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id="toc-Beta_decay_modes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-β−_decay_(electron_emission)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#β−_decay_(electron_emission)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>β<sup>−</sup> decay (electron emission)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-β−_decay_(electron_emission)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-β+_decay_(positron_emission)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#β+_decay_(positron_emission)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>β<sup>+</sup> decay (positron emission)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-β+_decay_(positron_emission)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Beta_decay_schemes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Beta_decay_schemes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Beta decay schemes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Beta_decay_schemes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interaction_with_other_matter" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interaction_with_other_matter"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Interaction with other matter</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Interaction_with_other_matter-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Interaction with other matter subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Interaction_with_other_matter-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Detection_and_measurement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Detection_and_measurement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Detection and measurement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Detection_and_measurement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Beta_spectroscopy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Beta_spectroscopy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Beta spectroscopy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Beta_spectroscopy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Applications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Health</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Health-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Beta particle</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 68 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-68" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">68 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betadeeltjie" title="Betadeeltjie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Betadeeltjie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%85_%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%AA%D8%A7" title="جسيم بيتا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جسيم بيتا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particla_beta" title="Particla beta – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Particla beta" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Part%C3%ADcula_beta" title="Partícula beta – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Partícula beta" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_hiss%C9%99cik" title="Beta hissəcik – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Beta hissəcik" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BE_%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%A3%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE" title="বিটা কণিকা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বিটা কণিকা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%8D%D1%82%D0%B0-%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%86%D1%96%D1%86%D0%B0" title="Бэта-часціца – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Бэта-часціца" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0-%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B0" title="Бета-частица – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Бета-частица" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_%C4%8Destica" title="Beta čestica – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Beta čestica" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Part%C3%ADcula_%CE%B2" title="Partícula β – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Partícula β" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C3%A1%C5%99en%C3%AD_beta" title="Záření beta – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Záření beta" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betateilchen" title="Betateilchen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Betateilchen" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beetaosake" title="Beetaosake – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Beetaosake" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%89%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%AF%CE%B4%CE%B9%CE%BF_%CE%B2%CE%AE%CF%84%CE%B1" title="Σωματίδιο βήτα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Σωματίδιο βήτα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Part%C3%ADcula_beta" title="Partícula beta – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Partícula beta" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_partikula" title="Beta partikula – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Beta partikula" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B0%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A8%D8%AA%D8%A7" title="ذرات بتا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ذرات بتا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particule_%CE%B2" title="Particule β – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Particule β" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%A9ite-ch%C3%A1ithn%C3%ADn" title="Béite-cháithnín – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Béite-cháithnín" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Part%C3%ADcula_beta" title="Partícula beta – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Partícula beta" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B2%A0%ED%83%80_%EC%9E%85%EC%9E%90" title="베타 입자 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="베타 입자" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%A5%D5%BF%D5%A1-%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Բետա-մասնիկներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բետա-մասնիկներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A3" title="बीटा कण – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="बीटा कण" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta-%C4%8Destica" title="Beta-čestica – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Beta-čestica" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partikel_Beta" title="Partikel Beta – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Partikel Beta" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particula_%CE%B2" title="Particula β – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Particula β" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particella_%CE%B2" title="Particella β – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Particella β" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%97%D7%9C%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%A7_%D7%91%D7%98%D7%90" title="חלקיק בטא – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="חלקיק בטא" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AC%E0%B3%80%E0%B2%9F_%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%A3" title="ಬೀಟ ಕಣ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಬೀಟ ಕಣ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0-%D0%91%D3%A9%D0%BB%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Бета-Бөлшектер – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Бета-Бөлшектер" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patikil_beta" title="Patikil beta – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Patikil beta" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Per%C3%A7oka_beta" title="Perçoka beta – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Perçoka beta" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C4%93ta_da%C4%BCi%C5%86a" title="Bēta daļiņa – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Bēta daļiņa" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_dalel%C4%97" title="Beta dalelė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Beta dalelė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raggi_beta" title="Raggi beta – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Raggi beta" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%A9ta-r%C3%A9szecske" title="Béta-részecske – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Béta-részecske" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0-%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Бета-честичка – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Бета-честичка" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BE_%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%82" title="ബീറ്റാ കണം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ബീറ്റാ കണം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zarah_beta" title="Zarah beta – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Zarah beta" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Бета задрал – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Бета задрал" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%98%E1%80%AE%E1%80%90%E1%80%AC%E1%80%A1%E1%80%99%E1%80%BE%E1%80%AF%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA" title="ဘီတာအမှုန် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဘီတာအမှုန်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%A8tadeeltje" title="Bètadeeltje – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Bètadeeltje" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%99%E3%83%BC%E3%82%BF%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="ベータ粒子 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ベータ粒子" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betapartikkel" title="Betapartikkel – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Betapartikkel" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betapartikkel" title="Betapartikkel – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Betapartikkel" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_zarra" title="Beta zarra – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Beta zarra" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AC%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%9F%E0%A8%BE_%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%A3" title="ਬੀਟਾ ਕਣ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਬੀਟਾ ਕਣ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%B9%D8%A7_%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%B9%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%84" title="بیٹا پارٹیکل – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="بیٹا پارٹیکل" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promieniowanie_beta" title="Promieniowanie beta – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Promieniowanie beta" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Part%C3%ADcula_beta" title="Partícula beta – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Partícula beta" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0-%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B0" title="Бета-частица – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Бета-частица" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B6%E0%B7%93%E0%B6%A7%E0%B7%8F_%E0%B6%85%E0%B6%82%E0%B7%81%E0%B7%94" title="බීටා අංශු – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="බීටා අංශු" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_particle" title="Beta particle – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Beta particle" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Castica_beta" title="Častica beta – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Častica beta" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delec_beta" title="Delec beta – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Delec beta" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%DB%95%D9%86%DB%86%DA%A9%DB%95%DB%8C_%D8%A8%DB%8E%D8%AA%D8%A7" title="تەنۆکەی بێتا – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="تەنۆکەی بێتا" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_%C4%8Destica" title="Beta čestica – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Beta čestica" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta-%C4%8Destica" title="Beta-čestica – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Beta-čestica" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BE_%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D" title="பீட்டா துகள் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பீட்டா துகள்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B2" title="อนุภาคบีตา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="อนุภาคบีตา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0-%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Бета-зарра – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Бета-зарра" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_par%C3%A7ac%C4%B1%C4%9F%C4%B1" title="Beta parçacığı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Beta parçacığı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0-%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Бета-частинки – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Бета-частинки" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%E1%BA%A1t_beta" title="Hạt beta – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Hạt beta" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partikulo_Beta" title="Partikulo Beta – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Partikulo Beta" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="Β粒子 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="Β粒子" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B9%99%E7%A8%AE%E5%B0%84%E7%B6%AB" title="乙種射綫 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="乙種射綫" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="Β粒子 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="Β粒子" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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.ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" 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Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Beta+particle%22">"Beta particle"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Beta+particle%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Beta+particle%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Beta+particle%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Beta+particle%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Beta+particle%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alfa_beta_gamma_radiation.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Alfa_beta_gamma_radiation.svg/300px-Alfa_beta_gamma_radiation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="400" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Alfa_beta_gamma_radiation.svg/450px-Alfa_beta_gamma_radiation.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Alfa_beta_gamma_radiation.svg/600px-Alfa_beta_gamma_radiation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">Alpha radiation</a> consists of <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a> nuclei and is readily stopped by a sheet of paper. <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">Beta radiation</a>, consisting of <a href="/wiki/Electrons" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrons">electrons</a> or <a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">positrons</a>, is stopped by a thin aluminum plate, but <a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">gamma radiation</a> requires shielding by dense material such as lead or concrete.<sup id="cite_ref-NRC_Radiation_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NRC_Radiation-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>beta particle</b>, also called <b>beta ray</b> or <b>beta radiation</b> (symbol <b>β</b>), is a high-energy, high-speed <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a> or <a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">positron</a> emitted by the <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">radioactive decay</a> of an <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">atomic nucleus</a>, known as <a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">beta decay</a>. There are two forms of beta decay, β<sup>−</sup> decay and β<sup>+</sup> decay, which produce electrons and positrons, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Beta particles with an energy of 0.5 MeV have a range of about one metre in the air; the distance is dependent on the particle's energy and the air's <a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">density</a> and composition. </p><p>Beta particles are a type of <a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing radiation</a>, and for <a href="/wiki/Radiation_protection" title="Radiation protection">radiation protection</a> purposes, they are regarded as being more ionising than <a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">gamma rays</a>, but less ionising than <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">alpha particles</a>. The higher the ionising effect, the greater the damage to living tissue, but also the lower the <a href="/wiki/Mean_free_path" title="Mean free path">penetrating power</a> of the radiation through matter. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Beta_decay_modes">Beta decay modes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Beta_particle&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Beta decay modes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="β−_decay_(electron_emission)"><span id=".CE.B2.E2.88.92_decay_.28electron_emission.29"></span>β<sup>−</sup> decay (electron emission)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Beta_particle&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: β− decay (electron emission)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Beta_decay#.CE.B2.E2.88.92_decay" title="Beta decay">β<sup>−</sup> decay</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beta-minus_Decay.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Beta-minus_Decay.svg/220px-Beta-minus_Decay.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Beta-minus_Decay.svg/330px-Beta-minus_Decay.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Beta-minus_Decay.svg/440px-Beta-minus_Decay.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="170" /></a><figcaption>Beta decay. A beta particle (in this case a negative electron) is shown being emitted by a <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">nucleus</a>. An antineutrino (not shown) is always emitted along with an electron. Insert: in the decay of a free neutron, a proton, an electron (negative beta ray), and an <a href="/wiki/Electron_antineutrino" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron antineutrino">electron antineutrino</a> are produced.</figcaption></figure> <p>An unstable atomic nucleus with an excess of <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutrons</a> may undergo β<sup>−</sup> decay, where a neutron is converted into a <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">proton</a>, an electron, and an <a href="/wiki/Electron_antineutrino" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron antineutrino">electron antineutrino</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Antiparticle" title="Antiparticle">antiparticle</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino">neutrino</a>): </p> <dl><dd><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>n<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> → <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>p<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> + <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>e<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">−</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> + <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span><span style="text-decoration:overline;">ν</span><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">e</sub></span></span></span></dd></dl> <p>This process is mediated by the <a href="/wiki/Weak_interaction" title="Weak interaction">weak interaction</a>. The neutron turns into a proton through the emission of a <a href="/wiki/Virtual_particle" title="Virtual particle">virtual</a> <a href="/wiki/Weak_interaction" title="Weak interaction">W<sup>−</sup> boson</a>. At the <a href="/wiki/Quark" title="Quark">quark</a> level, W<sup>−</sup> emission turns a down quark into an up quark, turning a neutron (one up quark and two down quarks) into a proton (two up quarks and one down quark). The virtual W<sup>−</sup> boson then decays into an electron and an antineutrino. </p><p>β− decay commonly occurs among the neutron-rich <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission_product" title="Nuclear fission product">fission byproducts</a> produced in <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactors</a>. Free neutrons also decay via this process. Both of these processes contribute to the copious quantities of beta rays and electron antineutrinos produced by fission-reactor fuel rods. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="β+_decay_(positron_emission)"><span id=".CE.B2.2B_decay_.28positron_emission.29"></span>β<sup>+</sup> decay (positron emission)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Beta_particle&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: β+ decay (positron emission)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Positron_emission" title="Positron emission">Positron emission</a></div> <p>Unstable atomic nuclei with an excess of protons may undergo β<sup>+</sup> decay, also called positron decay, where a proton is converted into a neutron, a <a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">positron</a>, and an <a href="/wiki/Electron_neutrino" title="Electron neutrino">electron neutrino</a>: </p> <dl><dd><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>p<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> → <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>n<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> + <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>e<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> + <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>ν<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">e</sub></span></span></span></dd></dl> <p>Beta-plus decay can only happen inside nuclei when the absolute value of the <a href="/wiki/Binding_energy" title="Binding energy">binding energy</a> of the daughter nucleus is greater than that of the parent nucleus, i.e., the daughter nucleus is a lower-energy state. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Beta_decay_schemes">Beta decay schemes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Beta_particle&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Beta decay schemes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cs-137-decay.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Cs-137-decay.svg/220px-Cs-137-decay.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Cs-137-decay.svg/330px-Cs-137-decay.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Cs-137-decay.svg/440px-Cs-137-decay.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="624" data-file-height="345" /></a><figcaption>Caesium-137 decay scheme, showing it initially undergoes beta decay. The 661 keV gamma peak associated with <sup>137</sup>Cs is actually emitted by the daughter radionuclide.</figcaption></figure> <p>The accompanying decay scheme diagram shows the beta decay of <a href="/wiki/Caesium-137" title="Caesium-137">caesium-137</a>. <sup>137</sup>Cs is noted for a characteristic gamma peak at 661 keV, but this is actually emitted by the daughter radionuclide <sup>137m</sup>Ba. The diagram shows the type and energy of the emitted radiation, its relative abundance, and the daughter nuclides after decay. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus-32" title="Phosphorus-32">Phosphorus-32</a> is a beta emitter widely used in medicine. It has a short half-life of 14.29 days<sup id="cite_ref-LNHB_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LNHB-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and decays into sulfur-32 by <a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">beta decay</a> as shown in this nuclear equation: </p> <dl><dd><table border="0"> <tbody><tr style="height:2em;"> <td><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">32</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">15</sub></span></span>P<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span></td> <td>→</td> <td><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">32</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">16</sub></span></span>S<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">1+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span></td> <td>+</td> <td><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>e<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">−</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></a></span></td> <td>+</td> <td><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Electron_antineutrino" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron antineutrino"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span><span style="text-decoration:overline;">ν</span><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">e</sub></span></span></a></span> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p>1.709 <a href="/wiki/MeV" class="mw-redirect" title="MeV">MeV</a> of energy is released during the decay.<sup id="cite_ref-LNHB_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LNHB-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The kinetic energy of the <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a> varies with an average of approximately 0.5 MeV and the remainder of the energy is carried by the nearly undetectable <a href="/wiki/Electron_antineutrino" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron antineutrino">electron antineutrino</a>. In comparison to other beta radiation-emitting nuclides, the electron is moderately energetic. It is blocked by around 1 m of air or 5 mm of <a href="/wiki/Acrylic_glass" class="mw-redirect" title="Acrylic glass">acrylic glass</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Interaction_with_other_matter">Interaction with other matter</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Beta_particle&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Interaction with other matter"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TrigaReactorCore.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/TrigaReactorCore.jpeg/250px-TrigaReactorCore.jpeg" decoding="async" width="250" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/TrigaReactorCore.jpeg/375px-TrigaReactorCore.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/TrigaReactorCore.jpeg/500px-TrigaReactorCore.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="405" /></a><figcaption>Blue <a href="/wiki/Cherenkov_radiation" title="Cherenkov radiation">Cherenkov radiation</a> light being emitted from a <a href="/wiki/TRIGA" title="TRIGA">TRIGA</a> reactor pool is due to high-speed beta particles traveling faster than the speed of light (<a href="/wiki/Phase_velocity" title="Phase velocity">phase velocity</a>) in water (which is 75% of the speed of light in vacuum).</figcaption></figure><p>Of the three common types of radiation given off by radioactive materials, <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">alpha</a>, beta and <a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">gamma</a>, beta has the medium penetrating power and the medium ionising power. Although the beta particles given off by different radioactive materials vary in energy, most beta particles can be stopped by a few millimeters of <a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a>. However, this does not mean that beta-emitting isotopes can be completely shielded by such thin shields: as they decelerate in matter, beta electrons emit secondary gamma rays, which are more penetrating than betas per se. Shielding composed of materials with lower atomic weight generates gammas with lower energy, making such shields somewhat more effective per unit mass than ones made of larger atoms such as lead. </p><p>Being composed of charged particles, beta radiation is more strongly ionizing than gamma radiation. When passing through matter, a beta particle is decelerated by electromagnetic interactions and may give off <a href="/wiki/Bremsstrahlung" title="Bremsstrahlung">bremsstrahlung</a> <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-rays</a>. </p><p>In water, beta radiation from many <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission_product" title="Nuclear fission product">nuclear fission products</a> typically exceeds the speed of light in that material (which is about 75% that of light in vacuum),<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and thus generates blue <a href="/wiki/Cherenkov_radiation" title="Cherenkov radiation">Cherenkov radiation</a> when it passes through water. The intense beta radiation from the fuel rods of <a href="/wiki/Swimming_pool_reactor" title="Swimming pool reactor">swimming pool reactors</a> can thus be visualized through the transparent water that covers and shields the reactor (see illustration at right). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Detection_and_measurement">Detection and measurement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Beta_particle&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Detection and measurement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beta_radiation_in_a_cloud_chamber.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Beta_radiation_in_a_cloud_chamber.jpg/300px-Beta_radiation_in_a_cloud_chamber.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Beta_radiation_in_a_cloud_chamber.jpg/450px-Beta_radiation_in_a_cloud_chamber.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Beta_radiation_in_a_cloud_chamber.jpg/600px-Beta_radiation_in_a_cloud_chamber.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>Beta radiation detected in an isopropanol <a href="/wiki/Cloud_chamber" title="Cloud chamber">cloud chamber</a> (after insertion of an artificial source <a href="/wiki/Strontium-90" title="Strontium-90">strontium-90</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p>The ionizing or excitation effects of beta particles on matter are the fundamental processes by which radiometric detection instruments detect and measure beta radiation. The ionization of gas is used in <a href="/wiki/Ionization_chamber" title="Ionization chamber">ion chambers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geiger_counter" title="Geiger counter">Geiger–Müller counters</a>, and the excitation of <a href="/wiki/Scintillator" title="Scintillator">scintillators</a> is used in <a href="/wiki/Scintillation_counter" title="Scintillation counter">scintillation counters</a>. The following table shows radiation quantities in SI and non-SI units: </p> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <caption>Ionizing radiation related quantities <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Radiation_related_quantities" title="Template:Radiation related quantities"><span title="View this template">view</span></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Radiation_related_quantities" title="Template talk:Radiation related quantities"><span title="Discuss this template">talk</span></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Radiation_related_quantities" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Radiation related quantities"><span title="Edit this template">edit</span></a></li></ul></div> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Quantity </th> <th>Unit </th> <th>Symbol </th> <th>Derivation </th> <th>Year </th> <th><a href="/wiki/International_System_of_Units" title="International System of Units">SI</a> equivalent </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Specific_activity" title="Specific activity">Activity</a> (<i>A</i>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Becquerel" title="Becquerel">becquerel</a> </td> <td>Bq </td> <td>s<sup>−1</sup> </td> <td>1974 </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">SI unit </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Curie_(unit)" title="Curie (unit)">curie</a> </td> <td>Ci </td> <td><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7010370000000000000♠"></span>3.7<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>10</sup> s<sup>−1</sup></span> </td> <td>1953 </td> <td>3.7<span style="margin:0 .15em 0 .25em">×</span>10<sup>10</sup> Bq </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rutherford_(unit)" title="Rutherford (unit)">rutherford</a> </td> <td>Rd </td> <td>10<sup>6</sup> s<sup>−1</sup> </td> <td>1946 </td> <td><span style="white-space: nowrap">1<span style="margin-left: 0.25em">000</span><span style="margin-left: 0.25em">000</span></span> Bq </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Radiation_exposure" title="Radiation exposure">Exposure</a> (<i>X</i>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Coulomb" title="Coulomb">coulomb</a> per <a href="/wiki/Kilogram" title="Kilogram">kilogram</a> </td> <td>C/kg </td> <td>C⋅kg<sup>−1</sup> of air </td> <td>1974 </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">SI unit </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Roentgen_(unit)" title="Roentgen (unit)">röntgen</a> </td> <td>R </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Statcoulomb" title="Statcoulomb">esu</a> / <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6994129300000000000♠"></span>0.001<span style="margin-left:.25em;">293</span> g</span> of air </td> <td>1928 </td> <td><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6996258000000000000♠"></span>2.58<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>−4</sup> C/kg</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Absorbed_dose" title="Absorbed dose">Absorbed dose</a> (<i>D</i>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gray_(unit)" title="Gray (unit)">gray</a> </td> <td>Gy </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Joule" title="Joule">J</a>⋅kg<sup>−1</sup> </td> <td>1974 </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">SI unit </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Erg" title="Erg">erg</a> per gram </td> <td>erg/g </td> <td>erg⋅g<sup>−1</sup> </td> <td>1950 </td> <td><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6996100000000000000♠"></span>1.0<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>−4</sup> Gy</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rad_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rad (unit)">rad</a> </td> <td>rad </td> <td>100 erg⋅g<sup>−1</sup> </td> <td>1953 </td> <td>0.010 Gy </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Equivalent_dose" title="Equivalent dose">Equivalent dose</a> (<i>H</i>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sievert" title="Sievert">sievert</a> </td> <td>Sv </td> <td>J⋅kg<sup>−1</sup> × <a href="/wiki/Sievert#Calculating_protection_dose_quantities" title="Sievert"><i>W</i><sub><i>R</i></sub></a> </td> <td>1977 </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">SI unit </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Roentgen_equivalent_man" title="Roentgen equivalent man">röntgen equivalent man</a> </td> <td>rem </td> <td>100 erg⋅g<sup>−1</sup> × <a href="/wiki/Sievert#Calculating_protection_dose_quantities" title="Sievert"><i>W</i><sub><i>R</i></sub></a> </td> <td>1971 </td> <td>0.010 Sv </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Effective_dose_(radiation)" title="Effective dose (radiation)">Effective dose</a> (<i>E</i>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sievert" title="Sievert">sievert</a> </td> <td>Sv </td> <td>J⋅kg<sup>−1</sup> × <a href="/wiki/Sievert#Calculating_protection_dose_quantities" title="Sievert"><i>W</i><sub><i>R</i></sub> × <i>W</i><sub><i>T</i></sub></a> </td> <td>1977 </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">SI unit </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Roentgen_equivalent_man" title="Roentgen equivalent man">röntgen equivalent man</a> </td> <td>rem </td> <td>100 erg⋅g<sup>−1</sup> × <a href="/wiki/Sievert#Calculating_protection_dose_quantities" title="Sievert"><i>W</i><sub><i>R</i></sub> × <i>W</i><sub><i>T</i></sub></a> </td> <td>1971 </td> <td>0.010 Sv </td></tr> </tbody></table> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Gray_(unit)" title="Gray (unit)">gray</a> (Gy) is the SI unit of <a href="/wiki/Absorbed_dose" title="Absorbed dose">absorbed dose</a>, which is the amount of radiation energy deposited in the irradiated material. For beta radiation this is numerically equal to the <a href="/wiki/Equivalent_dose" title="Equivalent dose">equivalent dose</a> measured by the <a href="/wiki/Sievert" title="Sievert">sievert</a>, which indicates the stochastic biological effect of low levels of radiation on human tissue. The radiation weighting conversion factor from absorbed dose to equivalent dose is 1 for beta, whereas alpha particles have a factor of 20, reflecting their greater ionising effect on tissue.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Rad_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rad (unit)">rad</a> is the deprecated <a href="/wiki/CGS" class="mw-redirect" title="CGS">CGS</a> unit for absorbed dose and the <a href="/wiki/R%C3%B6ntgen_equivalent_man" class="mw-redirect" title="Röntgen equivalent man">rem</a> is the deprecated <a href="/wiki/CGS" class="mw-redirect" title="CGS">CGS</a> unit of equivalent dose, used mainly in the USA.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Beta_spectroscopy">Beta spectroscopy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Beta_particle&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Beta spectroscopy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The energy contained within individual beta particles is measured via <i>beta spectrometry</i>; the study of the obtained distribution of energies as a <a href="/wiki/Spectrum" title="Spectrum">spectrum</a> is <i>beta spectroscopy</i>. Determination of this energy is done by measuring the amount of deflection of the electron's path under a magnetic field.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Beta_particle&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Beta particles can be used to treat health conditions such as <a href="/wiki/Eye_neoplasm" title="Eye neoplasm">eye</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bone_tumor" title="Bone tumor">bone cancer</a> and are also used as tracers. <a href="/wiki/Strontium-90" title="Strontium-90">Strontium-90</a> is the material most commonly used to produce beta particles. </p><p>Beta particles are also used in quality control to test the thickness of an item, such as <a href="/wiki/Paper" title="Paper">paper</a>, coming through a system of rollers. Some of the beta radiation is absorbed while passing through the product. If the product is made too thick or thin, a correspondingly different amount of radiation will be absorbed. A computer program monitoring the quality of the manufactured paper will then move the rollers to change the thickness of the final product. </p><p>An illumination device called a <i><a href="/wiki/Beta_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta light">betalight</a></i> contains <a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">tritium</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Phosphor" title="Phosphor">phosphor</a>. As tritium <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">decays</a>, it emits beta particles; these strike the phosphor, causing the phosphor to give off <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photons</a>, much like the <a href="/wiki/Cathode-ray_tube" title="Cathode-ray tube">cathode-ray tube</a> in a television. The illumination requires no external power, and will continue as long as the tritium exists (and the phosphors do not themselves chemically change); the <a href="/wiki/Radiant_flux" title="Radiant flux">amount of light produced</a> will drop to half its original value in 12.32 years, the <a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">half-life</a> of tritium. </p><p>Beta-plus (or <a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">positron</a>) decay of a <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_tracer" title="Radioactive tracer">radioactive tracer</a> <a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotope</a> is the source of the positrons used in <a href="/wiki/Positron_emission_tomography" title="Positron emission tomography">positron emission tomography</a> (PET scan). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Beta_particle&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Henri_Becquerel" title="Henri Becquerel">Henri Becquerel</a>, while experimenting with <a href="/wiki/Fluorescence" title="Fluorescence">fluorescence</a>, accidentally found out that <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a> exposed a <a href="/wiki/Photographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Photographic">photographic</a> plate, wrapped with black paper, with some unknown <a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">radiation</a> that could not be turned off like <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-rays</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a> continued these experiments and discovered two different kinds of radiation: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpha_particles" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha particles">alpha particles</a> that did not show up on the Becquerel plates because they were easily absorbed by the black wrapping paper</li> <li>beta particles which are 100 times more penetrating than alpha particles.</li></ul> <p>He published his results in 1899.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1900, Becquerel measured the <a href="/wiki/Mass-to-charge_ratio" title="Mass-to-charge ratio">mass-to-charge ratio</a> (<span class="texhtml"><i>m</i>/<i>e</i></span>) for beta particles by the method of <a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a> used to study cathode rays and identify the electron. He found that <span class="texhtml"><i>e</i>/<i>m</i></span> for a beta particle is the same as for Thomson's electron, and therefore suggested that the beta particle is in fact an electron. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Health">Health</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Beta_particle&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Health"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Beta particles are moderately penetrating in living tissue, and can cause spontaneous <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutation</a> in <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>. </p><p>Beta sources can be used in <a href="/wiki/Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">radiation therapy</a> to kill cancer cells. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Beta_particle&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Common_beta_emitters" title="Common beta emitters">Common beta emitters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_irradiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron irradiation">Electron irradiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">Particle physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_radiation" title="Neutron radiation">n (neutron) rays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delta_ray" title="Delta ray">δ (delta) rays</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Beta_particle&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-NRC_Radiation-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NRC_Radiation_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nrc.gov/about-nrc/radiation/health-effects/radiation-basics.html">"Radiation Basics"</a>. United States Nuclear Regulatory Com. 2017-10-02.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Radiation+Basics&rft.pub=United+States+Nuclear+Regulatory+Com&rft.date=2017-10-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nrc.gov%2Fabout-nrc%2Fradiation%2Fhealth-effects%2Fradiation-basics.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeta+particle" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLawrence_Berkeley_National_Laboratory2000" class="citation web cs1">Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (9 August 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303195332/http://www2.lbl.gov/abc/wallchart/chapters/03/2.html">"Beta Decay"</a>. <i>Nuclear Wall Chart</i>. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy" title="United States Department of Energy">United States Department of Energy</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lbl.gov/abc/wallchart/chapters/03/2.html">the original</a> on 3 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 January</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Nuclear+Wall+Chart&rft.atitle=Beta+Decay&rft.date=2000-08-09&rft.au=Lawrence+Berkeley+National+Laboratory&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lbl.gov%2Fabc%2Fwallchart%2Fchapters%2F03%2F2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeta+particle" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LNHB-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LNHB_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LNHB_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nucleide.org/DDEP_WG/Nuclides/P-32_tables.pdf">"Phosphorus-32"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>nucleide.org</i>. Laboratoire Nationale Henri Bequerel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.nucleide.org/DDEP_WG/Nuclides/P-32_tables.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2022-10-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=nucleide.org&rft.atitle=Phosphorus-32&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nucleide.org%2FDDEP_WG%2FNuclides%2FP-32_tables.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeta+particle" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The macroscopic speed of light in water is 75% of the speed of light in vacuum (called <i>c</i>). The beta particle is moving faster than 0.75 c, but not faster than c.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoeglin" class="citation web cs1">Boeglin, Werner. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wanda.fiu.edu/boeglinw/courses/Modern_lab_manual3/beta_spectroscopy.html">"4. Beta Spectroscopy — Modern Lab Experiments documentation"</a>. <i>wanda.fiu.edu</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=wanda.fiu.edu&rft.atitle=4.+Beta+Spectroscopy+%E2%80%94+Modern+Lab+Experiments+documentation&rft.aulast=Boeglin&rft.aufirst=Werner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwanda.fiu.edu%2Fboeglinw%2Fcourses%2FModern_lab_manual3%2Fbeta_spectroscopy.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeta+particle" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFE._Rutherford2009" class="citation journal cs1">E. Rutherford (8 May 2009) [Paper published by Rutherford in 1899]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA109">"Uranium radiation and the electrical conduction produced by it"</a>. <i>Philosophical Magazine</i>. <b>47</b> (284): 109–163. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14786449908621245">10.1080/14786449908621245</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Magazine&rft.atitle=Uranium+radiation+and+the+electrical+conduction+produced+by+it&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=284&rft.pages=109-163&rft.date=2009-05-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14786449908621245&rft.au=E.+Rutherford&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DipMOAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA109&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeta+particle" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Beta_particle&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oasisllc.com/abgx/radioactivity.htm">Radioactivity and alpha, beta, gamma and Xrays</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/classes/252/rays_and_particles.html">Rays and Particles</a> University of Virginia Lecture</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.physics.isu.edu/radinf/hist.htm">History of Radiation</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170506071143/http://www.physics.isu.edu/radinf/hist.htm">Archived</a> 2017-05-06 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> at Idaho State University</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lbl.gov/abc/Basic.html">Basic Nuclear Science Information</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061205215708/http://www.lbl.gov/abc/Basic.html">Archived</a> 2006-12-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output 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aria-labelledby="Radiation_(physics_and_health)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Radiation" title="Template:Radiation"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Radiation" title="Template talk:Radiation"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Radiation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Radiation"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Radiation_(physics_and_health)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">Radiation</a> (physics and health)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Main articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Non-ionizing_radiation" title="Non-ionizing radiation">Non-ionizing radiation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acoustic_radiation_force" title="Acoustic radiation force">Acoustic radiation force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">Infrared</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">Light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starlight" title="Starlight">Starlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">Sunlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">Microwave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">Radio waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">Ultraviolet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">Ionizing radiation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">Radioactive decay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cluster_decay" title="Cluster decay">Cluster decay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Background_radiation" title="Background radiation">Background radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">Alpha particle</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Beta particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">Gamma ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">Cosmic ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_radiation" title="Neutron radiation">Neutron radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">Nuclear fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">Nuclear fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">Nuclear reactors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">Nuclear weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator">Particle accelerators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radionuclide" title="Radionuclide">Radioactive materials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-ray</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_budget" title="Earth's energy budget">Earth's energy budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">Electromagnetic radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synchrotron_radiation" title="Synchrotron radiation">Synchrotron radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_radiation" title="Thermal radiation">Thermal radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black-body_radiation" title="Black-body radiation">Black-body radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_radiation" title="Particle radiation">Particle radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitational radiation">Gravitational radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_background_radiation" title="Cosmic background radiation">Cosmic background radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherenkov_radiation" title="Cherenkov radiation">Cherenkov radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Askaryan_radiation" title="Askaryan radiation">Askaryan radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bremsstrahlung" title="Bremsstrahlung">Bremsstrahlung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unruh_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Unruh radiation">Unruh radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_radiation" title="Dark radiation">Dark radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_exposure" title="Radiation exposure">Radiation exposure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Radiation <br />and health</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Radiation syndrome <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acute_radiation_syndrome" title="Acute radiation syndrome">acute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronic_radiation_syndrome" title="Chronic radiation syndrome">chronic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_physics" title="Health physics">Health physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dosimetry" title="Dosimetry">Dosimetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation_and_health" title="Electromagnetic radiation and health">Electromagnetic radiation and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser_safety" title="Laser safety">Laser safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lasers_and_aviation_safety" title="Lasers and aviation safety">Lasers and aviation safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_radiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical radiography">Medical radiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_protection" title="Radiation protection">Radiation protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">Radiation therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_damage" title="Radiation damage">Radiation damage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactivity_in_the_life_sciences" title="Radioactivity in the life sciences">Radioactivity in the life sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">Radioactive contamination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiobiology" title="Radiobiology">Radiobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sievert" title="Sievert">Biological dose units and quantities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_device_radiation_and_health" title="Wireless device radiation and health">Wireless device radiation and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_electronic_devices_and_health" class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless electronic devices and health">Wireless electronic devices and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_transfer" title="Heat transfer">Radiation heat-transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_energy_transfer" title="Linear energy transfer">Linear energy transfer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Radiation incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_civilian_radiation_accidents" title="List of civilian radiation accidents">List of civilian radiation accidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1996_San_Juan_de_Dios_radiotherapy_accident" title="1996 San Juan de Dios radiotherapy accident">1996 Costa Rica accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goi%C3%A2nia_accident" title="Goiânia accident">1987 Goiânia accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_Moroccan_radiation_accident" title="1984 Moroccan radiation accident">1984 Moroccan accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1990_Clinic_of_Zaragoza_radiotherapy_accident" class="mw-redirect" title="1990 Clinic of Zaragoza radiotherapy accident">1990 Zaragoza accident</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">Half-life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Nuclear physics</a></li> <li><a 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