_Justice_John_Roberts.jpg/330px-Swearing-In_of_Supreme_Court_Chief_Justice_John_Roberts.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Swearing-In_of_Supreme_Court_Chief_Justice_John_Roberts.jpg/440px-Swearing-In_of_Supreme_Court_Chief_Justice_John_Roberts.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="667" /></a><figcaption>Roberts is sworn in as Chief Justice by Justice <a href="/wiki/John_Paul_Stevens" title="John Paul Stevens">John Paul Stevens</a> in the East Room of the <a href="/wiki/White_House" title="White House">White House</a> as President Bush and Roberts's wife Jane look on, September 29, 2005.</figcaption></figure> 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div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border: 4px double #B0161E; border-spacing:0.2em 0;color: var(--color-base, #000);"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">This article is part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Conservatism in the United States">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#B0161E; padding-top:0.25em; font-size:160%; font-weight:normal; color:white; line-height:1em"><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Conservatism in the United States">Conservatism in the United States</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/90px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/135px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/180px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="451" data-file-height="476" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Schools</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compassionate_conservatism" title="Compassionate conservatism">Compassionate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiscal_conservatism" title="Fiscal conservatism">Fiscal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusionism" title="Fusionism">Fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_conservatism#Relation_to_American_conservatism" title="Liberal conservatism">Liberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_conservatism" title="Libertarian conservatism">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moderate_conservatism" title="Moderate conservatism">Moderate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movement_conservatism" title="Movement conservatism">Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoconservatism" title="Neoconservatism">Neo-</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoconservatism" title="Paleoconservatism">Paleo-</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postliberalism" title="Postliberalism">Postliberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_populism#United_States" title="Right-wing populism">Populist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_conservatism" title="Progressive conservatism">Progressive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Social conservatism in the United States">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Straussianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Straussianism">Straussian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Traditionalist conservatism in the United States">Traditionalist</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Principles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_exceptionalism" title="American exceptionalism">American exceptionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_nationalism" title="American nationalism">American nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communism#United_States" title="Anti-communism">Anti-communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_nationalism#United_States" title="Christian nationalism">Christian nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism#United_States" title="Classical liberalism">Classical liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism_in_the_United_States" title="Constitutionalism in the United States">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_life" title="Culture of life">Culture of life</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_anti-abortion_movement" title="United States anti-abortion movement">Pro-life</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familialism#United_States" title="Familialism">Familialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalism_in_the_United_States" title="Federalism in the United States">Federalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/States%27_rights" title="States' rights">States' rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_essentialism" title="Gender essentialism">Gender essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Christian_ethics" title="Judeo-Christian ethics">Judeo-Christian values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_order_(politics)" title="Law and order (politics)">Law and order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limited_government" title="Limited government">Limited government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_aristocracy" title="Natural aristocracy">Natural aristocracy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_militarism" title="United States militarism">Militarism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peace_through_strength" title="Peace through strength">Peace through strength</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Moral absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordered_liberty" title="Ordered liberty">Ordered liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americanism_(ideology)" title="Americanism (ideology)">Patriotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">Property rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States" title="Republicanism in the United States">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States" title="Right to keep and bear arms in the United States">Right to bear arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply-side_economics" title="Supply-side economics">Supply-side economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">Tradition</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Loyalist_(American_Revolution)" title="Loyalist (American Revolution)">Loyalists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_chivalry" title="Southern chivalry">Southern chivalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redeemers" title="Redeemers">Redeemers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Brahmin" title="Boston Brahmin">Boston Brahmins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid_South" title="Solid South">Solid South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_humanism_(literature)" title="New humanism (literature)">New Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Agrarians" title="Southern Agrarians">Southern Agrarians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Right_(United_States)" title="Old Right (United States)">Old Right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Manifesto" title="Conservative Manifesto">Conservative Manifesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_coalition" title="Conservative coalition">Conservative coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/America_First_Committee" title="America First Committee">America First Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_in_the_1950s" class="mw-redirect" title="United States in the 1950s">United States in the 1950s</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_presidency" class="mw-redirect" title="Eisenhower presidency">Eisenhower presidency</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barry_Goldwater_1964_presidential_campaign" title="Barry Goldwater 1964 presidential campaign">Goldwater campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Right#United_States" title="New Right">New Right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_era" title="Reagan era">Reagan era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reaganomics" title="Reaganomics">Reaganomics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Revolution" title="Republican Revolution">Republican Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_George_W._Bush" title="Presidency of George W. Bush">W. Bush presidency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tea_Party_movement" title="Tea Party movement">Tea Party movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoconservatism_and_paleoconservatism" title="Neoconservatism and paleoconservatism">Neo- vs. paleoconservatism</a></li> <li>Trump era <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_presidency_of_Donald_Trump" title="First presidency of Donald Trump">First term</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_presidency_of_Donald_Trump" title="Second presidency of Donald Trump">Second term</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Intellectuals</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Adams" title="Henry Adams">Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Anton" title="Michael Anton">Anton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irving_Babbitt" title="Irving Babbitt">Babbitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Bacevich" title="Andrew Bacevich">Bacevich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bell" title="Daniel Bell">Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Bellow" title="Saul Bellow">Bellow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_L._Berger" title="Peter L. Berger">Berger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allan_Bloom" title="Allan Bloom">Bloom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_J._Boorstin" title="Daniel J. Boorstin">Boorstin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mel_Bradford" title="Mel Bradford">Bradford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_F._Buckley_Jr." title="William F. Buckley Jr.">Buckley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Burgess_(political_scientist)" title="John Burgess (political scientist)">Burgess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnham" title="James Burnham">Burnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_C._Calhoun" title="John C. Calhoun">Calhoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whittaker_Chambers" title="Whittaker Chambers">Chambers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Conquest" title="Robert Conquest">Conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Deneen" title="Patrick Deneen">Deneen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Eastman" title="Max Eastman">Eastman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._S._Eliot" title="T. S. Eliot">Eliot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Francis_(writer)" title="Sam Francis (writer)">Francis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Genovese" title="Eugene Genovese">Genovese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Gottfried" title="Paul Gottfried">Gottfried</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Davis_Hanson" title="Victor Davis Hanson">Hanson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoram_Hazony" title="Yoram Hazony">Hazony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gertrude_Himmelfarb" title="Gertrude Himmelfarb">Himmelfarb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zora_Neale_Hurston" title="Zora Neale Hurston">Hurston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_V._Jaffa" title="Harry V. Jaffa">Jaffa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Kerouac" title="Jack Kerouac">Kerouac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Kimball" title="Roger Kimball">Kimball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeane_Kirkpatrick" title="Jeane Kirkpatrick">Kirkpatrick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kreeft" title="Peter Kreeft">Kreeft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irving_Kristol" title="Irving Kristol">Kristol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erik_von_Kuehnelt-Leddihn" title="Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn">Kuehnelt-Leddihn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Lasch" title="Christopher Lasch">Lasch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Lind" title="Michael Lind">Lind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._P._Lovecraft" title="H. P. Lovecraft">Lovecraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenn_Loury" title="Glenn Loury">Loury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lukacs" title="John Lukacs">Lukacs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Mansfield" title="Harvey Mansfield">Mansfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._L._Mencken" title="H. L. Mencken">Mencken</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Meyer_(political_philosopher)" title="Frank Meyer (political philosopher)">Meyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Molnar" title="Thomas Molnar">Molnar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Murray_(political_scientist)" title="Charles Murray (political scientist)">Murray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nisbet" title="Robert Nisbet">Nisbet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Pangle" title="Thomas Pangle">Pangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Crowe_Ransom" title="John Crowe Ransom">Ransom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Rieff" title="Philip Rieff">Rieff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Schaeffer" title="Francis Schaeffer">Schaeffer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gertrude_Stein" title="Gertrude Stein">Stein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Viereck" title="Peter Viereck">Viereck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_M._Weaver" title="Richard M. Weaver">Weaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edith_Wharton" title="Edith Wharton">Wharton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Wolfe" title="Tom Wolfe">Wolfe</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Politicians</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greg_Abbott" title="Greg Abbott">Abbott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">Adams (John)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams" title="John Quincy Adams">Adams (John Quincy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bolton" title="John Bolton">Bolton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Buchanan" title="James Buchanan">Buchanan (James)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pat_Buchanan" title="Pat Buchanan">Buchanan (Pat)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">Bush (George H. W.)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">Bush (George W.)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_C._Calhoun" title="John C. Calhoun">Calhoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_Cheney" title="Dick Cheney">Cheney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Clay" title="Henry Clay">Clay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Cleveland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge" title="Calvin Coolidge">Coolidge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ted_Cruz" title="Ted Cruz">Cruz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ron_DeSantis" title="Ron DeSantis">DeSantis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Everett_Dirksen" title="Everett Dirksen">Dirksen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Dole" title="Bob Dole">Dole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Eisenhower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newt_Gingrich" title="Newt Gingrich">Gingrich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barry_Goldwater" title="Barry Goldwater">Goldwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_G._Harding" title="Warren G. Harding">Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Hamilton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Helms" title="Jesse Helms">Helms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hoover" title="Herbert Hoover">Hoover (Herbert)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mike_Huckabee" title="Mike Huckabee">Huckabee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Cabot_Lodge" title="Henry Cabot Lodge">Lodge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clare_Boothe_Luce" title="Clare Boothe Luce">Luce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McCain" title="John McCain">McCain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_McCarthy" title="Joseph McCarthy">McCarthy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitch_McConnell" title="Mitch McConnell">McConnell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_McKinley" title="William McKinley">McKinley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Nixon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarah_Palin" title="Sarah Palin">Palin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rand_Paul" title="Rand Paul">Paul (Rand)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ron_Paul" title="Ron Paul">Paul (Ron)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mike_Pence" title="Mike Pence">Pence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Pierce" title="Franklin Pierce">Pierce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Randolph_of_Roanoke" title="John Randolph of Roanoke">Randolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Reagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitt_Romney" title="Mitt Romney">Romney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marco_Rubio" title="Marco Rubio">Rubio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Rumsfeld" title="Donald Rumsfeld">Rumsfeld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ryan" title="Paul Ryan">Ryan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rick_Santorum" title="Rick Santorum">Santorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Sherman" title="John Sherman">Sherman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Taft" title="Robert A. Taft">Taft (Robert)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">Taft (William)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strom_Thurmond" title="Strom Thurmond">Thurmond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Trump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JD_Vance" title="JD Vance">Vance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Wallace" title="George Wallace">Wallace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Wolfowitz" title="Paul Wolfowitz">Wolfowitz</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Jurists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Alito" title="Samuel Alito">Alito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amy_Coney_Barrett" title="Amy Coney Barrett">Barrett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bork" title="Robert Bork">Bork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_E._Burger" title="Warren E. Burger">Burger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Colson" title="Charles Colson">Colson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_T._Frelinghuysen" title="Frederick T. Frelinghuysen">Frelinghuysen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_P._George" title="Robert P. George">George</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Goldsmith" title="Jack Goldsmith">Goldsmith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neil_Gorsuch" title="Neil Gorsuch">Gorsuch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Marshall_Harlan_II" title="John Marshall Harlan II">Harlan II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brett_Kavanaugh" title="Brett Kavanaugh">Kavanaugh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kennedy" title="Anthony Kennedy">Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Michael_Luttig" title="J. Michael Luttig">Luttig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Meese" title="Edwin Meese">Meese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alton_B._Parker" title="Alton B. Parker">Parker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Rehnquist" title="William Rehnquist">Rehnquist</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Roberts (John)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Terry_Sanford" title="Edward Terry Sanford">Sanford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonin_Scalia" title="Antonin Scalia">Scalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeff_Sessions" title="Jeff Sessions">Sessions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Sutherland" title="George Sutherland">Sutherland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">Taft (William)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Thomas (Clarence)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrian_Vermeule" title="Adrian Vermeule">Vermeule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Evans_Whittaker" title="Charles Evans Whittaker">Whittaker</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Commentators</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sohrab_Ahmari" title="Sohrab Ahmari">Ahmari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenn_Beck" title="Glenn Beck">Beck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dan_Bongino" title="Dan Bongino">Bongino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Breitbart" title="Andrew Breitbart">Breitbart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pat_Buchanan" title="Pat Buchanan">Buchanan (Pat)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_F._Buckley_Jr." title="William F. Buckley Jr.">Buckley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tucker_Carlson" title="Tucker Carlson">Carlson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oren_Cass" title="Oren Cass">Cass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Chodorov" title="Frank Chodorov">Chodorov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ann_Coulter" title="Ann Coulter">Coulter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinesh_D%27Souza" title="Dinesh D'Souza">D'Souza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Derbyshire" title="John Derbyshire">Derbyshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_DiLorenzo" title="Thomas DiLorenzo">DiLorenzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rod_Dreher" title="Rod Dreher">Dreher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Elder" title="Larry Elder">Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonah_Goldberg" title="Jonah Goldberg">Goldberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Grant_(radio_host)" title="Bob Grant (radio host)">Grant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alyssa_Farah_Griffin" title="Alyssa Farah Griffin">Griffin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_van_den_Haag" title="Ernest van den Haag">Van den Haag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sean_Hannity" title="Sean Hannity">Hannity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Hart" title="Jeffrey Hart">Hart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_Herberg" title="Will Herberg">Herberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Hoover" title="Margaret Hoover">Hoover (Margaret)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laura_Ingraham" title="Laura Ingraham">Ingraham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alex_Jones" title="Alex Jones">Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megyn_Kelly" title="Megyn Kelly">Kelly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlie_Kirk" title="Charlie Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Knowles_(political_commentator)" title="Michael Knowles (political commentator)">Knowles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Krauthammer" title="Charles Krauthammer">Krauthammer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomi_Lahren" title="Tomi Lahren">Lahren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Levin" title="Mark Levin">Levin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rush_Limbaugh" title="Rush Limbaugh">Limbaugh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heather_Mac_Donald" title="Heather Mac Donald">Mac Donald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_John_Neuhaus" title="Richard John Neuhaus">Neuhaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andy_Ngo" title="Andy Ngo">Ngo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_North" title="Oliver North">North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Novak" title="Robert Novak">Novak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_O%27Reilly_(political_commentator)" title="Bill O'Reilly (political commentator)">O'Reilly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candace_Owens" title="Candace Owens">Owens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Podhoretz" title="Norman Podhoretz">Podhoretz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Pool" title="Tim Pool">Pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Portnoy" class="mw-redirect" title="David Portnoy">Portnoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Prager" title="Dennis Prager">Prager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pat_Robertson" title="Pat Robertson">Robertson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ben_Shapiro" title="Ben Shapiro">Shapiro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amity_Shlaes" title="Amity Shlaes">Shlaes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Sullivan" title="Andrew Sullivan">Sullivan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matt_Walsh_(political_commentator)" title="Matt Walsh (political commentator)">Walsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Watters" title="Jesse Watters">Watters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Will" title="George Will">Will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian_Wintrich" title="Lucian Wintrich">Wintrich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Woods" title="Tom Woods">Woods</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Activists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Abramoff" title="Jack Abramoff">Abramoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Agostinelli" title="Robert Agostinelli">Agostinelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Andreessen" title="Marc Andreessen">Andreessen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Atwater" title="Lee Atwater">Atwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Bannon" title="Steve Bannon">Bannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaitlin_Bennett" title="Kaitlin Bennett">Bennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuri_Bezmenov" title="Yuri Bezmenov">Bezmenov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L._Brent_Bozell_Jr." title="L. Brent Bozell Jr.">Bozell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Cohn" title="Roy Cohn">Cohn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Dans" title="Paul Dans">Dans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Dobson" title="James Dobson">Dobson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matt_Drudge" title="Matt Drudge">Drudge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Falwell" title="Jerry Falwell">Falwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Feulner" title="Edwin Feulner">Feulner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Flynn" title="Michael Flynn">Flynn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brigitte_Gabriel" title="Brigitte Gabriel">Gabriel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Horowitz" title="David Horowitz">Horowitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Krikorian_(activist)" title="Mark Krikorian (activist)">Krikorian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Kristol" title="Bill Kristol">Kristol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_LaHaye" title="Tim LaHaye">LaHaye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mike_Lindell" title="Mike Lindell">Lindell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Lindbergh" title="Charles Lindbergh">Lindbergh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Leo" title="Leonard Leo">Leo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McEntee_(political_aide)" title="John McEntee (political aide)">McEntee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebekah_Mercer" title="Rebekah Mercer">Mercer (Rebekah)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Mercer" title="Robert Mercer">Mercer (Robert)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Miller_(political_advisor)" title="Stephen Miller (political advisor)">Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rupert_Murdoch" title="Rupert Murdoch">Murdoch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elon_Musk" title="Elon Musk">Musk</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Views_of_Elon_Musk" title="Views of Elon Musk">political views</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_O%27Keefe" title="James O'Keefe">O'Keefe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeonmi_Park" title="Yeonmi Park">Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Phillips_(activist)" title="Howard Phillips (activist)">Phillips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Posobiec" title="Jack Posobiec">Posobiec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Powell" title="Sidney Powell">Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libs_of_TikTok" title="Libs of TikTok">Raichik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Reed" title="Ralph Reed">Reed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Regnery" title="Henry Regnery">Regnery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kevin_Roberts_(political_strategist)" title="Kevin Roberts (political strategist)">Roberts (Kevin)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Rove" title="Karl Rove">Rove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Rufo" title="Christopher Rufo">Rufo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Mellon_Scaife" title="Richard Mellon Scaife">Scaife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Schlafly" title="Andrew Schlafly">Schlafly (Andrew)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phyllis_Schlafly" title="Phyllis Schlafly">Schlafly (Phyllis)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Stone" title="Roger Stone">Stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Thiel" title="Peter Thiel">Thiel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ginni_Thomas" title="Ginni Thomas">Thomas (Ginni)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Weyrich" title="Paul Weyrich">Weyrich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Wood" title="Robert E. Wood">Wood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susie_Wiles" title="Susie Wiles">Wiles</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Literature</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">The Federalist Papers</a> (1788)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a> (1835–1840)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Notes_on_Democracy" title="Notes on Democracy">Notes on Democracy</a> (1926)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Agrarians#I'll_Take_My_Stand" title="Southern Agrarians">I'll Take My Stand</a> (1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Our_Enemy,_the_State" title="Our Enemy, the State">Our Enemy, the State</a> (1935)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Managerial_Revolution" title="The Managerial Revolution">The Managerial Revolution</a> (1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideas_Have_Consequences" title="Ideas Have Consequences">Ideas Have Consequences</a> (1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_and_Man_at_Yale" title="God and Man at Yale">God and Man at Yale</a> (1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Conservative_Mind" title="The Conservative Mind">The Conservative Mind</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Conscience_of_a_Conservative" title="The Conscience of a Conservative">The Conscience of a Conservative</a> (1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Choice_Not_an_Echo" title="A Choice Not an Echo">A Choice Not an Echo</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Conflict_of_Visions" title="A Conflict of Visions">A Conflict of Visions</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Closing_of_the_American_Mind" title="The Closing of the American Mind">The Closing of the American Mind</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Bell_Curve:_Intelligence_and_Class_Structure_in_American_Life" class="mw-redirect" title="The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life">The Bell Curve</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Revolt_of_the_Elites" title="The Revolt of the Elites">The Revolt of the Elites</a> (1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Death_of_the_West" title="The Death of the West">The Death of the West</a> (2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hillbilly_Elegy" title="Hillbilly Elegy">Hillbilly Elegy</a> (2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Benedict_Option" title="The Benedict Option">The Benedict Option</a> (2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Why_Liberalism_Failed" title="Why Liberalism Failed">Why Liberalism Failed</a> (2018)</li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Concerns</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_the_United_States" title="Abortion in the United States">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_decline" title="American decline">American decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancel_culture#American_public_opinion" title="Cancel culture">Cancel Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_war#United_States" title="Culture war">Culture war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_multiculturalism#United_States" title="Criticism of multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disparate_impact#Controversy" title="Disparate impact">"Disparate impact" controversy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2020s_controversies_around_critical_race_theory" title="2020s controversies around critical race theory">CRT controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity,_equity,_and_inclusion#Criticism_and_controversy" title="Diversity, equity, and inclusion">DEI controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Griggs_v._Duke_Power_Co." title="Griggs v. Duke Power Co.">Griggs v. Duke Power Co.</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Higher_education_bubble_in_the_United_States" title="Higher education bubble in the United States">Higher ed. bubble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Go_woke,_go_broke" title="Go woke, go broke">Go woke, go broke</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental,_social,_and_governance#Criticism" title="Environmental, social, and governance">ESG</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Corporate_sociopolitical_activism#Counter-movement" title="Corporate sociopolitical activism">Woke capitalism</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeschooling#United_States" title="Homeschooling">Homeschooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_reduction_in_the_United_States" title="Immigration reduction in the United States">Immigration reduction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="Illegal immigration to the United States">Illegal immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_immigration_to_the_United_States_and_crime" title="Illegal immigration to the United States and crime">Immigration and crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexico%E2%80%93United_States_border_crisis" title="Mexico–United States border crisis">Border crisis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence_and_public_policy" title="Intelligence and public policy">Intelligence and public policy</a></li> <li>Constitutional interpretations <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Originalism" title="Originalism">Originalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textualism" title="Textualism">Textualism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managerial_state" title="Managerial state">Managerial state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudsill_theory" title="Mudsill theory">Mudsill theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States" title="Right to keep and bear arms in the United States">Second Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sub-replacement_fertility#United_States" title="Sub-replacement fertility">Sub-replacement fertility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitary_executive_theory" title="Unitary executive theory">Unitary executive</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Parties</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">Active <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Party_(1969)" title="American Party (1969)">American Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Independent_Party" title="American Independent Party">American Independent Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Party_of_New_York_State" title="Conservative Party of New York State">Conservative Party of New York State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_Party_(United_States)" title="Constitution Party (United States)">Constitution Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican Party</a></li></ul> Defunct <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Masonic_Party" title="Anti-Masonic Party">Anti-Masonic Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Union_Party_(United_States)" title="Constitutional Union Party (United States)">Constitutional Union Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic Party</a> (historically, factions) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boll_weevil_(politics)" title="Boll weevil (politics)">Boll weevils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Democrat" title="Bourbon Democrat">Bourbon Democrats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Democrat" title="Conservative Democrat">Conservative Democrats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dixiecrat" title="Dixiecrat">Dixiecrats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_Democrats" class="mw-redirect" title="Reagan Democrats">Reagan Democrats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Democrat" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Democrat">Southern Democrats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorr_Rebellion" title="Dorr Rebellion">Rhode Island Suffrage Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Party" title="Federalist Party">Federalist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Republican_Party" title="National Republican Party">National Republican Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American Party">Native American Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whig_Party_(United_States)" title="Whig Party (United States)">Whig Party</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Think tanks</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acton_Institute" title="Acton Institute">Acton Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville_Institution" title="Alexis de Tocqueville Institution">AdTI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Enterprise_Institute" title="American Enterprise Institute">AEI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Security_Policy" title="Center for Security Policy">CSP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_the_National_Interest" title="Center for the National Interest">Center for the National Interest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claremont_Institute" title="Claremont Institute">Claremont Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competitive_Enterprise_Institute" title="Competitive Enterprise Institute">CEI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Horowitz_Freedom_Center" title="David Horowitz Freedom Center">CSPC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_and_Public_Policy_Center" title="Ethics and Public Policy Center">EPPC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_Research_Institute" title="Family Research Institute">FRI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gatestone_Institute" title="Gatestone Institute">Gatestone Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heartland_Institute" title="Heartland Institute">Heartland Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Heritage_Foundation" title="The Heritage Foundation">The Heritage Foundation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heritage_Action" title="Heritage Action">Heritage Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Leadership" title="Mandate for Leadership">Mandate for Leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_2025" title="Project 2025">Project 2025</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoover_Institution" title="Hoover Institution">Hoover Institution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hudson_Institute" title="Hudson Institute">Hudson Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercollegiate_Studies_Institute" title="Intercollegiate Studies Institute">ISI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison_Program_in_American_Ideals_and_Institutions" title="James Madison Program in American Ideals and Institutions">James Madison Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leadership_Institute" title="Leadership Institute">Leadership Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Institute_for_Policy_Research" title="Manhattan Institute for Policy Research">Manhattan Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mises_Institute" title="Mises Institute">Mises Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Research_Institute" title="Pacific Research Institute">PRI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_for_the_New_American_Century" title="Project for the New American Century">Project for the New American Century</a> (Defunct)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ripon_Society" title="Ripon Society">Ripon Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R_Street_Institute" title="R Street Institute">R Street Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rockford_Institute" title="Rockford Institute">Rockford Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Policy_Network" title="State Policy Network">SPN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutherland_Institute" title="Sutherland Institute">Sutherland Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_Foundation" title="Tax Foundation">Tax Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witherspoon_Institute" title="Witherspoon Institute">Witherspoon Institute</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Media</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> Newspapers <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Tribune" title="Chicago Tribune">Chicago Tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Epoch_Times" title="The Epoch Times">The Epoch Times</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Hampshire_Union_Leader" title="New Hampshire Union Leader">New Hampshire Union Leader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_Voice" title="The Jewish Voice">The Jewish Voice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Observer" title="The New York Observer">The New York Observer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_Post" title="New York Post">New York Post</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Remnant_(newspaper)" title="The Remnant (newspaper)">The Remnant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal" title="The Wall Street Journal">The Wall Street Journal</a> <a href="/wiki/Editorial_board_at_The_Wall_Street_Journal" title="Editorial board at The Wall Street Journal">(editorial board)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Times" title="The Washington Times">The Washington Times</a></li></ul> Journals <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Affairs" title="American Affairs">American Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_American_Conservative" title="The American Conservative">The American Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_American_Spectator" title="The American Spectator">The American Spectator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Thinker" title="American Thinker">American Thinker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_Journal" title="City Journal">City Journal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claremont_Review_of_Books" title="Claremont Review of Books">Claremont Review of Books</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commentary_(magazine)" title="Commentary (magazine)">Commentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compact_(American_magazine)" title="Compact (American magazine)">Compact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronicles_(magazine)" title="Chronicles (magazine)">Chronicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Dispatch" title="The Dispatch">The Dispatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Things" title="First Things">First Things</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Imaginative_Conservative" title="The Imaginative Conservative">The Imaginative Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_World_Review" title="Jewish World Review">Jewish World Review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Age_(periodical)" title="Modern Age (periodical)">Modern Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Affairs" title="National Affairs">National Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_National_Interest" title="The National Interest">The National Interest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Review" title="National Review">National Review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_New_American" title="The New American">The New American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_New_Atlantis_(journal)" title="The New Atlantis (journal)">The New Atlantis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_New_Criterion" title="The New Criterion">The New Criterion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Policy_Review" title="Policy Review">Policy Review</a> (defunct)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Discourse" class="mw-redirect" title="Public Discourse">Public Discourse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Partisan" title="Southern Partisan">Southern Partisan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectator_USA" class="mw-redirect" title="Spectator USA">Spectator USA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tablet_(magazine)" title="Tablet (magazine)">Tablet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taki%27s_Magazine" title="Taki's Magazine">Taki's Magazine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telos_(journal)" title="Telos (journal)">Telos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_Examiner" title="Washington Examiner">Washington Examiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Weekly_Standard" title="The Weekly Standard">The Weekly Standard</a> (defunct)</li></ul> TV channels <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Broadcasting_Network" title="Christian Broadcasting Network">CBN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fox_Business" title="Fox Business">Fox Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fox_News" title="Fox News">Fox News</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newsmax_TV" title="Newsmax TV">Newsmax TV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_America_News_Network" title="One America News Network">One America News Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VOZ_(media_company)" title="VOZ (media company)">VOZ</a></li></ul> Websites <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Babylon_Bee" title="The Babylon Bee">Babylon Bee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breitbart_News" title="Breitbart News">Breitbart News</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Bulwark_(website)" title="The Bulwark (website)">The Bulwark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campus_Reform" title="Campus Reform">Campus Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Center_Square" title="The Center Square">The Center Square</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Review" title="Conservative Review">Conservative Review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Daily_Caller" title="The Daily Caller">Daily Caller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Daily_Signal" title="The Daily Signal">Daily Signal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Daily_Wire" title="The Daily Wire">Daily Wire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discover_the_Networks" title="Discover the Networks">Discover the Networks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_(website)" title="The Federalist (website)">The Federalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FrontPage_Magazine" title="FrontPage Magazine">FrontPage Magazine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Front_Porch_Republic" title="Front Porch Republic">Front Porch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Gateway_Pundit" title="The Gateway Pundit">Gateway Pundit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot_Air" title="Hot Air">Hot Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Events" title="Human Events">Human Events</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Journal_Review" title="Independent Journal Review">Independent Journal Review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/InfoWars" class="mw-redirect" title="InfoWars">InfoWars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jihad_Watch" title="Jihad Watch">Jihad Watch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LifeZette" title="LifeZette">LifeZette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NewsBusters" class="mw-redirect" title="NewsBusters">NewsBusters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PJ_Media" title="PJ Media">PJ Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rare_(website)" title="Rare (website)">Rare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RedState" title="RedState">RedState</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Dispatch" title="The Dispatch">The Dispatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Townhall" title="Townhall">Townhall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twitchy" title="Twitchy">Twitchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_Examiner" title="Washington Examiner">Washington Examiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Free_Beacon" title="The Washington Free Beacon">The Washington Free Beacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Western_Journal" title="The Western Journal">The Western Journal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WorldNetDaily" title="WorldNetDaily">WorldNetDaily</a></li></ul> Other <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blaze_Media" title="Blaze Media">Blaze Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encounter_Books" title="Encounter Books">Encounter Books</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evie_Magazine" title="Evie Magazine">Evie Magazine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_First_TV" title="The First TV">The First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imprimis" title="Imprimis">Imprimis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Political_Cesspool" title="The Political Cesspool">The Political Cesspool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passage_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Passage Publishing">Passage Publishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PragerU" title="PragerU">PragerU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RealClearPolitics" title="RealClearPolitics">RealClearPolitics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Scare_(podcast)" title="Red Scare (podcast)">Red Scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regnery_Publishing" title="Regnery Publishing">Regnery Publishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_Side_Broadcasting_Network" title="Right Side Broadcasting Network">RSBN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Rubin_Report" title="The Rubin Report">The Rubin Report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinclair_Broadcast_Group" title="Sinclair Broadcast Group">Sinclair Broadcast Group</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Other organizations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> Congressional caucuses <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Amendment_Caucus" title="Second Amendment Caucus">Second Amendment Caucus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Study_Committee" title="Republican Study Committee">RSC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty_Caucus" title="Liberty Caucus">Liberty Caucus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Caucus" title="Freedom Caucus">Freedom Caucus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Main_Street_Partnership" title="Republican Main Street Partnership">Republican Main Street Partnership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Governance_Group" title="Republican Governance Group">Republican Governance Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_Dog_Coalition" title="Blue Dog Coalition">Blue Dog Coalition</a></li></ul> Economics <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Americans_for_Tax_Reform" title="Americans for Tax Reform">ATR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Club_for_Growth" title="Club for Growth">Club for Growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FreedomWorks" title="FreedomWorks">FreedomWorks</a> (defunct)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Federation_of_Independent_Business" title="National Federation of Independent Business">NFIB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Taxpayers_Union" title="National Taxpayers Union">NTU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tea_Party_Patriots" title="Tea Party Patriots">Tea Party Patriots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="United States Chamber of Commerce">USCC</a></li></ul> Gun rights <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gun_Owners_of_America" title="Gun Owners of America">GOA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Association_for_Gun_Rights" title="National Association for Gun Rights">NAGR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Rifle_Association" title="National Rifle Association">NRA</a></li></ul> Identity politics <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ACT_for_America" title="ACT for America">ACT!</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concerned_Women_for_America" title="Concerned Women for America">CWA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Conservative_Citizens" title="Council of Conservative Citizens">Council of Conservative Citizens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gays_Against_Groomers" title="Gays Against Groomers">GAG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Women%27s_Forum" title="Independent Women's Forum">IWF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Log_Cabin_Republicans" title="Log Cabin Republicans">LCR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moms_for_Liberty" title="Moms for Liberty">Moms for Liberty</a></li></ul> Nativist <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Immigration_Studies" title="Center for Immigration Studies">CIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federation_for_American_Immigration_Reform" title="Federation for American Immigration Reform">FAIR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_Restriction_League" title="Immigration Restriction League">Immigration Restriction League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NumbersUSA" title="NumbersUSA">NumbersUSA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriot_Prayer" title="Patriot Prayer">Patriot Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proud_Boys" title="Proud Boys">Proud Boys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oath_Keepers" title="Oath Keepers">Oath Keepers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Percenters" title="Three Percenters">Three Percenters</a></li></ul> Religion <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_Defending_Freedom" title="Alliance Defending Freedom">ADF</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_court_cases_involving_Alliance_Defending_Freedom" title="List of court cases involving Alliance Defending Freedom">Court cases</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Center_for_Law_%26_Justice" title="American Center for Law & Justice">ACLJ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Family_Association" title="American Family Association">AFA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_for_the_Defense_of_Tradition,_Family_and_Property" title="American Society for the Defense of Tradition, Family and Property">The American TFP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalcedon_Foundation" title="Chalcedon Foundation">Chalcedon Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Coalition_of_America" title="Christian Coalition of America">CCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Voice_(United_States)" title="Christian Voice (United States)">Christian Voice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eagle_Forum" title="Eagle Forum">Eagle Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_Research_Council" title="Family Research Council">FCR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Fellowship_(Christian_organization)" title="The Fellowship (Christian organization)">The Fellowship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_Freedom_Coalition" title="Faith and Freedom Coalition">FFC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Focus_on_the_Family" title="Focus on the Family">Focus on the Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundation_for_Moral_Law" title="Foundation for Moral Law">Foundation for Moral Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty_Counsel" title="Liberty Counsel">Liberty Counsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_Majority" title="Moral Majority">Moral Majority</a> (defunct)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Organization_for_Marriage" title="National Organization for Marriage">NOM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Right_to_Life_Committee" title="National Right to Life Committee">NRLC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parents_Television_and_Media_Council" title="Parents Television and Media Council">PTMC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_B._Anthony_Pro-Life_America" title="Susan B. Anthony Pro-Life America">Susan B. Anthony Pro-Life America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More_Law_Center" title="Thomas More Law Center">Thomas More Law Center</a></li></ul> Watchdog groups <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accuracy_in_Media" title="Accuracy in Media">AIM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Econ_Journal_Watch" title="Econ Journal Watch">Econ Journal Watch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_News_Foundation" title="Franklin News Foundation">Franklin News Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_Watch" title="Judicial Watch">JW</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_Research_Center" title="Media Research Center">MRC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/O%27Keefe_Media_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="O'Keefe Media Group">O'Keefe Media Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Veritas" title="Project Veritas">Project Veritas</a> (defunct)</li></ul> Youth/student groups <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Journalism_Center" title="National Journalism Center">NJC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turning_Point_USA" title="Turning Point USA">TPUSA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_Americans_for_Freedom" title="Young Americans for Freedom">Young Americans for Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_America%27s_Foundation" title="Young America's Foundation">Young America's Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_Americans_for_Liberty" title="Young Americans for Liberty">YAL</a></li></ul> Social media <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gab_(social_network)" title="Gab (social network)">Gab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gettr" title="Gettr">Gettr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parler" title="Parler">Parler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Right_Stuff_(app)" title="The Right Stuff (app)">The Right Stuff</a></li></ul> Miscellaneous <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_85_Fund" title="The 85 Fund">The 85 Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton_Institute_for_the_Study_of_Western_Civilization" title="Alexander Hamilton Institute for the Study of Western Civilization">AHI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Conservative_Union" title="American Conservative Union">ACU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bradley_Foundation" title="Bradley Foundation">Bradley Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Conservative_Caucus" title="The Conservative Caucus">TCC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_for_National_Policy" title="Council for National Policy">CNP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Political_Action_Conference" title="Conservative Political Action Conference">CPAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hillsdale_College" title="Hillsdale College">Hillsdale College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idaho_Freedom_Foundation" title="Idaho Freedom Foundation">IFF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Birch_Society" title="John Birch Society">JBS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_M._Olin_Foundation" title="John M. Olin Foundation">John M. Olin Foundation</a> (defunct)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty_Fund" title="Liberty Fund">Liberty Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty_University" title="Liberty University">LU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Association_of_Scholars" title="National Association of Scholars">NAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philadelphia_Society" title="Philadelphia Society">Philadelphia Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regent_University" title="Regent University">Regent University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk_Center_for_Cultural_Renewal" title="Russell Kirk Center for Cultural Renewal">Russell Kirk Center for Cultural Renewal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_Public_Policy_Foundation" title="Texas Public Policy Foundation">TPPF</a></li></ul> Other <ul><li><a href="/wiki/America_First_Legal" title="America First Legal">AFL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlas_Network" title="Atlas Network">Atlas Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collegiate_Network" title="Collegiate Network">CN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ConservAmerica" title="ConservAmerica">ConservAmerica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donors_Trust" class="mw-redirect" title="Donors Trust">Donors Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Society" title="Federalist Society">FedSoc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Conservative_Political_Action_Committee" title="National Conservative Political Action Committee">NCPAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Justice_Institute" title="Pacific Justice Institute">PJI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turning_Point_Action" title="Turning Point Action">Turning Point Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_for_American_Civic_Renewal" title="Society for American Civic Renewal">SACR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_Republicans" title="Young Republicans">YRNF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ziklag_(organization)" title="Ziklag (organization)">Ziklag</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Movements</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asian_American_and_Pacific_Islands_American_conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Asian American and Pacific Islands American conservatism in the United States">Asian and Pacific Islander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Black conservatism in the United States">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_right" title="Christian right">Christian right</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_reconstructionism#Influence_on_the_Christian_right_in_general" title="Christian reconstructionism">Reconstructionism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_education_movement" title="Classical education movement">Classical education movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paideia" title="Paideia">Paideia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Enlightenment" title="Dark Enlightenment">Dark Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Women in conservatism in the United States">Female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_conservatism#United_States" title="Green conservatism">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Hispanic and Latino conservatism in the United States">Hispanic and Latino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_conservatism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT conservatism in the United States">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_Republican" title="Libertarian Republican">Libertarian republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_militia_movement" title="American militia movement">Militia movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism_in_the_United_States" title="Monarchism in the United States">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints_and_politics_in_the_United_States" title="The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and politics in the United States">Mormon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/White_Horse_Prophecy" title="White Horse Prophecy">White Horse Prophecy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodemocracy" title="Theodemocracy">Theodemocracy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_rights_movement" title="Parental rights movement">Parental rights movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fathers%27_rights_movement" title="Fathers' rights movement">Fathers' rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriot_movement" title="Patriot movement">Patriot movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Patriot_movement" title="Christian Patriot movement">Christian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_right_(United_States)" title="Radical right (United States)">Radical right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactionary_feminism" title="Reactionary feminism">Reactionary feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-libertarianism#United_States" title="Right-libertarianism">Right-libertarianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolibertarianism" title="Paleolibertarianism">Paleolibertarianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secession_in_the_United_States" title="Secession in the United States">Secessionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confederates" title="Neo-Confederates">Neo-Confederates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_secession_movements" title="Texas secession movements">in Texas</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trumpism" title="Trumpism">Trumpism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Never_Trump_movement" title="Never Trump movement">Never Trump</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Related</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agenda_47" title="Agenda 47">Agenda 47</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/America_First_(policy)" title="America First (policy)">America First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Bibliography of conservatism in the United States">Bibliography of US conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_talk_radio" title="Conservative talk radio">Conservative talk radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunning_School" title="Dunning School">Dunning School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Factions_in_the_Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Factions in the Republican Party (United States)">GOP factions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="History of conservatism in the United States">History of US conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_modern_American_conservatism" title="Timeline of modern American conservatism">Modern timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_American_conservatives" title="List of American conservatives">List of American conservatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Conservatism_Conference" title="National Conservatism Conference">NatCon</a></li> <li>Colloquialisms <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Barstool_conservatism" title="Barstool conservatism">Barstool conservatism</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Cuckservative" title="Cuckservative">Cuckservative</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Don%27t_immanentize_the_eschaton!" class="mw-redirect" title="Don't immanentize the eschaton!">Don't immanentize the eschaton!</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicans_pounce" title="Republicans pounce">Republicans pounce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_in_Name_Only" class="mw-redirect" title="Republican in Name Only">RINO</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/South_Park_Republican" title="South Park Republican">South Park Republican</a>"</li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below plainlist" style="padding-bottom:0.22em; border-top:1px solid #B0161E; border-bottom:1px solid #B0161E"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg/15px-DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg/22px-DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg/30px-DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="249" data-file-height="268" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Conservatism" title="Portal:Conservatism">Conservatism portal</a></li> <li><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/16px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/24px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Conservatism_US" title="Template:Conservatism US"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Conservatism_US" title="Template talk:Conservatism US"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Conservatism_US" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Conservatism US"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Roberts took the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">Constitutional</a> <a href="/wiki/Oath_of_office#United_States" title="Oath of office">oath of office</a>, administered by Associate Justice <a href="/wiki/John_Paul_Stevens" title="John Paul Stevens">John Paul Stevens</a> at the <a href="/wiki/White_House" title="White House">White House</a>, on September 29, 2005. On October 3, he took the judicial oath provided for by the <a href="/wiki/Judiciary_Act_of_1789" title="Judiciary Act of 1789">Judiciary Act of 1789</a> at the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court_building" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Supreme Court building">United States Supreme Court building</a>. Justice <a href="/wiki/Antonin_Scalia" title="Antonin Scalia">Antonin Scalia</a> said that Roberts "pretty much run[s] the show the same way" as Rehnquist, albeit "let[ting] people go on a little longer at conference ... but [he'll] get over that."<a href="#cite_note-114">[105]</a> Analysts such as <a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Toobin" title="Jeffrey Toobin">Jeffrey Toobin</a> have portrayed Roberts as a consistent advocate for conservative principles.<a href="#cite_note-115">[106]</a> <a href="/wiki/Garrett_Epps" title="Garrett Epps">Garrett Epps</a> called Roberts's prose "crystalline, vivid, and often humorous."<a href="#cite_note-epps-116">[107]</a> Seventh Circuit judge <a href="/wiki/Diane_Sykes" class="mw-redirect" title="Diane Sykes">Diane Sykes</a>, surveying Roberts's first term on the Court, concluded that his jurisprudence "appears to be strongly rooted in the discipline of traditional legal method, evincing a fidelity to text, structure, history, and the constitutional hierarchy. He exhibits the restraint that flows from the careful application of established decisional rules and the practice of reasoning from the case law. He appears to place great stock in the process-oriented tools and doctrinal rules that guard against the aggregation of judicial power and keep judicial discretion in check: jurisdictional limits, structural federalism, <a href="/wiki/Textualism" title="Textualism">textualism</a>, and the procedural rules that govern the scope of judicial review."<a href="#cite_note-117">[108]</a> Roberts has been said to operate under an approach of <a href="/wiki/Judicial_minimalism" title="Judicial minimalism">judicial minimalism</a> in his decisions,<a href="#cite_note-118">[109]</a> having said, "[i]f it is not necessary to decide more to a case, then in my view it is necessary not to decide more to a case."<a href="#cite_note-119">[110]</a> His decision-making and leadership seems to demonstrate an intention to preserve the Court's power and legitimacy while maintaining judicial independence.<a href="#cite_note-120">[111]</a> In November 2018, the <a href="/wiki/Associated_Press" title="Associated Press">Associated Press</a> approached Roberts for comment after President <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> called a <a href="/wiki/Jon_S._Tigar" title="Jon S. Tigar">jurist</a> who ruled against his asylum policy an "Obama judge." Roberts responded: "[w]e do not have Obama judges or Trump judges, Bush judges or Clinton judges. What we have is an extraordinary group of dedicated judges doing their level best to do equal right to those appearing before them." His remarks were widely interpreted as a rebuke of Trump's comment.<a href="#cite_note-121">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[114]</a> As chief justice, Roberts presided over the <a href="/wiki/First_impeachment_trial_of_Donald_Trump" title="First impeachment trial of Donald Trump">first impeachment trial of Donald Trump</a>, which began on January 16 and ended on February 5, 2020.<a href="#cite_note-124">[115]</a> Roberts did not preside over Trump's <a href="/wiki/Second_impeachment_trial_of_Donald_Trump" title="Second impeachment trial of Donald Trump">second impeachment trial</a>, believing that the Constitution requires only that the chief justice preside in the trial of a sitting president, not of a former president.<a href="#cite_note-125">[116]</a> Although Roberts's judicial philosophy is considered conservative, he is seen as having a more moderate orientation than his predecessor, William Rehnquist, particularly when <a href="/wiki/Bush_v._Gore" title="Bush v. Gore">Bush v. Gore</a> is compared to Roberts's vote for the ACA: his vote in <a href="/wiki/National_Federation_of_Independent_Business_v._Sebelius" title="National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius">National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius</a> to uphold the <a href="/wiki/Patient_Protection_and_Affordable_Care_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act">Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act</a> (ACA) caused the press to contrast his Court with the <a href="/wiki/Rehnquist_Court" title="Rehnquist Court">Rehnquist Court</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Scalia,_Antonin_2008-126">[117]</a> Roberts's judicial philosophy is also seen as more moderate and conciliatory than <a href="/wiki/Antonin_Scalia" title="Antonin Scalia">Antonin Scalia</a>'s or <a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</a>'s.<a href="#cite_note-newrepublic-127">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-Coyle-128">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-Scalia,_Antonin_2008-126">[117]</a> He seems to want more consensus from the Court.<a href="#cite_note-newrepublic-127">[118]</a> At the beginning of his tenure, Roberts's voting pattern closely aligned with <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Alito" title="Samuel Alito">Samuel Alito</a>'s,<a href="#cite_note-129">[120]</a> but in recent years, his voting pattern has resembled <a href="/wiki/Brett_Kavanaugh" title="Brett Kavanaugh">Brett Kavanaugh</a>'s, who is generally seen as far more moderate than Alito.<a href="#cite_note-130">[121]</a> After the confirmation of <a href="/wiki/Amy_Coney_Barrett" title="Amy Coney Barrett">Amy Coney Barrett</a>, several commentators wrote that Roberts was no longer the leading justice. As the five other conservative justices could outvote the rest, he supposedly could no longer preside over a moderately conservative course while respecting precedent.<a href="#cite_note-131">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[123]</a> This view was espoused again after <a href="/wiki/Dobbs_v._Jackson_Women%27s_Health_Organization" title="Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization">the 2022 Dobbs decision</a>, which overturned <a href="/wiki/Roe_v._Wade" title="Roe v. Wade">Roe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Planned_Parenthood_v._Casey" title="Planned Parenthood v. Casey">Casey</a>.<a href="#cite_note-133">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-134">[125]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Presidential_power">Presidential power</h3></div> On June 26, 2018, Roberts wrote the majority opinion in <a href="/wiki/Trump_v._Hawaii" title="Trump v. Hawaii">Trump v. Hawaii</a>, upholding the <a href="/wiki/First_presidency_of_Donald_Trump" title="First presidency of Donald Trump">Trump administration's</a> travel ban against seven nations, five of which had a <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Muslim</a> majority.<a href="#cite_note-135">[126]</a> In his opinion, Roberts concluded that 8 U. S. C. §1182(f) of the <a href="/wiki/Immigration_and_Nationality_Act_of_1965" title="Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965">Immigration and Nationality Act</a> gives the president broad authority to suspend the entry of non-citizens into the country and that <a href="/wiki/Presidential_Proclamation_9645" class="mw-redirect" title="Presidential Proclamation 9645">Presidential Proclamation 9645</a> did not exceed the limitations of said act.<a href="#cite_note-HLR-136">[127]</a> Additionally, Roberts wrote that the proclamation and its travel ban did not violate the <a href="/wiki/Free_Exercise_Clause" title="Free Exercise Clause">Free Exercise Clause</a>, as Trump's statements in support of the ban could be justified on the basis of national security.<a href="#cite_note-137">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-Scotusbloganalysis-138">[129]</a> On July 9, 2020, Roberts wrote the majority opinion in <a href="/wiki/Trump_v._Vance" title="Trump v. Vance">Trump v. Vance</a>, regarding presidential immunity from criminal <a href="/wiki/Subpoenas" class="mw-redirect" title="Subpoenas">subpoenas</a> relating to the president's personal information.<a href="#cite_note-20200709NYTLiptak-139">[130]</a> In doing so, he rejected arguments relating to the investiture of <a href="/wiki/Absolute_immunity" title="Absolute immunity">absolute immunity</a> in either the <a href="/wiki/Supremacy_Clause" title="Supremacy Clause">Supremacy Clause</a> or <a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Article II</a> of the Constitution or of presidential entitlement to a higher standard of issuance of a subpoena.<a href="#cite_note-140">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-141">[132]</a> Roberts emphasized this point, writing, "In our judicial system, 'the public has a right to every man's evidence'. Since the earliest days of the Republic, 'every man' has included the President of the United States."<a href="#cite_note-wapost_decision-142">[133]</a> On July 9, 2020, Roberts wrote the majority opinion in <a href="/wiki/Trump_v._Mazars_USA,_LLP" title="Trump v. Mazars USA, LLP">Trump v. Mazars USA, LLP</a>, regarding the authority of <a href="/wiki/United_States_congressional_hearing#Subpoenas_and_depositions" title="United States congressional hearing">congressional subpoenas</a> relating to certain personal information relating to the president.<a href="#cite_note-SCOTUSdocket-143">[134]</a> In his opinion, Roberts recognized the role of <a href="/wiki/Executive_privilege" title="Executive privilege">executive privilege</a> in presidential decision-making but contended that executive privilege did not preclude blanket immunity from records requests, as protection caused by executive privilege "should not be transplanted root and branch to cases involving nonprivileged, private information, which by definition does not implicate sensitive Executive Branch deliberations."<a href="#cite_note-20200709BloombergLawO'Brien-144">[135]</a> On July 1, 2024, Roberts wrote the majority opinion in <a href="/wiki/Trump_v._United_States_(2024)" title="Trump v. United States (2024)">Trump v. United States</a>, writing that a president has absolute immunity for acts committed as president within their constitutional purview, presumptive immunity for official acts, and no immunity for unofficial acts.<a href="#cite_note-145">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-146">[137]</a> In his opinion, Roberts notes the importance of balancing fair and effective enforcement of criminal laws, alongside the effects criminal charges for a president's official acts may have in hampering a president's decision-making while in office.<a href="#cite_note-147">[138]</a> Presumptive immunity for such official acts is therefore necessary "to ensure that the President can undertake his constitutionally designated functions effectively, free from undue pressure or distortions", but such a presumption can be overcome provided an assertion of criminality that "pose[s] no dangers of intrusion on the authority and functions of the <a href="/wiki/Executive_Branch" class="mw-redirect" title="Executive Branch">Executive Branch</a>."<a href="#cite_note-148">[139]</a> In determining whether a potentially criminal action is official, neither a violation of law nor a president's motives in acting on said violation may be used in determining it as such.<a href="#cite_note-149">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-150">[141]</a> In addition, in charging a president for crimes relating to unofficial acts, evidence involving official acts may not be used, as such usage would threaten "to eviscerate the immunity [...] recognized. It would permit a prosecutor to do indirectly what he cannot do directly—invite the jury to examine acts for which a President is immune from prosecution to nonetheless prove his liability on any charge."<a href="#cite_note-151">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-152">[143]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Campaign_finance">Campaign finance</h3></div> Roberts wrote the opinion in the 2007 decision <a href="/wiki/FEC_v._Wisconsin_Right_to_Life,_Inc." title="FEC v. Wisconsin Right to Life, Inc.">FEC v. Wisconsin Right to Life, Inc.</a>, which held that provisions of the <a href="/wiki/Bipartisan_Campaign_Reform_Act_of_2002" class="mw-redirect" title="Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002">Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002</a> that limited political advertising were unconstitutional as applied to WRTL's issue ads preceding the election.<a href="#cite_note-153">[144]</a> Roberts and Justice Alito declined to revisit the Court's 2003 decision in <a href="/wiki/McConnell_v._FEC" title="McConnell v. FEC">McConnell v. FEC</a> at that time.<a href="#cite_note-154">[145]</a> In 2010, Roberts joined the opinion of the Court in <a href="/wiki/Citizens_United_v._FEC" title="Citizens United v. FEC">Citizens United v. FEC</a>, which struck down provisions of <a href="/wiki/Bipartisan_Campaign_Reform_Act" title="Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act">BCRA</a> that restricted unions, corporations, and profitable organizations from independent political spending and prohibited the broadcasting of political media funded by them within 60 days of general elections or 30 days of primary elections. Roberts wrote his own concurring opinion "to address the important principles of <a href="/wiki/Judicial_restraint" title="Judicial restraint">judicial restraint</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stare_decisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Stare decisis">stare decisis</a> implicated in this case".<a href="#cite_note-155">[146]</a> Roberts wrote the plurality opinion in the 2014 landmark <a href="/wiki/Campaign_finance" title="Campaign finance">campaign finance</a> case <a href="/wiki/McCutcheon_v._FEC" title="McCutcheon v. FEC">McCutcheon v. FEC</a>, which held that "aggregate limits" on the combined amount a donor may give to various federal candidates or party committees violate the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment" class="mw-redirect" title="First Amendment">First Amendment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-epps-116">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-156">[147]</a> In 2015, Roberts joined the liberal justices in <a href="/wiki/Williams-Yulee_v._Florida_Bar" title="Williams-Yulee v. Florida Bar">Williams-Yulee v. Florida Bar</a>, holding that the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a> does not prohibit states from barring judges and judicial candidates from personally soliciting funds for their election campaigns.<a href="#cite_note-157">[148]</a> For the majority, Roberts wrote that such a rule is narrowly tailored to serve the compelling interest of keeping the judiciary impartial.<a href="#cite_note-:02-158">[149]</a> In 2021, the Supreme Court decided <a href="/wiki/Americans_for_Prosperity_Foundation_v._Bonta" title="Americans for Prosperity Foundation v. Bonta">Americans for Prosperity Foundation v. Bonta</a>, which held that California's requirement that nonprofit organizations disclose the identity of their donors to the state's <a href="/wiki/Attorney_General_of_California" title="Attorney General of California">Attorney General</a> as a precondition of soliciting donations in the state violates the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a>. For the majority, Roberts wrote, "California casts a dragnet for sensitive donor information from tens of thousands of charities each year, even though that information will become relevant in only a small number of cases involving filed complaints."<a href="#cite_note-159">[150]</a> It therefore does not serve a narrowly tailored government interest and thus is invalid. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fourth_Amendment">Fourth Amendment</h3></div> Roberts wrote his first dissent in <a href="/wiki/Georgia_v._Randolph" title="Georgia v. Randolph">Georgia v. Randolph</a> (2006). The majority's decision prohibited police from searching a home if both occupants are present, one objects, and the other consents. Roberts criticized the decision as inconsistent with prior <a href="/wiki/Case_law" title="Case law">case law</a> and for partly basing its reasoning on its perception of social custom. He said the social expectation test was flawed because the Fourth Amendment protects a legitimate expectation of privacy, not social expectations.<a href="#cite_note-160">[151]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Utah_v._Strieff" title="Utah v. Strieff">Utah v. Strieff</a> (2016), Roberts joined the five-justice majority in ruling that a person with an outstanding <a href="/wiki/Arrest_warrant" title="Arrest warrant">warrant</a> may be arrested and searched and that any evidence discovered in that search is admissible in court; the majority held that this remains true even when police act unlawfully by stopping a person without <a href="/wiki/Reasonable_suspicion" title="Reasonable suspicion">reasonable suspicion</a>, before learning of the existence of the outstanding warrant.<a href="#cite_note-161">[152]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Carpenter_v._United_States" title="Carpenter v. United States">Carpenter v. United States</a> (2018), a landmark decision involving privacy of cellular phone data, Roberts wrote the majority opinion in a 5–4 ruling that searches of cellular phone data generally require a warrant.<a href="#cite_note-162">[153]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abortion">Abortion</h3></div> In <a href="/wiki/Gonzales_v._Carhart" title="Gonzales v. Carhart">Gonzales v. Carhart</a> (2007), Roberts voted with the majority to uphold the <a href="/wiki/Partial-Birth_Abortion_Ban_Act" title="Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act">Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act</a>. Kennedy, writing for a five-justice majority, distinguished <a href="/wiki/Stenberg_v._Carhart" title="Stenberg v. Carhart">Stenberg v. Carhart</a>, and concluded that the Court's previous decision in <a href="/wiki/Planned_Parenthood_v._Casey" title="Planned Parenthood v. Casey">Planned Parenthood v. Casey</a> did not prevent Congress from banning the procedure. The decision left the door open for future <a href="/wiki/As-applied_challenge" class="mw-redirect" title="As-applied challenge">as-applied challenges</a>, and did not address the broader question of whether Congress had the authority to pass the law.<a href="#cite_note-163">[154]</a> Thomas filed a concurring opinion contending that <a href="/wiki/Roe_v._Wade" title="Roe v. Wade">Roe v. Wade</a> and Casey should be reversed; Roberts did not join that opinion. In 2018, Roberts and Kavanaugh joined four more liberal justices in declining to hear a case brought by Louisiana and Kansas to deny <a href="/wiki/Medicaid" title="Medicaid">Medicaid</a> funding to Planned Parenthood,<a href="#cite_note-164">[155]</a> thereby letting stand lower court rulings in Planned Parenthood's favor.<a href="#cite_note-165">[156]</a> Roberts also joined with liberal justices in 5–4 decisions temporarily blocking a Louisiana <a href="/wiki/Types_of_abortion_restrictions_in_the_United_States" title="Types of abortion restrictions in the United States">abortion restriction</a> (2019)<a href="#cite_note-166">[157]</a> and later striking down that law (<a href="/wiki/June_Medical_Services,_LLC_v._Russo" title="June Medical Services, LLC v. Russo">June Medical Services, LLC v. Russo</a> (2020)).<a href="#cite_note-167">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-168">[159]</a> The law at issue in June was similar to one the court struck down in <a href="/wiki/Whole_Woman%27s_Health_v._Hellerstedt" title="Whole Woman's Health v. Hellerstedt">Whole Woman's Health v. Hellerstedt</a> (2016), which Roberts had voted to uphold;<a href="#cite_note-nytimes_decision-169">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-170">[161]</a> in his June opinion, Roberts wrote that while he believed Whole Woman's Health was wrongly decided he was joining the majority in June out of respect for <a href="/wiki/Stare_decisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Stare decisis">stare decisis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-nytimes_decision-169">[160]</a> It was the first time in his 15 years on the Supreme Court that Roberts had cast a vote to invalidate a law that regulated abortion.<a href="#cite_note-171">[162]</a> In September 2021, the Supreme Court declined an emergency petition to temporarily block enforcement of the <a href="/wiki/Texas_Heartbeat_Act" title="Texas Heartbeat Act">Texas Heartbeat Act</a>, which bans abortion after six weeks of pregnancy except to save the mother's life. Roberts, Breyer, Sotomayor, and Kagan were in the minority.<a href="#cite_note-172">[163]</a> In 2022, Roberts declined to join the majority opinion in <a href="/wiki/Dobbs_v._Jackson_Women%27s_Health_Organization" title="Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization">Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization</a>, which overturned Roe v. Wade. He wrote a concurring opinion supporting only the decision to uphold the Mississippi abortion statute, stating that the right to an abortion should "extend far enough to ensure a reasonable opportunity to choose, but need not extend any further." Roberts also declined to join the dissenting opinion by Breyer, Sotomayor, and Kagan. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Capital_punishment">Capital punishment</h3></div> On November 4, 2016, Roberts was the deciding vote in a 5–3 decision to stay an execution.<a href="#cite_note-173">[164]</a> On February 7, 2019, he was part of the majority in a 5–4 decision rejecting a Muslim inmate's request to delay execution in order to have an imam present with him during the execution.<a href="#cite_note-174">[165]</a> Also in February 2019, Roberts sided with Kavanaugh and the court's four liberal justices in a 6–3 decision to block the execution of a man with an "intellectual disability" in Texas.<a href="#cite_note-175">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-176">[167]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Affirmative_action">Affirmative action</h3></div> Roberts opposes the use of race in assigning students to particular schools, including for purposes such as maintaining integrated schools.<a href="#cite_note-toob-177">[168]</a> He sees such plans as discrimination in violation of the Constitution's Equal Protection Clause and <a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a>.<a href="#cite_note-toob-177">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-npr.org-178">[169]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Parents_Involved_in_Community_Schools_v._Seattle_School_District_No._1" title="Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1">Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1</a>, the Court considered two voluntarily adopted school district plans that relied on race to determine which schools certain children may attend. The Court had held in Brown that "racial discrimination in public education is unconstitutional,"<a href="#cite_note-179">[170]</a> and later, that "racial classifications, imposed by whatever federal, state, or local governmental actor, ... are constitutional only if they are narrowly tailored measures that further compelling governmental interests,"<a href="#cite_note-180">[171]</a> and that this "[n]arrow tailoring ... require[s] serious, good faith consideration of workable race-neutral alternatives."<a href="#cite_note-181">[172]</a> Roberts cited these cases in writing for the Parents Involved majority, concluding that the school districts had "failed to show that they considered methods other than explicit racial classifications to achieve their stated goals."<a href="#cite_note-182">[173]</a> In a section of the opinion joined by four other justices, Roberts added that "[t]he way to stop discrimination on the basis of race is to stop discriminating on the basis of race." <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Roberts_2021.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/John_Roberts_2021.jpg/220px-John_Roberts_2021.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/John_Roberts_2021.jpg/330px-John_Roberts_2021.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/John_Roberts_2021.jpg/440px-John_Roberts_2021.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2373" data-file-height="2803" /></a><figcaption>Roberts in 2021</figcaption></figure> On June 29, 2023, Roberts wrote the majority opinion in <a href="/wiki/Students_for_Fair_Admissions_v._Harvard" title="Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard">Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard</a> and <a href="/wiki/Students_for_Fair_Admissions_v._University_of_North_Carolina" class="mw-redirect" title="Students for Fair Admissions v. University of North Carolina">Students for Fair Admissions v. University of North Carolina</a>, which held that race-based affirmative action in both public and private universities violates the Equal Protection Clause.<a href="#cite_note-183">[174]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Free_speech">Free speech</h3></div> Roberts wrote the majority opinion in the 2007 student free speech case <a href="/wiki/Morse_v._Frederick" title="Morse v. Frederick">Morse v. Frederick</a>, ruling that a student in a public school-sponsored activity does not have the right to advocate <a href="/wiki/Recreational_drug_use" title="Recreational drug use">drug use</a> on the basis that the right to free speech does not invariably prevent the exercise of school discipline.<a href="#cite_note-multiple2-184">[175]</a> On April 20, 2010, in <a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Stevens" title="United States v. Stevens">United States v. Stevens</a>, the Court struck down an <a href="/wiki/Animal_cruelty" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal cruelty">animal cruelty</a> law. Writing for an 8–1 majority, Roberts found that a federal statute criminalizing the commercial production, sale, or possession of depictions of cruelty to animals was an unconstitutional abridgment of the First Amendment right to freedom of speech. The Court held that the statute was substantially overbroad; for example, it could allow prosecutions for selling photos of out-of-season hunting.<a href="#cite_note-185">[176]</a> On March 2, 2011, Roberts wrote the majority opinion in <a href="/wiki/Snyder_v._Phelps" title="Snyder v. Phelps">Snyder v. Phelps</a>, holding that speech as a matter of public concern, even if considered offense or outrageous, cannot be the basis of liability for a <a href="/wiki/Tort" title="Tort">tort</a> of emotional stress.<a href="#cite_note-186">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-187">[178]</a> In doing so, he wrote that comments Phelps made constituted "matters of public import" as they related to societal issues and that Snyder was not determined to be a "<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/captive_audience" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:captive audience">captive audience</a>" as determined by the captive audience doctrine.<a href="#cite_note-188">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-189">[180]</a> In his conclusion, Roberts wrote, "On the facts before us, we cannot react to that pain by punishing the speaker. As a nation, we have chosen a different course—to protect even hurtful speech on public issues to ensure that we do not stifle public debate."<a href="#cite_note-190">[181]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Health_care_reform">Health care reform</h3></div> On June 28, 2012, Roberts wrote the majority opinion in <a href="/wiki/National_Federation_of_Independent_Business_v._Sebelius" title="National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius">National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius</a>, which upheld a key component of the <a href="/wiki/Patient_Protection_and_Affordable_Care_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act">Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act</a> by a 5–4 vote. The Court found that although the Act's "individual mandate" component could not be upheld under the <a href="/wiki/Commerce_Clause" title="Commerce Clause">Commerce Clause</a>, the mandate could be construed as a tax and was therefore valid under Congress's authority to "lay and collect taxes."<a href="#cite_note-politico-191">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-cushman-192">[183]</a> At the same time, the Court overturned a portion of the law related to the expansion of <a href="/wiki/Medicaid" title="Medicaid">Medicaid</a>; Roberts wrote that "Congress is not free ... to penalize states that choose not to participate in that new program by taking away their existing Medicaid funding."<a href="#cite_note-cushman-192">[183]</a> Sources within the Supreme Court said that Roberts switched his vote regarding the individual mandate sometime after an initial vote<a href="#cite_note-193">[184]</a><a href="#cite_note-194">[185]</a> and that he largely wrote both the majority and minority opinions.<a href="#cite_note-Salon-Campos-195">[186]</a> This extremely unusual circumstance has also been used to explain why the minority opinion was unsigned, itself a rare phenomenon at the Supreme Court.<a href="#cite_note-Salon-Campos-195">[186]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="LGBT_rights">LGBT rights</h3></div> In <a href="/wiki/Hollingsworth_v._Perry" title="Hollingsworth v. Perry">Hollingsworth v. Perry</a> (2013), Roberts wrote the 5–4 majority opinion holding that petitioners, appealing a lower court ruling that <a href="/wiki/California_Proposition_8_(2008)" class="mw-redirect" title="California Proposition 8 (2008)">California's Proposition 8</a> was unconstitutional, lacked standing to sue, with the result that same-sex marriages resumed in California.<a href="#cite_note-196">[187]</a> Roberts dissented in <a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Windsor" title="United States v. Windsor">United States v. Windsor</a>, in which a 5–4 majority ruled that key parts of the <a href="/wiki/Defense_of_Marriage_Act" title="Defense of Marriage Act">Defense of Marriage Act</a> were unconstitutional.<a href="#cite_note-197">[188]</a> The court found that the federal government must recognize same-sex marriages that certain states have approved. Roberts dissented in <a href="/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges" title="Obergefell v. Hodges">Obergefell v. Hodges</a>, in which Kennedy wrote for the majority, again 5–4, that same-sex couples had a right to marry.<a href="#cite_note-198">[189]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Pavan_v._Smith" class="mw-redirect" title="Pavan v. Smith">Pavan v. Smith</a>, the Supreme Court "summarily overruled" the Arkansas Supreme Court's decision that the state does not have to list same-sex spouses on birth certificates; Thomas, Alito, and Gorsuch dissented, but Roberts joined the majority.<a href="#cite_note-199">[190]</a> In the cases of <a href="/wiki/Bostock_v._Clayton_County" title="Bostock v. Clayton County">Bostock v. Clayton County</a>, <a href="/wiki/Altitude_Express,_Inc._v._Zarda" title="Altitude Express, Inc. v. Zarda">Altitude Express, Inc. v. Zarda</a>, and <a href="/wiki/R.G._%26_G.R._Harris_Funeral_Homes_Inc._v._Equal_Employment_Opportunity_Commission" title="R.G. & G.R. Harris Funeral Homes Inc. v. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission">R.G. & G.R. Harris Funeral Homes Inc. v. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission</a> (2020), heard together, Roberts ruled with the 6–3 majority that businesses cannot discriminate against LGBT people in matters of employment.<a href="#cite_note-200">[191]</a> In October 2020, Roberts joined the justices in an "apparently unanimous" decision to reject an appeal from <a href="/wiki/Kim_Davis" title="Kim Davis">Kim Davis</a>, who refused to provide marriage licenses to same-sex couples.<a href="#cite_note-201">[192]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Fulton_v._City_of_Philadelphia" title="Fulton v. City of Philadelphia">Fulton v. City of Philadelphia</a> (2021), Roberts joined a unanimous decision in favor of a Catholic adoption agency that the City of Philadelphia had denied a contract for its policy not to adopt to same-sex couples; he was also part of the majority that declined to reconsider or overturn <a href="/wiki/Employment_Division_v._Smith" title="Employment Division v. Smith">Employment Division v. Smith</a>, "an important precedent limiting First Amendment protections for religious practices."<a href="#cite_note-202">[193]</a> Also in 2021, he was one of the six justices who declined to hear an appeal by a Washington State florist who refused service to a same-sex couple based on her religious beliefs against same-sex marriage; because four votes are required to hear a case, the lower court judgments against the florist remain in place.<a href="#cite_note-203">[194]</a><a href="#cite_note-204">[195]</a><a href="#cite_note-205">[196]</a> In November 2021, Roberts voted with the majority in a 6–3 decision to reject an appeal from <a href="/wiki/Mercy_San_Juan_Medical_Center" title="Mercy San Juan Medical Center">Mercy San Juan Medical Center</a>, a hospital affiliated with the Roman Catholic Church, which had sought to deny a <a href="/wiki/Hysterectomy" title="Hysterectomy">hysterectomy</a> to a transgender patient on religious grounds.<a href="#cite_note-206">[197]</a> Thomas, Alito, and Gorsuch dissented; the vote to reject the appeal left in place a lower court ruling in the patient's favor.<a href="#cite_note-207">[198]</a><a href="#cite_note-208">[199]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Voting_Rights_Act">Voting Rights Act</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Coatrack plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section may relate to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:COATRACK" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:COATRACK">a different subject</a> or has <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:UNDUE" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:UNDUE">undue weight</a> on an aspect of the subject. Please help <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Content_forking#Article_spinoffs:_.22Summary_style.22_meta-articles_and_summary_sections" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Content forking">relocate relevant information</a> and remove irrelevant content. (August 2022)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> During his tenure as chief justice, Roberts has struck down voting rights protections provided by the <a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act</a>.<a href="#cite_note-209">[200]</a><a href="#cite_note-210">[201]</a><a href="#cite_note-211">[202]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Shelby_County_v._Holder" title="Shelby County v. Holder">Shelby County v. Holder</a> (2013), he struck down requirements that states and localities with a history of racially motivated voter suppression obtain federal preclearance before making any changes to voting laws. Research shows that preclearance led to increases in minority congressional representation and minority turnout.<a href="#cite_note-:9-212">[203]</a><a href="#cite_note-:10-213">[204]</a> Five years after the ruling, nearly 1,000 U.S. polling places had closed, many of them in predominantly African-American counties. There were also cuts to early voting, purges of voter rolls, and impositions of strict voter ID laws.<a href="#cite_note-:5-214">[205]</a><a href="#cite_note-:6-215">[206]</a> A 2020 study found that jurisdictions that had previously been covered by preclearance substantially increased their voter registration purges after Shelby.<a href="#cite_note-journals.sagepub.com-216">[207]</a> Virtually all restrictions on voting after the ruling were enacted by <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republicans</a>.<a href="#cite_note-217">[208]</a> In 2023, Roberts and Kavanaugh joined the liberals in <a href="/wiki/Allen_v._Milligan" title="Allen v. Milligan">Allen v. Milligan</a>, a 5–4 decision holding that <a href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</a>'s congressional redistricting plan violated Section 2 of the VRA. Writing for the majority, Roberts concluded that Alabama must draw an additional majority-minority district. Writing for himself and the three liberal justices, Roberts also wrote that "[t]he contention that mapmakers must be entirely 'blind' to race has no footing in our §2 case law."<a href="#cite_note-218">[209]</a><a href="#cite_note-219">[210]</a><a href="#cite_note-220">[211]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Awards_and_honors">Awards and honors</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs expansion. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AJohn_Roberts&preload=Template%3ASubmit+an+edit+request%2Fpreload&action=edit&section=new&editintro=Template%3AEdit+protected%2Feditintro&preloadtitle=Protected+edit+request+on+25+February+2025&preloadparams%5B%5D=edit+fully-protected&preloadparams%5B%5D=John+Roberts">making an edit request</a><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_Roberts&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a> . (May 2023)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> In 2007, Roberts received an <a href="/wiki/Honorary_degree" title="Honorary degree">honorary degree</a> from the <a href="/wiki/College_of_the_Holy_Cross" title="College of the Holy Cross">College of the Holy Cross</a>. He also delivered a <a href="/wiki/Commencement_address" class="mw-redirect" title="Commencement address">commencement address</a> at Holy Cross that year.<a href="#cite_note-221">[212]</a><a href="#cite_note-222">[213]</a><a href="#cite_note-223">[214]</a> In 2023, Roberts was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Henry_J._Friendly_Medal" title="Henry J. Friendly Medal">Henry J. Friendly Medal</a> of the <a href="/wiki/American_Law_Institute" title="American Law Institute">American Law Institute</a>.<a href="#cite_note-224">[215]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Personal_life">Personal life</h2></div> Roberts and his wife, Jane Sullivan, were married on July 27, 1996,<a href="#cite_note-225">[216]</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Cathedral_of_St._Matthew_the_Apostle_(Washington,_D.C.)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cathedral of St. Matthew the Apostle (Washington, D.C.)">Cathedral of St. Matthew the Apostle</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiskupic2019116-226">[217]</a> <a href="/wiki/J._Michael_Luttig" title="J. Michael Luttig">J. Michael Luttig</a> was a groomsman at their wedding.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEToobin2007273-227">[218]</a> Sullivan is a lawyer who met Roberts in New York. After graduating from the <a href="/wiki/College_of_the_Holy_Cross" title="College of the Holy Cross">College of the Holy Cross</a>, she received a master's degree in mathematics from <a href="/wiki/Brown_University" title="Brown University">Brown University</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Juris_Doctor" title="Juris Doctor">Juris Doctor</a> degree from the <a href="/wiki/Georgetown_University_Law_Center" title="Georgetown University Law Center">Georgetown University Law Center</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiskupic2019114–115-228">[219]</a> She became a prominent legal recruiter at the firms of Major, Lindsey & Africa and Mlegal.<a href="#cite_note-229">[220]</a> Like <a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</a>, Sullivan has been on Holy Cross's <a href="/wiki/Board_of_trustees" class="mw-redirect" title="Board of trustees">board of trustees</a>. John and Jane Roberts live in <a href="/wiki/Chevy_Chase,_Maryland" title="Chevy Chase, Maryland">Chevy Chase, Maryland</a>.<a href="#cite_note-diversity-230">[221]</a><a href="#cite_note-nytimes-14">[14]</a> They have two adopted children.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFriedmanIsrael2013473-88">[82]</a> During the late 1990s, while working for Hogan & Hartson, Roberts served as a member of the steering committee of the Washington, D.C., chapter of the conservative <a href="/wiki/Federalist_Society" title="Federalist Society">Federalist Society</a>, although he has said he has little recollection of any involvement.<a href="#cite_note-231">[222]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Health">Health</h3></div> In 2007, Roberts had a <a href="/wiki/Seizure" title="Seizure">seizure</a> at his vacation home in <a href="/wiki/St._George,_Maine" title="St. George, Maine">St. George, Maine</a>,<a href="#cite_note-tumbles-232">[223]</a><a href="#cite_note-suffers_seizure-233">[224]</a> and stayed overnight at a hospital in <a href="/wiki/Rockport,_Maine" title="Rockport, Maine">Rockport, Maine</a>;<a href="#cite_note-MaineToday-234">[225]</a> doctors found no identifiable cause.<a href="#cite_note-tumbles-232">[223]</a><a href="#cite_note-suffers_seizure-233">[224]</a><a href="#cite_note-seizure_remains-235">[226]</a><a href="#cite_note-doing_fine-236">[227]</a> Roberts had suffered a similar seizure in 1993<a href="#cite_note-tumbles-232">[223]</a><a href="#cite_note-suffers_seizure-233">[224]</a><a href="#cite_note-seizure_remains-235">[226]</a> but an official Supreme Court statement said that a neurological evaluation "revealed no cause for concern." Federal judges are not required by law to release information about their health.<a href="#cite_note-tumbles-232">[223]</a> On June 21, 2020, Roberts fell at a <a href="/wiki/Maryland" title="Maryland">Maryland</a> country club; his forehead required <a href="/wiki/Surgical_suture" title="Surgical suture">sutures</a> and he stayed overnight in the hospital for observation. Doctors ruled out a seizure and believed dehydration had made Roberts light-headed.<a href="#cite_note-237">[228]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Selected_works">Selected works</h2></div> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRoberts1978" class="citation journal cs1">Roberts, John (1978). "Developments in the Law: Zoning – III. The Takings Clause". <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_Review" title="Harvard Law Review">Harvard Law Review</a>. 91: 1462–1501. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1340392">10.2307/1340392</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1340392">1340392</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Developments+in+the+Law%3A+Zoning+%E2%80%93+III.+The+Takings+Clause&rft.volume=91&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1462-%3C%2Fspan%3E1501&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1340392&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1340392%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"> Section III ("The Takings Clause") of the unsigned student note "Developments in the Law: Zoning" (pp. 1427–1708).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts1978" class="citation journal cs1">Roberts, John (1978). "The Supreme Court, 1977 Term – Contract Clause—Legislative Alteration of Private Pension Agreements: Allied Structural Steel Co. v. Spannaus". <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_Review" title="Harvard Law Review">Harvard Law Review</a>. 92: 86–98. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1340566">10.2307/1340566</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1340566">1340566</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Law+Review&rft.atitle=The+Supreme+Court%2C+1977+Term+%E2%80%93+Contract+Clause%E2%80%94Legislative+Alteration+of+Private+Pension+Agreements%3A+Allied+Structural+Steel+Co.+v.+Spannaus&rft.volume=92&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E86-%3C%2Fspan%3E98&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1340566&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1340566%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"> Subsection C ("Contract Clause—Legislative Alteration of Private Pension Agreements: Allied Structural Steel Co. v. Spannaus") of Section I ("Constitutional Law") of the unsigned student note "The Supreme Court, 1977 Term" (pp. 1–339).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobertsPrettyman1990" class="citation magazine cs1">Roberts, John; <a href="/wiki/E._Barrett_Prettyman_Jr." title="E. Barrett Prettyman Jr.">Prettyman, Elijah Barrett Jr.</a> (February 26, 1990). "New Rules and Old Pose Stumbling Blocks in High Court Cases". <a href="/wiki/Legal_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal Times">Legal Times</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Legal+Times&rft.atitle=New+Rules+and+Old+Pose+Stumbling+Blocks+in+High+Court+Cases&rft.date=1990-02-26&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Prettyman%2C+Elijah+Barrett+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobertsStarrMueller_III.Lazerwitz1991" class="citation journal cs1">Roberts, John; <a href="/wiki/Ken_Starr" title="Ken Starr">Starr, Kenneth</a>; <a href="/wiki/Robert_Mueller" title="Robert Mueller">Mueller III., Robert Swan</a>; Lazerwitz, Michael (1991). "At Issue: The Noriega Tapes. Yes: The Order was Constitutional". <a href="/wiki/ABA_Journal" title="ABA Journal">ABA Journal</a>. 77 (2): 36. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20761397">20761397</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ABA+Journal&rft.atitle=At+Issue%3A+The+Noriega+Tapes.+Yes%3A+The+Order+was+Constitutional&rft.volume=77&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=36&rft.date=1991&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20761397%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Starr%2C+Kenneth&rft.au=Mueller+III.%2C+Robert+Swan&rft.au=Lazerwitz%2C+Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts1993" class="citation journal cs1">Roberts, John (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarship.law.duke.edu/dlj/vol42/iss6/4">"Article III Limits on Statutory Standing"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Duke_Law_Journal" title="Duke Law Journal">Duke Law Journal</a>. 42 (6): 1219–1232. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1372783">10.2307/1372783</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1372783">1372783</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Duke+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=Article+III+Limits+on+Statutory+Standing&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1219-%3C%2Fspan%3E1232&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1372783&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1372783%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarship.law.duke.edu%2Fdlj%2Fvol42%2Fiss6%2F4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts1993" class="citation magazine cs1">Roberts, John (March 28, 1993). "Riding the Coattails of the Solicitor General". <a href="/wiki/Legal_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal Times">Legal Times</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Legal+Times&rft.atitle=Riding+the+Coattails+of+the+Solicitor+General&rft.date=1993-03-28&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts1993" class="citation news cs1">Roberts, John (May 5, 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB112343857647406880">"Rule of Law: The New Solicitor General And the Power of the Amicus"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal" title="The Wall Street Journal">The Wall Street Journal</a>. Retrieved November 7, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Wall+Street+Journal&rft.atitle=Rule+of+Law%3A+The+New+Solicitor+General+And+the+Power+of+the+Amicus&rft.date=1993-05-05&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2FSB112343857647406880&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts1994" class="citation journal cs1">Roberts, John (1994). "The 1992–1993 Supreme Court". Public Interest Law Review. 1994: 107.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Public+Interest+Law+Review&rft.atitle=The+1992%E2%80%931993+Supreme+Court&rft.volume=1994&rft.pages=107&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts1995" class="citation journal cs1">Roberts, John (1995). "Forfeitures: Does Innocence Matter". New Jersey Law Journal. 142: 28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Jersey+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=Forfeitures%3A+Does+Innocence+Matter&rft.volume=142&rft.pages=28&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts1997" class="citation journal cs1">Roberts, John (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050910235657/http://www.nsba.org/site/docs/36400/36316.pdf">"Thoughts on Presenting an Effective Oral Argument"</a> (PDF). School Law in Review. 1997: 7-1 – 7-6. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nsba.org/site/docs/36400/36316.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on September 10, 2005. Retrieved September 10, 2005.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=School+Law+in+Review&rft.atitle=Thoughts+on+Presenting+an+Effective+Oral+Argument&rft.volume=1997&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E7-1+-%3C%2Fspan%3E+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E7-6%3C%2Fspan%3E&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nsba.org%2Fsite%2Fdocs%2F36400%2F36316.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobertsStarrMahoney2003" class="citation journal cs1">Roberts, John; <a href="/wiki/Ken_Starr" title="Ken Starr">Starr, Kenneth</a>; <a href="/wiki/Maureen_Mahoney" title="Maureen Mahoney">Mahoney, Maureen</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalcommons.law.byu.edu/lawreview/vol2003/iss1/1/">"Rex E. Lee Conference on the Office of the Solicitor General of the United States: Bush Panel"</a>. <a href="/wiki/BYU_Law_Review" title="BYU Law Review">Brigham Young University Law Review</a>. 2003 (1): 62–82.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Brigham+Young+University+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Rex+E.+Lee+Conference+on+the+Office+of+the+Solicitor+General+of+the+United+States%3A+Bush+Panel&rft.volume=2003&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E62-%3C%2Fspan%3E82&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Starr%2C+Kenneth&rft.au=Mahoney%2C+Maureen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcommons.law.byu.edu%2Flawreview%2Fvol2003%2Fiss1%2F1%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts2005" class="citation journal cs1">Roberts, John (2005). "Oral Advocacy and the Re-emergence of a Supreme Court Bar". Journal of Supreme Court History. 30 (1): 68–81. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1059-4329.2005.00098.x">10.1111/j.1059-4329.2005.00098.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145369518">145369518</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Supreme+Court+History&rft.atitle=Oral+Advocacy+and+the+Re-emergence+of+a+Supreme+Court+Bar&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E68-%3C%2Fspan%3E81&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1059-4329.2005.00098.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145369518%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts2005" class="citation journal cs1">Roberts, John (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090304021527/http://www.harvardlawreview.org/issues/119/Nov05/Rehnquist_TributeFTX.pdf">"A Tribute to Chief Justice Rehnquist"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_Review" title="Harvard Law Review">Harvard Law Review</a>. 119: 1–2. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4093552">4093552</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.harvardlawreview.org/issues/119/Nov05/Rehnquist_TributeFTX.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on March 4, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Law+Review&rft.atitle=A+Tribute+to+Chief+Justice+Rehnquist&rft.volume=119&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E2&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4093552%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.harvardlawreview.org%2Fissues%2F119%2FNov05%2FRehnquist_TributeFTX.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts2006" class="citation journal cs1">Roberts, John (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarship.law.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1254&context=penn_law_review">"Tribute to Judge Edward R. Becker"</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania_Law_Review" title="University of Pennsylvania Law Review">University of Pennsylvania Law Review</a>. 155 (1): 3–4. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40041300">40041300</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=University+of+Pennsylvania+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Tribute+to+Judge+Edward+R.+Becker&rft.volume=155&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3-%3C%2Fspan%3E4&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40041300%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarship.law.upenn.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1254%26context%3Dpenn_law_review&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts2006" class="citation journal cs1">Roberts, John (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170114135020/http://www.virginialawreview.org/sites/virginialawreview.org/files/375_0.pdf">"What Makes the D.C. Circuit Different? A Historical View"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Law_Review" title="Virginia Law Review">Virginia Law Review</a>. 92 (3): 375–389. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4144947">4144947</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.virginialawreview.org/sites/virginialawreview.org/files/375_0.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on January 14, 2017. Retrieved April 30, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Virginia+Law+Review&rft.atitle=What+Makes+the+D.C.+Circuit+Different%3F+A+Historical+View&rft.volume=92&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E375-%3C%2Fspan%3E389&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4144947%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.virginialawreview.org%2Fsites%2Fvirginialawreview.org%2Ffiles%2F375_0.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts2016" class="citation journal cs1">Roberts, John (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/1-30_Compiled-Tributes_Online.pdf">"In Memoriam: Justice Antonin Scalia"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_Review" title="Harvard Law Review">Harvard Law Review</a>. 130 (1): 1–2. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44072402">44072402</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Law+Review&rft.atitle=In+Memoriam%3A+Justice+Antonin+Scalia&rft.volume=130&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E2&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44072402%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fharvardlawreview.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2016%2F11%2F1-30_Compiled-Tributes_Online.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts2018" class="citation journal cs1">Roberts, John (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/1-27_Online.pdf">"In Tribute: Justice Anthony M. Kennedy"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_Review" title="Harvard Law Review">Harvard Law Review</a>. 132 (1): 1–3.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Law+Review&rft.atitle=In+Tribute%3A+Justice+Anthony+M.+Kennedy&rft.volume=132&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E3&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fharvardlawreview.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2018%2F11%2F1-27_Online.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts2020" class="citation journal cs1">Roberts, John (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/747-769_Online.pdf">"Memoriam: Justice John Paul Stevens"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_Review" title="Harvard Law Review">Harvard Law Review</a>. 133 (3): 747–748.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Memoriam%3A+Justice+John+Paul+Stevens&rft.volume=133&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E747-%3C%2Fspan%3E748&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fharvardlawreview.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2020%2F01%2F747-769_Online.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Demographics of the Supreme Court of the United States">Demographics of the Supreme Court of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States">List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_law_clerks_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_(Chief_Justice)" title="List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Chief Justice)">List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Chief Justice)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_law_clerks_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_(Seat_9)" title="List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Seat 9)">List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Seat 9)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_chief_justices_by_time_in_office" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States chief justices by time in office">List of United States chief justices by time in office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_justices_by_time_in_office" title="List of United States Supreme Court justices by time in office">List of United States Supreme Court justices by time in office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Roberts_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Roberts Court">United States Supreme Court cases decided by the Roberts Court</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> Roberts turned down an offer to pursue a doctorate in history at Harvard on a full scholarship.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder20101217-28">[28]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> Roberts' colleagues on the <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_Review" title="Harvard Law Review">Harvard Law Review</a> also included <a href="/wiki/Jane_C._Ginsburg" title="Jane C. Ginsburg">Jane C. Ginsburg</a>, the daughter of Judge <a href="/wiki/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg" title="Ruth Bader Ginsburg">Ruth Bader Ginsburg</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEToobin2007262-30">[29]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> Harvard students considered a clerkship with Friendly to be "the gold standard"; Charles Davidow, a fellow member of the Harvard Law Review, described Roberts as "a superstar in law school, and the fact that Friendly picked him would be testament to that".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder20101215,_1217-33">[31]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> Roberts has considered Friendly "the most influential figure in his life."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFriedmanIsrael2013468-39">[36]</a> During his Supreme Court confirmation hearings in 2005, Roberts later testified about Friendly: "He had such a total commitment to excellence in his craft, at every stage of the process. Just a total devotion to the rule of law and the confidence that if you just worked hard enough at it, you'd come up with the right answers."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFriedmanIsrael2013468-39">[36]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> Starr chose Roberts to assist O'Connor in matters concerning abortion during her hearings before the <a href="/wiki/Senate_Judiciary_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="Senate Judiciary Committee">Senate Judiciary Committee</a>. Roberts later recalled that "the approach was to avoid giving specific responses to any direct questions on legal issues likely to come before the court, but demonstrating in the response a firm command of the subject area and awareness of the relevant precedents and arguments." O'Connor later received widespread support and was confirmed 99–0 on September 21, 1981.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiskupic201966–67-43">[39]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> Democrats <a href="/wiki/Ted_Kennedy" title="Ted Kennedy">Ted Kennedy</a> (Massachusetts), <a href="/wiki/Chuck_Schumer" title="Chuck Schumer">Chuck Schumer</a> (New York), and <a href="/wiki/Dick_Durbin" title="Dick Durbin">Dick Durbin</a> (Illinois) were those who opposed Roberts's nomination.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiskupic2019135-83">[78]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> Roberts, like some other judges on the D.C. Circuit, borrowed from classical works in writing his opinions, and he often quoted <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Ralph Waldo Emerson</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a>. According to legal scholar Laura Krugman Ray, he was intent on "finding ways to leaven his utilitarian prose with personalized elements of diction, metaphor, allusion, syntax, and tone."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiskupic2019136-89">[83]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> Including two important decisions, firstly in Sierra Club v. E.P.A. (2004), rejecting claims of an environmental rights group that the <a href="/wiki/Environmental_Protection_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental Protection Agency">Environmental Protection Agency</a> (EPA) should have enforced stricter measures on air pollution, then in Independent Equipment Dealers Ass'n v. E.P.A. (2004), concerning the EPA's role under the <a href="/wiki/Administrative_Procedure_Act" title="Administrative Procedure Act">Administrative Procedure Act</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFriedmanIsrael2013473-88">[82]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> Usually ruling in favor of the government, including in United States v. Bolla (2003), which upheld a harsh securities fraud sentence, and in United States v. Lawson (2005), which affirmed a bank robbery conviction based on photo identification.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFriedmanIsrael2013474-92">[84]</a> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190412033341/https://www.reaganlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/archives/textual/smof/robertsj.pdf">"Roberts, John G.: Files, 1982-1986"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan_Presidential_Library" title="Ronald Reagan Presidential Library">Ronald Reagan Presidential Library</a>. 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November 21, 2018. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181121191611/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-46294734">Archived</a> from the original on November 21, 2018. 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Retrieved March 8, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Republic&rft.atitle=Jeffrey+Rosen%3A+Big+Chief+%E2%80%93+The+New+Republic&rft.aulast=Rosen&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnewrepublic.com%2Farticle%2Fpolitics%2Fmagazine%2F104898%2Fjohn-roberts-supreme-court-aca&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Coyle-128"><a href="#cite_ref-Coyle_128-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoyle2013" class="citation book cs1">Coyle, Marcia (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/robertscourtstru0000coyl">The Roberts Court: the struggle for the constitution</a>. New York: Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781451627527" title="Special:BookSources/9781451627527"><bdi>9781451627527</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roberts+Court%3A+the+struggle+for+the+constitution&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781451627527&rft.aulast=Coyle&rft.aufirst=Marcia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frobertscourtstru0000coyl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowersLiptakWillis2014" class="citation news cs1">Bowers, Jeremy; Liptak, Adam; Willis, Derek (June 23, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2014/06/24/upshot/24up-scotus-agreement-rates.html?abt=0002&abg=0">"Which Supreme Court Justices Vote Together Most and Least Often"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150701091302/http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2014/06/24/upshot/24up-scotus-agreement-rates.html?abt=0002&abg=0">Archived</a> from the original on July 1, 2015. Retrieved May 21, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Which+Supreme+Court+Justices+Vote+Together+Most+and+Least+Often&rft.date=2014-06-23&rft.aulast=Bowers&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rft.au=Liptak%2C+Adam&rft.au=Willis%2C+Derek&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Finteractive%2F2014%2F06%2F24%2Fupshot%2F24up-scotus-agreement-rates.html%3Fabt%3D0002%26abg%3D0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scotusblog.com/2019/04/empirical-scotus-is-kavanaugh-as-conservative-as-expected/">"Empirical SCOTUS: Is Kavanaugh as conservative as expected?"</a>. SCOTUSblog. April 3, 2019. 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Who, then, controls it?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/law/2021/oct/11/us-supreme-court-john-roberts-politics">the original</a> on June 28, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=John+Roberts+is+no+longer+the+leader+of+his+own+court.+Who%2C+then%2C+controls+it%3F&rft.date=2021-10-11&rft.aulast=Kirchgaessner&rft.aufirst=Stephanie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Flaw%2F2021%2Foct%2F11%2Fus-supreme-court-john-roberts-politics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuq2021" class="citation news cs1">Huq, Aziz (September 15, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220724033732/https://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2021/09/15/the-roberts-court-is-dying-heres-what-comes-next-511784">"The Roberts Court is Dying. 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CNBC. Retrieved June 26, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CNBC&rft.atitle=Supreme+Court+rules+that+Trump%27s+travel+ban+is+constitutional&rft.date=2018-06-26&rft.aulast=Higgins&rft.aufirst=Tucker&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnbc.com%2F2018%2F06%2F26%2Fsupreme-court-rules-in-trump-muslim-travel-ban-case.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HLR-136"><a href="#cite_ref-HLR_136-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1176897979">.mw-parser-output .bluebook-title{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output .bluebook-title i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .bluebook-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .bluebook-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .bluebook-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .bluebook-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#3a3;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><cite id="CITEREFNote2018">Note, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/327-336_Online.pdf">The Supreme Court, 2017 Term — Leading Cases</a>, 132 <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_Review" title="Harvard Law Review">Harv. 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Retrieved February 21, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=USA+Today&rft.atitle=Divided+Supreme+Court+blocks+Texas+from+executing+intellectually+disabled+man%2C+citing+%27lay+stereotypes%27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usatoday.com%2Fstory%2Fnews%2Fpolitics%2F2019%2F02%2F19%2Fsupreme-court-bobby-james-moore-death-penalty-case%2F2914569002%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-toob-177">^ <a href="#cite_ref-toob_177-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-toob_177-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFToobin2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Toobin" title="Jeffrey Toobin">Toobin, Jeffrey</a> (2008). <a href="/wiki/The_Nine:_Inside_the_Secret_World_of_the_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="The Nine: Inside the Secret World of the Supreme Court">The Nine: Inside the Secret World of the Supreme Court</a>. New York: Doubleday. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nineinsidesecret00toob/page/389">389</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-51640-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-385-51640-2"><bdi>978-0-385-51640-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nine%3A+Inside+the+Secret+World+of+the+Supreme+Court&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=389&rft.pub=Doubleday&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-385-51640-2&rft.aulast=Toobin&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-npr.org-178"><a href="#cite_ref-npr.org_178-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDay_to_Day2007" class="citation web cs1">Day to Day (June 28, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=11507805">"Justices Reject Race as Factor in School Placement"</a>. <a href="/wiki/NPR" title="NPR">NPR</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110219212740/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=11507805">Archived</a> from the original on February 19, 2011. Retrieved August 26, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Justices+Reject+Race+as+Factor+in+School+Placement&rft.pub=NPR&rft.date=2007-06-28&rft.au=Day+to+Day&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2Ftemplates%2Fstory%2Fstory.php%3FstoryId%3D11507805&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://supreme.justia.com/us/349/294/case.html#298">"Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka"</a>. Supreme.justia.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110904001708/http://supreme.justia.com/us/349/294/case.html#298">Archived</a> from the original on September 4, 2011. Retrieved May 21, 2015. <q>349 U.S. 294, 298 (1955) (Brown II)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Brown+v.+Board+of+Education+of+Topeka&rft.pub=Supreme.justia.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsupreme.justia.com%2Fus%2F349%2F294%2Fcase.html%23298&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Adarand_Constructors_v._Pena" class="mw-redirect" title="Adarand Constructors v. Pena">Adarand Constructors v. Pena</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://supreme.justia.com/us/515/200/case.html">515 U.S. 200</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100121042438/http://supreme.justia.com/us/515/200/case.html">Archived</a> January 21, 2010, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, 227 (1995). </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Grutter_v._Bollinger" title="Grutter v. Bollinger">Grutter v. Bollinger</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://supreme.justia.com/us/539/306/case.html">539 U.S. 306</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101108175710/http://supreme.justia.com/us/539/306/case.html">Archived</a> November 8, 2010, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, 339 (2003). </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> Parents Involved, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/06pdf/05-908.pdf">slip op. at 16</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100531195839/http://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/06pdf/05-908.pdf">Archived</a> May 31, 2010, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/supreme-court-strike-affirmative-action-university-b2366556.html">"Supreme Court bans colleges from considering race in admissions"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Independent" title="The Independent">The Independent</a>. June 29, 2023. 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Retrieved June 28, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Supreme+Court+Lets+Health+Law+Largely+Stand&rft.date=2012-06-28&rft.aulast=Cushman&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2012%2F06%2F29%2Fus%2Fsupreme-court-lets-health-law-largely-stand.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.politico.com/news/stories/0612/78048.html">"New SCOTUS parlor game: Did Roberts flip?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Politico" title="Politico">Politico</a>. 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June 15, 2020. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210214231843/https://apnews.com/ef3c19a79b65c060fd9e82b9dd87a1d9">Archived</a> from the original on February 14, 2021. 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National Law Journal. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200802211138/https://www.law.com/nationallawjournal/2019/03/05/jane-sullivan-roberts-wife-of-chief-justice-opens-dc-outpost-for-recruiter-mlegal/?slreturn=20190609181555">Archived</a> from the original on August 2, 2020. Retrieved July 9, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=Jane+Sullivan+Roberts%2C+Wife+of+Chief+Justice%2C+Opens+DC+Outpost+for+Recruiter+MLegal&rft.date=2019-03-05&rft.aulast=Lovelace&rft.aufirst=Ryan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.com%2Fnationallawjournal%2F2019%2F03%2F05%2Fjane-sullivan-roberts-wife-of-chief-justice-opens-dc-outpost-for-recruiter-mlegal%2F%3Fslreturn%3D20190609181555&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-diversity-230"><a href="#cite_ref-diversity_230-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeate2015" class="citation news cs1">Neate, Rupert (December 4, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/dec/04/chevy-chase-maryland-super-rich-town-diversity">"Chevy Chase, Maryland: the super-rich town that has it all – except diversity"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Chevy+Chase%2C+Maryland%3A+the+super-rich+town+that+has+it+all+%E2%80%93+except+diversity&rft.date=2015-12-04&rft.aulast=Neate&rft.aufirst=Rupert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fus-news%2F2015%2Fdec%2F04%2Fchevy-chase-maryland-super-rich-town-diversity&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLane2005" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Lane_(journalist)" title="Charles Lane (journalist)">Lane, Charles</a> (July 25, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/07/24/AR2005072401201.html">"Roberts Listed in Federalist Society '97–98 Directory"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081011080214/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/07/24/AR2005072401201.html">Archived</a> from the original on October 11, 2008. Retrieved December 5, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Roberts+Listed+in+Federalist+Society+%2797%E2%80%9398+Directory&rft.date=2005-07-25&rft.aulast=Lane&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2005%2F07%2F24%2FAR2005072401201.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tumbles-232">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tumbles_232-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-tumbles_232-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-tumbles_232-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-tumbles_232-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMearsJeane_Meserve2007" class="citation news cs1">Mears, Bill; Jeane Meserve (July 31, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cnn.com/2007/US/law/07/30/roberts.fall/index.html">"Chief justice tumbles after seizure"</a>. <a href="/wiki/CNN" title="CNN">CNN</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081212061906/http://www.cnn.com/2007/US/law/07/30/roberts.fall/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on December 12, 2008. Retrieved December 5, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Chief+justice+tumbles+after+seizure&rft.date=2007-07-31&rft.aulast=Mears&rft.aufirst=Bill&rft.au=Jeane+Meserve&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2F2007%2FUS%2Flaw%2F07%2F30%2Froberts.fall%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-suffers_seizure-233">^ <a href="#cite_ref-suffers_seizure_233-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-suffers_seizure_233-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-suffers_seizure_233-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSherman2007" class="citation news cs1">Sherman, Mark (July 31, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/07/30/AR2007073001119.html">"Chief Justice Roberts Suffers Seizures"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121112035304/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/07/30/AR2007073001119.html">Archived</a> from the original on November 12, 2012. Retrieved December 5, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Chief+Justice+Roberts+Suffers+Seizures&rft.date=2007-07-31&rft.aulast=Sherman&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2007%2F07%2F30%2FAR2007073001119.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-MaineToday-234"><a href="#cite_ref-MaineToday_234-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaine_Today_staff2007" class="citation web cs1">Maine Today staff (July 30, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090201172207/http://news.mainetoday.com/updates/014236.html">"Chief Justice John Roberts hospitalized in Maine"</a>. Maine Today. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.mainetoday.com/updates/014236.html">the original</a> on February 1, 2009. Retrieved December 5, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chief+Justice+John+Roberts+hospitalized+in+Maine&rft.pub=Maine+Today&rft.date=2007-07-30&rft.au=%27%27Maine+Today%27%27+staff&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.mainetoday.com%2Fupdates%2F014236.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-seizure_remains-235">^ <a href="#cite_ref-seizure_remains_235-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-seizure_remains_235-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCaleb2007" class="citation news cs1">McCaleb, Ian (July 31, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.foxnews.com/story/president-bush-phones-chief-justice-john-roberts-at-hospital">"President Bush Phones Chief Justice John Roberts at Hospital"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Fox_News_Channel" class="mw-redirect" title="Fox News Channel">Fox News Channel</a>. Associated Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090203223508/http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,291465,00.html">Archived</a> from the original on February 3, 2009. Retrieved December 5, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=President+Bush+Phones+Chief+Justice+John+Roberts+at+Hospital&rft.date=2007-07-31&rft.aulast=McCaleb&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.foxnews.com%2Fstory%2Fpresident-bush-phones-chief-justice-john-roberts-at-hospital&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-doing_fine-236"><a href="#cite_ref-doing_fine_236-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChernoffBill_MearsDana_Bash2007" class="citation news cs1">Chernoff, Alan; Bill Mears; <a href="/wiki/Dana_Bash" title="Dana Bash">Dana Bash</a> (July 31, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080515234407/http://www.cnn.com/2007/US/law/07/31/roberts.fall/index.html">"Chief justice leaves hospital after seizure"</a>. <a href="/wiki/CNN" title="CNN">CNN</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cnn.com/2007/US/law/07/31/roberts.fall/index.html">the original</a> on May 15, 2008. Retrieved December 5, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Chief+justice+leaves+hospital+after+seizure&rft.date=2007-07-31&rft.aulast=Chernoff&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft.au=Bill+Mears&rft.au=Dana+Bash&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2F2007%2FUS%2Flaw%2F07%2F31%2Froberts.fall%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-237"><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarnes2020" class="citation news cs1">Barnes, Robert (July 7, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/courts_law/john-roberts-hospitalized-supreme-court/2020/07/07/6bc230ae-c0a0-11ea-b4f6-cb39cd8940fb_story.html">"Chief Justice John Roberts was hospitalized last month after injuring his head in a fall"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200708015235/https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/courts_law/john-roberts-hospitalized-supreme-court/2020/07/07/6bc230ae-c0a0-11ea-b4f6-cb39cd8940fb_story.html">Archived</a> from the original on July 8, 2020. Retrieved July 8, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Chief+Justice+John+Roberts+was+hospitalized+last+month+after+injuring+his+head+in+a+fall&rft.date=2020-07-07&rft.aulast=Barnes&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fpolitics%2Fcourts_law%2Fjohn-roberts-hospitalized-supreme-court%2F2020%2F07%2F07%2F6bc230ae-c0a0-11ea-b4f6-cb39cd8940fb_story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"> The incident was announced by the Supreme Court press office on July 7, 2020. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Additional_sources">Additional sources</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?459084-1/the-chief">Presentation by Biskupic on The Chief, March 28, 2019</a>, <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?458891-1/qa-joan-biskupic">Q&A interview with Biskupic on The Chief, March 31, 2019</a>, <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeubauerMeinhold2005" class="citation book cs1">Neubauer, David W.; Meinhold, Stephen S. (2005). Battle Supreme: The Confirmation of Chief Justice John Roberts and the Future of the Supreme Court. <a href="/wiki/Cengage_Learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Cengage Learning">Cengage</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0495171072" title="Special:BookSources/978-0495171072"><bdi>978-0495171072</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Battle+Supreme%3A+The+Confirmation+of+Chief+Justice+John+Roberts+and+the+Future+of+the+Supreme+Court&rft.pub=Cengage&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0495171072&rft.aulast=Neubauer&rft.aufirst=David+W.&rft.au=Meinhold%2C+Stephen+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFToobin2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Toobin" title="Jeffrey Toobin">Toobin, Jeffrey</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nineinsidesecret00toob">The Nine: Inside the Secret World of the Supreme Court</a>. <a href="/wiki/Random_House" title="Random House">Random House</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-51640-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-385-51640-2"><bdi>978-0-385-51640-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nine%3A+Inside+the+Secret+World+of+the+Supreme+Court&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-385-51640-2&rft.aulast=Toobin&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnineinsidesecret00toob&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenburg2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jan_Crawford" title="Jan Crawford">Greenburg, Jan Crawford</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/supremeconflicti00gree">Supreme Conflict: The Inside Story of the Struggle for Control of the United States Supreme Court</a>. <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Group" title="Penguin Group">Penguin Group</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59420-101-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59420-101-1"><bdi>978-1-59420-101-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Supreme+Conflict%3A+The+Inside+Story+of+the+Struggle+for+Control+of+the+United+States+Supreme+Court&rft.pub=Penguin+Group&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-59420-101-1&rft.aulast=Greenburg&rft.aufirst=Jan+Crawford&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsupremeconflicti00gree&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSnyder2010" class="citation journal cs1">Snyder, Brad (December 8, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kb.osu.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/aa0b5c62-5e75-5ef5-ad5c-2260efce3fd9/content">"The Judicial Genealogy (and Mythology) of John Roberts: Clerkships from Gray to Brandeis to Friendly to Roberts"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ohio_State_Law_Journal" class="mw-redirect" title="Ohio State Law Journal">Ohio State Law Journal</a>. 71 (1149). <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1722362">1722362</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ohio+State+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Judicial+Genealogy+%28and+Mythology%29+of+John+Roberts%3A+Clerkships+from+Gray+to+Brandeis+to+Friendly+to+Roberts&rft.volume=71&rft.issue=1149&rft.date=2010-12-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D1722362%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft.aulast=Snyder&rft.aufirst=Brad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fkb.osu.edu%2Fserver%2Fapi%2Fcore%2Fbitstreams%2Faa0b5c62-5e75-5ef5-ad5c-2260efce3fd9%2Fcontent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTushnet2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mark_Tushnet" title="Mark Tushnet">Tushnet, Mark</a> (September 30, 2013). In the Balance: Law and Politics on the Roberts Court. <a href="/wiki/W._W._Norton" class="mw-redirect" title="W. W. Norton">W. W. Norton</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0393073447" title="Special:BookSources/978-0393073447"><bdi>978-0393073447</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+the+Balance%3A+Law+and+Politics+on+the+Roberts+Court&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton&rft.date=2013-09-30&rft.isbn=978-0393073447&rft.aulast=Tushnet&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedmanIsrael2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Leon_Friedman_(legal_scholar)" title="Leon Friedman (legal scholar)">Friedman, Leon</a> (2013). "John G. Roberts, Jr.". In Friedman, Leon; Israel, Fred L. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/justicesofunited0004unse_a6q5">The Justices of the United States Supreme Court: Their Lives and Major Opinions</a> (4th ed.). New York, NY: Facts On File, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0791013779" title="Special:BookSources/978-0791013779"><bdi>978-0791013779</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=John+G.+Roberts%2C+Jr.&rft.btitle=The+Justices+of+the+United+States+Supreme+Court%3A+Their+Lives+and+Major+Opinions&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Facts+On+File%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0791013779&rft.aulast=Friedman&rft.aufirst=Leon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjusticesofunited0004unse_a6q5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrennan-Marquez2014" class="citation journal cs1">Brennan-Marquez, Kiel (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dc.law.utah.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1119&context=ulr">"The Philosophy and Jurisprudence of Chief Justice Roberts"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Utah_Law_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="Utah Law Review">Utah Law Review</a>. 2014 (1). Contribution by <a href="/wiki/Linda_Greenhouse" title="Linda Greenhouse">Linda Greenhouse</a>: 138–186.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Utah+Law+Review&rft.atitle=The+Philosophy+and+Jurisprudence+of+Chief+Justice+Roberts&rft.volume=2014&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E138-%3C%2Fspan%3E186&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Brennan-Marquez&rft.aufirst=Kiel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdc.law.utah.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1119%26context%3Dulr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhittington2014" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Keith_E._Whittington" class="mw-redirect" title="Keith E. Whittington">Whittington, Keith</a> (May 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarship.law.nd.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4562&context=ndlr#:~:text=The%20Court%20under%20Chief%20Justice,the%20exercise%20of%20judicial%20review.">"The Least Activist Supreme Court in History? The Roberts Court and the Exercise of Judicial Review"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Notre_Dame_Law_Review" title="Notre Dame Law Review">Notre Dame Law Review</a>. 89 (5): 2219–2252.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Notre+Dame+Law+Review&rft.atitle=The+Least+Activist+Supreme+Court+in+History%3F+The+Roberts+Court+and+the+Exercise+of+Judicial+Review&rft.volume=89&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2219-%3C%2Fspan%3E2252&rft.date=2014-05&rft.aulast=Whittington&rft.aufirst=Keith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarship.law.nd.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D4562%26context%3Dndlr%23%3A~%3Atext%3DThe%2520Court%2520under%2520Chief%2520Justice%2Cthe%2520exercise%2520of%2520judicial%2520review.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdler2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_H._Adler" title="Jonathan H. Adler">Adler, Jonathan H.</a> (2016). Business and the Roberts Court. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-062092-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-062092-9"><bdi>978-0-19-062092-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Business+and+the+Roberts+Court&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-19-062092-9&rft.aulast=Adler&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBiskupic2019" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joan_Biskupic" title="Joan Biskupic">Biskupic, Joan</a> (2019). The Chief: The Life and Turbulent Times of Chief Justice John Roberts. New York: Basic Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780465093274" title="Special:BookSources/9780465093274"><bdi>9780465093274</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Chief%3A+The+Life+and+Turbulent+Times+of+Chief+Justice+John+Roberts&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9780465093274&rft.aulast=Biskupic&rft.aufirst=Joan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStone2020" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_R._Stone" title="Geoffrey R. Stone">Stone, Geoffrey R.</a> (January 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/1010-1047_Online.pdf">"A Four-Decade Perspective on Life Inside the Supreme Court"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_Review" title="Harvard Law Review">Harvard Law Review</a>. 133 (3): 1010–1046.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Law+Review&rft.atitle=A+Four-Decade+Perspective+on+Life+Inside+the+Supreme+Court&rft.volume=133&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1010-%3C%2Fspan%3E1046&rft.date=2020-01&rft.aulast=Stone&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fharvardlawreview.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2020%2F01%2F1010-1047_Online.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="News_articles">News articles</h3></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeckerArgetsinger2005" class="citation news cs1">Becker, Jo; Argetsinger, Amy (July 22, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/07/21/AR2005072101782.html?nav=hcmodule">"The Nominee As a Young Pragmatist"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110629060909/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/07/21/AR2005072101782.html?nav=hcmodule">Archived</a> from the original on June 29, 2011. Retrieved May 6, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=The+Nominee+As+a+Young+Pragmatist&rft.date=2005-07-22&rft.aulast=Becker&rft.aufirst=Jo&rft.au=Argetsinger%2C+Amy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2005%2F07%2F21%2FAR2005072101782.html%3Fnav%3Dhcmodule&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Goodnough, Abby (July 21, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/21/politics/21florida.html">"Nominee Gave Quiet Advice on Recount"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141007143603/http://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/21/politics/21florida.html">Archived</a> October 7, 2014, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> The New York Times.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLane2005" class="citation news cs1">Lane, Charles (July 21, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/07/20/AR2005072002431.html">"Federalist Affiliation Misstated"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110629061022/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/07/20/AR2005072002431.html">Archived</a> from the original on June 29, 2011. Retrieved May 6, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Federalist+Affiliation+Misstated&rft.date=2005-07-21&rft.aulast=Lane&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2005%2F07%2F20%2FAR2005072002431.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLane2005" class="citation news cs1">Lane, Charles (July 21, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/07/20/AR2005072002322.html">"Short Record as Judge Is Under a Microscope"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110629061036/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/07/20/AR2005072002322.html">Archived</a> from the original on June 29, 2011. Retrieved May 6, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Short+Record+as+Judge+Is+Under+a+Microscope&rft.date=2005-07-21&rft.aulast=Lane&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2005%2F07%2F20%2FAR2005072002322.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/20/world/americas/20iht-web.0720profile.html">"Colleagues call high court nominee a smart, self-effacing 'Eagle Scout'"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. July 20, 2005. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130512122012/http://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/20/world/americas/20iht-web.0720profile.html">Archived</a> from the original on May 12, 2013. Retrieved February 19, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Colleagues+call+high+court+nominee+a+smart%2C+self-effacing+%27Eagle+Scout%27&rft.date=2005-07-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2005%2F07%2F20%2Fworld%2Famericas%2F20iht-web.0720profile.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmithBecker2005" class="citation news cs1">Smith, R. Jeffrey; Becker, Jo (July 20, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/07/19/AR2005071902065.html">"Record of Accomplishment – and Some Contradictions"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110629060941/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/07/19/AR2005071902065.html">Archived</a> from the original on June 29, 2011. Retrieved May 6, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Record+of+Accomplishment+%E2%80%93+and+Some+Contradictions&rft.date=2005-07-20&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=R.+Jeffrey&rft.au=Becker%2C+Jo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2005%2F07%2F19%2FAR2005071902065.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other">Other</h3></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oyez.org/justices/john_g_roberts_jr">"John G. Roberts, Jr"</a>. Oyez.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160404054043/https://www.oyez.org/justices/john_g_roberts_jr">Archived</a> from the original on April 4, 2016. Retrieved April 26, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=John+G.+Roberts%2C+Jr.&rft.pub=Oyez.org&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oyez.org%2Fjustices%2Fjohn_g_roberts_jr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110628190724/http://www.newsmeat.com/judiciary_political_donations/John_G_Roberts.php">"NEWSMEAT ▷ John G Roberts's Federal Campaign Contribution Report"</a>. Newsmeat.com. August 5, 2010. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newsmeat.com/judiciary_political_donations/John_G_Roberts.php">the original</a> on June 28, 2011. Retrieved August 26, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=NEWSMEAT+%E2%96%B7+John+G+Roberts%27s+Federal+Campaign+Contribution+Report&rft.pub=Newsmeat.com&rft.date=2010-08-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newsmeat.com%2Fjudiciary_political_donations%2FJohn_G_Roberts.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoel_Goldstein2008" class="citation journal cs1">Joel Goldstein (2008). "Not Hearing History: A Critique of Chief Justice Robert's Reinterpretation of Brown". Ohio State Law Journal. 69 (5). <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1387162">1387162</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ohio+State+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=Not+Hearing+History%3A+A+Critique+of+Chief+Justice+Robert%27s+Reinterpretation+of+Brown&rft.volume=69&rft.issue=5&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D1387162%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft.au=Joel+Goldstein&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120206180354/http://www.access.gpo.gov/congress/senate/pdf/108hrg/89324.pdf">"Hearing Before the Committee on the Judiciary United States Senate: One Hundred Eighth Congress"</a> (PDF). Access.gpo.gov. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.access.gpo.gov/congress/senate/pdf/108hrg/89324.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on February 6, 2012. Retrieved May 21, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Hearing+Before+the+Committee+on+the+Judiciary+United+States+Senate%3A+One+Hundred+Eighth+Congress&rft.pub=Access.gpo.gov&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.access.gpo.gov%2Fcongress%2Fsenate%2Fpdf%2F108hrg%2F89324.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Roberts" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> John Roberts at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:John_Roberts" class="extiw" title="c:Category:John Roberts">Media</a> from Commons</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/27px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/41px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/54px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" /><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Category:John_G._Roberts" class="extiw" title="n:Category:John G. Roberts">News</a> from Wikinews</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/John_Roberts" class="extiw" title="q:John Roberts">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/39px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:John_Glover_Roberts" class="extiw" title="s:Author:John Glover Roberts">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/27px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/41px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/54px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11153" class="extiw" title="d:Q11153">Data</a> from Wikidata</li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fjc.gov/node/1391841">John Roberts</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Biographical_Directory_of_Federal_Judges" title="Biographical Directory of Federal Judges">Biographical Directory of Federal Judges</a>, a publication of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Judicial_Center" title="Federal Judicial Center">Federal Judicial Center</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ballotpedia.org/John_Roberts_(Supreme_Court)">John Roberts</a> at <a href="/wiki/Ballotpedia" title="Ballotpedia">Ballotpedia</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/person/?81004">Appearances</a> on <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oyez.org/advocates/john_g_roberts_jr">Appearances at the U.S. Supreme Court</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Oyez_Project" title="Oyez Project">Oyez Project</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.OnTheIssues.org/John_Roberts.htm">Issue positions and quotes</a> at <a href="/wiki/OnTheIssues" class="mw-redirect" title="OnTheIssues">OnTheIssues</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051024200447/http://www.asksam.com/ebooks/johnroberts/">Judge Roberts's Published Opinions in a searchable database</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://civilliberty.about.com/od/ussupremecourt/ig/Know-Your-Supreme-Court/Chief-Justice-John-Roberts.htm">Chief Justice John Roberts</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080129200917/http://civilliberty.about.com/od/ussupremecourt/ig/Know-Your-Supreme-Court/Chief-Justice-John-Roberts.htm">Archived</a> January 29, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> at About.com</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.anastigmatix.net/reference/JGR.html">List of Circuit Judge Roberts's opinions for the DC Circuit </a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161021183019/http://www.rcfp.org/news/documents/20050721-robertsrec.html">A summary of media-related cases handled by Supreme Court nominee John G. Roberts Jr.</a> from The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press, July 21, 2005</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050919162420/http://www.scotusblog.com/movabletype/">SCOTUSblog</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historyguy.com/biofiles/chief_justice_scotus.html">List of Chief Justices, including John Roberts, Jr.</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #DDCEF2;">Legal offices </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/James_L._Buckley" title="James L. Buckley">James L. Buckley</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> Judge of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_District_of_Columbia_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit">United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit</a> 2003–2005 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Millett" title="Patricia Millett">Patricia Millett</a></div> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/William_Rehnquist" title="William Rehnquist">William Rehnquist</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief Justice of the United States</a> 2005–present </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Incumbent </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #cfc;"><a href="/wiki/United_States_order_of_precedence" title="United States order of precedence">U.S. order of precedence</a> (ceremonial) </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Mike_Johnson" title="Mike Johnson">Mike Johnson</a></div>as Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/United_States_order_of_precedence" title="United States order of precedence">Order of precedence of the United States</a> as Chief Justice of the United States </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a></div>as Former president of the United States </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><link 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District of Columbia Circuit">United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #EEE"><div>(June 2, 2003 – September 29, 2005); by calendar year</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2003_United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_District_of_Columbia_Circuit_opinions_of_John_Roberts" title="2003 United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit opinions of John Roberts">2003</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2004_United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_District_of_Columbia_Circuit_opinions_of_John_Roberts" title="2004 United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit opinions of John Roberts">2004</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2005_United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_District_of_Columbia_Circuit_opinions_of_John_Roberts" title="2005 United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit opinions of John Roberts">2005</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #EEE"><div id="Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States83" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #EEE"><div>(September 29, 2005 – present); by term</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2005_term_United_States_Supreme_Court_opinions_of_John_Roberts" title="2005 term United States Supreme Court opinions of John Roberts">2005</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2006_term_United_States_Supreme_Court_opinions_of_John_Roberts" title="2006 term United States Supreme Court opinions of John Roberts">2006</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2007_term_United_States_Supreme_Court_opinions_of_John_Roberts" title="2007 term United States Supreme Court opinions of John Roberts">2007</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_term_United_States_Supreme_Court_opinions_of_John_Roberts" title="2008 term United States Supreme Court opinions of John Roberts">2008</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009_term_United_States_Supreme_Court_opinions_of_John_Roberts" title="2009 term United States Supreme Court opinions of John Roberts">2009</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2010_term_United_States_Supreme_Court_opinions_of_John_Roberts" title="2010 term United States Supreme Court opinions of John Roberts">2010</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2011_term_United_States_Supreme_Court_opinions_of_John_Roberts" title="2011 term United States Supreme Court opinions of John Roberts">2011</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_term_United_States_Supreme_Court_opinions_of_John_Roberts" title="2012 term United States Supreme Court opinions of John Roberts">2012</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2013_term_United_States_Supreme_Court_opinions_of_John_Roberts" title="2013 term United States Supreme Court opinions of John Roberts">2013</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014_term_United_States_Supreme_Court_opinions_of_John_Roberts" title="2014 term United States Supreme Court opinions of John Roberts">2014</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_term_United_States_Supreme_Court_opinions_of_John_Roberts" title="2015 term United States Supreme Court opinions of John Roberts">2015</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2016_term_United_States_Supreme_Court_opinions_of_John_Roberts" title="2016 term United States Supreme Court opinions of John Roberts">2016</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_term_United_States_Supreme_Court_opinions_of_John_Roberts" title="2017 term United States Supreme Court opinions of John Roberts">2017</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2018_term_United_States_Supreme_Court_opinions_of_John_Roberts" title="2018 term United States Supreme Court opinions of John Roberts">2018</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_term_United_States_Supreme_Court_opinions_of_John_Roberts" title="2019 term United States Supreme Court opinions of John Roberts">2019</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_term_United_States_Supreme_Court_opinions_of_John_Roberts" title="2020 term United States Supreme Court opinions of John Roberts">2020</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_term_United_States_Supreme_Court_opinions_of_John_Roberts" title="2021 term United States Supreme Court opinions of John Roberts">2021</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_term_United_States_Supreme_Court_opinions_of_John_Roberts" title="2022 term United States Supreme Court opinions of John Roberts">2022</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_term_United_States_Supreme_Court_opinions_of_John_Roberts" title="2023 term United States Supreme Court opinions of John Roberts">2023</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_term_United_States_Supreme_Court_opinions_of_John_Roberts" title="2024 term United States Supreme Court opinions of John Roberts">2024</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States189" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:SCOTUS_justices" title="Template:SCOTUS justices"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:SCOTUS_justices" title="Template talk:SCOTUS justices"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:SCOTUS_justices" title="Special:EditPage/Template:SCOTUS justices"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States189" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Justices of the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd flatlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div id="Chief_justices189" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief justices</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align:left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/John_Jay" title="John Jay">John Jay</a> (<a href="/wiki/Jay_Court" title="Jay Court">1789–1795</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Jay_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Jay Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rutledge" title="John Rutledge">John Rutledge</a> (<a href="/wiki/Rutledge_Court" title="Rutledge Court">1795</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Rutledge_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Rutledge Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Ellsworth" title="Oliver Ellsworth">Oliver Ellsworth</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ellsworth_Court" title="Ellsworth Court">1796–1800</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Ellsworth_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Ellsworth Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Marshall" title="John Marshall">John Marshall</a> (<a href="/wiki/Marshall_Court" title="Marshall Court">1801–1835</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Marshall_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Marshall Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_B._Taney" title="Roger B. Taney">Roger B. Taney</a> (<a href="/wiki/Taney_Court" title="Taney Court">1836–1864</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Taney_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Taney Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salmon_P._Chase" title="Salmon P. Chase">Salmon P. Chase</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chase_Court" title="Chase Court">1864–1873</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Chase_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Chase Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morrison_Waite" title="Morrison Waite">Morrison Waite</a> (<a href="/wiki/Waite_Court" title="Waite Court">1874–1888</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Waite_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Waite Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melville_Fuller" title="Melville Fuller">Melville Fuller</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fuller_Court" title="Fuller Court">1888–1910</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Fuller_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Fuller Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Douglass_White" title="Edward Douglass White">Edward Douglass White</a> (<a href="/wiki/White_Court_(justices)" title="White Court (justices)">1910–1921</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_White_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the White Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">William Howard Taft</a> (<a href="/wiki/Taft_Court" title="Taft Court">1921–1930</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Taft_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Taft Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Evans_Hughes" title="Charles Evans Hughes">Charles Evans Hughes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hughes_Court" title="Hughes Court">1930–1941</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Hughes_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Hughes Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlan_F._Stone" title="Harlan F. Stone">Harlan F. Stone</a> (<a href="/wiki/Stone_Court" title="Stone Court">1941–1946</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Stone_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Stone Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_M._Vinson" title="Fred M. Vinson">Fred M. Vinson</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vinson_Court" title="Vinson Court">1946–1953</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Vinson_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Vinson Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earl_Warren" title="Earl Warren">Earl Warren</a> (<a href="/wiki/Warren_Court" title="Warren Court">1953–1969</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Warren_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Warren Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_E._Burger" title="Warren E. Burger">Warren E. Burger</a> (<a href="/wiki/Burger_Court" title="Burger Court">1969–1986</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Burger_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Burger Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Rehnquist" title="William Rehnquist">William Rehnquist</a> (<a href="/wiki/Rehnquist_Court" title="Rehnquist Court">1986–2005</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Rehnquist_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Rehnquist Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">John Roberts</a> (<a href="/wiki/Roberts_Court" title="Roberts Court">2005–present</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Roberts_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Roberts Court">cases</a>)</li></ol> </div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/80px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/120px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/160px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd flatlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div id="Associate_justices189" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States">Associate justices</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align:left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 16em;"> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/John_Rutledge" title="John Rutledge">J. Rutledge</a>* (1790–1791)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Cushing" title="William Cushing">Cushing</a> (1790–1810)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Wilson_(Founding_Father)" title="James Wilson (Founding Father)">Wilson</a> (1789–1798)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Blair_Jr." title="John Blair Jr.">Blair</a> (1790–1795)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Iredell" title="James Iredell">Iredell</a> (1790–1799)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Johnson_(judge)" title="Thomas Johnson (judge)">T. Johnson</a> (1792–1793)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Paterson_(judge)" title="William Paterson (judge)">Paterson</a> (1793–1806)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Chase" title="Samuel Chase">S. Chase</a> (1796–1811)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushrod_Washington" title="Bushrod Washington">Washington</a> (1798–1829)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Moore" title="Alfred Moore">Moore</a> (1800–1804)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Johnson_(judge)" title="William Johnson (judge)">W. Johnson</a> (1804–1834)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Brockholst_Livingston" title="Henry Brockholst Livingston">Livingston</a> (1807–1823)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Todd" title="Thomas Todd">Todd</a> (1807–1826)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Duvall" title="Gabriel Duvall">Duvall</a> (1811–1835)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Story" title="Joseph Story">Story</a> (1812–1845)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smith_Thompson" title="Smith Thompson">Thompson</a> (1823–1843)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Trimble" title="Robert Trimble">Trimble</a> (1826–1828)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McLean" title="John McLean">McLean</a> (1829–1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Baldwin_(judge)" title="Henry Baldwin (judge)">Baldwin</a> (1830–1844)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Moore_Wayne" class="mw-redirect" title="James Moore Wayne">Wayne</a> (1835–1867)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_P._Barbour" title="Philip P. Barbour">Barbour</a> (1836–1841)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Catron" title="John Catron">Catron</a> (1837–1865)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McKinley" title="John McKinley">McKinley</a> (1838–1852)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_V._Daniel" title="Peter V. Daniel">Daniel</a> (1842–1860)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Nelson" title="Samuel Nelson">Nelson</a> (1845–1872)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levi_Woodbury" title="Levi Woodbury">Woodbury</a> (1845–1851)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Cooper_Grier" title="Robert Cooper Grier">Grier</a> (1846–1870)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Robbins_Curtis" title="Benjamin Robbins Curtis">Curtis</a> (1851–1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Archibald_Campbell" title="John Archibald Campbell">Campbell</a> (1853–1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathan_Clifford" title="Nathan Clifford">Clifford</a> (1858–1881)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noah_Haynes_Swayne" title="Noah Haynes Swayne">Swayne</a> (1862–1881)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Freeman_Miller" title="Samuel Freeman Miller">Miller</a> (1862–1890)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Davis_(Supreme_Court_justice)" title="David Davis (Supreme Court justice)">Davis</a> (1862–1877)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Johnson_Field" title="Stephen Johnson Field">Field</a> (1863–1897)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Strong_(Pennsylvania_judge)" class="mw-redirect" title="William Strong (Pennsylvania judge)">Strong</a> (1870–1880)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_P._Bradley" title="Joseph P. Bradley">Bradley</a> (1870–1892)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ward_Hunt" title="Ward Hunt">Hunt</a> (1873–1882)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Marshall_Harlan" title="John Marshall Harlan">J. M. Harlan</a> (1877–1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Burnham_Woods" title="William Burnham Woods">Woods</a> (1881–1887)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Matthews_(judge)" title="Stanley Matthews (judge)">Matthews</a> (1881–1889)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace_Gray" title="Horace Gray">Gray</a> (1882–1902)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Blatchford" title="Samuel Blatchford">Blatchford</a> (1882–1893)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucius_Quintus_Cincinnatus_Lamar" title="Lucius Quintus Cincinnatus Lamar">L. Lamar</a> (1888–1893)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_J._Brewer" title="David J. Brewer">Brewer</a> (1890–1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Billings_Brown" title="Henry Billings Brown">Brown</a> (1891–1906)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Shiras_Jr." title="George Shiras Jr.">Shiras</a> (1892–1903)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howell_E._Jackson" title="Howell E. Jackson">H. Jackson</a> (1893–1895)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Douglass_White" title="Edward Douglass White">E. White</a>* (1894–1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rufus_W._Peckham" title="Rufus W. Peckham">Peckham</a> (1896–1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_McKenna" title="Joseph McKenna">McKenna</a> (1898–1925)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_Jr." title="Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.">Holmes</a> (1902–1932)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_R._Day" title="William R. Day">Day</a> (1903–1922)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Moody" title="William Henry Moody">Moody</a> (1906–1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace_Harmon_Lurton" title="Horace Harmon Lurton">Lurton</a> (1910–1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Evans_Hughes" title="Charles Evans Hughes">Hughes</a>* (1910–1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willis_Van_Devanter" title="Willis Van Devanter">Van Devanter</a> (1911–1937)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Rucker_Lamar" title="Joseph Rucker Lamar">J. Lamar</a> (1911–1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahlon_Pitney" title="Mahlon Pitney">Pitney</a> (1912–1922)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Clark_McReynolds" title="James Clark McReynolds">McReynolds</a> (1914–1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Brandeis" title="Louis Brandeis">Brandeis</a> (1916–1939)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hessin_Clarke" title="John Hessin Clarke">Clarke</a> (1916–1922)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Sutherland" title="George Sutherland">Sutherland</a> (1922–1938)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierce_Butler_(judge)" title="Pierce Butler (judge)">Butler</a> (1923–1939)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Terry_Sanford" title="Edward Terry Sanford">Sanford</a> (1923–1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlan_F._Stone" title="Harlan F. Stone">Stone</a>* (1925–1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Owen_Roberts" title="Owen Roberts">O. Roberts</a> (1930–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_N._Cardozo" title="Benjamin N. Cardozo">Cardozo</a> (1932–1938)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Black" title="Hugo Black">Black</a> (1937–1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Forman_Reed" title="Stanley Forman Reed">Reed</a> (1938–1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felix_Frankfurter" title="Felix Frankfurter">Frankfurter</a> (1939–1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_O._Douglas" title="William O. Douglas">Douglas</a> (1939–1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Murphy" title="Frank Murphy">Murphy</a> (1940–1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_F._Byrnes" title="James F. Byrnes">Byrnes</a> (1941–1942)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Jackson" title="Robert H. Jackson">R. Jackson</a> (1941–1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiley_Rutledge" title="Wiley Rutledge">W. Rutledge</a> (1943–1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_H._Burton" title="Harold H. Burton">Burton</a> (1945–1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_C._Clark" title="Tom C. Clark">Clark</a> (1949–1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherman_Minton" title="Sherman Minton">Minton</a> (1949–1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Marshall_Harlan_II" title="John Marshall Harlan II">J. M. Harlan II</a> (1955–1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_J._Brennan_Jr." title="William J. Brennan Jr.">Brennan</a> (1956–1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Evans_Whittaker" title="Charles Evans Whittaker">Whittaker</a> (1957–1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potter_Stewart" title="Potter Stewart">Stewart</a> (1958–1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byron_White" title="Byron White">B. White</a> (1962–1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Goldberg" title="Arthur Goldberg">Goldberg</a> (1962–1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abe_Fortas" title="Abe Fortas">Fortas</a> (1965–1969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">T. Marshall</a> (1967–1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Blackmun" title="Harry Blackmun">Blackmun</a> (1970–1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_F._Powell_Jr." title="Lewis F. Powell Jr.">Powell</a> (1972–1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Rehnquist" title="William Rehnquist">Rehnquist</a>* (1972–1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Paul_Stevens" title="John Paul Stevens">Stevens</a> (1975–2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandra_Day_O%27Connor" title="Sandra Day O'Connor">O'Connor</a> (1981–2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonin_Scalia" title="Antonin Scalia">Scalia</a> (1986–2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kennedy" title="Anthony Kennedy">Kennedy</a> (1988–2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Souter" title="David Souter">Souter</a> (1990–2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Thomas</a> (1991–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg" title="Ruth Bader Ginsburg">Ginsburg</a> (1993–2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Breyer" title="Stephen Breyer">Breyer</a> (1994–2022)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Alito" title="Samuel Alito">Alito</a> (2006–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonia_Sotomayor" title="Sonia Sotomayor">Sotomayor</a> (2009–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elena_Kagan" title="Elena Kagan">Kagan</a> (2010–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neil_Gorsuch" title="Neil Gorsuch">Gorsuch</a> (2017–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brett_Kavanaugh" title="Brett Kavanaugh">Kavanaugh</a> (2018–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amy_Coney_Barrett" title="Amy Coney Barrett">Barrett</a> (2020–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson">K. Jackson</a> (2022–present)</li></ol> </div> <div style="text-align: center;">*Also served as chief justice of the United States</div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/80px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/120px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/160px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Current_members_of_the_Judicial_Conference_of_the_United_States67" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:United_States_Judicial_Conference" title="Template:United States Judicial Conference"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:United_States_Judicial_Conference" title="Template talk:United States Judicial Conference"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:United_States_Judicial_Conference" title="Special:EditPage/Template:United States Judicial Conference"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Current_members_of_the_Judicial_Conference_of_the_United_States67" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Current members of the <a href="/wiki/Judicial_Conference_of_the_United_States" title="Judicial Conference of the United States">Judicial Conference of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Roberts</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief Justice</a>)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/S._Thomas_Anderson" title="S. Thomas Anderson">Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_P._Bailey" title="John P. Bailey">Bailey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_A._Barnett" title="Mark A. Barnett">Barnett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_J._Barron" title="David J. Barron">Barron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Boasberg" title="James Boasberg">Boasberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margo_Kitsy_Brodie" title="Margo Kitsy Brodie">Brodie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debra_M._Brown" title="Debra M. Brown">Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Chagares" title="Michael Chagares">Chagares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_Colloton" title="Steven Colloton">Colloton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Diaz_(judge)" title="Albert Diaz (judge)">Diaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jennifer_Walker_Elrod" title="Jennifer Walker Elrod">Elrod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitchell_S._Goldberg" title="Mitchell S. Goldberg">Goldberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome_Holmes" title="Jerome Holmes">Holmes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_P._Johnson" title="William P. Johnson">Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Mary_Kendall" title="Virginia Mary Kendall">Kendall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leslie_E._Kobayashi" title="Leslie E. Kobayashi">Kobayashi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roberto_Lange" title="Roberto Lange">Lange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debra_Ann_Livingston" title="Debra Ann Livingston">Livingston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kimberly_A._Moore" title="Kimberly A. Moore">Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_H._Murguia" title="Mary H. Murguia">Murguia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_H._Pryor_Jr." title="William H. Pryor Jr.">Pryor Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_E._Smith_(judge)" title="William E. Smith (judge)">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Srinivasan" title="Sri Srinivasan">Srinivasan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Sutton" title="Jeffrey Sutton">Sutton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_S._Sykes" title="Diane S. Sykes">Sykes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lisa_Godbey_Wood" title="Lisa Godbey Wood">Wood</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_J._Conrad" title="Robert J. Conrad">Conrad</a> (<a href="/wiki/Administrative_Office_of_the_United_States_Courts" title="Administrative Office of the United States Courts">Administrative Office</a>)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_S._Cooke&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John S. Cooke (page does not exist)">Cooke</a> (<a href="/wiki/Federal_Judicial_Center" title="Federal Judicial Center">Federal Judicial Center</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Order_of_precedence_in_the_United_States*203" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:US_Order_of_Precedence" title="Template:US Order of Precedence"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:US_Order_of_Precedence" title="Template talk:US Order of Precedence"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:US_Order_of_Precedence" title="Special:EditPage/Template:US Order of Precedence"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Order_of_precedence_in_the_United_States*203" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/United_States_order_of_precedence" title="United States order of precedence">Order of precedence in the United States</a>*</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</a> <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">Vice President</a> <a href="/wiki/JD_Vance" title="JD Vance">JD Vance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_governors" title="List of current United States governors">Governor (of the state in which the event is held)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speaker_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Speaker of the United States House of Representatives">House Speaker</a> <a href="/wiki/Mike_Johnson" title="Mike Johnson">Mike Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief Justice</a> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">John Roberts</a></li> <li>Former President <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a></li> <li>Former President <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a></li> <li>Former President <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a></li> <li>Former President <a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden" title="Joe Biden">Joe Biden</a></li> <li>Former Vice President <a href="/wiki/Dan_Quayle" title="Dan Quayle">Dan Quayle</a></li> <li>Former Vice President <a href="/wiki/Al_Gore" title="Al Gore">Al Gore</a></li> <li>Former Vice President <a href="/wiki/Dick_Cheney" title="Dick Cheney">Dick Cheney</a></li> <li>Former Vice President <a href="/wiki/Mike_Pence" title="Mike Pence">Mike Pence</a></li> <li>Former Vice President <a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris" title="Kamala Harris">Kamala Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambassadors_of_the_United_States" title="Ambassadors of the United States">Ambassadors of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State" title="United States Secretary of State">Secretary of State</a> <a href="/wiki/Marco_Rubio" title="Marco Rubio">Marco Rubio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States">Associate Justices</a></li> <li>Retired Associate Justice <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kennedy" title="Anthony Kennedy">Anthony Kennedy</a></li> <li>Retired Associate Justice <a href="/wiki/David_Souter" title="David Souter">David Souter</a></li> <li>Retired Associate Justice <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Breyer" title="Stephen Breyer">Stephen Breyer</a></li> <li>Members of the <a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_States" title="Cabinet of the United States">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_pro_tempore_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="President pro tempore of the United States Senate">Senate President pro tempore</a> <a href="/wiki/Chuck_Grassley" title="Chuck Grassley">Chuck Grassley</a></li> <li>Members of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_senators" title="List of current United States senators">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_governors" title="List of current United States governors">Governors of the States (by order of statehood)</a></li> <li>Members of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_current_members_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" class="mw-redirect" title="List of current members of the United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>*not including acting officeholders, visiting dignitaries, auxiliary executive and military personnel and most diplomats</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="First_impeachment_and_impeachment_trial_of_Donald_Trump266" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:First_impeachment_and_impeachment_trial_of_Donald_Trump" title="Template:First impeachment and impeachment trial of Donald Trump"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:First_impeachment_and_impeachment_trial_of_Donald_Trump" title="Template talk:First impeachment and impeachment trial of Donald Trump"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:First_impeachment_and_impeachment_trial_of_Donald_Trump" title="Special:EditPage/Template:First impeachment and impeachment trial of Donald Trump"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="First_impeachment_and_impeachment_trial_of_Donald_Trump266" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">First <a href="/wiki/First_impeachment_of_Donald_Trump" title="First impeachment of Donald Trump">impeachment</a> and <a href="/wiki/First_impeachment_trial_of_Donald_Trump" title="First impeachment trial of Donald Trump">impeachment trial</a> of <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Background</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Efforts_to_impeach_Donald_Trump" title="Efforts to impeach Donald Trump">Efforts to impeach</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_impeachment_resolutions_introduced_against_Donald_Trump" title="List of impeachment resolutions introduced against Donald Trump">Resolutions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trump%E2%80%93Ukraine_scandal" title="Trump–Ukraine scandal">Trump–Ukraine scandal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Impeachment_inquiry_into_Donald_Trump" title="Impeachment inquiry into Donald Trump">Inquiry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">Testifying witnesses: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Atkinson_(Inspector_General)" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Atkinson (Inspector General)">Michael Atkinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laura_Cooper" title="Laura Cooper">Laura Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_Croft" title="Catherine Croft">Catherine Croft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hale_(diplomat)" title="David Hale (diplomat)">David Hale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiona_Hill_(presidential_advisor)" title="Fiona Hill (presidential advisor)">Fiona Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Holmes_(diplomat)" title="David Holmes (diplomat)">David Holmes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Linick" title="Steve Linick">Steve Linick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Maguire" title="Joseph Maguire">Joseph Maguire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Morrison_(presidential_advisor)" title="Tim Morrison (presidential advisor)">Tim Morrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_T._Reeker" title="Philip T. Reeker">Philip T. Reeker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Sandy" title="Mark Sandy">Mark Sandy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Sondland" title="Gordon Sondland">Gordon Sondland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_B._Taylor_Jr." title="William B. Taylor Jr.">William B. Taylor Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Vindman" title="Alexander Vindman">Alexander Vindman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_Volker" title="Kurt Volker">Kurt Volker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jennifer_Williams" title="Jennifer Williams">Jennifer Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Yovanovitch" title="Marie Yovanovitch">Marie Yovanovitch</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/First_impeachment_trial_of_Donald_Trump" title="First impeachment trial of Donald Trump">Impeachment trial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">Presiding officer: <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">John Roberts</a></li> House managers: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Schiff" title="Adam Schiff">Adam Schiff</a> (lead manager)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jason_Crow" title="Jason Crow">Jason Crow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Val_Demings" title="Val Demings">Val Demings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvia_Garcia" title="Sylvia Garcia">Sylvia Garcia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hakeem_Jeffries" title="Hakeem Jeffries">Hakeem Jeffries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoe_Lofgren" title="Zoe Lofgren">Zoe Lofgren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Nadler" title="Jerry Nadler">Jerry Nadler</a></li></ul> President's counsel: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pam_Bondi" title="Pam Bondi">Pam Bondi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pat_Cipollone" title="Pat Cipollone">Pat Cipollone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Dershowitz" title="Alan Dershowitz">Alan Dershowitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_F._Philbin" title="Patrick F. Philbin">Patrick F. Philbin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Purpura" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Purpura">Michael Purpura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Ray_(prosecutor)" title="Robert Ray (prosecutor)">Robert Ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jay_Sekulow" title="Jay Sekulow">Jay Sekulow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Starr" title="Ken Starr">Ken Starr</a></li></ul> Congressional defense team: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Doug_Collins_(politician)" title="Doug Collins (politician)">Doug Collins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mike_Johnson" title="Mike Johnson">Mike Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Jordan" title="Jim Jordan">Jim Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debbie_Lesko" title="Debbie Lesko">Debbie Lesko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Meadows" title="Mark Meadows">Mark Meadows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ratcliffe_(American_politician)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Ratcliffe (American politician)">John Ratcliffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elise_Stefanik" title="Elise Stefanik">Elise Stefanik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Zeldin" title="Lee Zeldin">Lee Zeldin</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposed_expungements_of_the_impeachments_of_Donald_Trump" title="Proposed expungements of the impeachments of Donald Trump">Proposed expungement</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" 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[\"CITEREFLane2005\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFLiptak2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiptak2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiptak2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiptak2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiptak2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiptakGoodmanTavernise2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLovelace2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaine_Today_staff2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarimowBarrett2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCaleb2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMears\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMearsJeane_Meserve2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMillhiser2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMillhiser2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoraleda2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeate2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeubauerMeinhold2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Brien2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPasley2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPress2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPurdumJodi_WilgorenPam_Belluck2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQuinnLegare2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRenee_E._Williams2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoberts1978\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFRoberts1993\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFRoberts1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoberts1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoberts1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoberts2005\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFRoberts2006\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFRoberts2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoberts2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoberts2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobertsHolpuch2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobertsPrettyman1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobertsStarrMahoney2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobertsStarrMueller_III.Lazerwitz1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosen\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosen2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosen2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRowland2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScaliaGarner2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchuitRogowski2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSerrano2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSherman2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShethSamuelsohn2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSilagi2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmithBecker2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSnyder2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSorkin2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStevenson2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStone2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStracqualursi2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFToobin2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFToobin2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFToobin2009\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFTotenberg2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTotenbergMontanaroGonzalesCampbell2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTushnet2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUnited_States_Senate_Committee_on_the_Judiciary2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhittington2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_Vogue\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_Vogue2018\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 6,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Ballotpedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Birth date and age\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 3,\n [\"Bluebook journal\"] = 2,\n [\"C-SPAN\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 12,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 24,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 8,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 60,\n [\"Cite press release\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 73,\n [\"Clear\"] = 1,\n [\"Coatrack\"] = 1,\n [\"Conservatism US\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Roberts, John\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"Expand section\"] = 1,\n [\"External media\"] = 1,\n [\"FJC Bio\"] = 2,\n [\"First impeachment and impeachment trial of Donald Trump\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvid\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 15,\n [\"Infobox officeholder\"] = 1,\n [\"John Roberts opinions\"] = 1,\n [\"Listen\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 2,\n [\"Marriage\"] = 1,\n [\"Nowrap\"] = 2,\n [\"Other people\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-move\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-vandalism\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Refn\"] = 9,\n [\"S-aft\"] = 2,\n [\"S-bef\"] = 3,\n [\"S-end\"] = 1,\n [\"S-inc\"] = 1,\n [\"S-legal\"] = 1,\n [\"S-prec\"] = 1,\n [\"S-start\"] = 1,\n [\"S-ttl\"] = 3,\n [\"SCOTUS Justices\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 79,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sister project links\"] = 1,\n [\"Small\"] = 1,\n [\"TOC limit\"] = 1,\n [\"US Order of Precedence\"] = 1,\n [\"United States Judicial Conference\"] = 1,\n [\"Use American English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use mdy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 8,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"nowrap\"] = \"yes\",\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"nowrap\"] = \"yes\",\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","360","22.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","280","17.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","140","8.6"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","120","7.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::test","80","4.9"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","60","3.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","60","3.7"],["chunk \u003CModule:Citation/CS1:4387\u003E","40","2.5"],["concat","40","2.5"],["type","40","2.5"],["[others]","400","24.7"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-int.codfw.main-cd585cf6-svzlz","timestamp":"20250225061505","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"John 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