CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Western world - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy","wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"20425858-0b72-49d5-9964-eef893bbf3a4","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Western_world","wgTitle":"Western world","wgCurRevisionId":1283104683,"wgRevisionId":1283104683,"wgArticleId":21208200,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from June 2020","Webarchive template wayback links","CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024","Harv and Sfn no-target errors","All articles with incomplete citations","Articles with incomplete citations from July 2019","Articles with short description","Short description matches Wikidata","Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages","Wikipedia articles needing rewrite from September 2015","All articles needing rewrite","Articles needing cleanup from August 2024","All pages needing cleanup","Articles with close paraphrasing from August 2024","All articles with close paraphrasing","Articles with multiple maintenance issues","Use dmy dates from June 2021","Use American English from July 2020","All Wikipedia articles written in American English","Articles with excerpts","Articles needing additional references from July 2018","All articles needing additional references","Articles with unsourced statements from July 2018","Articles needing additional references from April 2018","Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images","Articles with unsourced statements from November 2021","Articles needing additional references from November 2021","All pages needing factual verification","Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from July 2021","Articles with unsourced statements from July 2021","Articles needing additional references from April 2021","Articles with unsourced statements from November 2022","Articles with unsourced statements from April 2021","Articles with unsourced statements from May 2021","CS1 maint: location missing publisher","Country classifications","Cultural concepts","Cultural regions","Historiography of Europe","Western culture"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Western_world","wgRelevantArticleId":21208200,"wgIsProbablyEditable":false,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":false,"wgRestrictionEdit":["autoconfirmed"],"wgRestrictionMove":["autoconfirmed"],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":100000,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q160381","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false}; RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.quicksurveys.init","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.22"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Western_World_Latin_America_torn_countries.png/1200px-Western_World_Latin_America_torn_countries.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="609"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Western_World_Latin_America_torn_countries.png/960px-Western_World_Latin_America_torn_countries.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="406"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="325"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Western world - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_world"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_world"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="auth.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Western_world rootpage-Western_world skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" title="Main menu" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Main menu </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z">Main page</a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia">Contents</a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events">Current events</a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x">Random article</a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works">About Wikipedia</a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia">Contact us</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia">Help</a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia">Learn to edit</a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors">Community portal</a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r">Recent changes</a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia">Upload file</a></li><li id="n-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages">Special pages</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"> Search </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Appearance </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class="">Donate</a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Western+world" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class="">Create account</a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Western+world" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class="">Log in</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Personal tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en">Donate</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Western+world" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"> Create account</a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Western+world" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"> Log in</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing">learn more</a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y">Contributions</a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Introduction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Introduction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 Introduction </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Introduction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Culture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historical_divisions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_divisions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Historical divisions </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Historical_divisions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Historical divisions subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Historical_divisions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_west_of_the_Mediterranean_region_during_Antiquity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_west_of_the_Mediterranean_region_during_Antiquity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 The west of the Mediterranean region during Antiquity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_west_of_the_Mediterranean_region_during_Antiquity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ancient_Roman_world_(6th_century_BC_–_AD_395–476)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_Roman_world_(6th_century_BC_–_AD_395–476)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.1 Ancient Roman world (6th century BC – AD 395–476) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_Roman_world_(6th_century_BC_–_AD_395–476)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_birth_of_the_European_West_during_the_Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_birth_of_the_European_West_during_the_Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 The birth of the European West during the Middle Ages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_birth_of_the_European_West_during_the_Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Expansion_of_the_West:_the_Era_of_Colonialism_(15th–20th_centuries)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Expansion_of_the_West:_the_Era_of_Colonialism_(15th–20th_centuries)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Expansion of the West: the Era of Colonialism (15th–20th centuries) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Expansion_of_the_West:_the_Era_of_Colonialism_(15th–20th_centuries)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Enlightenment_(17th–18th_centuries)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Enlightenment_(17th–18th_centuries)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.1 Enlightenment (17th–18th centuries) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Enlightenment_(17th–18th_centuries)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.2 19th century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cold_War_(1947–1991)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cold_War_(1947–1991)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Cold War (1947–1991) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cold_War_(1947–1991)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_definitions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_definitions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Modern definitions </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modern_definitions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Modern definitions subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_definitions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cultural_definition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural_definition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Cultural definition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cultural_definition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_definition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_definition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Economic definition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_definition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_views" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_views"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Other views </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_views-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Western world</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 82 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-82" aria-hidden="true" > 82 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weste" title="Weste – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Weste" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A" title="العالم الغربي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="العالم الغربي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occident" title="Occident – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Occident" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occidente" title="Occidente – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Occidente" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q%C9%99rb_d%C3%BCnyas%C4%B1" title="Qərb dünyası – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Qərb dünyası" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC" title="পশ্চিমা বিশ্ব – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="পশ্চিমা বিশ্ব" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Se-i%C3%BB%E2%81%BF" title="Se-iûⁿ – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Se-iûⁿ" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D1%81%D0%B2%D1%8F%D1%82" title="Западен свят – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Западен свят" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zapadni_svijet" title="Zapadni svijet – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Zapadni svijet" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occident" title="Occident – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Occident" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C3%A1padn%C3%AD_sv%C4%9Bt" title="Západní svět – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Západní svět" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y_Gorllewin" title="Y Gorllewin – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Y Gorllewin" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesten" title="Vesten – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Vesten" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85_%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A" title="لعالم لغربي – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="لعالم لغربي" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westliche_Welt" title="Westliche Welt – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Westliche Welt" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A4%C3%A4nemaailm" title="Läänemaailm – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Läänemaailm" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CF%85%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%9A%CF%8C%CF%83%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Δυτικός Κόσμος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Δυτικός Κόσμος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occidente" title="Occidente – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Occidente" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okcidenta_civilizo" title="Okcidenta civilizo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Okcidenta civilizo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendebaldea_(kultura)" title="Mendebaldea (kultura) – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Mendebaldea (kultura)" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A8" title="جهان غرب – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جهان غرب" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesturheimurin" title="Vesturheimurin – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Vesturheimurin" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occident" title="Occident – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Occident" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westerske_wr%C3%A2ld" title="Westerske wrâld – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Westerske wrâld" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occidente" title="Occidente – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Occidente" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%84%9C%EB%B0%A9_%EC%84%B8%EA%B3%84" title="서방 세계 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="서방 세계" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D6%80%D6%87%D5%B4%D5%BF%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A1%D5%B7%D5%AD%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%B0" title="Արևմտյան աշխարհ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Արևմտյան աշխարհ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5" title="पश्चिमी विश्व – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="पश्चिमी विश्व" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zapadni_svijet" title="Zapadni svijet – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Zapadni svijet" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunia_Barat" title="Dunia Barat – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Dunia Barat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occidente" title="Occidente – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Occidente" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesturl%C3%B6nd" title="Vesturlönd – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Vesturlönd" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilt%C3%A0_occidentale" title="Civiltà occidentale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Civiltà occidentale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%9D_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%91%D7%99" title="העולם המערבי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="העולם המערבי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D3%A9%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Батыстық өркениет – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Батыстық өркениет" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oksidan" title="Oksidan – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Oksidan" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%AEhana_Rojava" title="Cîhana Rojava – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Cîhana Rojava" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mundus_occidentalis" title="Mundus occidentalis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Mundus occidentalis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rietumu_pasaule" title="Rietumu pasaule – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Rietumu pasaule" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westlech_Welt" title="Westlech Welt – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Westlech Welt" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vakar%C5%B3_pasaulis" title="Vakarų pasaulis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Vakarų pasaulis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mundo_ueste" title="Mundo ueste – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Mundo ueste" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozzident" title="Ozzident – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Ozzident" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyugati_vil%C3%A1g" title="Nyugati világ – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Nyugati világ" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tontolo_Tandrefana" title="Tontolo Tandrefana – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Tontolo Tandrefana" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunia_Barat" title="Dunia Barat – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Dunia Barat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%A8%D1%80%D0%BD%D3%A9_%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Өрнө дахин – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Өрнө дахин" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westerse_wereld" title="Westerse wereld – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Westerse wereld" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%AC%A7%E7%B1%B3" title="欧米 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="欧米" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesten" title="Vesten – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Vesten" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesten" title="Vesten – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Vesten" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occident" title="Occident – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Occident" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%AF%DB%8C%DA%81%D9%87_%D9%86%DA%93%DB%8D" title="لویدیځه نړۍ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="لویدیځه نړۍ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Awiat_zachodni" title="Świat zachodni – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Świat zachodni" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mundo_ocidental" title="Mundo ocidental – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Mundo ocidental" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lumea_occidental%C4%83" title="Lumea occidentală – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Lumea occidentală" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80" title="Западный мир – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Западный мир" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D2%95%D0%B0%D0%B0%D2%A5%D2%A5%D1%8B_%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Арҕааҥҥы цивилизация – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Арҕааҥҥы цивилизация" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wastren_warld" title="Wastren warld – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Wastren warld" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bota_per%C3%ABndimore" title="Bota perëndimore – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Bota perëndimore" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilt%C3%A0_uccidintali" title="Civiltà uccidintali – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Civiltà uccidintali" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B6%E0%B6%A7%E0%B7%84%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BB_%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%9D%E0%B6%9A%E0%B6%BA" title="බටහිර ලෝකය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="බටහිර ලෝකය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Western world" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zahodni_svet" title="Zahodni svet – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Zahodni svet" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%8C%DA%BE%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%DA%95%DB%86%DA%98%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="جیھانی ڕۆژاوایی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="جیھانی ڕۆژاوایی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Западни свет – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Западни свет" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zapadni_svijet" title="Zapadni svijet – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Zapadni svijet" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A4nsimaat" title="Länsimaat – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Länsimaat" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A4stv%C3%A4rlden" title="Västvärlden – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Västvärlden" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mundong_Kanluranin" title="Mundong Kanluranin – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Mundong Kanluranin" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%81" title="โลกตะวันตก – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="โลกตะวันตก" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%B6%D0%B0%D2%B3%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D2%92%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B1" title="Ҷаҳони Ғарб – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Ҷаҳони Ғарб" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bat%C4%B1_d%C3%BCnyas%C4%B1" title="Batı dünyası – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Batı dünyası" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D1%85%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%82" title="Західний світ – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Західний світ" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A8%DB%8C_%D8%AF%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="مغربی دنیا – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="مغربی دنیا" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seiqgyaiq_Baihsae" title="Seiqgyaiq Baihsae – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Seiqgyaiq Baihsae" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BA%BF_gi%E1%BB%9Bi_ph%C6%B0%C6%A1ng_T%C3%A2y" title="Thế giới phương Tây – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Thế giới phương Tây" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B3%B0%E8%A5%BF" title="泰西 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="泰西" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E6%96%B9%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C" title="西方世界 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="西方世界" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%91_%D7%96%D7%99%D7%99%D7%98" title="מערב זייט – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="מערב זייט" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E6%96%B9%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C" title="西方世界 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="西方世界" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E6%96%B9%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C" title="西方世界 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="西方世界" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q160381#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Western_world" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >English </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Western_world">Read</a></li><li id="ca-viewsource" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_world&action=edit" title="This page is protected.
You can view its source [e]" accesskey="e">View source</a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_world&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >Tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Western_world">Read</a></li><li id="ca-more-viewsource" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_world&action=edit">View source</a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_world&action=history">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Western_world" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j">What links here</a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Western_world" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k">Related changes</a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u">Upload file</a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_world&oldid=1283104683" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page">Permanent link</a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_world&action=info" title="More information about this page">Page information</a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Western_world&id=1283104683&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page">Cite this page</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FWestern_world">Get shortened URL</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FWestern_world">Download QR code</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Western_world&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file">Download as PDF</a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_world&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p">Printable version</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Western_culture" hreflang="en">Wikimedia Commons</a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q160381" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g">Wikidata item</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Countries with an originally European shared culture</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the grouping of countries with an originally European shared culture. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Western_World_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Western World (disambiguation)">Western World (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Western power", "Westerners", and "Western states" redirect here. For historical politics in Korea, see <a href="/wiki/Westerners_(Korean_political_faction)" title="Westerners (Korean political faction)">Westerners (Korean political faction)</a>. For the region of the United States, see <a href="/wiki/Western_United_States" title="Western United States">Western United States</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Western_Power_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Western Power (disambiguation)">Western Power (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1248332772">.mw-parser-output .multiple-issues-text{width:95%;margin:0.2em 0}.mw-parser-output .multiple-issues-text>.mw-collapsible-content{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox{border:none;border-collapse:collapse;background-color:transparent;margin:0 0 0 1.6em!important;padding:0!important;width:auto;display:block}body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox.mbox-small-left{font-size:100%;width:auto;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-text{padding:0!important;margin:0!important}.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-text-span{display:list-item;line-height:1.5em;list-style-type:disc}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .multiple-issues-text>.mw-collapsible-toggle,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-image,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-imageright,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-empty-cell,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .hide-when-compact{display:none}</style><table class="box-Multiple_issues plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-multiple_issues compact-ambox" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span"><div class="multiple-issues-text mw-collapsible">This article has multiple issues. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Western_world" title="Special:EditPage/Western world">improve it</a> or discuss these issues on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Western_world" title="Talk:Western world">talk page</a>. (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove these messages</a>) <div class="mw-collapsible-content"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /><table class="box-Cleanup_rewrite plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg/40px-Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg/60px-Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg/120px-Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article may need to be rewritten to comply with Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style">quality standards</a>, as neutrality is disputed. <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Western_world&action=edit">You can help</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Talk:Western_world" title="Talk:Western world">talk page</a> may contain suggestions. (September 2015)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /><table class="box-Close_paraphrasing plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Close_paraphrasing" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/cf/Copyright-problem.svg/37px-Copyright-problem.svg.png" decoding="async" width="37" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/cf/Copyright-problem.svg/55px-Copyright-problem.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/cf/Copyright-problem.svg/74px-Copyright-problem.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="111" data-file-height="120" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article contains <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Close_paraphrasing" title="Wikipedia:Close paraphrasing">close paraphrasing</a> of non-free copyrighted sources. Relevant discussion may be found on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Western_world" title="Talk:Western world">talk page</a>. Please help Wikipedia by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Western_world&action=edit">rewriting this article</a> with your own words. (August 2024) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> </div> </div> (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Western_World_Latin_America_torn_countries.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Western_World_Latin_America_torn_countries.png/330px-Western_World_Latin_America_torn_countries.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Western_World_Latin_America_torn_countries.png/500px-Western_World_Latin_America_torn_countries.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Western_World_Latin_America_torn_countries.png/960px-Western_World_Latin_America_torn_countries.png 2x" data-file-width="2754" data-file-height="1398" /></a><figcaption><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  Countries and territories that are generally considered as constituents of the Western world</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959" /><div class="legend">  Countries and territories whose inclusion as constituents of the Western world is contested</div><a href="#cite_note-WorldOfCivil2-1">[1]</a></figcaption></figure> The Western world, also known as the West, primarily refers to various <a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">nations</a> and <a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">states</a> in <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a>,<a href="#cite_note-2">[a]</a> <a href="/wiki/Northern_America" title="Northern America">Northern America</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Australasia" title="Australasia">Australasia</a>;<a href="#cite_note-3">[b]</a> with some debate as to whether those in <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin America</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[c]</a> also constitute the West.<a href="#cite_note-6">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[4]</a> The Western world likewise is called the <a href="/wiki/Occident" title="Occident">Occident</a> (from <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a> occidens 'setting down, sunset, west') in contrast to the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_world" title="Eastern world">Eastern world</a> known as the <a href="/wiki/Orient" title="Orient">Orient</a> (from <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a> oriens 'origin, sunrise, east'). The West is considered an evolving concept; made up of cultural, political, and economic synergy among diverse groups of people, and not a rigid region with fixed borders and members.<a href="#cite_note-Making-8">[5]</a> Definitions of "Western world" vary according to context and perspectives. Some historians contend that a linear development of the West can be traced from <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Ancient Greece and Rome</a>,<a href="#cite_note-9">[6]</a> while others argue that such a projection constructs a false genealogy.<a href="#cite_note-10">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[8]</a> A geographical concept of the West started to take shape in the 4th century CE when <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine</a>, the first Christian Roman emperor, divided the Roman Empire between the <a href="/wiki/Greek_East_and_Latin_West" title="Greek East and Latin West">Greek East and Latin West</a>. The <a href="/wiki/East_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="East Roman Empire">East Roman Empire</a>, later called the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>, continued for a millennium, while the <a href="/wiki/West_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="West Roman Empire">West Roman Empire</a> lasted for only about a century and a half. Significant theological and ecclesiastical differences led Western Europeans to consider the Christians in the Byzantine Empire as heretics. In 1054 CE, when the church in Rome <a href="/wiki/Excommunication" title="Excommunication">excommunicated</a> the <a href="/wiki/Ecumenical_Patriarch_of_Constantinople" title="Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople">patriarch of Byzantium</a>, the politico-religious division between the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Western church</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern church</a> culminated in the Great Schism or the <a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-12">[9]</a> Even though friendly relations continued between the two parts of <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a> for some time, the <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">crusades</a> made the schism definitive with hostility.<a href="#cite_note-13">[10]</a> The West during these crusades tried to capture trade routes to the East and failed, it instead discovered the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-14">[11]</a> In the aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization of the Americas</a>, primarily involving <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western European</a> countries, an idea of the "Western" world, as an inheritor of <a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin Christendom</a> emerged.<a href="#cite_note-15">[12]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a>, the earliest reference to the term "Western world" was from 1586, found in the writings of <a href="/wiki/William_Warner_(poet)" title="William Warner (poet)">William Warner</a>.<a href="#cite_note-auto-16">[13]</a> The countries that are considered constituents of the West vary according to perspective rather than their geographical location. Countries like Australia and New Zealand, located in the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Hemisphere" title="Eastern Hemisphere">Eastern Hemisphere</a> are included in modern definitions of the Western world, as these regions and others like them have been significantly influenced by the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">British</a>—derived from <a href="/wiki/First_Fleet" title="First Fleet">colonization</a>, and <a href="/wiki/European_Australians" title="European Australians">immigration of Europeans</a>—factors that grounded such countries to the West.<a href="#cite_note-17">[14]</a> Depending on the context and the historical period in question, <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> was sometimes seen as a part of the West, and at other times juxtaposed with it, as well as endorsing <a href="/wiki/Anti-Western_sentiment" title="Anti-Western sentiment">anti-Western sentiment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-concept-18">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[17]</a> Running parallel to the rise of the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> as a great power and the development of communication–transportation technologies "shrinking" the distance between both the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a> shores, the US became more prominently featured in the conceptualizations of the West.<a href="#cite_note-concept-18">[15]</a> At some times between the 18th century and the mid-20th century, prominent countries in the West such as the United States, Canada, Brazil, Argentina, Australia, and New Zealand have been envisioned by some as <a href="/wiki/Ethnocracy" title="Ethnocracy">ethnocracies</a> for <a href="/wiki/Whites" class="mw-redirect" title="Whites">Whites</a>.<a href="#cite_note-jstor.org-21">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-library.brown.edu-22">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-naa.gov.au-23">[20]</a> <a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Racism</a> is cited as a contributing factor to <a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_European_colonialism_and_colonization" title="Analysis of European colonialism and colonization">European colonization</a> of the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a>, which today constitutes much of the "geographical" Western world.<a href="#cite_note-Cotter_2016_12-24">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jalata_2002_40-25">[22]</a> Starting from the late 1960s, certain parts of the Western world have become notable for their <a href="/wiki/Cultural_diversity" title="Cultural diversity">diversity</a> due to <a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_Western_world" title="Immigration to the Western world">immigration</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Spielvogel_2006_918-26">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-Browne-27">[24]</a> The idea of "the West" over the course of time has evolved from a directional concept to a socio-political concept that had been temporalized and rendered as a concept of the future bestowed with notions of progress and modernity.<a href="#cite_note-concept-18">[15]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Introduction">Introduction</h2></div> The origins of Western civilization can be traced back to the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_region" title="History of the Mediterranean region">ancient Mediterranean world</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[d]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[e]</a> are generally considered to be the birthplaces of Western civilization—Greece having heavily influenced Rome—the former due to its impact on <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democracy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece#Science_and_technology" title="Ancient Greece">science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">aesthetics</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/History_of_architecture#European" title="History of architecture">building designs and proportions and architecture</a>; the latter due to its influence on <a href="/wiki/Western_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Western art">art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a>, <a href="/wiki/War" title="War">warfare</a>, <a href="/wiki/Governance" title="Governance">governance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">republicanism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman engineering">engineering</a> and <a href="/wiki/State_church_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="State church of the Roman Empire">religion</a>. Western Civilization is also closely associated with <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>,<a href="#cite_note-PerryChase2012-48">[43]</a> the dominant religion in the West, with roots in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco</a>-<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Roman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish thought</a>. <a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian ethics</a>, drawing from the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">ethical and moral principles</a> of its historical roots in <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>, has played a pivotal role in shaping the foundational framework of Western societies.<a href="#cite_note-Judaism-49">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cambridge_University_Historical_Series-51">[46]</a> Earlier civilizations, such as the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egyptians</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Mesopotamia" title="History of Mesopotamia">Mesopotamians</a>, had also significantly influenced Western civilization through their advancements in writing, law codes, and societal structures.<a href="#cite_note-PerryChase2012-48">[43]</a> The convergence of Greek-Roman and <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Christian" title="Judeo-Christian">Judeo-Christian</a> influences in shaping Western civilization has led certain scholars to characterize it as emerging from the legacies of <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>,<a href="#cite_note-52">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[49]</a> or Athens, Jerusalem and <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>.<a href="#cite_note-55">[50]</a> In ancient Greece and Rome, individuals identified primarily as subjects of states, city-states, or empires, rather than as members of Western civilization. The distinct identification of Western civilization began to crystallize with the rise of Christianity during the <a href="/wiki/Later_Roman_Empire" title="Later Roman Empire">Late Roman Empire</a>. In this period, peoples in Europe started to perceive themselves as part of a unique civilization, differentiating from others like <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Islam</a>, giving rise to the concept of Western civilization. By the 15th century, <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> intellectuals solidified this concept, associating Western civilization not only with Christianity but also with the intellectual and political achievements of the ancient Greeks and Romans.<a href="#cite_note-PerryChase2012-48">[43]</a> Historians, such as <a href="/wiki/Carroll_Quigley" title="Carroll Quigley">Carroll Quigley</a> in "The Evolution of Civilizations",<a href="#cite_note-56">[51]</a> contend that Western civilization was born around AD 500, after the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall of the Western Roman Empire</a>, leaving a vacuum for new ideas to flourish that were impossible in Classical societies. In either view, between the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the Renaissance, the West (or those regions that would later become the heartland of the culturally "western sphere") experienced a period of decline, and then readaptation, reorientation and considerable renewed material, technological and political development.<a href="#cite_note-57">[52]</a> <a href="/wiki/Classicism" title="Classicism">Classical</a> culture of the <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity#Cultural_legacy" title="Classical antiquity">ancient Western world</a> was partly preserved during this period due to the survival of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a> and the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a>; it was also greatly expanded by the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_contributions_to_Medieval_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe">Arab importation</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[54]</a> of both the <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Ancient Greco-Roman</a> and new technology through the Arabs from India and China to Europe.<a href="#cite_note-60">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[56]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Landing_of_Columbus_(2)_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Landing_of_Columbus_%282%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Landing_of_Columbus_%282%29_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Landing_of_Columbus_%282%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Landing_of_Columbus_%282%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Landing_of_Columbus_%282%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Landing_of_Columbus_%282%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2968" data-file-height="1971" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a> <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">arrives at the New World</a>.</figcaption></figure> Since the Renaissance, the West evolved beyond the influence of the ancient Greeks and Romans and the Islamic world, due to the successful <a href="/wiki/Second_Agricultural_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Agricultural Revolution">Second Agricultural</a>, <a href="/wiki/Commercial_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Commercial Revolution">Commercial</a>,<a href="#cite_note-62">[57]</a> <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific</a>,<a href="#cite_note-63">[58]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[59]</a> revolutions (propellers of <a href="/wiki/History_of_banking#17th–19th_centuries_–_The_emergence_of_modern_banking" title="History of banking">modern banking</a> concepts). The West rose further with the 18th century's <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a> and through the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Exploration" class="mw-redirect" title="Age of Exploration">Age of Exploration</a>'s expansion of peoples of European empires in the 18th and 19th centuries, particularly the globe-spanning colonial empires of Western Europe.<a href="#cite_note-65">[60]</a> Numerous times, this expansion was accompanied by <a href="/wiki/Catholic_missions" title="Catholic missions">Catholic</a> <a href="/wiki/Missionaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Missionaries">missionaries</a>, who attempted to proselytize Christianity. In the modern era, Western culture has undergone further transformation through the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, Ages of <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Exploration" class="mw-redirect" title="Age of Exploration">Discovery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>, and the Industrial and <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolutions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ScienceDaily-66">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-Khana-67">[62]</a> The widespread influence of Western culture extended globally through <a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">imperialism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonialism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a> by Western powers from the <a href="/wiki/History_of_colonialism" title="History of colonialism">15th to 20th centuries</a>. This influence persists through the exportation of mass culture, a phenomenon often referred to as <a href="/wiki/Westernization" title="Westernization">Westernization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-68">[63]</a> There was debate among some in the 1960s as to whether <a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin America</a> as a whole is in a category of its own.<a href="#cite_note-Arnold_J._Toynbee_1966-69">[64]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western culture</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Western_culture&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plato_Pio-Clemetino_Inv305.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Plato_Pio-Clemetino_Inv305.jpg/170px-Plato_Pio-Clemetino_Inv305.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Plato_Pio-Clemetino_Inv305.jpg/255px-Plato_Pio-Clemetino_Inv305.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Plato_Pio-Clemetino_Inv305.jpg/340px-Plato_Pio-Clemetino_Inv305.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1450" data-file-height="2200" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, arguably the most influential figure in early <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a>.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western culture</a>, also known as Western civilization, European civilization, Occidental culture, Western society, or simply the West, refers to the <a href="/wiki/Cultural_heritage" title="Cultural heritage">internally diverse culture</a> of the Western world. The term "Western" encompasses the <a href="/wiki/Social_norms" class="mw-redirect" title="Social norms">social norms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethical_value" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethical value">ethical values</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">traditional customs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belief_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Belief systems">belief systems</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_system" title="Political system">political systems</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cultural_artifact" title="Cultural artifact">artifacts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">technologies</a> primarily rooted in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">European</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_region" title="History of the Mediterranean region">Mediterranean</a> histories. A broad concept, "Western culture" does not relate to a region with fixed members or geographical confines. It generally refers to the classical era cultures of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> that expanded across the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_basin" title="Mediterranean basin">Mediterranean basin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>, and later circulated around the world predominantly through <a href="/wiki/Colonization" title="Colonization">colonization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-70">[65]</a> Historically, scholars have closely associated the idea of Western culture with the classical era of <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Greco-Roman antiquity">Greco-Roman antiquity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Western_culture_grecoroman1-71">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-Western_culture_grecoroman2-72">[67]</a> However, scholars also acknowledge that other cultures, like <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician city-states</a>, and several <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near-Eastern cultures</a> stimulated and influenced it.<a href="#cite_note-73">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[70]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a> also promoted <a href="/wiki/Syncretism" title="Syncretism">syncretism</a>, blending Greek, Roman, and Jewish cultures. Major advances in literature, engineering, and science shaped the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism" title="Hellenistic Judaism">Hellenistic Jewish</a> culture from which the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Christianity" title="Jewish Christianity">earliest Christians</a> and the Greek <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> emerged.<a href="#cite_note-Western_culture_Alexander-76">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[73]</a> The eventual <a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a> of Europe in <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">late-antiquity</a> would ensure that <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a>, remained a dominant force in Western culture for many centuries to follow.<a href="#cite_note-79">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[76]</a> Western culture continued to develop during the Middle Ages as reforms triggered by the <a href="/wiki/Medieval_renaissances" title="Medieval renaissances">medieval renaissances</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_world_contributions_to_Medieval_Europe" title="Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe">influence of the Islamic world</a> via <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Sicily" class="mw-redirect" title="Emirate of Sicily">Sicily</a> (including the transfer of technology from the East, and <a href="/wiki/Latin_translations_of_the_12th_century" title="Latin translations of the 12th century">Latin translations</a> of <a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Arabic texts on science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">philosophy</a> by Greek and Hellenic-influenced Islamic philosophers),<a href="#cite_note-Western_culture_Haskins-82">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-Western_culture_Sarton-83">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-Western_culture_Burnett-84">[79]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">Italian Renaissance</a> as <a href="/wiki/Greek_scholars_in_the_Renaissance" title="Greek scholars in the Renaissance">Greek scholars</a> fleeing the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">fall of Constantinople</a> brought ancient Greek and Roman texts back to central and western Europe.<a href="#cite_note-Western_culture_Geanakoplos_1989-85">[80]</a> <a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity_during_the_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Christianity during the Middle Ages">Medieval Christianity</a> is credited with creating the modern university,<a href="#cite_note-Western_culture_Rüegg,_Walter_1992-86">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-Western_culture_harnvb|Verger|1999-87">[82]</a> the modern hospital system,<a href="#cite_note-Western_culture_Risse_59-88">[83]</a> scientific economics,<a href="#cite_note-Western_culture_Schumpeter_1954-89">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-Western_culture_National_Review_Book_Service-90">[85]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">natural law</a> (which would later influence the creation of <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">international law</a>).<a href="#cite_note-91">[86]</a> European culture developed a complex range of philosophy, <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">medieval scholasticism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">mysticism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">secular humanism</a>, setting the stage for the <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a> in the 16th century, which fundamentally altered religious and political life. Led by figures like <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a> challenged the authority of the Catholic Church and promoted ideas of <a href="/wiki/Individual_freedom" class="mw-redirect" title="Individual freedom">individual freedom</a> and <a href="/wiki/Religious_reform" title="Religious reform">religious reform</a>, paving the way for modern notions of <a href="/wiki/Personal_responsibility" class="mw-redirect" title="Personal responsibility">personal responsibility</a> and governance.<a href="#cite_note-92">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-95">[90]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> in the 17th and 18th centuries shifted focus to <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a>, <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Individual_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Individual rights">individual rights</a>, influencing <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Revolution" title="Age of Revolution">revolutions</a> across Europe and the Americas and the development of modern democratic institutions. Enlightenment thinkers advanced ideals of <a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">political pluralism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empirical inquiry</a>, which, together with the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>, transformed Western society. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the influence of Enlightenment <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalism</a> continued with the rise of <a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">secularism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">liberal democracy</a>, while the Industrial Revolution fueled economic and technological growth. The expansion of <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movements" title="Civil rights movements">rights movements</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Secularization" title="Secularization">decline of religious authority</a> marked significant cultural shifts. Tendencies that have come to define modern Western societies include the concept of <a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">political pluralism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">individualism</a>, prominent <a href="/wiki/Subcultures" class="mw-redirect" title="Subcultures">subcultures</a> or <a href="/wiki/Counterculture" title="Counterculture">countercultures</a>, and increasing cultural <a href="/wiki/Syncretism" title="Syncretism">syncretism</a> resulting from <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_Western_world" title="Immigration to the Western world">immigration</a>.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_divisions">Historical divisions</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History of Western civilization</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Western_world" title="Special:EditPage/Western world">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2018) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_west_of_the_Mediterranean_region_during_Antiquity">The west of the Mediterranean region during Antiquity</h3></div> The geopolitical divisions in Europe that created a concept of East and West originated in the <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">ancient</a> tyrannical and imperialistic <a href="/wiki/Graeco-Roman" class="mw-redirect" title="Graeco-Roman">Graeco-Roman</a> times.<a href="#cite_note-BideleuxJeffries48-96">[91]</a> The Eastern <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean</a> was home to the highly urbanized cultures that had <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> as their common language (owing to the older empire of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> and of the <a href="/wiki/Diadochi" title="Diadochi">Hellenistic successors</a>), whereas the West was much more rural in its character and more readily adopted Latin as its common language. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the beginning of medieval times (or <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>), Western and Central Europe were substantially cut off from the East, where <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> Greek culture and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern Christianity</a> became founding influences in the Eastern European world such as the East and South Slavic peoples.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Age_of_Discovery_explorations_in_English.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Age_of_Discovery_explorations_in_English.png/330px-Age_of_Discovery_explorations_in_English.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Age_of_Discovery_explorations_in_English.png/500px-Age_of_Discovery_explorations_in_English.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Age_of_Discovery_explorations_in_English.png/960px-Age_of_Discovery_explorations_in_English.png 2x" data-file-width="1056" data-file-height="492" /></a><figcaption>The main travels of the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a> (began in 15th century)</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic">Roman Catholic</a> Western and Central Europe thus maintained a distinct identity, particularly as it began to redevelop during the Renaissance. Even following the Protestant <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a>, Protestant Europe continued to see itself as more tied to Roman Catholic Europe than other parts of the perceived "civilized world". Use of the term West as a specific cultural and geopolitical term developed over the course of the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Exploration" class="mw-redirect" title="Age of Exploration">Age of Exploration</a> as Europe spread its culture to other parts of the world. Roman Catholics were the first major religious group to migrate to the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a>, as settlers in the colonies of <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portugal</a> (and later, <a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">France</a>) belonged to that faith. <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">English</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch Empire">Dutch</a> colonies, on the other hand, tended to be more religiously diverse. Settlers to these colonies included <a href="/wiki/Anglican" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglican">Anglicans</a>, Dutch <a href="/wiki/Calvinists" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinists">Calvinists</a>, English <a href="/wiki/Puritans" title="Puritans">Puritans</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Nonconformist_(Protestantism)" title="Nonconformist (Protestantism)">nonconformists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maryland_Toleration_Act" title="Maryland Toleration Act">English Catholics</a>, Scottish <a href="/wiki/Presbyterian" class="mw-redirect" title="Presbyterian">Presbyterians</a>, French <a href="/wiki/Huguenot" class="mw-redirect" title="Huguenot">Huguenots</a>, German and Swedish <a href="/wiki/Lutherans" class="mw-redirect" title="Lutherans">Lutherans</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mennonites" title="Mennonites">Mennonites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amish" title="Amish">Amish</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Moravian_Church" title="Moravian Church">Moravians</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ancient_Roman_world_(6th_century_BC_–_AD_395–476)">Ancient Roman world (6th century BC – AD 395–476)</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of the Western Roman Empire</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Western_world" title="Special:EditPage/Western world">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2018) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_Rome_and_Carthage_at_the_start_of_the_Second_Punic_War.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Map_of_Rome_and_Carthage_at_the_start_of_the_Second_Punic_War.svg/330px-Map_of_Rome_and_Carthage_at_the_start_of_the_Second_Punic_War.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Map_of_Rome_and_Carthage_at_the_start_of_the_Second_Punic_War.svg/500px-Map_of_Rome_and_Carthage_at_the_start_of_the_Second_Punic_War.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Map_of_Rome_and_Carthage_at_the_start_of_the_Second_Punic_War.svg/960px-Map_of_Rome_and_Carthage_at_the_start_of_the_Second_Punic_War.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1067" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> in 218 BC after having managed the conquest of most of the Italian Peninsula, on the eve of its most successful and deadliest war with the <a href="/wiki/Carthaginians" class="mw-redirect" title="Carthaginians">Carthaginians</a></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="multiimageinner" style="width:392px;max-width:392px;border:none"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="margin-right:20px;width:150px;max-width:150px"><div style="height:106px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Theodosius_I%27s_empire.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Theodosius_I%27s_empire.png/250px-Theodosius_I%27s_empire.png" decoding="async" width="148" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Theodosius_I%27s_empire.png/330px-Theodosius_I%27s_empire.png 2x" data-file-width="563" data-file-height="406" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:219px;max-width:219px"><div style="height:106px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:628px-Western_and_Eastern_Roman_Empires_476AD(3).PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/628px-Western_and_Eastern_Roman_Empires_476AD%283%29.PNG/250px-628px-Western_and_Eastern_Roman_Empires_476AD%283%29.PNG" decoding="async" width="217" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/628px-Western_and_Eastern_Roman_Empires_476AD%283%29.PNG/330px-628px-Western_and_Eastern_Roman_Empires_476AD%283%29.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/628px-Western_and_Eastern_Roman_Empires_476AD%283%29.PNG/500px-628px-Western_and_Eastern_Roman_Empires_476AD%283%29.PNG 2x" data-file-width="528" data-file-height="259" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div>Graphical map of post-AD 395 <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> highlighting differences between western <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic">Roman Catholic</a> and eastern <a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek Orthodox">Greek Orthodox</a> parts, on the eve of the death of last emperor to rule on both the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">western</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">eastern</a> halves. The concept of "East-West" originated in the cultural division between <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> Churches.<a href="#cite_note-BideleuxJeffries48-96">[91]</a> <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern</a> Roman Empires on the eve of Western collapse in September of AD 476.</div></div></div></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_Empire_Trajan_117AD.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Roman_Empire_Trajan_117AD.png/330px-Roman_Empire_Trajan_117AD.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Roman_Empire_Trajan_117AD.png/495px-Roman_Empire_Trajan_117AD.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Roman_Empire_Trajan_117AD.png/660px-Roman_Empire_Trajan_117AD.png 2x" data-file-width="2534" data-file-height="1614" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> in AD 117. During 350 years the Roman Republic turned into an Empire expanding up to twenty-five times its area.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> (6th century BC – AD 476) is a term to describe the ancient <a href="/wiki/Roman_society" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman society">Roman society</a> that conquered Central Italy assimilating the Italian <a href="/wiki/Villanovan_culture" title="Villanovan culture">Etruscan culture</a>, growing from the <a href="/wiki/Latium" title="Latium">Latium</a> region since about the 8th century BC, to a massive empire straddling the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a>. In its 10-centuries territorial expansion, <a href="/wiki/Roman_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman civilization">Roman civilization</a> shifted from a small <a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">monarchy</a> (753–509 BC), to a <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">republic</a> (509–27 BC), into an <a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">autocratic</a> empire (27 BC – AD 476). Its Empire came to dominate Western, Central and Southeastern Europe, Northern Africa and, becoming an autocratic Empire a vast <a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Eastern">Middle Eastern</a> area, when it ended. Conquest was enforced using the <a href="/wiki/Roman_legions" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman legions">Roman legions</a> and then through <a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">cultural assimilation</a> by eventual recognition of some form of Roman citizenship's privileges. Nonetheless, despite its great legacy, a number of factors led to the eventual decline and ultimately <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Fall of the Roman Empire">fall of the Roman Empire</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> succeeded the approximately 500-year-old <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 510–30 BC). In 350 years, from the successful and deadliest <a href="/wiki/Second_Punic_War" title="Second Punic War">war</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicians</a> which began in 218 BC to the rule of <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Hadrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor Hadrian">Emperor Hadrian</a> by AD 117, ancient Rome expanded up to twenty-five times its area. The same time passed again before its fall in AD 476. Rome had expanded long before the empire reached its zenith with the conquest of <a href="/wiki/Dacia" title="Dacia">Dacia</a> in AD 106 (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a>) under Emperor Trajan. During its territorial peak, the Roman Empire controlled about 5,000,000 square kilometres (1,900,000 sq mi) of land surface and had a population of 100 million. From the time of Caesar (100–44 BC) to the Fall of the Western Roman Empire, Rome dominated <a href="/wiki/Southern_Europe" title="Southern Europe">Southern Europe</a>, the Mediterranean coast of <a href="/wiki/Northern_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Africa">Northern Africa</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>, including the ancient trade <a href="/wiki/Amber_Road" title="Amber Road">routes</a> with population living outside. Ancient Rome has contributed greatly to the development of law, war, art, literature, architecture, technology and language in the Western world, and its <a href="/wiki/History_of_Rome" title="History of Rome">history</a> continues to have a major influence on the world today. The <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin language</a> has been the base from which <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a> evolved and it has been the official language of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> and all Catholic religious ceremonies all over Europe until 1967, as well as one of, or the official language of countries such as Italy and Poland (9th–18th centuries).<a href="#cite_note-97">[92]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png/330px-Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png/500px-Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png/960px-Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png 2x" data-file-width="1954" data-file-height="1382" /></a><figcaption>Ending <a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">invasions</a> on Roman Empire since the 2nd and throughout the 5th centuries establishing mostly <a href="/wiki/Germanic_kingdoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic kingdoms">Germanic kingdoms</a> in its place</figcaption></figure> In AD 395, a few decades before its Western collapse, the Roman Empire formally split into a <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a> and an <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern</a> one, each with their own emperors, capitals, and governments, although ostensibly they still belonged to one formal Empire. The <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a> provinces eventually were replaced by <a href="/wiki/Northern_European" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern European">Northern European</a> <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic</a> ruled kingdoms in the 5th century due to <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">civil wars, corruption, and devastating Germanic invasions</a> from such tribes as the <a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Huns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Vandals" title="Vandals">Vandals</a> by their late <a href="/wiki/Migration_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Migration period">expansion</a> throughout Europe. The three-day Visigoths's <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_(410)" title="Sack of Rome (410)">AD 410 sack of Rome</a> who had been raiding Greece not long before, a shocking time for <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Romans</a>, was the first time after almost 800 years that Rome had fallen to a foreign enemy, and <a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">St. Jerome</a>, living in Bethlehem at the time, wrote that "The City which had taken the whole world was itself taken."<a href="#cite_note-98">[93]</a> There followed the <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_(455)" title="Sack of Rome (455)">sack of AD 455</a> lasting 14 days, this time conducted by the <a href="/wiki/Vandals" title="Vandals">Vandals</a>, retaining Rome's eternal spirit through the <a href="/wiki/Holy_See_of_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Holy See of Rome">Holy See of Rome</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin Church</a>) for centuries to come.<a href="#cite_note-99">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[95]</a> The ancient <a href="/wiki/Barbarian" title="Barbarian">Barbarian</a> tribes, often composed of well-trained Roman soldiers paid by Rome to guard the extensive borders, had become militarily sophisticated "Romanized barbarians", and mercilessly slaughtered the Romans conquering their Western territories while looting their possessions.<a href="#cite_note-101">[96]</a> The Roman Empire is where the idea of "the West" began to emerge.<a href="#cite_note-102">[f]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a>, governed from <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>, is usually referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> after AD 476, the traditional date for the fall of the Roman Empire and beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a>. The survival of the Eastern Roman Empire protected Roman legal and cultural traditions, combining them with Greek and Christian elements, for another thousand years. The name Byzantine Empire was first used centuries later, after the Byzantine Empire ended. The dissolution of the Western half, nominally ended in AD 476, but in truth a long process that ended by the rise of Catholic <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a> (modern-day <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>) ruling from around the year AD 800, left only the Eastern Roman Empire alive. The Eastern half continued to think of itself as the Eastern Roman Empire until AD 610–800, when Latin ceased to be the official language of the empire. The inhabitants called themselves Romans because the term "Roman" was meant to signify all <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christians</a>. The Pope crowned <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> as <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Holy Roman Emperor">Emperor of the Romans</a> of the newly established <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>, and the West began thinking in terms of Western Latins living in the old Western Empire, and Eastern Greeks (those inside the Roman remnant of the old Eastern Empire).<a href="#cite_note-103">[97]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_birth_of_the_European_West_during_the_Middle_Ages">The birth of the European West during the Middle Ages</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greek_scholars_in_the_Renaissance" title="Greek scholars in the Renaissance">Greek scholars in the Renaissance</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Western_world" title="Special:EditPage/Western world">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2021) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Justinien_527-565.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Justinien_527-565.svg/330px-Justinien_527-565.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Justinien_527-565.svg/500px-Justinien_527-565.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Justinien_527-565.svg/960px-Justinien_527-565.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1810" data-file-height="871" /></a><figcaption>Apex of <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>'s conquests (AD 527–565)</figcaption></figure>In the early 4th century, the central focus of power was on two separate imperial legacies within the Roman Empire: the older <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean Sea</a> <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greek</a> heritage (of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a>) in the Eastern Mediterranean, and the newer most successful <a href="/wiki/Tyrrhenian_Sea" title="Tyrrhenian Sea">Tyrrhenian Sea</a> <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> heritage (of <a href="/wiki/Etruria" title="Etruria">Ancient Latium and Tuscany</a>) in the Western Mediterranean. A turning point was <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine the Great</a>'s decision to establish the city of <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> (today's <a href="/wiki/Istanbul" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a>) in modern-day <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> as the "New Rome" when he picked it as capital of his Empire (later called "<a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>" by modern historians) in AD 330.<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_the_Byzantine_Empire,_1025_AD.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Map_of_the_Byzantine_Empire%2C_1025_AD.PNG/330px-Map_of_the_Byzantine_Empire%2C_1025_AD.PNG" decoding="async" width="330" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Map_of_the_Byzantine_Empire%2C_1025_AD.PNG/500px-Map_of_the_Byzantine_Empire%2C_1025_AD.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Map_of_the_Byzantine_Empire%2C_1025_AD.PNG/660px-Map_of_the_Byzantine_Empire%2C_1025_AD.PNG 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="369" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> in AD 1025 before Christian <a href="/wiki/East-West_Schism" class="mw-redirect" title="East-West Schism">East-West Schism</a></figcaption></figure> This internal conflict of legacies had possibly emerged since the <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Julius_Caesar" title="Assassination of Julius Caesar">assassination of Julius Caesar</a> three centuries earlier, when Roman imperialism had just been born with the Roman Republic becoming "Roman Empire", but reached its zenith during 3rd century's <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_civil_wars_and_revolts#3rd_century" title="List of Roman civil wars and revolts">many internal civil wars</a>. This is the time when the <a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Huns</a> (part of the ancient Eastern European tribes named barbarians by the Romans) from modern-day <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a> penetrated into the <a href="/wiki/Dalmatia" title="Dalmatia">Dalmatian</a> (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Croatia" title="Croatia">Croatia</a>) region then originating in the following 150 years in the Roman Empire officially splitting in two halves. Also the time of the formal acceptance of Christianity as Empire's <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religious</a> policy, when the Emperors began actively banning and fighting previous <a href="/wiki/Pagan_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan religion">pagan religions</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spread_of_Christianity_to_AD_600_-_Atlas_of_World_History.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Spread_of_Christianity_to_AD_600_-_Atlas_of_World_History.png/220px-Spread_of_Christianity_to_AD_600_-_Atlas_of_World_History.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Spread_of_Christianity_to_AD_600_-_Atlas_of_World_History.png/330px-Spread_of_Christianity_to_AD_600_-_Atlas_of_World_History.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Spread_of_Christianity_to_AD_600_-_Atlas_of_World_History.png/440px-Spread_of_Christianity_to_AD_600_-_Atlas_of_World_History.png 2x" data-file-width="2187" data-file-height="1619" /></a><figcaption>History of the spread of Christianity: in AD 325 (dark blue) and AD 600 (blue) following Western Roman Empire's collapse under <a href="/wiki/Germanic_migration" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic migration">Germanic migrations</a>.</figcaption></figure> The Eastern Roman Empire included lands south-west of the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a> and bordering on the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Mediterranean" title="Eastern Mediterranean">Eastern Mediterranean</a> and parts of the <a href="/wiki/Adriatic_Sea" title="Adriatic Sea">Adriatic Sea</a>. This division into Eastern and Western Roman Empires was later reflected in the administration of the <a href="/wiki/Greek_East_and_Latin_West" title="Greek East and Latin West">Roman Catholic and Eastern Greek Orthodox</a> churches, with Rome and Constantinople debating over whether either city was the capital of <a href="/wiki/Catholicity" title="Catholicity">Western religion</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] As the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern (Orthodox)</a> and Western (Catholic) churches spread their influence, the line between Eastern and Western Christianity was moving. Its movement was affected by the influence of the Byzantine empire and the fluctuating power and influence of the Catholic church in Rome. The geographic line of religious division approximately followed a line of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_divide" title="Cultural divide">cultural divide</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Frankish_empire.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Frankish_empire.jpg/330px-Frankish_empire.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Frankish_empire.jpg/500px-Frankish_empire.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Frankish_empire.jpg/960px-Frankish_empire.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1755" data-file-height="1241" /></a><figcaption>Rise of the <a href="/wiki/Germanic_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic people">Germanic</a> <a href="/wiki/Frankish_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankish Empire">Frankish Empire</a> before <a href="/wiki/Coronation_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Coronation of the Holy Roman Emperor">Charlemagne's coronation</a> in Rome</figcaption></figure> In AD 800 under <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Early_Medieval" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Medieval">Early Medieval</a> Franks established an empire that was recognized by the <a href="/wiki/Pope" title="Pope">Pope</a> in Rome as the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> (Latin Christian revival of the ancient Roman Empire, under perpetual Germanic rule from AD 962) inheriting ancient Roman Empire's prestige but offending the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Emperor">Eastern Roman Emperor</a> in Constantinople, and leading to the <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a> and the East–West Schism. The crowning of the Emperor by the Pope led to the assumption that the highest power was the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Papacy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Papacy">papal hierarchy</a>, quintessential Roman Empire's spiritual heritage authority, establishing then, until the Protestant Reformation, the civilization of <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Western Christendom</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The earliest concept of Europe as a cultural sphere (instead of simple geographic term) is believed to have been formed by <a href="/wiki/Alcuin_of_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcuin of York">Alcuin of York</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Renaissance" title="Carolingian Renaissance">Carolingian Renaissance</a> of the 9th century, but was limited to the territories that practised <a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western Christianity</a> at the time.<a href="#cite_note-AOY-104">[98]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin Church</a> of western and central Europe split with the eastern <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Greek</a> patriarchates in the Christian <a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a>, also known as the "Great Schism", during the <a href="/wiki/Gregorian_Reforms" class="mw-redirect" title="Gregorian Reforms">Gregorian Reforms</a> (calling for a more central status of the Roman Catholic Church Institution), three months after <a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_IX" title="Pope Leo IX">Pope Leo IX</a>'s death in April 1054.<a href="#cite_note-WUP-105">[99]</a> Following the 1054 <a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">Great Schism</a>, both the <a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western</a> Church and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern</a> Church continued to consider themselves uniquely orthodox and catholic. <a href="/wiki/Augustine" class="mw-redirect" title="Augustine">Augustine</a> wrote in On True Religion: "Religion is to be sought... only among those who are called Catholic or orthodox Christians, that is, guardians of truth and followers of right."<a href="#cite_note-106">[100]</a> Over time, the <a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western Christianity</a> gradually identified with the "Catholic" label, and people of Western Europe gradually associated the "Orthodox" label with <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern Christianity</a> (although in some languages the "Catholic" label is not necessarily identified with the Western Church). This was in note of the fact that both Catholic and Orthodox were in use as ecclesiastical adjectives as early as the 2nd and 4th centuries respectively. Meanwhile, the extent of both Christendoms expanded, as Germanic peoples, Bohemia, Poland, Hungary, Scandinavia, Finnic peoples, Baltic peoples, British Isles and the other non-Christian lands of the northwest were converted by the Western Church, while Eastern Slavic peoples, Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro, Russian territories, <a href="/wiki/Vlachs" title="Vlachs">Vlachs</a> and Georgia were converted by the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox Church</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Byzantium@1180.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Byzantium%401180.jpg/330px-Byzantium%401180.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Byzantium%401180.jpg/500px-Byzantium%401180.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Byzantium%401180.jpg/660px-Byzantium%401180.jpg 2x" data-file-width="801" data-file-height="370" /></a><figcaption>The Byzantine Empire in AD 1180 before Latin <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Crusade" title="Fourth Crusade">Fourth Crusade</a></figcaption></figure> In 1071, the Byzantine army was defeated by the <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> <a href="/wiki/Turco-Persian" class="mw-redirect" title="Turco-Persian">Turco-Persians</a> of medieval <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>, resulting in the loss of most of <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a>. The situation was a serious threat to the future of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodox</a> <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>. The Emperor sent a plea to the <a href="/wiki/Papacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Papacy">Pope</a> in Rome to send military aid to restore the lost territories to Christian rule. The result was a series of western European military campaigns into the eastern Mediterranean, known as the Crusades. Unfortunately for the Byzantines, the crusaders (belonging to the members of nobility from France, German territories, the Low countries, England and Italy) had no allegiance to the Byzantine Emperor and established their own states in the conquered regions, <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Crusade" title="Fourth Crusade">including the heart of the Byzantine Empire</a>. The Holy Roman Empire would <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire">dissolve</a> on 6 August 1806, after the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> and the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Confederation_of_the_Rhine" title="Confederation of the Rhine">Confederation of the Rhine</a> by <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Emp%C3%A8ri_Bizantin_-_Partiment_apr%C3%A8s_la_Quatrena_Crosada.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Emp%C3%A8ri_Bizantin_-_Partiment_apr%C3%A8s_la_Quatrena_Crosada.png/500px-Emp%C3%A8ri_Bizantin_-_Partiment_apr%C3%A8s_la_Quatrena_Crosada.png" decoding="async" width="390" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Emp%C3%A8ri_Bizantin_-_Partiment_apr%C3%A8s_la_Quatrena_Crosada.png/960px-Emp%C3%A8ri_Bizantin_-_Partiment_apr%C3%A8s_la_Quatrena_Crosada.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1078" data-file-height="646" /></a><figcaption>The Greek Byzantine Empire split by a newly established <a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin Crusader State</a> after the Fourth Crusade (shown partly in Greece and partly in Turkey)</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Decline of the Byzantine Empire">decline of the Byzantine Empire</a> (13th–15th centuries) began with the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Latin Christian</a> <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Crusade" title="Fourth Crusade">Fourth Crusade</a> in AD 1202–04, considered to be one of the most important events, solidifying the <a href="/wiki/East-West_Schism" class="mw-redirect" title="East-West Schism">schism</a> between the <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> churches of <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Rite" title="Byzantine Rite">Byzantine Rite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Rite" title="Roman Rite">Roman Rite</a>. An <a href="/wiki/Massacre_of_the_Latins" title="Massacre of the Latins">anti-Western riot</a> in 1182 broke out in <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> targeting Latins. The extremely wealthy (after previous <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a>) <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venetians</a> in particular made a <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Zara" title="Siege of Zara">successful attempt to maintain control</a> over the coast of <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a> present-day Croatia (specifically the <a href="/wiki/Dalmatia#Middle_Ages" title="Dalmatia">Dalmatia</a>, a region of interest to the <a href="/wiki/Maritime_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Maritime Republic">maritime</a> medieval Venetian Republic moneylenders and its rivals, such as the Republic of Genoa) rebelling against the Venetian economic domination.<a href="#cite_note-wolff-107">[101]</a> What followed dealt an irrevocable blow to the already weakened Byzantine Empire with the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(1204)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Constantinople (1204)">Crusader army's sack of Constantinople</a> in April 1204, capital of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Greek Christian</a>-controlled <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>, described as one of the most profitable and disgraceful sacks of a city in history.<a href="#cite_note-Phillips-108">[102]</a> This paved the way for Muslim conquests in <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">present-day Turkey</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a> in the coming centuries (only a handful of the Crusaders followed to the stated destination thereafter, the <a href="/wiki/Crusader_states" title="Crusader states">Holy Land</a>). The geographical identity of the Balkans is historically known as a crossroads of cultures, a juncture between the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> bodies of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, the destination of a massive influx of pagans (meaning "non-Christians") <a href="/wiki/Bulgars" title="Bulgars">Bulgars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavs" title="Slavs">Slavs</a>, an area where <a href="/wiki/Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic">Catholic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Orthodox</a> Christianity met,<a href="#cite_note-109">[103]</a> as well as the meeting point between <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> and Christianity. The <a href="/wiki/Papal_Inquisition" class="mw-redirect" title="Papal Inquisition">Papal Inquisition</a> was established in AD 1229 on a permanent basis, run largely by clergymen in Rome,<a href="#cite_note-110">[104]</a> and abolished six centuries later. Before AD 1100, the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Inquisition" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Inquisition">Catholic Church suppressed</a> what they believed to be heresy, usually through a system of ecclesiastical proscription or imprisonment, but without using torture,<a href="#cite_note-Lea1888-111">[105]</a> and seldom resorting to executions.<a href="#cite_note-112">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[109]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Martin_Luther,_1529.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Martin_Luther%2C_1529.jpg/170px-Martin_Luther%2C_1529.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Martin_Luther%2C_1529.jpg/255px-Martin_Luther%2C_1529.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Martin_Luther%2C_1529.jpg/340px-Martin_Luther%2C_1529.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="643" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestant</a> <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformer</a></figcaption></figure> This very profitable <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central European</a> Fourth Crusade had prompted the 14th century <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Renaissance Italy">Renaissance</a> (translated as 'Rebirth') of <a href="/wiki/Italian_city-states" title="Italian city-states">Italian city-states</a> including the <a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a>, on eve of the Protestant Reformation and <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a> (which established the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Inquisition" title="Roman Inquisition">Roman Inquisition</a> to succeed the <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Inquisition" title="Medieval Inquisition">Medieval Inquisition</a>). There followed the discovery of the American continent, and consequent dissolution of West Christendom as even a theoretical unitary political body, later resulting in the religious <a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Eighty Years War">Eighty Years War</a> (1568–1648) and <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Thirty Years War">Thirty Years War</a> (1618–1648) between <a href="/wiki/List_of_states_in_the_Holy_Roman_Empire" title="List of states in the Holy Roman Empire">various Protestant and Catholic states</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> (and emergence of <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">religiously diverse</a> <a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Criticism of the Catholic Church">confessions</a>). In this context, the Protestant Reformation (1517) may be viewed as a schism within the Catholic Church. German monk <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a>, in the wake of precursors, broke with the pope and with the emperor by the Catholic Church's abusive commercialization of <a href="/wiki/Indulgences" class="mw-redirect" title="Indulgences">indulgences</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Late_Medieval_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Medieval Period">Late Medieval Period</a>, backed by many of the German princes and helped by the development of the <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a>, in an attempt to reform corruption within the church.<a href="#cite_note-116">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-117">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[112]</a> Both these religious wars ended with the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</a> (1648), which enshrined the concept of the <a href="/wiki/Nation-state" class="mw-redirect" title="Nation-state">nation-state</a>, and the principle of absolute <a href="/wiki/National_sovereignty" class="mw-redirect" title="National sovereignty">national sovereignty</a> in <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">international law</a>. As European influence spread across the globe, these <a href="/wiki/Westphalian_sovereignty" class="mw-redirect" title="Westphalian sovereignty">Westphalian principles</a>, especially the concept of sovereign states, became central to international law and to the prevailing world order.<a href="#cite_note-kissinger-119">[113]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Expansion_of_the_West:_the_Era_of_Colonialism_(15th–20th_centuries)">Expansion of the West: the Era of Colonialism (15th–20th centuries)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a>, <a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_Western_European_colonialism_and_colonization" class="mw-redirect" title="Analysis of Western European colonialism and colonization">Analysis of Western European colonialism and colonization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">Mercantilism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Western_world" title="Special:EditPage/Western world">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2021) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portuguese_discoveries_and_explorationsV2en.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Portuguese_discoveries_and_explorationsV2en.png/500px-Portuguese_discoveries_and_explorationsV2en.png" decoding="async" width="390" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Portuguese_discoveries_and_explorationsV2en.png/960px-Portuguese_discoveries_and_explorationsV2en.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1357" data-file-height="628" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_discoveries" class="mw-redirect" title="Portuguese discoveries">Portuguese discoveries</a> and explorations since 1336: first arrival places and dates; main Portuguese <a href="/wiki/Spice_trade" title="Spice trade">spice trade</a> routes in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> (blue); <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Portuguese empire">territories claimed</a> by <a href="/wiki/King_John_III_of_Portugal" class="mw-redirect" title="King John III of Portugal">King John III of Portugal</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1536) (green)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SpanishEmpire1790.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/SpanishEmpire1790.svg/390px-SpanishEmpire1790.svg.png" decoding="async" width="390" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/SpanishEmpire1790.svg/585px-SpanishEmpire1790.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/SpanishEmpire1790.svg/780px-SpanishEmpire1790.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="4327" data-file-height="2194" /></a><figcaption>Apex of <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a> in 1790</figcaption></figure> In the 13th and 14th centuries, a number of European travelers, many of them Christian <a href="/wiki/Missionary" title="Missionary">missionaries</a>, had sought to cultivate trading with Asia and <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>. With the Crusades came the relative contraction of the Orthodox <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_silk" title="Byzantine silk">Byzantine</a>'s large silk industry <a href="/wiki/History_of_silk#Spread_of_production_(8th-16th_centuries)" title="History of silk">in favor of Catholic Western Europe</a> and the rise of <a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Western Papacy</a>. The most famous of these <a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_European_exploration_of_Asia#Middle_Ages" title="Chronology of European exploration of Asia">merchant travelers</a> pursuing <a href="/wiki/Spice_trade#Age_of_Discovery:_a_New_Route_and_a_New_World" title="Spice trade">East–west trade</a> was Venetian <a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo" title="Marco Polo">Marco Polo</a>. But these journeys had little permanent effect on east–west trade because of a series of political developments in Asia in the last decades of the 14th century, which put an end to further European exploration of Asia: namely the new <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a> rulers were found to be unreceptive of religious proselytism by European missionaries and merchants. Meanwhile, the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a> <a href="/wiki/Turkish_people" title="Turkish people">Turks</a> consolidated control over the eastern <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean</a>, closing off key overland trade routes.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Portuguese</a> spearheaded the drive to find oceanic routes that would provide cheaper and easier access to South and East Asian goods, by advancements in maritime technology such as the <a href="/wiki/Caravel" title="Caravel">caravel</a> ship introduced in the mid-1400s. The charting of oceanic routes between East and West began with the unprecedented voyages of Portuguese and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Spain">Spanish</a> sea captains. In 1492, <a href="/wiki/European_colonialism" class="mw-redirect" title="European colonialism">European colonialism</a> expanded across the globe with the <a href="/wiki/Voyages_of_Christopher_Columbus" title="Voyages of Christopher Columbus">exploring voyage</a> of merchant, navigator, and Hispano-Italian colonizer <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a>. Such voyages were influenced by medieval European adventurers after the European <a href="/wiki/Spice_trade" title="Spice trade">spice trade</a> with Asia, who had journeyed overland to the Far East contributing to geographical knowledge of parts of the Asian continent. They are of enormous significance in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">Western history</a> as they marked the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/European_ethnic_groups" class="mw-redirect" title="European ethnic groups">European</a> exploration, <a href="/wiki/Colonization" title="Colonization">colonization</a> and exploitation of <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">the American continents</a> and their <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas#European_colonization" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">native inhabitants</a>.<a href="#cite_note-120">[g]</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[h]</a> The <a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization of the Americas</a> led to the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a> between the 1490s and the 1800s, which also contributed to the development of African intertribal warfare and racist ideology. Before the abolition of its slave trade in 1807, the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> alone (which had started colonial efforts <a href="/wiki/British_Empire#"First"_British_Empire_(1707–1783)" title="British Empire">in 1578</a>, almost a century after Portuguese and Spanish empires) was responsible for the transportation of 3.5 million African slaves to the Americas, a third of all slaves transported across the Atlantic.<a href="#cite_note-123">[115]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> was dissolved in 1806 by the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="French Revolutionary Wars">French Revolutionary Wars</a>; abolition of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Inquisition" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Inquisition">Roman Catholic Inquisition</a> followed.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Due to the reach of these empires, Western institutions expanded throughout the world. This process of influence (and imposition) began with the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">voyages of discovery</a>, <a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">colonization, conquest, and exploitation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portugal</a> enforced as well by <a href="/wiki/Papal_bull" title="Papal bull">papal bulls</a> in 1450s (by the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Fall of the Byzantine Empire">fall of the Byzantine Empire</a>), granting Portugal navigation, war and trade monopoly for any newly discovered lands,<a href="#cite_note-Daus33-124">[116]</a> and competing <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish</a> navigators. It continued with the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">Dutch East India Company</a> by the destabilizing Spanish <a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_the_New_World" class="mw-redirect" title="Discovery of the New World">discovery of the New World</a>, and the creation and expansion of the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">English</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French</a> colonial empires, and others.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Even after demands for self-determination from subject peoples within Western empires were met with <a href="/wiki/Decolonization" title="Decolonization">decolonization</a>, these institutions persisted. One specific example was the requirement that <a href="/wiki/Postcolonialism" title="Postcolonialism">post-colonial</a> societies were made to form nation-states (in the Western tradition), which often created arbitrary boundaries and borders that did not necessarily represent a whole nation, people, or culture (as in much of Africa), and are often the cause of international conflicts and friction even to this day. Although not part of Western colonization process proper, following the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> Western culture in fact entered other global-spanning cultures during the colonial 15th–20th centuries.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Historically <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonialism</a> had been justified with the values of <a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">individualism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment#Enlightened_absolutism" title="Age of Enlightenment">enlightenment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-125">[117]</a> The concepts of a world of <a href="/wiki/Nation-states" class="mw-redirect" title="Nation-states">nation-states</a> born by the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</a> in 1648, coupled with the ideologies of the Enlightenment, the coming of <a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">modernity</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a><a href="#cite_note-126">[118]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>,<a href="#cite_note-127">[119]</a> would produce powerful social transformations, political and <a href="/wiki/History_of_banking#17th–19th_centuries_–_The_emergence_of_modern_banking" title="History of banking">economic</a> institutions that have come to <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">influence</a> (or been imposed upon) most nations of the world today. Historians agree that the Industrial Revolution has been one of the most important events in history.<a href="#cite_note-128">[120]</a> The course of <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">three centuries</a> since Christopher Columbus' late 15th century's voyages, of <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">deportation of slaves</a> <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">from Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/British_Isles" title="British Isles">British</a> dominant northern-<a href="/wiki/Atlantic" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlantic">Atlantic</a> location, later developed into modern-day <a href="/wiki/United_States_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="United States of America">United States of America</a>, evolving from the ratification of the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution of the United States</a> by <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Ratification_of_the_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">thirteen States</a> on the North American <a href="/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="East Coast of the United States">East Coast</a> before end of the 18th century. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Enlightenment_(17th–18th_centuries)">Enlightenment (17th–18th centuries)</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Eric Voegelin</a> described the 18th-century as one where "the sentiment grows that one age has come to its close and that a new age of Western civilization is about to be born". According to Voeglin the Enlightenment (also called the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Reason" class="mw-redirect" title="Age of Reason">Age of Reason</a>) represents the "atrophy of Christian transcendental experiences and [seeks] to enthrone the <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newtonian</a> method of science as the only valid method of arriving at truth".<a href="#cite_note-129">[121]</a> Its precursors were <a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">John Milton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a>.<a href="#cite_note-130">[122]</a> Meeting <a href="/wiki/Galileo" class="mw-redirect" title="Galileo">Galileo</a> in 1638 left an enduring impact on John Milton and influenced Milton's great work <a href="/wiki/Areopagitica" title="Areopagitica">Areopagitica</a>, where he warns that, without <a href="/wiki/Free_speech" class="mw-redirect" title="Free speech">free speech</a>, inquisitorial forces will impose "an undeserved thraldom upon learning".<a href="#cite_note-131">[123]</a> The achievements of the 17th century included the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">telescope</a> and acceptance of <a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism" title="Heliocentrism">heliocentrism</a>. 18th century scholars continued to refine <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_theory_of_gravitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Newton's theory of gravitation">Newton's theory of gravitation</a>, notably <a href="/wiki/Leonhard_Euler" title="Leonhard Euler">Leonhard Euler</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Louis_Maupertuis" title="Pierre Louis Maupertuis">Pierre Louis Maupertuis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alexis-Claude_Clairaut" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexis-Claude Clairaut">Alexis-Claude Clairaut</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean_Le_Rond_d%27Alembert" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean Le Rond d'Alembert">Jean Le Rond d'Alembert</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joseph-Louis_Lagrange" title="Joseph-Louis Lagrange">Joseph-Louis Lagrange</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon Laplace">Pierre-Simon de Laplace</a>. Laplace's five-volume <a href="/wiki/Trait%C3%A9_de_m%C3%A9canique_c%C3%A9leste" title="Traité de mécanique céleste">Treatise on Celestial Mechanics</a> is one of the great works of 18th-century Newtonianism. <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">Astronomy</a> gained in prestige as new observatories were funded by governments and more powerful telescopes developed, leading to the discovery of new planets, <a href="/wiki/Asteroids" class="mw-redirect" title="Asteroids">asteroids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nebulae" class="mw-redirect" title="Nebulae">nebulae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Comet" title="Comet">comets</a>, and paving the way for improvements in <a href="/wiki/Navigation" title="Navigation">navigation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">cartography</a>. Astronomy became the second most popular scientific profession, after <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-132">[124]</a> A common metanarrative of the Enlightenment is the "secularization theory". Modernity, as understood within the framework, means a total break with the past. Innovation and science are the good, representing the modern values of <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalism</a>, while faith is ruled by superstition and traditionalism.<a href="#cite_note-133">[125]</a> Inspired by the Scientific Revolution, the Enlightenment embodied the ideals of improvement and progress. <a href="/wiki/Descartes" class="mw-redirect" title="Descartes">Descartes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> were regarded as exemplars of human intellectual achievement. <a href="/wiki/Condorcet" class="mw-redirect" title="Condorcet">Condorcet</a> wrote about the progress of humanity in the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sketch_of_the_Progress_of_the_Human_Mind&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sketch of the Progress of the Human Mind (page does not exist)">Sketch of the Progress of the Human Mind</a> (1794), from <a href="/wiki/Urgesellschaft" title="Urgesellschaft">primitive society</a> to <a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">agrarianism</a>, the invention of writing, the later invention of the <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a> and the advancement to "the Period when the Sciences and Philosophy threw off the Yoke of Authority".<a href="#cite_note-134">[126]</a> French writer <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bayle" title="Pierre Bayle">Pierre Bayle</a> denounced Spinoza as a <a href="/wiki/Pantheist" class="mw-redirect" title="Pantheist">pantheist</a> (thereby accusing him of <a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">atheism</a>). Bayle's criticisms garnered much attention for Spinoza. The pantheism controversy in the late 18th century saw <a href="/wiki/Gotthold_Lessing" class="mw-redirect" title="Gotthold Lessing">Gotthold Lessing</a> attacked by <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Heinrich_Jacobi" title="Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi">Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi</a> over support for Spinoza's pantheism. Lessing was defended by <a href="/wiki/Moses_Mendelssohn" title="Moses Mendelssohn">Moses Mendelssohn</a>, although Mendelssohn diverged from pantheism to follow <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a> in arguing that God and the world were not of the same substance (equivalency). Spinoza was excommunicated from the Dutch <a href="/wiki/Sephardic" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardic">Sephardic</a> community, but for Jews who sought out Jewish sources to guide their own path to secularism, Spinoza was as important as Voltaire and Kant.<a href="#cite_note-135">[127]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="19th_century">19th century</h4></div> In the early 19th century, the systematic <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanization</a> process (migration from villages in search of jobs in manufacturing centers) had begun, and the concentration of labor into factories led to the rise in the population of the towns. World population had been rising as well. It is estimated to have first reached one billion in 1804.<a href="#cite_note-136">[128]</a> Also, the new philosophical movement later known as <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a> originated, in the wake of the previous Age of <a href="/wiki/17th-century_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="17th-century philosophy">Reason</a> of the 1600s and the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> of 1700s. These are seen as fostering the 19th century Western world's sustained economic development.<a href="#cite_note-137">[129]</a> Before the urbanization and industrialization of the 1800s, demand for <a href="/wiki/Orientalism" title="Orientalism">oriental</a> goods such as <a href="/wiki/Porcelain" title="Porcelain">porcelain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silk" title="Silk">silk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spice" title="Spice">spices</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tea" title="Tea">tea</a> remained the driving force behind European imperialism in Asia, and (with the important exception of British East India Company rule in India) the European stake in Asia remained confined largely to trading stations and strategic outposts necessary to protect trade.<a href="#cite_note-138">[130]</a> <a href="/wiki/Industrialisation" title="Industrialisation">Industrialization</a>, however, dramatically increased European demand for Asian raw materials; and the severe Long Depression of the 1870s provoked a scramble for new markets for European industrial products and financial services in Africa, the Americas, Eastern Europe, and especially in Asia (Western powers exploited their advantages in <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> for example by the <a href="/wiki/Opium_Wars" title="Opium Wars">Opium Wars</a>).<a href="#cite_note-139">[131]</a> This resulted in the "<a href="/wiki/New_Imperialism" title="New Imperialism">New Imperialism</a>", which saw a shift in focus from trade and <a href="/wiki/Indirect_rule" title="Indirect rule">indirect rule</a> to formal colonial control of vast overseas territories ruled as political extensions of their mother countries.<a href="#cite_note-141">[i]</a> The later years of the 19th century saw the transition from "informal imperialism" (<a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">hegemony</a>)<a href="#cite_note-144">[j]</a> by military influence and economic dominance, to direct rule (a revival of colonial <a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">imperialism</a>) in the <a href="/wiki/African_continent" class="mw-redirect" title="African continent">African continent</a> and <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Shillington-145">[135]</a> During the socioeconomically optimistic and innovative decades of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a> between the 1870s and 1914, also known as the "<a href="/wiki/Belle_Epoque" class="mw-redirect" title="Belle Epoque">Beautiful Era</a>", the established colonial powers in Asia (United Kingdom, France, Netherlands) added to their empires also vast expanses of territory in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Subcontinent">Indian Subcontinent</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>. Japan was involved primarily during the <a href="/wiki/Meiji_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Meiji period">Meiji period</a> (1868–1912), though earlier contacts with the Portuguese, Spaniards and Dutch were also present in the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japanese Empire</a>'s recognition of the strategic importance of European nations. Traditional Japanese society became an industrial and militarist power like the Western <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> and the <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">French Third Republic</a>, and similar to the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification needed</a>][<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] At the close of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a> in 1898 the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guam" title="Guam">Guam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a> were ceded to the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> under the terms of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1898)" title="Treaty of Paris (1898)">Treaty of Paris</a>. The US quickly emerged as the new imperial power in <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a> and in the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean#European_exploration" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean area</a>. The Philippines continued to fight against colonial rule in the <a href="/wiki/Philippine%E2%80%93American_War" title="Philippine–American War">Philippine–American War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-146">[136]</a> By 1913, the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> held sway over 412 million people, 23% of the world population at the time,<a href="#cite_note-147">[137]</a> and by 1920, it covered 35,500,000 km2 (13,700,000 sq mi),<a href="#cite_note-148">[138]</a> 24% of the Earth's total land area.<a href="#cite_note-149">[139]</a> At its apex, the phrase "<a href="/wiki/The_empire_on_which_the_sun_never_sets" title="The empire on which the sun never sets">the empire on which the sun never sets</a>" described the British Empire, because its expanse around the globe meant that the sun always shone on at least one of its territories.<a href="#cite_note-150">[140]</a> As a result, its political, <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">legal</a>, <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">linguistic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Culture of the United Kingdom">cultural</a> legacy is widespread throughout the Western world.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In the <a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Aftermath of the Second World War">aftermath of the Second World War</a>, decolonizing efforts were employed by all Western powers under <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> (ex-<a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a>) international directives.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Most of colonized nations received independence by 1960. Great Britain showed ongoing responsibility for the welfare of its former colonies as <a href="/wiki/Member_states_of_the_Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations">member states of the Commonwealth of Nations</a>. But the end of Western colonial imperialism saw the rise of Western <a href="/wiki/Neocolonialism" title="Neocolonialism">neocolonialism</a> or economic imperialism. Multinational corporations came to offer "a dramatic refinement of the traditional business enterprise", through "issues as far ranging as national sovereignty, ownership of the means of production, environmental protection, consumerism, and policies toward organized labor." Though the overt colonial era had passed, Western nations, as comparatively rich, well-armed, and culturally powerful states, wielded a <a href="/wiki/Neocolonialism" title="Neocolonialism">large degree of influence</a> throughout the world, and with little or no sense of responsibility toward the peoples impacted by its multinational corporations in their exploitation of minerals and markets.<a href="#cite_note-151">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-152">[142]</a> The dictum of <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Thayer_Mahan" title="Alfred Thayer Mahan">Alfred Thayer Mahan</a> is shown to have lasting relevance, that whoever controls the seas controls the world.<a href="#cite_note-153">[143]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cold_War_(1947–1991)">Cold War (1947–1991)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Western_world" title="Special:EditPage/Western world">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (April 2021) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> During the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, a new definition emerged. Earth was divided into three "worlds". The <a href="/wiki/First_World" title="First World">First World</a>, analogous in this context to what was called the West, was composed of <a href="/wiki/Member_states_of_NATO" title="Member states of NATO">NATO members</a> and other countries aligned with the United States. The Second World was the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_bloc" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern bloc">Eastern bloc</a> in the Soviet <a href="/wiki/Sphere_of_influence" title="Sphere of influence">sphere of influence</a>, including the Soviet Union (15 republics including the then occupied but now independent Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania) and <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a> countries like Poland, Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania, East Germany (now united with West Germany), and <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</a> (now split into the Czech Republic and Slovakia). The Third World consisted of countries, many of which were <a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">unaligned with either the west or the east</a>; important members included India, <a href="/wiki/Yugoslavia" title="Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Finlandization" title="Finlandization">Finlandization</a>) and Switzerland (<a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Switzerland" title="Foreign relations of Switzerland">Swiss Neutrality</a>); some include the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a>, though this is disputed, since the People's Republic of China, as communist, had friendly relations—at certain times—with the Soviet bloc, and had a significant degree of importance in global geopolitics. Some Third World countries aligned themselves with either the US-led West or the Soviet-led Eastern bloc. A number of countries did not fit comfortably into this neat definition of partition, including Switzerland, Sweden, Austria, and <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland" title="Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a>, which chose to be neutral. Finland was under the Soviet Union's military sphere of influence (see <a href="/wiki/FCMA_treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="FCMA treaty">FCMA treaty</a>) but remained neutral and was not communist, nor was it a member of the Warsaw Pact or Comecon but a member of the EFTA from 1986, and was west of the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Curtain" title="Iron Curtain">Iron Curtain</a>. In 1955, when Austria again became a fully independent republic, it did so under the condition that it remain neutral; but as a country to the west of the Iron Curtain, it was in the United States' sphere of influence. Spain did not join NATO until 1982, seven years after the death of the authoritarian <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Franco" title="Francisco Franco">Franco</a>. The 1980s advent of <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a> led to the end of the Cold War following the dissolution of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_definitions">Modern definitions</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti" /><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="multiimageinner" style="width:341px;max-width:341px;border:none"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="margin-right:20px;width:99px;max-width:99px"><div style="height:97px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Asia_(orthographic_projection).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/97px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="97" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/146px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/194px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="541" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="margin-right:20px;width:99px;max-width:99px"><div style="height:97px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Arab_World_(orthographic_projection).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Arab_World_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/97px-Arab_World_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="97" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Arab_World_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/146px-Arab_World_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Arab_World_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/194px-Arab_World_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:99px;max-width:99px"><div style="height:97px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Africa_(orthographic_projection).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/97px-Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="97" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/146px-Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/194px-Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div><a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a> (as the "<a href="/wiki/Eastern_world" title="Eastern world">Eastern world</a>"), the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a></div></div></div></div> The exact scope of the Western world is somewhat subjective in nature, depending on whether cultural, economic, spiritual or political criteria are employed. It is a generally accepted Western view to recognize the existence of at least three "major worlds" (or "cultures", or "civilizations"), broadly in contrast with the Western: the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_world" title="Eastern world">Eastern world</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">African</a> worlds, with no clearly specified boundaries. Additionally, <a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin American</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy_by_country" title="Eastern Orthodoxy by country">Orthodox</a> European worlds are sometimes either a sub-civilization within Western civilization or separately considered "akin" to the West. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti" /><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="multiimageinner" style="width:242px;max-width:242px;border:none"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="margin-right:20px;width:101px;max-width:101px"><div style="height:99px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Latin_America_(orthographic_projection).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Latin_America_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/120px-Latin_America_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="99" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Latin_America_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/250px-Latin_America_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:118px;max-width:118px"><div style="height:99px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:OrthodoxyInEurope.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/OrthodoxyInEurope.png/120px-OrthodoxyInEurope.png" decoding="async" width="116" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/OrthodoxyInEurope.png/250px-OrthodoxyInEurope.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1221" data-file-height="1051" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div><a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin America</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy_by_country" title="Eastern Orthodoxy by country">Orthodox</a> worlds[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">image reference needed</a>]</div></div></div></div> Many anthropologists, sociologists and historians oppose "the West and the Rest" in a categorical manner.<a href="#cite_note-LabyrinthofKinship-154">[144]</a> The same has been done by Malthusian demographers with a sharp distinction between European and non-European family systems. Among anthropologists, this includes <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Dumont" title="Louis Dumont">Dumont</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss">Lévi-Strauss</a>.<a href="#cite_note-LabyrinthofKinship-154">[144]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cultural_definition">Cultural definition</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Europe" title="Culture of Europe">Culture of Europe</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_United_States" title="Culture of the United States">Culture of the United States</a></div> The Oxford English dictionary noted that the earliest use of the term "Western world" in the English language was in 1586, found in the writings of <a href="/wiki/William_Warner_(poet)" title="William Warner (poet)">William Warner</a>.<a href="#cite_note-auto-16">[13]</a> In modern usage, Western world refers to <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> and to areas whose populations largely <a href="/wiki/European_emigration" title="European emigration">originate from Europe</a>, through the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery's</a> imperialism.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-155">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-ChristImp2011-156">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stuenkel-157">[147]</a> In the 20th century, Christianity <a href="/wiki/Postchristianity" title="Postchristianity">declined in influence</a> in many Western countries, mostly in the European Union where some member states have experienced falling church attendance and membership in recent years,<a href="#cite_note-About_SecE-158">[148]</a> and also elsewhere. <a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a> (separating religion from politics and science) increased. However, while church attendance is in decline, in some Western countries (i.e. Italy, Poland, and Portugal), more than half of the people state that <a href="/wiki/Importance_of_religion_by_country" title="Importance of religion by country">religion is important</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Eurostat_Religion-159">[149]</a> and most Westerners nominally identify themselves as Christians (e.g. 59% in the United Kingdom) and attend church on major occasions, such as Christmas and Easter. In the Americas, Christianity continues to play an important societal role, though in areas such as Canada, a low level of religiosity is common due to a European-type secularization. The <a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">official religions</a> of the United Kingdom and some Nordic countries are forms of Christianity, while the majority of European countries have no official religion. Despite this, Christianity, in its different forms, remains the largest faith in most Western countries.<a href="#cite_note-160">[150]</a> Christianity remains the dominant religion in the Western world, where 70% are Christians.<a href="#cite_note-Global_Christianity-161">[151]</a> A 2011 <a href="/wiki/Pew_Research_Center" title="Pew Research Center">Pew Research Center</a> survey found that 76.2% of <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europeans</a>, 73.3% in <a href="/wiki/Oceania" title="Oceania">Oceania</a>, and about 86.0% in the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a> (90% in <a href="/wiki/Latin_America_and_the_Caribbean" title="Latin America and the Caribbean">Latin America and the Caribbean</a> and 77.4% in <a href="/wiki/Northern_America" title="Northern America">Northern America</a>) described themselves as Christians.<a href="#cite_note-Global_Christianity-161">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-162">[152]</a> Since the mid-twentieth century, the west became known for its <a href="/wiki/Irreligious" class="mw-redirect" title="Irreligious">irreligious</a> sentiments, following the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a> and the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inquisition#Ending_of_the_Inquisition_in_the_19th_and_20th_centuries" title="Inquisition">inquisitions</a> were abolished in the 19th and 20th centuries, this hastened the <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">separation of church and state</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Secularization" title="Secularization">secularization</a> of the Western world where unchurched <a href="/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">spirituality</a> is gaining more prominence over <a href="/wiki/Organized_religion" title="Organized religion">organized religion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-163">[153]</a> Certain parts of the Western world have become notable for their <a href="/wiki/Cultural_diversity" title="Cultural diversity">diversity</a> since the late 1960s.<a href="#cite_note-Spielvogel_2006_918-26">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-Browne-27">[24]</a> Earlier, between the eighteenth century to mid-twentieth century, prominent western countries like the United States, Canada, Brazil, Argentina, Australia, and New Zealand have been once envisioned as <a href="/wiki/Ethnocracy" title="Ethnocracy">homelands</a> for <a href="/wiki/White_people" title="White people">whites</a>.<a href="#cite_note-jstor.org-21">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-library.brown.edu-22">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-naa.gov.au-23">[20]</a> <a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Racism</a> has been noted as a contributing factor to <a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_Western_European_colonialism_and_colonization" class="mw-redirect" title="Analysis of Western European colonialism and colonization">Westerners' colonization</a> of the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a>, which makes up much of the geographical West today.<a href="#cite_note-Cotter_2016_12-24">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jalata_2002_40-25">[22]</a> Countries in the Western world are also the most keen on digital and televisual media technologies, as they were in the postwar period on television and radio: from 2000 to 2014, the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Market_penetration" title="Market penetration">market penetration</a> in the West was twice that in non-Western regions.<a href="#cite_note-164">[154]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_definition">Economic definition</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:World_Bank_income_groups,_2023.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/World_Bank_income_groups%2C_2023.png/250px-World_Bank_income_groups%2C_2023.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/World_Bank_income_groups%2C_2023.png/330px-World_Bank_income_groups%2C_2023.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/World_Bank_income_groups%2C_2023.png/500px-World_Bank_income_groups%2C_2023.png 2x" data-file-width="3400" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption>Countries by income group</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Western_World.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/The_Western_World.png/250px-The_Western_World.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/The_Western_World.png/330px-The_Western_World.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/The_Western_World.png/500px-The_Western_World.png 2x" data-file-width="9586" data-file-height="4811" /></a><figcaption>Map of the Western world consisting of the <a href="/wiki/Anglosphere" title="Anglosphere">anglosphere</a> (as defined by <a href="/wiki/James_Bennett_(journalist)" class="mw-redirect" title="James Bennett (journalist)">James Bennett</a>), the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> and <a href="/wiki/European_Single_Market" class="mw-redirect" title="European Single Market">European Single Market</a> members, 2017</figcaption></figure> The term "Western world" is sometimes interchangeably used with the term <a href="/wiki/First_World" title="First World">First World</a> or <a href="/wiki/Developed_country" title="Developed country">developed countries</a>, stressing the difference between First World and the <a href="/wiki/Third_World" title="Third World">Third World</a> or <a href="/wiki/Developing_country" title="Developing country">developing countries</a>. This usage occurs despite the fact that many countries that may be culturally Western are <a href="/wiki/Developing_country" title="Developing country">developing countries</a> – in fact, a significant percentage of the Americas are developing countries. It is also used despite many <a href="/wiki/Developed_country" title="Developed country">developed countries or regions</a> not being culturally Western (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Macau" title="Macau">Macao</a>). <a href="/wiki/Privatization" title="Privatization">Privatization</a> policies (involving government enterprises and public services) and <a href="/wiki/Multinational_corporation" title="Multinational corporation">multinational corporations</a> are often considered a visible sign of Western nations' economic presence, especially in Third World countries, and represent a common institutional environment for powerful politicians, enterprises, trade unions and firms, bankers and thinkers of the Western world.<a href="#cite_note-165">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-166">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-167">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-168">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-169">[159]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_views">Other views</h2></div> A series of scholars of civilization, including <a href="/wiki/Arnold_J._Toynbee" title="Arnold J. Toynbee">Arnold J. Toynbee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Kroeber" title="Alfred Kroeber">Alfred Kroeber</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carroll_Quigley" title="Carroll Quigley">Carroll Quigley</a> have identified and analyzed "Western civilization" as one of the <a href="/wiki/Civilization" title="Civilization">civilizations</a> that have historically existed and still exist today. Toynbee entered into quite an expansive mode, including as candidates those countries or cultures who became so heavily influenced by the West as to adopt these borrowings into their very self-identity. Carried to its limit, this would in practice include almost everyone within the West, in one way or another. In particular, Toynbee refers to the intelligentsia formed among the educated elite of countries impacted by the European expansion of centuries past. While often pointedly nationalist, these cultural and political leaders interacted within the West to such an extent as to change both themselves and the West.<a href="#cite_note-Arnold_J._Toynbee_1966-69">[64]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Theologian" class="mw-redirect" title="Theologian">theologian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paleontologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleontologist">paleontologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Teilhard_de_Chardin" title="Pierre Teilhard de Chardin">Pierre Teilhard de Chardin</a> conceived of the West as the set of civilizations descended from the <a href="/wiki/Nile_Valley_Civilizations" title="Nile Valley Civilizations">Nile Valley Civilization</a> of <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-170">[160]</a> Palestinian-American literary critic <a href="/wiki/Edward_Said" title="Edward Said">Edward Said</a> uses the term "Occident" in his discussion of <a href="/wiki/Orientalism" title="Orientalism">Orientalism</a>. According to his <a href="/wiki/Binary_opposition" title="Binary opposition">binary</a>, the West, or Occident, created a romanticized vision of the East, or Orient, to justify colonial and imperialist intentions. This Occident-Orient binary focuses on the Western vision of the East instead of any truths about the East. His theories are rooted in <a href="/wiki/Hegel" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegel">Hegel</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Master-slave_dialectic" class="mw-redirect" title="Master-slave dialectic">master-slave dialectic</a>: The Occident would not exist without the Orient and vice versa.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Further, Western writers created this irrational, feminine, weak "Other" to contrast with the rational, masculine, strong West because of a need to create a difference between the two that would justify imperialist ambitions, according to the Said-influenced Indian-American theorist <a href="/wiki/Homi_K._Bhabha" title="Homi K. Bhabha">Homi K. Bhabha</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The idea of "the West" over the course of time has evolved from a directional concept to a sociopolitical concept, and has been temporalized and rendered as a concept of the future bestowed with notions of progress and modernity.<a href="#cite_note-concept-18">[15]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg/40px-Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="24" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg/60px-Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg/120px-Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Civilizations" title="Portal:Civilizations">Civilizations portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/28px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/42px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/56px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="3002" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:World" title="Portal:World">World portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Western_sentiment" title="Anti-Western sentiment">Anti-Western sentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanticism" title="Atlanticism">Atlanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_dichotomy" title="East–West dichotomy">East–West dichotomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Far_West_(Taixi)" title="Far West (Taixi)">Far West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Northwest" title="Global Northwest">Global Northwest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_North_and_Global_South" title="Global North and Global South">Global North and Global South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monroe_Doctrine" title="Monroe Doctrine">Monroe Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Hemisphere" title="Western Hemisphere">Western Hemisphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Culture">Western Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Europe" title="Greater Europe">Greater Europe</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-alpha" style="column-width: 35em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> Including <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central European</a> countries, <a href="/wiki/Baltics" class="mw-redirect" title="Baltics">Baltics</a> and territories of Western European nations geographically located near the coast of <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Madeira" title="Madeira">Madeira</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Canary_Islands" title="Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> Comprising <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>, excluding the <a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_and_dependent_territories_in_Oceania" title="List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Oceania">Pacific island nations</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin America</a>'s status as a part of the West is undisputed by most researchers and disputed by others.<a href="#cite_note-4">[2]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> See <a href="#cite_note-Duchesne2011-28">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-BotticiChalland2013-29">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-Broad2007-30">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-EllynMcGinnis2004-31">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-FindlingPelle2004-32">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-ThompsonMullin-33">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-Copleston2003-34">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-Iozzo2001-35">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-Melotti2011-36">[33]</a> See <a href="#cite_note-37">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-Burstein2002-38">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jr.2015-39">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-Aa.Vv.2011-40">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-Covert2011-41">[38]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> See <a href="#cite_note-43">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[42]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> By Rome's central location at the heart of the Empire, "West" and "East" were terms used to denote provinces west and east of the capital itself. Therefore, <a href="/wiki/Iberian_peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Iberian peninsula">Iberia</a> (Portugal and Spain), <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a> (France), the Mediterranean coast of <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> (Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco) and <a href="/wiki/Britannia" title="Britannia">Britannia</a> were all part of the "West". Greece, Cyprus, Anatolia, Lebanon, Syria, Israel, Palestine, Egypt, and Libya were part of the "East". Italy itself was considered central, until the reforms of <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a> dividing the Empire into true two halves: Eastern and Western.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> Portuguese sailors began exploring the coast of Africa and the Atlantic archipelagos in 1418–19, using recent developments in navigation, cartography and maritime technology such as the <a href="/wiki/Caravel" title="Caravel">caravel</a>, in order that they might find a sea route to the source of the lucrative <a href="/wiki/Spice_trade" title="Spice trade">spice trade</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In 1488, <a href="/wiki/Bartolomeu_Dias" title="Bartolomeu Dias">Bartolomeu Dias</a> rounded the southern tip of Africa under the sponsorship of Portugal's <a href="/wiki/John_II_of_Portugal" title="John II of Portugal">John II</a>, from which point he noticed that the coast swung northeast (<a href="/wiki/Cape_of_Good_Hope" title="Cape of Good Hope">Cape of Good Hope</a>).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In 1492 <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a> would land on an island in the <a href="/wiki/The_Bahamas" title="The Bahamas">Bahamas archipelago</a> on behalf of the Spanish, and documenting the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a>'s routes would be granted a <a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms" title="Coat of arms">coat of arms</a> by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Alexander_VI" title="Pope Alexander VI">Pope Alexander VI</a> <a href="/wiki/Motu_proprio" title="Motu proprio">motu proprio</a> in 1502.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] With the discovery of the American continent or '<a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a>' in 1492–1493, the European colonial <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a> and exploration was born, revisiting an <a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">imperialistic</a> view accompanied by the invention of <a href="/wiki/History_of_gunpowder#Europe" title="History of gunpowder">firearms</a>, while marking the start of the <a href="/wiki/Modern_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Era">Modern Era</a>. During this long period the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> launched a major effort to spread Christianity in the New World and to convert the <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Native Americans</a> and others. A 'Modern West' emerged from the <a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a> (after the Renaissance and fall of Constantinople) as a new civilization greatly influenced by the interpretation of Greek thought preserved in the Byzantine Empire, and <a href="/wiki/Transmission_of_the_Greek_Classics" title="Transmission of the Greek Classics">transmitted</a> from there by Latin <a href="/wiki/Latin_translations_of_the_12th_century" title="Latin translations of the 12th century">translations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greek_scholars_in_the_Renaissance" title="Greek scholars in the Renaissance">emigration of Greek scholars</a> through <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a>. (Popular <a href="/wiki/Typefaces" class="mw-redirect" title="Typefaces">typefaces</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Italics" class="mw-redirect" title="Italics">italics</a> were inspired and designed from transcriptions during this period.) <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_architecture" title="Renaissance architecture">Renaissance architectural</a> works, <a href="/wiki/Revivalism_(architecture)" title="Revivalism (architecture)">revivals</a> of <a href="/wiki/Classical_architecture" title="Classical architecture">Classical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gothic_architecture" title="Gothic architecture">Gothic</a> styles, flourished during this modern period throughout <a href="/wiki/History_of_architecture#European_and_colonial_architecture" title="History of architecture">Western colonial empires</a>. In 1497 Portuguese navigator <a href="/wiki/Vasco_da_Gama" title="Vasco da Gama">Vasco da Gama</a> made the first open voyage from Europe to India.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In 1520, <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellan" title="Ferdinand Magellan">Ferdinand Magellan</a>, a Portuguese navigator in the service of the <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Crown of Castile</a> ('<a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>'), found a sea route into the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> In the 16th century, the Portuguese broke the (overland) medieval monopoly of the Arabs and Italians of trade (goods and slaves) between Asia and <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_the_sea_route_to_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Discovery of the sea route to India">discovery of the sea route to India</a> around the Cape of Good Hope.<a href="#cite_note-121">[114]</a> With the ensuing rise of the rival Dutch East India Company, Portuguese influence in Asia was gradually eclipsed; Dutch forces first established fortified independent bases in the East and then between 1640 and 1660 wrestled some southern Indian ports, and the lucrative <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> trade from the Portuguese. Later, the <a href="/wiki/English_people" title="English people">English</a> and the <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">French</a> established some settlements in <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> and trade with <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, and their own acquisitions would gradually surpass those of the Dutch. In 1763, the British eliminated French influence in India and established the <a href="/wiki/British_East_India_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="British East India Company">British East India Company</a> as the most important political force on the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Subcontinent">Indian Subcontinent</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa" title="Scramble for Africa">Scramble for Africa</a> was the occupation, division, and colonization of African territory by European powers during the period of <a href="/wiki/New_Imperialism" title="New Imperialism">New Imperialism</a>, between 1881 and 1914. It is also called the 'Partition of Africa' and by some the 'Conquest of Africa'. In 1870, only 10 percent of Africa was under formal Western/European control; by 1914 it had increased to almost 90 percent of the continent, with only <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopia</a> (Abyssinia), the <a href="/wiki/Dervish_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Dervish state">Dervish state</a> (a portion of present-day <a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a>)<a href="#cite_note-140">[132]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a> still being independent. </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> In <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greece</a> (8th century BC – AD 6th century), hegemony denoted the politico-military dominance of a <a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">city-state</a> over other city-states.<a href="#cite_note-TheColumbia-142">[133]</a> The dominant state is known as the hegemon.<a href="#cite_note-143">[134]</a> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Citations">Citations</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-WorldOfCivil2-1"><a href="#cite_ref-WorldOfCivil2_1-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://s02.middlebury.edu/FS056A/Herb_war/clash3.htm">THE WORLD OF CIVILIZATIONS: POST-1990</a> scanned image <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070312101415/http://s02.middlebury.edu/FS056A/Herb_war/clash3.htm">Archived</a> 12 March 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFEspinosa2017" class="citation web cs1">Espinosa, Emilio Lamo de (4 December 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.realinstitutoelcano.org/wps/wcm/connect/82c0209e-08a3-455e-827b-4ef4a2586044/WP-14-2017-LamoDeEspinosa-Is-Latin-America-part-of-the-West.pdf?MOD=AJPERES&CACHEID=82c0209e-08a3-455e-827b-4ef4a2586044">"Is Latin America part of the West?"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Elcano_Royal_Institute" title="Elcano Royal Institute">Elcano Royal Institute</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190422174138/http://www.realinstitutoelcano.org/wps/wcm/connect/82c0209e-08a3-455e-827b-4ef4a2586044/WP-14-2017-LamoDeEspinosa-Is-Latin-America-part-of-the-West.pdf?MOD=AJPERES&CACHEID=82c0209e-08a3-455e-827b-4ef4a2586044">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 22 April 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Is+Latin+America+part+of+the+West%3F&rft.pub=Elcano+Royal+Institute&rft.date=2017-12-04&rft.aulast=Espinosa&rft.aufirst=Emilio+Lamo+de&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.realinstitutoelcano.org%2Fwps%2Fwcm%2Fconnect%2F82c0209e-08a3-455e-827b-4ef4a2586044%2FWP-14-2017-LamoDeEspinosa-Is-Latin-America-part-of-the-West.pdf%3FMOD%3DAJPERES%26CACHEID%3D82c0209e-08a3-455e-827b-4ef4a2586044&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStearns2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Stearns" title="Peter Stearns">Stearns, Peter N.</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mYS23mrnqksC">Western Civilization in World History</a>. Routledge. pp. 88–95. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781134374755" title="Special:BookSources/9781134374755"><bdi>9781134374755</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Western+Civilization+in+World+History&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E88-%3C%2Fspan%3E95&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9781134374755&rft.aulast=Stearns&rft.aufirst=Peter+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmYS23mrnqksC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEspinosa" class="citation web cs1">Espinosa, Emilio Lamo de. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.realinstitutoelcano.org/en/work-document/is-latin-america-part-of-the-west/">"Is Latin America part of the West?"</a>. Elcano Royal Institute. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231227182131/https://www.realinstitutoelcano.org/en/work-document/is-latin-america-part-of-the-west/">Archived</a> from the original on 27 December 2023. Retrieved 27 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Elcano+Royal+Institute&rft.atitle=Is+Latin+America+part+of+the+West%3F&rft.aulast=Espinosa&rft.aufirst=Emilio+Lamo+de&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.realinstitutoelcano.org%2Fen%2Fwork-document%2Fis-latin-america-part-of-the-west%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Making-8"><a href="#cite_ref-Making_8-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHuntMartinRosenweinSmith2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lynn_Hunt" title="Lynn Hunt">Hunt, Lynn</a>; <a href="/wiki/Thomas_R._Martin" title="Thomas R. Martin">Martin, Thomas R.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Barbara_H._Rosenwein" title="Barbara H. Rosenwein">Rosenwein, Barbara H.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Bonnie_G._Smith" title="Bonnie G. Smith">Smith, Bonnie G.</a> (2015). The Making of the West: People and Cultures. Bedford/St. Martin's. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1457681523" title="Special:BookSources/978-1457681523"><bdi>978-1457681523</bdi></a>. <q>The making of the West depended on cultural, political, and economic interaction among diverse groups. The West remains an evolving concept, not a fixed region with unchanging borders and members.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+the+West%3A+People+and+Cultures&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=Bedford%2FSt.+Martin%27s&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1457681523&rft.aulast=Hunt&rft.aufirst=Lynn&rft.au=Martin%2C+Thomas+R.&rft.au=Rosenwein%2C+Barbara+H.&rft.au=Smith%2C+Bonnie+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline;"><ul style="display:inline;"><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;display:inline; margin:0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCartledge2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Cartledge" title="Paul Cartledge">Cartledge, Paul</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=r-I4gcBlTqcC">The Greeks A Portrait of Self and Others</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0191577833" title="Special:BookSources/978-0191577833"><bdi>978-0191577833</bdi></a>. <q>an ancient culture, that of the Greeks — is both a foundation stone of our own (Western) civilization and at the same time in key respects a deeply alien phenomenon.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Greeks+A+Portrait+of+Self+and+Others&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0191577833&rft.aulast=Cartledge&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dr-I4gcBlTqcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;margin-top:.5em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSharon2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Moshe_Sharon" title="Moshe Sharon">Sharon, Moshe</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XMX4xSQtkEAC">Studies in Modern Religions, Religious Movements and the Babi-Baha'i Faiths</a>. BRILL Academic Publishers. p. 12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004139046" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004139046"><bdi>978-9004139046</bdi></a>. <q>Side by side with Christianity, the classical Greco-Roman world forms the sound foundation of Western civilization.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+Modern+Religions%2C+Religious+Movements+and+the+Babi-Baha%27i+Faiths&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=BRILL+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-9004139046&rft.aulast=Sharon&rft.aufirst=Moshe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXMX4xSQtkEAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRichard2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Carl_J._Richard" title="Carl J. Richard">Richard, Carl J.</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dlMr4UhqQlQC">Why We're All Romans: The Roman Contribution to the Western World</a>. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0742567801" title="Special:BookSources/978-0742567801"><bdi>978-0742567801</bdi></a>. <q>In 1,200 years the tiny village of Rome established a <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">republic</a>, conquered all of the Mediterranean basin and western Europe, lost its republic, and finally, surrendered its <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">empire</a>. In the process the Romans laid the foundation of Western civilization. [...] The pragmatic Romans brought Greek and Hebrew ideas down to earth, modified them, and transmitted them throughout western Europe. [...] <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a> remains the basis for the <a href="/wiki/Code_of_law" title="Code of law">legal codes</a> of most western European and Latin American countries — Even in English-speaking countries, where <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> prevails, Roman law has exerted substantial influence.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Why+We%27re+All+Romans%3A+The+Roman+Contribution+to+the+Western+World&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield+Publishers&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0742567801&rft.aulast=Richard&rft.aufirst=Carl+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdlMr4UhqQlQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGrant1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Grant_(classicist)" title="Michael Grant (classicist)">Grant, Michael</a> (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/foundersofwester0000gran/page/n8/mode/2up">The Founders of the Western World: A History of Greece and Rome</a>. New York : Scribner : Maxwell Macmillan International. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0684193038" title="Special:BookSources/978-0684193038"><bdi>978-0684193038</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Founders+of+the+Western+World%3A+A+History+of+Greece+and+Rome&rft.pub=New+York+%3A+Scribner+%3A+Maxwell+Macmillan+International&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0684193038&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffoundersofwester0000gran%2Fpage%2Fn8%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBirken1992" class="citation journal cs1">Birken, Lawrence (August 1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/494353">"What Is Western Civilization?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_History_Teacher" title="The History Teacher">The History Teacher</a>. 25 (4): 451–459. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F494353">10.2307/494353</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/494353">494353</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230711012206/https://www.jstor.org/stable/494353">Archived</a> from the original on 11 July 2023. Retrieved 14 August 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+History+Teacher&rft.atitle=What+Is+Western+Civilization%3F&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E451-%3C%2Fspan%3E459&rft.date=1992-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F494353&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F494353%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Birken&rft.aufirst=Lawrence&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F494353&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAppiah2016" class="citation news cs1">Appiah, Kwame Anthony (9 November 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230408143551/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/nov/09/western-civilisation-appiah-reith-lecture">"There is no such thing as western civilisation"</a>. The Guardian. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/nov/09/western-civilisation-appiah-reith-lecture">the original</a> on 8 April 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=There+is+no+such+thing+as+western+civilisation&rft.date=2016-11-09&rft.aulast=Appiah&rft.aufirst=Kwame+Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2016%2Fnov%2F09%2Fwestern-civilisation-appiah-reith-lecture&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/event/East-West-Schism-1054">"East-West Schism"</a>. britannica.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230929223220/https://www.britannica.com/event/East-West-Schism-1054">Archived</a> from the original on 29 September 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=britannica.com&rft.atitle=East-West+Schism&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fevent%2FEast-West-Schism-1054&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWare1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kallistos_Ware" title="Kallistos Ware">Ware, Kallistos</a> (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f7D-5Q-Q19MC">The Orthodox Church</a>. Penguin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780140146561" title="Special:BookSources/9780140146561"><bdi>9780140146561</bdi></a>. <q>But even after 1054 friendly relations between east and west continued. The two parts of Christendom were not yet conscious of a great gulf of separation between them, and people on both sides still hoped that the misunderstandings could be cleared up without too much difficulty. The dispute remained something of which ordinary Christians in east and west were largely unaware. It was the Crusades which made the schism definitive: they introduced a new spirit of hatred and bitterness, and they brought the whole issue down to the popular level.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Orthodox+Church&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=9780140146561&rft.aulast=Ware&rft.aufirst=Kallistos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Df7D-5Q-Q19MC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDurantDurant2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Will_Durant" title="Will Durant">Durant, Will</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ariel_Durant" title="Ariel Durant">Durant, Ariel</a> (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LWNQ2_4wkocC">The Lessons of History</a>. Simon and Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781439170199" title="Special:BookSources/9781439170199"><bdi>9781439170199</bdi></a>. <q>The Crusades, like the wars of Rome with Persia, were attempts of the West to capture trade routes to the East; the discovery of America was a result of the failure of the Crusades.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Lessons+of+History&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781439170199&rft.aulast=Durant&rft.aufirst=Will&rft.au=Durant%2C+Ariel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLWNQ2_4wkocC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPeterson2019" class="citation book cs1">Peterson, Paul Silas (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.routledge.com/The-Decline-of-Established-Christianity-in-the-Western-World-Interpretations/Peterson/p/book/9780367891381">The Decline of Established Christianity in the Western World</a>. Routledge. p. 26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780367891381" title="Special:BookSources/9780367891381"><bdi>9780367891381</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230129162247/https://www.routledge.com/The-Decline-of-Established-Christianity-in-the-Western-World-Interpretations/Peterson/p/book/9780367891381">Archived</a> from the original on 29 January 2023. Retrieved 29 January 2023. <q>While "Western Civilization" is a common theme in the curriculum of secondary and tertiary education, there is a great deal of disagreement about what the terms "West" or "Western" world signify. I have defined it as those "religious traditions, institutions, cultures and nations, including their contemporary shared values, that together emerged as the intellectual descendants and transformers of Latin Christendom." Geographically, this entails Western Europe (including Poland and other central European countries), North America and many other parts of the world that share these traditions and histories, or have adopted them. Much of Central and South America seem to reflect these traditions and values.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Decline+of+Established+Christianity+in+the+Western+World&rft.pages=26&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9780367891381&rft.aulast=Peterson&rft.aufirst=Paul+Silas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.routledge.com%2FThe-Decline-of-Established-Christianity-in-the-Western-World-Interpretations%2FPeterson%2Fp%2Fbook%2F9780367891381&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_16-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240820152615/https://www.oed.com/dictionary/western-world_n?tl=true">"Western world"</a>. www.oed.com. 2017. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/dictionary/western-world_n">the original</a> on 20 August 2024. Retrieved 20 August 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.oed.com&rft.atitle=Western+world&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oed.com%2Fdictionary%2Fwestern-world_n&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> Peter N. Stearns, Western Civilization in World History, Themes in World History, Routledge, 2008, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1134374755" title="Special:BookSources/1134374755">1134374755</a>, pp. 91-95. </li> <li id="cite_note-concept-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-concept_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-concept_18-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-concept_18-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-concept_18-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBavaj2011" class="citation web cs1">Bavaj, Riccardo (21 November 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220802182605/https://www.academia.edu/1105576/_The_West_A_Conceptual_Exploration">""The West": A Conceptual Exploration"</a>. academia.edu. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/1105576">the original</a> on 2 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=academia.edu&rft.atitle=%22The+West%22%3A+A+Conceptual+Exploration&rft.date=2011-11-21&rft.aulast=Bavaj&rft.aufirst=Riccardo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F1105576&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRoberts1964" class="citation journal cs1">Roberts, Henry L. (March 1964). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2492370">"Russia and the West: A Comparison and Contrast"</a>. Slavic Review. 23 (1): 1–12. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2492370">10.2307/2492370</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2492370">2492370</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153551831">153551831</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220627013314/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2492370">Archived</a> from the original on 27 June 2022. Retrieved 27 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Slavic+Review&rft.atitle=Russia+and+the+West%3A+A+Comparison+and+Contrast&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E12&rft.date=1964-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A153551831%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2492370%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2492370&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Henry+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2492370&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> Alexander Lukin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.brookings.edu/research/russia-between-east-and-west-perceptions-and-reality/">Russia Between East and West: Perceptions and Reality</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171113221714/https://www.brookings.edu/research/russia-between-east-and-west-perceptions-and-reality/">Archived</a> 13 November 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <a href="/wiki/Brookings_Institution" title="Brookings Institution">Brookings Institution</a>. Published on 28 March 2003 </li> <li id="cite_note-jstor.org-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-jstor.org_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-jstor.org_21-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline;"><ul style="display:inline;"><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;display:inline; margin:0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPierce2016" class="citation book cs1">Pierce, Jason E. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt19jcg63">Making the White Man's West: Whiteness and the Creation of the American West</a>. University Press of Colorado. pp. 123–150. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60732-396-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60732-396-9"><bdi>978-1-60732-396-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt19jcg63">j.ctt19jcg63</a>. <q>Anglo-Americans, from Thomas Jefferson at the beginning of the nineteenth century to Joseph Pomeroy Widney at the century's end, envisioned the West as more than an ordinary place. They dreamed of it as home to a rugged, independent, white population.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Making+the+White+Man%27s+West%3A+Whiteness+and+the+Creation+of+the+American+West&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E123-%3C%2Fspan%3E150&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Colorado&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctt19jcg63%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-1-60732-396-9&rft.aulast=Pierce&rft.aufirst=Jason+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctt19jcg63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;margin-top:.5em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKaufmann2018" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eric_Kaufmann" title="Eric Kaufmann">Kaufmann, Eric</a> (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=04t1swEACAAJ">Whiteshift: Populism, Immigration and the Future of White Majorities</a>. Penguin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780241317105" title="Special:BookSources/9780241317105"><bdi>9780241317105</bdi></a>. <q>Between 1896 and 1928, the Republicans won seven of nine presidential contests. Immigration restriction was an important part of their platform. [...] Ethno-traditional nationalists favour slower immigration in order to permit enough immigrants to voluntarily assimilate into the ethnic majority, maintaining the white ethno-tradition. [...] rapid immigration of ethnic outsiders raises existential questions for the ethnic majority. In this case, around whether the white majority is losing predominance in 'its' perceived homeland.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Whiteshift%3A+Populism%2C+Immigration+and+the+Future+of+White+Majorities&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9780241317105&rft.aulast=Kaufmann&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D04t1swEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKelkar2017" class="citation web cs1">Kelkar, Kamala (16 September 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/nation/white-u-s-immigration-policy">"How a shifting definition of 'white' helped shape U.S. immigration policy"</a>. PBS News. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221213232718/https://www.pbs.org/newshour/nation/white-u-s-immigration-policy">Archived</a> from the original on 13 December 2022. <q>By 1790, a <a href="/wiki/Naturalization_Act_of_1790" title="Naturalization Act of 1790">Naturalization Act</a> declared that "all male white inhabitants" would become citizens, a time when the country started enforcing its hierarchy of whiteness. [...] while the concept of whiteness has changed since the 18th century, they say that <a href="/wiki/White_nationalism" title="White nationalism">white nationalism</a> has historically been a motivation behind U.S. immigration policy</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=PBS+News&rft.atitle=How+a+shifting+definition+of+%27white%27+helped+shape+U.S.+immigration+policy&rft.date=2017-09-16&rft.aulast=Kelkar&rft.aufirst=Kamala&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fnewshour%2Fnation%2Fwhite-u-s-immigration-policy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://americanhistory.si.edu/democracy-exhibition/creating-citizens/defining-citizenship">"Defining Citizenship"</a>. National Museum of American History. 9 May 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221119030547/https://americanhistory.si.edu/democracy-exhibition/creating-citizens/defining-citizenship">Archived</a> from the original on 19 November 2022. Retrieved 19 December 2022. <q><a href="/wiki/Immigration_and_Nationality_Act_of_1952#Provisions" title="Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952">1952: Immigration and Nationality Act</a> eliminates race as a bar to immigration or citizenship.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Museum+of+American+History&rft.atitle=Defining+Citizenship&rft.date=2017-05-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Famericanhistory.si.edu%2Fdemocracy-exhibition%2Fcreating-citizens%2Fdefining-citizenship&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWard2002" class="citation book cs1">Ward, Peter (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mqup.ca/white-canada-forever--third-edition-products-9780773523227.php">White Canada Forever</a>. McGill-Queen's University Press - MQUP. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780773523227" title="Special:BookSources/9780773523227"><bdi>9780773523227</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230101095204/https://www.mqup.ca/white-canada-forever--third-edition-products-9780773523227.php">Archived</a> from the original on 1 January 2023. Retrieved 1 January 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=White+Canada+Forever&rft.pub=McGill-Queen%27s+University+Press+-+MQUP&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780773523227&rft.aulast=Ward&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mqup.ca%2Fwhite-canada-forever--third-edition-products-9780773523227.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-library.brown.edu-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-library.brown.edu_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-library.brown.edu_22-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline;"><ul style="display:inline;"><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;display:inline; margin:0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGreenSkidmore2021" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_N._Green" title="James N. Green">Green, James N.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Skidmore" title="Thomas Skidmore">Skidmore, Thomas</a> (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://library.brown.edu/create/fivecenturiesofchange/chapters/chapter-4/immigration/">Brazil: Five Centuries of Change</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0190068981" title="Special:BookSources/978-0190068981"><bdi>978-0190068981</bdi></a>. <q>The <a href="/wiki/Racial_whitening" class="mw-redirect" title="Racial whitening">whitening thesis</a> called for an influx of white, preferably northern-European, blood in order for Brazilian society to achieve its goals to become an advanced nation. To the chagrin of the thesis' supporters, "nonwhite" immigrants started arriving on Brazilian shores, too.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Brazil%3A+Five+Centuries+of+Change&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0190068981&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=James+N.&rft.au=Skidmore%2C+Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flibrary.brown.edu%2Fcreate%2Ffivecenturiesofchange%2Fchapters%2Fchapter-4%2Fimmigration%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;margin-top:.5em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGoñi2021" class="citation news cs1">Goñi, Uki (31 May 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/may/31/argentina-white-european-racism-history">"Time to challenge Argentina's white European self-image, black history experts say"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221221042613/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/may/31/argentina-white-european-racism-history">Archived</a> from the original on 21 December 2022. <q>"The <a href="/wiki/Blanqueamiento" title="Blanqueamiento">whitening</a> project was a successful endeavor in terms of the erasure of blackness," said Edwards. [...] Argentina's pro-European immigration policy was initiated under its 1853 constitution</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Time+to+challenge+Argentina%27s+white+European+self-image%2C+black+history+experts+say&rft.date=2021-05-31&rft.aulast=Go%C3%B1i&rft.aufirst=Uki&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2021%2Fmay%2F31%2Fargentina-white-european-racism-history&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-naa.gov.au-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-naa.gov.au_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-naa.gov.au_23-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline;"><ul style="display:inline;"><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;display:inline; margin:0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.naa.gov.au/learn/learning-resources/learning-resource-themes/society-and-culture/migration-and-multiculturalism/immigration-restriction-act-and-white-australia-policy">"The Immigration Restriction Act and the White Australia policy"</a>. National Archives of Australia. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221219092420/https://www.naa.gov.au/learn/learning-resources/learning-resource-themes/society-and-culture/migration-and-multiculturalism/immigration-restriction-act-and-white-australia-policy">Archived</a> from the original on 19 December 2022. Retrieved 19 December 2022. <q>The Immigration Restriction Act 1901 was a landmark law which provided the cornerstone of the unofficial <a href="/wiki/White_Australia_policy" title="White Australia policy">'White Australia' policy</a> and aimed to maintain Australia as a nation populated mainly by white Europeans. It included a dictation test of 50 words in a European language, which became the chief way unwanted migrants could be excluded. The policy remained in place for many decades.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Archives+of+Australia&rft.atitle=The+Immigration+Restriction+Act+and+the+White+Australia+policy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.naa.gov.au%2Flearn%2Flearning-resources%2Flearning-resource-themes%2Fsociety-and-culture%2Fmigration-and-multiculturalism%2Fimmigration-restriction-act-and-white-australia-policy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;margin-top:.5em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nzhistory.govt.nz/page/white-new-zealand-policy-introduced">"White New Zealand policy introduced | NZHistory, New Zealand history online"</a>. nzhistory.govt.nz. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210301182306/https://nzhistory.govt.nz/page/white-new-zealand-policy-introduced">Archived</a> from the original on 1 March 2021. Retrieved 8 March 2021. <q>New Zealand's immigration policy in the early 20th century was strongly influenced by racial ideology. The Immigration Restriction Amendment Act 1920 required intending immigrants to apply for a permanent residence permit before they arrived in New Zealand. Permission was given at the discretion of the minister of customs. The Act enabled officials to prevent Indians and other non-white British subjects entering New Zealand.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=nzhistory.govt.nz&rft.atitle=White+New+Zealand+policy+introduced+%7C+NZHistory%2C+New+Zealand+history+online&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnzhistory.govt.nz%2Fpage%2Fwhite-new-zealand-policy-introduced&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cotter_2016_12-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cotter_2016_12_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cotter_2016_12_24-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCotter2016" class="citation book cs1">Cotter, Anne-Marie Mooney (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zBUpDAAAQBAJ">Culture Clash: An International Legal Perspective on Ethnic Discrimination</a>. Routledge. p. 12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781317155867" title="Special:BookSources/9781317155867"><bdi>9781317155867</bdi></a>. <q>In the western world, racism evolved, twinned with the doctrine of white supremacy, and helped fuel the European exploration, conquest and colonization of much of the rest of the world.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Culture+Clash%3A+An+International+Legal+Perspective+on+Ethnic+Discrimination&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781317155867&rft.aulast=Cotter&rft.aufirst=Anne-Marie+Mooney&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzBUpDAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jalata_2002_40-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jalata_2002_40_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jalata_2002_40_25-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJalata2002" class="citation book cs1">Jalata, Asafa (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UMiHDAAAQBAJ">Fighting Against the Injustice of the State and Globalization</a>. Springer. p. 40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780312299071" title="Special:BookSources/9780312299071"><bdi>9780312299071</bdi></a>. <q>Western world racism inflated the values of "Europeanness" and "Whiteness" in areas of civilization, human worth, and culture, and deflated the values of "African-ness" and "Blackness".</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fighting+Against+the+Injustice+of+the+State+and+Globalization&rft.pages=40&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780312299071&rft.aulast=Jalata&rft.aufirst=Asafa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUMiHDAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Spielvogel_2006_918-26">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Spielvogel_2006_918_26-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Spielvogel_2006_918_26-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSpielvogel2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jackson_J._Spielvogel" title="Jackson J. Spielvogel">Spielvogel, Jackson J.</a> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ni4PSpOxb6MC">Western Civilization</a>. Wadsworth. p. 918. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780534646028" title="Special:BookSources/9780534646028"><bdi>9780534646028</bdi></a>. <q>Intellectually and culturally, the Western world after 1965 was notable for its diversity and innovation.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Western+Civilization&rft.pages=918&rft.pub=Wadsworth&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780534646028&rft.aulast=Spielvogel&rft.aufirst=Jackson+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dni4PSpOxb6MC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Browne-27">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Browne_27-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Browne_27-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrowne2000" class="citation news cs1">Browne, Anthony (3 September 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2000/sep/03/race.world">"The last days of a white world"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221118213525/https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2000/sep/03/race.world">Archived</a> from the original on 18 November 2022. <q>We are near a global watershed - a time when white people will not be in the majority in the developed world — Just 500 years ago, few had ventured outside their European homeland. [...] clearing the way, they settled in North America, South America, Australia, New Zealand and, to a lesser extent, southern Africa. But now, around the world, whites are falling as a proportion of population.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=The+last+days+of+a+white+world&rft.date=2000-09-03&rft.aulast=Browne&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fuk%2F2000%2Fsep%2F03%2Frace.world&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Duchesne2011-28"><a href="#cite_ref-Duchesne2011_28-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRicardo_Duchesne2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ricardo_Duchesne" title="Ricardo Duchesne">Ricardo Duchesne</a> (7 February 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pWmDPzPo0XAC&pg=PA297">The Uniqueness of Western Civilization</a>. BRILL. p. 297. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-19248-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-19248-5"><bdi>978-90-04-19248-5</bdi></a>. <q>The list of books which have celebrated Greece as the "cradle" of the West is endless; two more examples are Charles Freeman's The Greek Achievement: The Foundation of the Western World (1999) and Bruce Thornton's Greek Ways: How the Greeks Created Western Civilization (2000)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Uniqueness+of+Western+Civilization&rft.pages=297&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2011-02-07&rft.isbn=978-90-04-19248-5&rft.au=Ricardo+Duchesne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpWmDPzPo0XAC%26pg%3DPA297&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-BotticiChalland2013-29"><a href="#cite_ref-BotticiChalland2013_29-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFChiara_BotticiBenoît_Challand2013" class="citation book cs1">Chiara Bottici; Benoît Challand (11 January 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QW1lrPMXprwC&pg=PA88">The Myth of the Clash of Civilizations</a>. Routledge. p. 88. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-95119-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-95119-0"><bdi>978-1-136-95119-0</bdi></a>. <q>The reason why even such a sophisticated historian as Pagden can do it is that the idea that Greece is the cradle of civilisation is so much rooted in western minds and school curricula as to be taken for granted.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Myth+of+the+Clash+of+Civilizations&rft.pages=88&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013-01-11&rft.isbn=978-1-136-95119-0&rft.au=Chiara+Bottici&rft.au=Beno%C3%AEt+Challand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQW1lrPMXprwC%26pg%3DPA88&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Broad2007-30"><a href="#cite_ref-Broad2007_30-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_J._Broad2007" class="citation book cs1">William J. Broad (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8Oi_sVWIXLAC&pg=PA120">The Oracle: Ancient Delphi and the Science Behind Its Lost Secrets</a>. Penguin Publishing Group. p. 120. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-303859-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-303859-7"><bdi>978-0-14-303859-7</bdi></a>. <q>In 1979, a friend of de Boer's invited him to join a team of scientists that was going to Greece to assess the suitability of the ... But the idea of learning more about Greece — the cradle of Western civilization, a fresh example of tectonic forces at ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oracle%3A+Ancient+Delphi+and+the+Science+Behind+Its+Lost+Secrets&rft.pages=120&rft.pub=Penguin+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-14-303859-7&rft.au=William+J.+Broad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8Oi_sVWIXLAC%26pg%3DPA120&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-EllynMcGinnis2004-31"><a href="#cite_ref-EllynMcGinnis2004_31-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMaura_EllynMaura_McGinnis2004" class="citation book cs1">Maura Ellyn; Maura McGinnis (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N69iOTtVHGYC&pg=PT8">Greece: A Primary Source Cultural Guide</a>. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8239-3999-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8239-3999-2"><bdi>978-0-8239-3999-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Greece%3A+A+Primary+Source+Cultural+Guide&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=The+Rosen+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-8239-3999-2&rft.au=Maura+Ellyn&rft.au=Maura+McGinnis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DN69iOTtVHGYC%26pg%3DPT8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FindlingPelle2004-32"><a href="#cite_ref-FindlingPelle2004_32-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJohn_E._FindlingKimberly_D._Pelle2004" class="citation book cs1">John E. Findling; Kimberly D. Pelle (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QmXi_-Jujj0C&pg=PR23">Encyclopedia of the Modern Olympic Movement</a>. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32278-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32278-5"><bdi>978-0-313-32278-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Modern+Olympic+Movement&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-313-32278-5&rft.au=John+E.+Findling&rft.au=Kimberly+D.+Pelle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQmXi_-Jujj0C%26pg%3DPR23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ThompsonMullin-33"><a href="#cite_ref-ThompsonMullin_33-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWayne_C._ThompsonMark_H._Mullin1983" class="citation book cs1">Wayne C. Thompson; Mark H. Mullin (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=serMXIpALD0C">Western Europe, 1983</a>. Stryker-Post Publications. p. 337. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780943448114" title="Special:BookSources/9780943448114"><bdi>9780943448114</bdi></a>. <q>for ancient Greece was the cradle of Western culture ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Western+Europe%2C+1983&rft.pages=337&rft.pub=Stryker-Post+Publications&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=9780943448114&rft.au=Wayne+C.+Thompson&rft.au=Mark+H.+Mullin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DserMXIpALD0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Copleston2003-34"><a href="#cite_ref-Copleston2003_34-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFrederick_Copleston2003" class="citation book cs1">Frederick Copleston (1 June 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Y08L-MC36JUC&pg=PA13">History of Philosophy Volume 1: Greece and Rome</a>. A&C Black. p. 13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-6895-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-6895-6"><bdi>978-0-8264-6895-6</bdi></a>. <q>PART I PRE-SOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY CHAPTER II THE CRADLE OF WESTERN THOUGHT:</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Philosophy+Volume+1%3A+Greece+and+Rome&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=A%26C+Black&rft.date=2003-06-01&rft.isbn=978-0-8264-6895-6&rft.au=Frederick+Copleston&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DY08L-MC36JUC%26pg%3DPA13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Iozzo2001-35"><a href="#cite_ref-Iozzo2001_35-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMario_Iozzo2001" class="citation book cs1">Mario Iozzo (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Q51-HAiZQwMC&pg=PA7">Art and History of Greece: And Mount Athos</a>. Casa Editrice Bonechi. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-8029-435-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-8029-435-1"><bdi>978-88-8029-435-1</bdi></a>. <q>The capital of Greece, one of the world's most glorious cities and the cradle of Western culture,</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Art+and+History+of+Greece%3A+And+Mount+Athos&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Casa+Editrice+Bonechi&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-88-8029-435-1&rft.au=Mario+Iozzo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQ51-HAiZQwMC%26pg%3DPA7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Melotti2011-36"><a href="#cite_ref-Melotti2011_36-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMarxiano_Melotti2011" class="citation book cs1">Marxiano Melotti (25 May 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jgIrBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA188">The Plastic Venuses: Archaeological Tourism in Post-Modern Society</a>. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 188. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4438-3028-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4438-3028-7"><bdi>978-1-4438-3028-7</bdi></a>. <q>In short, Greece, despite having been the cradle of Western culture, was then an "other" space separate from the West.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Plastic+Venuses%3A+Archaeological+Tourism+in+Post-Modern+Society&rft.pages=188&rft.pub=Cambridge+Scholars+Publishing&rft.date=2011-05-25&rft.isbn=978-1-4438-3028-7&rft.au=Marxiano+Melotti&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjgIrBwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA188&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TFZVAAAAYAAJ">Library Journal</a>. Vol. 97. Bowker. April 1972. p. 1588. <q>Ancient Greece: Cradle of Western Culture (Series), disc. 6 strips with 3 discs, range: 44–60 fr., 17–18 min</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Library+Journal&rft.pages=1588&rft.pub=Bowker&rft.date=1972-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTFZVAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Burstein2002-38"><a href="#cite_ref-Burstein2002_38-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStanley_Mayer_Burstein2002" class="citation book cs1">Stanley Mayer Burstein (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=17xmAAAAMAAJ">Current Issues and the Study of Ancient History</a>. Regina Books. p. 15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-930053-10-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-930053-10-6"><bdi>978-1-930053-10-6</bdi></a>. <q>and making Egypt play the same role in African education and culture that Athens and Greece do in Western culture.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Current+Issues+and+the+Study+of+Ancient+History&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=Regina+Books&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-930053-10-6&rft.au=Stanley+Mayer+Burstein&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D17xmAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jr.2015-39"><a href="#cite_ref-Jr.2015_39-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMurray_Milner_Jr.2015" class="citation book cs1">Murray Milner Jr. (8 January 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MvYlBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA62">Elites: A General Model</a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 62. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7456-8950-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7456-8950-0"><bdi>978-0-7456-8950-0</bdi></a>. <q>Greece has long been considered the seedbed or cradle of Western civilization.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Elites%3A+A+General+Model&rft.pages=62&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2015-01-08&rft.isbn=978-0-7456-8950-0&rft.au=Murray+Milner+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMvYlBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA62&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Aa.Vv.2011-40"><a href="#cite_ref-Aa.Vv.2011_40-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f9fTPUTPPhkC&pg=PA148">Slavica viterbiensia 003: Periodico di letterature e culture slave della Facoltà di Lingue e Letterature Straniere Moderne dell'Università della Tuscia</a>. Gangemi Editore spa. 10 November 2011. p. 148. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-492-6909-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-492-6909-3"><bdi>978-88-492-6909-3</bdi></a>. <q>The Special Case of Greece The ancient Greece was a cradle of the Western culture,</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavica+viterbiensia+003%3A+Periodico+di+letterature+e+culture+slave+della+Facolt%C3%A0+di+Lingue+e+Letterature+Straniere+Moderne+dell%27Universit%C3%A0+della+Tuscia&rft.pages=148&rft.pub=Gangemi+Editore+spa&rft.date=2011-11-10&rft.isbn=978-88-492-6909-3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Df9fTPUTPPhkC%26pg%3DPA148&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Covert2011-41"><a href="#cite_ref-Covert2011_41-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKim_Covert2011" class="citation book cs1">Kim Covert (1 July 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KVMYJNvUiYkC&pg=PP5">Ancient Greece: Birthplace of Democracy</a>. Capstone. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4296-6831-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4296-6831-6"><bdi>978-1-4296-6831-6</bdi></a>. <q>Ancient Greece is often called the cradle of western civilization. ... Ideas from literature and science also have their roots in ancient Greece.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Greece%3A+Birthplace+of+Democracy&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Capstone&rft.date=2011-07-01&rft.isbn=978-1-4296-6831-6&rft.au=Kim+Covert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKVMYJNvUiYkC%26pg%3DPP5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHenry_Turner_Inman" class="citation book cs1">Henry Turner Inman. Rome: the cradle of western civilisation as illustrated by existing monuments. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781177738538" title="Special:BookSources/9781177738538"><bdi>9781177738538</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rome%3A+the+cradle+of+western+civilisation+as+illustrated+by+existing+monuments&rft.isbn=9781177738538&rft.au=Henry+Turner+Inman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMichael_Ed._Grant1964" class="citation book cs1">Michael Ed. Grant (1964). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.co.uk/Birth-Western-Civilisation-Greece-Rome/dp/B0013K3FW6">The Birth Of Western Civilisation, Greece & Rome</a>. Thames & Hudson. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160107211225/http://www.amazon.co.uk/Birth-Western-Civilisation-Greece-Rome/dp/B0013K3FW6">Archived</a> from the original on 7 January 2016. Retrieved 4 January 2016 – via Amazon.co.uk.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Birth+Of+Western+Civilisation%2C+Greece+%26+Rome&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=1964&rft.au=Michael+Ed.+Grant&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.co.uk%2FBirth-Western-Civilisation-Greece-Rome%2Fdp%2FB0013K3FW6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHUXLEY,_George" class="citation web cs1">HUXLEY, George; et al. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.abebooks.com/9780500040034/Birth-Western-Civilization-Greece-Rome-0500040036/plp">"9780500040034: The Birth of Western Civilization: Greece and Rome"</a>. AbeBooks.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160107211225/http://www.abebooks.com/9780500040034/Birth-Western-Civilization-Greece-Rome-0500040036/plp">Archived</a> from the original on 7 January 2016. Retrieved 4 January 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=AbeBooks.com&rft.atitle=9780500040034%3A+The+Birth+of+Western+Civilization%3A+Greece+and+Rome&rft.au=HUXLEY%2C+George&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.abebooks.com%2F9780500040034%2FBirth-Western-Civilization-Greece-Rome-0500040036%2Fplp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geographicus.com/P/AntiqueMap/AncientCities-bradford-1835">"Athens. Rome. Jerusalem and Vicinity. Peninsula of Mt. Sinai.: Geographicus Rare Antique Maps"</a>. Geographicus.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160107211225/http://www.geographicus.com/P/AntiqueMap/AncientCities-bradford-1835">Archived</a> from the original on 7 January 2016. Retrieved 4 January 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Geographicus.com&rft.atitle=Athens.+Rome.+Jerusalem+and+Vicinity.+Peninsula+of+Mt.+Sinai.%3A+Geographicus+Rare+Antique+Maps&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.geographicus.com%2FP%2FAntiqueMap%2FAncientCities-bradford-1835&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-PerryChase2012-48">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PerryChase2012_48-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PerryChase2012_48-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PerryChase2012_48-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMarvin_PerryMyrna_ChaseJames_JacobMargaret_Jacob2012" class="citation book cs1">Marvin Perry; Myrna Chase; James Jacob; Margaret Jacob; Theodore H. Von Laue (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N6jytVCocwMC">Western Civilization: Since 1400</a>. Cengage Learning. p. xxix. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-111-83169-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-111-83169-1"><bdi>978-1-111-83169-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Western+Civilization%3A+Since+1400&rft.pages=xxix&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-111-83169-1&rft.au=Marvin+Perry&rft.au=Myrna+Chase&rft.au=James+Jacob&rft.au=Margaret+Jacob&rft.au=Theodore+H.+Von+Laue&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DN6jytVCocwMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Judaism-49"><a href="#cite_ref-Judaism_49-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/topic/Judaism/The-Judaic-tradition">Role of Judaism in Western culture and civilization</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180309200830/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Judaism/The-Judaic-tradition">Archived</a> 9 March 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, "Judaism has played a significant role in the development of Western culture because of its unique relationship with Christianity, the dominant religious force in the West". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/topic/Judaism">Judaism</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181004115556/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Judaism/The-Judaic-tradition">Archived</a> 4 October 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> at <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> Religions in Global Society – Page 146, Peter Beyer – 2006 </li> <li id="cite_note-Cambridge_University_Historical_Series-51"><a href="#cite_ref-Cambridge_University_Historical_Series_51-0">^</a> Cambridge University Historical Series, An Essay on Western Civilization in Its Economic Aspects, p.40: Hebraism, like Hellenism, has been an all-important factor in the development of Western Civilization; Judaism, as the precursor of Christianity, has indirectly had had much to do with shaping the ideals and morality of western nations since the Christian era. </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCelermajer2010" class="citation journal cs1">Celermajer, Danielle (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0725513610371046">"Introduction: Athens and Jerusalem through a Different Lens"</a>. Thesis Eleven. 102 (1): 3–5. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0725513610371046">10.1177/0725513610371046</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0725-5136">0725-5136</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:147430371">147430371</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231217143922/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0725513610371046">Archived</a> from the original on 17 December 2023. Retrieved 17 December 2023. <q>The contrast between Athens and Jerusalem, as the twin fonts of Western civilization, is often thought to sum up a number of structural dichotomies...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Thesis+Eleven&rft.atitle=Introduction%3A+Athens+and+Jerusalem+through+a+Different+Lens&rft.volume=102&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3-%3C%2Fspan%3E5&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A147430371%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0725-5136&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0725513610371046&rft.aulast=Celermajer&rft.aufirst=Danielle&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sagepub.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1177%2F0725513610371046&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHavers2004" class="citation journal cs1">Havers, Grant (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1084877042000197921">"Between Athens and Jerusalem: Western otherness in the thought of Leo Strauss and Hannah Arendt"</a>. The European Legacy. 9 (1): 19–29. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F1084877042000197921">10.1080/1084877042000197921</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1084-8770">1084-8770</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143636651">143636651</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231217143755/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1084877042000197921">Archived</a> from the original on 17 December 2023. Retrieved 17 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+European+Legacy&rft.atitle=Between+Athens+and+Jerusalem%3A+Western+otherness+in+the+thought+of+Leo+Strauss+and+Hannah+Arendt&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E19-%3C%2Fspan%3E29&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143636651%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1084-8770&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F1084877042000197921&rft.aulast=Havers&rft.aufirst=Grant&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1080%2F1084877042000197921&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrague2009" class="citation web cs1">Brague, Rémi (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/BRAECA-6">"Eccentric Culture: A Theory of Western Civilization"</a>. philpapers.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231217143754/https://philpapers.org/rec/BRAECA-6">Archived</a> from the original on 17 December 2023. Retrieved 17 December 2023. <q>Western culture, which influenced the whole world, came from Europe. But its roots are not there. They are in Athens and Jerusalem... The Roman attitude senses its own incompleteness and recognizes the call to borrow from what went before it. Historically, it has led the West to borrow from the great traditions of Jerusalem and Athens: primarily the Jewish and Christian tradition, on the one hand, and the classical Greek tradition on the other.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=philpapers.org&rft.atitle=Eccentric+Culture%3A+A+Theory+of+Western+Civilization&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Brague&rft.aufirst=R%C3%A9mi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FBRAECA-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRosenne1958" class="citation journal cs1">Rosenne, Shabtai (1958). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/netherlands-international-law-review/article/abs/influence-of-judaism-on-the-development-of-international-law/39DED917CD26138A2E247822CE9A04C6">"The Influence of Judaism on the Development of International Law"</a>. Netherlands International Law Review. 5 (2): 119–149. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0165070X00029685">10.1017/S0165070X00029685</a> (inactive 1 November 2024). <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2396-9113">2396-9113</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231217144414/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/netherlands-international-law-review/article/abs/influence-of-judaism-on-the-development-of-international-law/39DED917CD26138A2E247822CE9A04C6">Archived</a> from the original on 17 December 2023. Retrieved 17 December 2023. <q>The fact that modern international law is one of the products of Western European civilization means that it rests, as all that civilization, upon the threefold heritage of the ancient Mediterranean world, the heritage of Rome, Athens and Jerusalem.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Netherlands+International+Law+Review&rft.atitle=The+Influence+of+Judaism+on+the+Development+of+International+Law&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E119-%3C%2Fspan%3E149&rft.date=1958&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0165070X00029685&rft.issn=2396-9113&rft.aulast=Rosenne&rft.aufirst=Shabtai&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Fnetherlands-international-law-review%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Finfluence-of-judaism-on-the-development-of-international-law%2F39DED917CD26138A2E247822CE9A04C6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/CarrollQuigley-TheEvolutionOfCivilizations-AnIntroductionTo">"The Evolution of Civilizations – An Introduction to Historical Analysis (1979)"</a>. 10 March 2001. p. 84. Retrieved 31 January 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Evolution+of+Civilizations+%E2%80%93+An+Introduction+to+Historical+Analysis+%281979%29&rft.pages=84&rft.date=2001-03-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FCarrollQuigley-TheEvolutionOfCivilizations-AnIntroductionTo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe/Crisis-recovery-and-resilience-Did-the-Middle-Ages-end">"History of Europe – Crisis, Recovery, Resilience"</a>. www.britannica.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231228230314/https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe/Crisis-recovery-and-resilience-Did-the-Middle-Ages-end">Archived</a> from the original on 28 December 2023. Retrieved 15 January 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.britannica.com&rft.atitle=History+of+Europe+%E2%80%93+Crisis%2C+Recovery%2C+Resilience&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fhistory-of-Europe%2FCrisis-recovery-and-resilience-Did-the-Middle-Ages-end&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <a href="/wiki/H._G._Wells" title="H. G. Wells">H. G. Wells</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Outline_of_History" title="The Outline of History">The Outline of History</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/pub/docs/books/sherwood/Wells-Outline/Text/Part-II.htm">Section 31.8, The Intellectual Life of Arab Islam</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091214044419/http://www.ibiblio.org/pub/docs/books/sherwood/Wells-Outline/Text/Part-II.htm">Archived</a> 14 December 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> "For some generations before Muhammad, the Arab mind had been, as it were, smouldering, it had been producing poetry and much religious discussion; under the stimulus of the national and racial successes it presently blazed out with a brilliance second only to that of the Greeks during their best period. From a new angle and with a fresh vigour it took up that systematic development of positive knowledge, which the Greeks had begun and relinquished. It revived the human pursuit of science. If the Greek was the father, then the Arab was the foster-father of the scientific method of dealing with reality, that is to say, by absolute frankness, the utmost simplicity of statement and explanation, exact record, and exhaustive criticism. Through the Arabs it was and not by the Latin route that the modern world received that gift of light and power." </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLewis2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Lewis, Bernard</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/whatwentwrongcl00lewi/page/3">What Went Wrong</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/whatwentwrongcl00lewi/page/3">3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-051605-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-051605-5"><bdi>978-0-06-051605-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Went+Wrong&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-06-051605-5&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwhatwentwrongcl00lewi%2Fpage%2F3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> "For many centuries the world of Islam was in the forefront of human civilization and achievement ... In the era between the decline of antiquity and the dawn of modernity, that is, in the centuries designated in European history as medieval, the Islamic claim was not without justification." </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160327031433/http://www.es.flinders.edu.au/~mattom/science+society/lectures/lecture11.html">"Science, civilization and society"</a>. Flinders University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.es.flinders.edu.au/~mattom/science+society/lectures/lecture11.html">the original</a> on 27 March 2016. Retrieved 6 May 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Flinders+University&rft.atitle=Science%2C+civilization+and+society&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.es.flinders.edu.au%2F~mattom%2Fscience%2Bsociety%2Flectures%2Flecture11.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRichard_J._Mayne_Jr." class="citation web cs1">Richard J. Mayne Jr. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/195896/history-of-Europe">"Middle Ages"</a>. Britannica.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150503085922/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/195896/history-of-Europe">Archived</a> from the original on 3 May 2015. Retrieved 6 May 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Middle+Ages&rft.pub=Britannica.com&rft.au=Richard+J.+Mayne+Jr.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F195896%2Fhistory-of-Europe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/bus/A0813037.html">InfoPlease.com</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081022140436/http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/bus/A0813037.html">Archived</a> 22 October 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, commercial revolution </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110501215623/http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/ENLIGHT/SCIREV.HTM">"The Scientific Revolution"</a>. Wsu.edu. 6 June 1999. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/ENLIGHT/SCIREV.HTM">the original</a> on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 6 May 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Scientific+Revolution&rft.pub=Wsu.edu&rft.date=1999-06-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsu.edu%2F~dee%2FENLIGHT%2FSCIREV.HTM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEric_BondSheena_GingerichOliver_Archer-AntonsenLiam_Purcell2003" class="citation web cs1">Eric Bond; Sheena Gingerich; Oliver Archer-Antonsen; Liam Purcell; Elizabeth Macklem (17 February 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://industrialrevolution.sea.ca/innovations.html">"Innovations"</a>. The Industrial Revolution. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110906051618/http://industrialrevolution.sea.ca/innovations.html">Archived</a> from the original on 6 September 2011. Retrieved 6 May 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Innovations&rft.pub=The+Industrial+Revolution&rft.date=2003-02-17&rft.au=Eric+Bond&rft.au=Sheena+Gingerich&rft.au=Oliver+Archer-Antonsen&rft.au=Liam+Purcell&rft.au=Elizabeth+Macklem&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Findustrialrevolution.sea.ca%2Finnovations.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2016/05/how-islam-created-europe/476388/">"How Islam Created Europe; In late antiquity, the religion split the Mediterranean world in two. Now it is remaking the Continent"</a>. The Atlantic. May 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160423181353/http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2016/05/how-islam-created-europe/476388/">Archived</a> from the original on 23 April 2016. Retrieved 25 April 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+Islam+Created+Europe%3B+In+late+antiquity%2C+the+religion+split+the+Mediterranean+world+in+two.+Now+it+is+remaking+the+Continent.&rft.pub=The+Atlantic&rft.date=2016-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fmagazine%2Farchive%2F2016%2F05%2Fhow-islam-created-europe%2F476388%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ScienceDaily-66"><a href="#cite_ref-ScienceDaily_66-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/western_culture.htm">"Western culture"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Science_Daily" class="mw-redirect" title="Science Daily">Science Daily</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190425141034/https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/western_culture.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 25 April 2019. Retrieved 11 April 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Western+culture&rft.pub=Science+Daily&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedaily.com%2Fterms%2Fwestern_culture.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Khana-67"><a href="#cite_ref-Khana_67-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ap-art-history/cultures-religions-ap-arthistory/a/a-brief-history-of-western-culture">"A brief history of Western culture"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Khan_Academy" title="Khan Academy">Khan Academy</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181226071136/https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ap-art-history/cultures-religions-ap-arthistory/a/a-brief-history-of-western-culture">Archived</a> from the original on 26 December 2018. Retrieved 11 April 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+brief+history+of+Western+culture&rft.pub=Khan+Academy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.khanacademy.org%2Fhumanities%2Fap-art-history%2Fcultures-religions-ap-arthistory%2Fa%2Fa-brief-history-of-western-culture&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803121844996">"Westernization"</a>. Oxford Reference. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240115035851/https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803121844996">Archived</a> from the original on 15 January 2024. Retrieved 15 January 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Reference&rft.atitle=Westernization&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fdisplay%2F10.1093%2Foi%2Fauthority.20110803121844996&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Arnold_J._Toynbee_1966-69">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Arnold_J._Toynbee_1966_69-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Arnold_J._Toynbee_1966_69-1">b</a> Cf., Arnold J. Toynbee, Change and Habit. The challenge of our time (Oxford 1966, 1969) at 153–56; also, Toynbee, A Study of History (10 volumes, 2 supplements). </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHanson2007" class="citation book cs1">Hanson, Victor Davis (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XGr16-CxpH8C">Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise to Western Power</a>. Knopf Doubleday. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-307-42518-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-307-42518-8"><bdi>978-0-307-42518-8</bdi></a>. <q>the term "Western" — refer to the culture of classical antiquity that arose in Greece and Rome; survived the collapse of the Roman Empire; spread to western and northern Europe; then during the great periods of exploration and colonization of the fifteenth through nineteenth centuries expanded to the Americas, Australia and areas of Asia and Africa; and now exercises global political, economic, cultural, and military power far greater than the size of its territory or population might otherwise suggest.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Carnage+and+Culture%3A+Landmark+Battles+in+the+Rise+to+Western+Power&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-307-42518-8&rft.aulast=Hanson&rft.aufirst=Victor+Davis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXGr16-CxpH8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Western_culture_grecoroman1-71"><a href="#cite_ref-Western_culture_grecoroman1_71-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline;"><ul style="display:inline;"><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;display:inline; margin:0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFreeman2000" class="citation book cs1">Freeman, Charles (September 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sPcNAQAAMAAJ">The Greek Achievement: The Foundation of the Western World</a>. Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-029323-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-029323-4"><bdi>978-0-14-029323-4</bdi></a>. <q>The Greeks provided the chromosomes of Western civilization. One does not have to idealize the Greeks to sustain that point. Greek ways of exploring the cosmos, defining the problems of knowledge (and what is meant by knowledge itself), creating the language in which such problems are explored, representing the physical world and human society in the arts, defining the nature of value, describing the past, still underlie the Western cultural tradition</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Greek+Achievement%3A+The+Foundation+of+the+Western+World&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2000-09&rft.isbn=978-0-14-029323-4&rft.aulast=Freeman&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsPcNAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;margin-top:.5em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCartledge2002" class="citation book cs1">Cartledge, Paul (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=r-I4gcBlTqcC">The Greeks: A Portrait of Self and Others</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-157783-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-157783-3"><bdi>978-0-19-157783-3</bdi></a>. <q>Greekness was identified with freedom-spiritual and social as well as political-and slavery was equated with being barbarian, [...] 'democracy' was a Greek invention (celebrating its 2,500th anniversary in 1993/4) [...] an ancient culture, that of the Greeks — is both a foundation stone of our own (Western) civilization and at the same time in key respects a deeply alien phenomenon.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Greeks%3A+A+Portrait+of+Self+and+Others&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-19-157783-3&rft.aulast=Cartledge&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dr-I4gcBlTqcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPagden2008" class="citation book cs1">Pagden, Anthony (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m80kwkt8YW4C">Worlds at War: The 2,500 - Year Struggle Between East and West</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-923743-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-923743-2"><bdi>978-0-19-923743-2</bdi></a>. <q>Had the Persians overrun all of mainland Greece, had they then transformed the Greek city-states into satrapies of the Persian Empire, had Greek democracy been snuffed out, there would have been no Greek theater, no Greek science, no Plato, no Aristotle, no Sophocles, no Aeschylus. The incredible burst of creative energy that took place during the fifth and fourth centuries B.C.E. and that laid the foundation for all of later Western civilization would never have happened. [...] in the years between 490 and 479 B.C.E., the entire future of the Western world hung precariously in the balance</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Worlds+at+War%3A+The+2%2C500+-+Year+Struggle+Between+East+and+West&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-19-923743-2&rft.aulast=Pagden&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dm80kwkt8YW4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-Western_culture_grecoroman2-72"><a href="#cite_ref-Western_culture_grecoroman2_72-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline;"><ul style="display:inline;"><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;display:inline; margin:0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRichard2010" class="citation book cs1">Richard, Carl J. (16 April 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dlMr4UhqQlQC">Why We're All Romans: The Roman Contribution to the Western World</a>. Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-6780-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-6780-1"><bdi>978-0-7425-6780-1</bdi></a>. <q>In 1,200 years the tiny village of Rome established a republic, conquered all of the Mediterranean basin and western Europe, lost its republic, and finally, surrendered its empire. In the process the Romans laid the foundation of Western civilization. [...] The pragmatic Romans brought Greek and Hebrew ideas down to earth, modified them, and transmitted them throughout western Europe. [...] Roman law remains the basis for the legal codes of most western European and Latin American countries — Even in English-speaking countries, where common law prevails, Roman law has exerted substantial influence</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Why+We%27re+All+Romans%3A+The+Roman+Contribution+to+the+Western+World&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2010-04-16&rft.isbn=978-0-7425-6780-1&rft.aulast=Richard&rft.aufirst=Carl+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdlMr4UhqQlQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;margin-top:.5em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSharon2004" class="citation book cs1">Sharon, Moshe (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XMX4xSQtkEAC">Studies in Modern Religions, Religious Movements and the Båabåi-Bahåa'åi Faiths</a>. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-13904-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-13904-6"><bdi>978-90-04-13904-6</bdi></a>. <q>Side by side with Christianity, the classical Greco-Roman world forms the sound foundation of Western civilization. Greek philosophy is also the origin for the methods and contents of the philosophical thought and theological investigation in Islam and Judaism</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+Modern+Religions%2C+Religious+Movements+and+the+B%C3%A5ab%C3%A5i-Bah%C3%A5a%27%C3%A5i+Faiths&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-90-04-13904-6&rft.aulast=Sharon&rft.aufirst=Moshe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXMX4xSQtkEAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGrant1991" class="citation book cs1">Grant, Michael (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/foundersofwester0000gran">The Founders of the Western World: A History of Greece and Rome</a>. Scribner. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-19303-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-19303-8"><bdi>978-0-684-19303-8</bdi></a> – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Founders+of+the+Western+World%3A+A+History+of+Greece+and+Rome&rft.pub=Scribner&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-684-19303-8&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffoundersofwester0000gran&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPerryChaseJacobJacob2012" class="citation book cs1">Perry, Marvin; Chase, Myrna; Jacob, James; Jacob, Margaret; Laue, Theodore H. Von (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N6jytVCocwMC">Western Civilization: Since 1400</a>. Cengage. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-111-83169-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-111-83169-1"><bdi>978-1-111-83169-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Western+Civilization%3A+Since+1400&rft.pub=Cengage&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-111-83169-1&rft.aulast=Perry&rft.aufirst=Marvin&rft.au=Chase%2C+Myrna&rft.au=Jacob%2C+James&rft.au=Jacob%2C+Margaret&rft.au=Laue%2C+Theodore+H.+Von&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DN6jytVCocwMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNightingale2007" class="citation book cs1">Nightingale, Andrea (2007). "The Philosophers in Archaic Greek Culture". In Shapiro, H. A.; Antonaccio, Carla M. (eds.). The Cambridge Companion to Archaic Greece. Cambridge companions to the ancient world. Cambridge University Press. p. 171. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-52929-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-52929-7"><bdi>978-0-521-52929-7</bdi></a>. <q>We have ample evidence that the Greek thinkers encountered and responded to many different cultures and ideologies. Consider, for example, the city of Miletus, which was the center of intellectual activity in sixth-century Ionia. Miletus bordered on the Lydian and, later, the Persian empires and had extensive dealings with these cultures.In addition, it had trading relations all over the Mediterranean and sent out numerous colonies to Egypt and Thrace. The Milesian thinkers thus encountered ideas and practices from all over the "known" world. In the Archaic period, the interaction of different peoples from Greece, Italy, Egypt, and the Near East created a cultural ferment that had a profound impact on Greek life and thought.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Philosophers+in+Archaic+Greek+Culture&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Archaic+Greece&rft.series=Cambridge+companions+to+the+ancient+world&rft.pages=171&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-521-52929-7&rft.aulast=Nightingale&rft.aufirst=Andrea&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBoardman1982" class="citation cs2">Boardman, John (1982), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-ancient-history/material-culture-of-archaic-greece/5A560E907896C32DF55E224DB6C8EFC4">"The material culture of Archaic Greece"</a>, in Boardman, John; Hammond, N. G. L. (eds.), The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 3 (2nd ed.), Cambridge University Press, p. 450, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fchol9780521234474.018">10.1017/chol9780521234474.018</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-23447-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-23447-4"><bdi>978-0-521-23447-4</bdi></a>, retrieved 20 October 2024, <q>Knowledge of Egyptian art after the mid century led to Greek exploitation of the harder stone, their white island marble, for the first time, and the creation of figures at life size or more. We know these best—the kouroi and korai—as dedications and grave markers, but a prime use for monumental statuary must have been as cult images and it is at about this time that the temple-houses, oikoi, for these images begin to receive a monumental form and, again probably through inspiration from Egypt are decorated with architectural orders: first the Doric in homeland Greece, then the orientalizing Ionic in the East Greek world.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+material+culture+of+Archaic+Greece&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Ancient+History&rft.pages=450&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fchol9780521234474.018&rft.isbn=978-0-521-23447-4&rft.aulast=Boardman&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Fabs%2Fcambridge-ancient-history%2Fmaterial-culture-of-archaic-greece%2F5A560E907896C32DF55E224DB6C8EFC4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFScott2018" class="citation journal cs1">Scott, John C (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2047&context=ccr">"The Phoenicians and the Formation of the Western World"</a>. Comparative Civilizations Review. 78 (78). <a href="/wiki/Brigham_Young_University" title="Brigham Young University">Brigham Young University</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0733-4540">0733-4540</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comparative+Civilizations+Review&rft.atitle=The+Phoenicians+and+the+Formation+of+the+Western+World&rft.volume=78&rft.issue=78&rft.date=2018&rft.issn=0733-4540&rft.aulast=Scott&rft.aufirst=John+C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarsarchive.byu.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D2047%26context%3Dccr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Western_culture_Alexander-76"><a href="#cite_ref-Western_culture_Alexander_76-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGreen2008" class="citation book cs1">Green, P. (2008). Alexander The Great and the Hellenistic Age. Phoenix. p. xiii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7538-2413-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7538-2413-9"><bdi>978-0-7538-2413-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+The+Great+and+the+Hellenistic+Age&rft.pages=xiii&rft.pub=Phoenix&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-7538-2413-9&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPorter2013" class="citation book cs1">Porter, Stanley E. (2013). Early Christianity in its Hellenistic context. Volume 2, Christian origins and Hellenistic Judaism: social and literary contexts for the New Testament. Leiden: Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004234765" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004234765"><bdi>978-9004234765</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Christianity+in+its+Hellenistic+context.+Volume+2%2C+Christian+origins+and+Hellenistic+Judaism%3A+social+and+literary+contexts+for+the+New+Testament&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-9004234765&rft.aulast=Porter&rft.aufirst=Stanley+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHengel2003" class="citation book cs1">Hengel, Martin (2003). Judaism and Hellenism: studies in their encounter in Palestine during the early Hellenistic period. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59244-186-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59244-186-0"><bdi>978-1-59244-186-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Judaism+and+Hellenism%3A+studies+in+their+encounter+in+Palestine+during+the+early+Hellenistic+period&rft.place=Eugene%2C+OR&rft.pub=Wipf+%26+Stock&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-59244-186-0&rft.aulast=Hengel&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSpielvogel2016" class="citation book cs1">Spielvogel, Jackson J. (2016). Western Civilization: A Brief History, Volume I: To 1715 (Cengage Learning ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 156. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-305-63347-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-305-63347-6"><bdi>978-1-305-63347-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Western+Civilization%3A+A+Brief+History%2C+Volume+I%3A+To+1715&rft.pages=156&rft.edition=Cengage+Learning&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-305-63347-6&rft.aulast=Spielvogel&rft.aufirst=Jackson+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNeill1957" class="citation book cs1">Neill, Thomas Patrick (1957). Readings in the History of Western Civilization, Volume 2 (Newman Press ed.). p. 224.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Readings+in+the+History+of+Western+Civilization%2C+Volume+2&rft.pages=224&rft.edition=Newman+Press&rft.date=1957&rft.aulast=Neill&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Patrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFO'CollinsFarrugia2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gerald_O%27Collins" title="Gerald O'Collins">O'Collins, Gerald</a>; Farrugia, Maria (2003). Catholicism: The Story of Catholic Christianity. Oxford University Press. p. v. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-925995-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-925995-3"><bdi>978-0-19-925995-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Catholicism%3A+The+Story+of+Catholic+Christianity&rft.pages=v&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-925995-3&rft.aulast=O%27Collins&rft.aufirst=Gerald&rft.au=Farrugia%2C+Maria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Western_culture_Haskins-82"><a href="#cite_ref-Western_culture_Haskins_82-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHaskins1927" class="citation cs2">Haskins, Charles Homer (1927), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/renaissanceoftw00char">The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century</a>, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-6747-6075-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-6747-6075-2"><bdi>978-0-6747-6075-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Renaissance+of+the+Twelfth+Century&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1927&rft.isbn=978-0-6747-6075-2&rft.aulast=Haskins&rft.aufirst=Charles+Homer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frenaissanceoftw00char&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Western_culture_Sarton-83"><a href="#cite_ref-Western_culture_Sarton_83-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/guidetohistoryof00sart">George Sarton: A Guide to the History of Science</a> Waltham Mass. U.S.A. 1952 </li> <li id="cite_note-Western_culture_Burnett-84"><a href="#cite_ref-Western_culture_Burnett_84-0">^</a> Burnett, Charles. "The Coherence of the Arabic-Latin Translation Program in Toledo in the Twelfth Century", Science in Context, 14 (2001): 249–288. </li> <li id="cite_note-Western_culture_Geanakoplos_1989-85"><a href="#cite_ref-Western_culture_Geanakoplos_1989_85-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGeanakoplos1989" class="citation book cs1">Geanakoplos, Deno John (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/19353503">Constantinople and the West : essays on the late Byzantine (Palaeologan) and Italian Renaissances and the Byzantine and Roman churches</a>. Madison, Wis.: University of Wisconsin Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-299-11880-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-299-11880-0"><bdi>0-299-11880-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/19353503">19353503</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constantinople+and+the+West+%3A+essays+on+the+late+Byzantine+%28Palaeologan%29+and+Italian+Renaissances+and+the+Byzantine+and+Roman+churches&rft.place=Madison%2C+Wis.&rft.pub=University+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F19353503&rft.isbn=0-299-11880-0&rft.aulast=Geanakoplos&rft.aufirst=Deno+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F19353503&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Western_culture_Rüegg,_Walter_1992-86"><a href="#cite_ref-Western_culture_Rüegg,_Walter_1992_86-0">^</a> Rüegg, Walter: "Foreword. The University as a European Institution", in: A History of the University in Europe. Vol. 1: Universities in the Middle Ages, Cambridge University Press, 1992, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-36105-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-36105-2">0-521-36105-2</a>, pp. xix–xx </li> <li id="cite_note-Western_culture_harnvb|Verger|1999-87"><a href="#cite_ref-Western_culture_harnvb|Verger|1999_87-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVerger1999">Verger 1999</a> harvnb error: no target: CITEREFVerger1999 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Western_culture_Risse_59-88"><a href="#cite_ref-Western_culture_Risse_59_88-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRisse1999" class="citation book cs1">Risse, Guenter B. (April 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mendingbodiessav00riss">Mending Bodies, Saving Souls: A History of Hospitals</a>. Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mendingbodiessav00riss/page/n79">59</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505523-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505523-8"><bdi>978-0-19-505523-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mending+Bodies%2C+Saving+Souls%3A+A+History+of+Hospitals&rft.pages=59&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1999-04&rft.isbn=978-0-19-505523-8&rft.aulast=Risse&rft.aufirst=Guenter+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmendingbodiessav00riss&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Western_culture_Schumpeter_1954-89"><a href="#cite_ref-Western_culture_Schumpeter_1954_89-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSchumpeter1954" class="citation book cs1">Schumpeter, Joseph (1954). History of Economic Analysis. London: Allen & Unwin.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Economic+Analysis&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Allen+%26+Unwin&rft.date=1954&rft.aulast=Schumpeter&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Western_culture_National_Review_Book_Service-90"><a href="#cite_ref-Western_culture_National_Review_Book_Service_90-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060822150152/http://www.nrbookservice.com/products/BookPage.asp?prod_cd=c6664">"Review of How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization by Thomas Woods, Jr"</a>. National Review Book Service. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nrbookservice.com/products/bookpage.asp?prod_cd=c6664">the original</a> on 22 August 2006. Retrieved 16 September 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Review+Book+Service&rft.atitle=Review+of+How+the+Catholic+Church+Built+Western+Civilization+by+Thomas+Woods%2C+Jr.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nrbookservice.com%2Fproducts%2Fbookpage.asp%3Fprod_cd%3Dc6664&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> Cf. <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Waldron" title="Jeremy Waldron">Jeremy Waldron</a> (2002), God, Locke, and Equality: Christian Foundations in Locke's Political Thought, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (UK), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-89057-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-89057-1">978-0-521-89057-1</a>, pp. 189, 208 </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-Protestant-Heritage-1354359/Protestantisms-influence-in-the-modern-world">The Protestant Heritage</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180223053548/https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-Protestant-Heritage-1354359/Protestantisms-influence-in-the-modern-world">Archived</a> 23 February 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Britannica </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMcNeill2010" class="citation book cs1">McNeill, William H. (2010). History of Western Civilization: A Handbook (University of Chicago Press ed.). University of Chicago Press. p. 204. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-56162-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-56162-2"><bdi>978-0-226-56162-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Western+Civilization%3A+A+Handbook&rft.pages=204&rft.edition=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-226-56162-2&rft.aulast=McNeill&rft.aufirst=William+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFaltinMelanie_J._Wright2007" class="citation book cs1">Faltin, Lucia; Melanie J. Wright (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/religiousrootsco00falt">The Religious Roots of Contemporary European Identity</a> (A&C Black ed.). A&C Black. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/religiousrootsco00falt/page/n99">83</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-9482-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-9482-5"><bdi>978-0-8264-9482-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Religious+Roots+of+Contemporary+European+Identity&rft.pages=83&rft.edition=A%26C+Black&rft.pub=A%26C+Black&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8264-9482-5&rft.aulast=Faltin&rft.aufirst=Lucia&rft.au=Melanie+J.+Wright&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Freligiousrootsco00falt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> Karl Heussi, Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte, 11. Auflage (1956), Tübingen (Germany), pp. 317–319, 325–326 </li> <li id="cite_note-BideleuxJeffries48-96">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BideleuxJeffries48_96-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BideleuxJeffries48_96-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBideleuxJeffries1998" class="citation book cs1">Bideleux, Robert; Jeffries, Ian (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U39AYJm1L94C">A history of eastern Europe: crisis and change</a>. Routledge. p. 48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-16112-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-16112-1"><bdi>978-0-415-16112-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+eastern+Europe%3A+crisis+and+change&rft.pages=48&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-415-16112-1&rft.aulast=Bideleux&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Jeffries%2C+Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DU39AYJm1L94C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> Karin Friedrich et al., The Other Prussia: Royal Prussia, Poland and Liberty, 1569–1772, Cambridge University Press, 2000, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-58335-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-58335-7">0-521-58335-7</a>, Google Print, p. 88 </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> St Jerome, Letter CXXVII. To Principia, <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Nicene_and_Post-Nicene_Fathers:_Series_II/Volume_VI/The_Letters_of_St._Jerome/Letter_127" class="extiw" title="s:Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers: Series II/Volume VI/The Letters of St. Jerome/Letter 127">s:Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers: Series II/Volume VI/The Letters of St. Jerome/Letter 127</a> paragraph 12. </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> Dominic Selwood, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/06/02/day-ad-455-beginning-end-rome/">"On this day in AD 455: the beginning of the end for Rome"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180723112808/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/06/02/day-ad-455-beginning-end-rome/">Archived</a> 23 July 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> 2 June 2017. </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> Irina-Maria Manea, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.historia.ro/sectiune/general/articol/alaric-barbarians-and-rome-a-complicated-relationship">"Alaric, Barbarians and Rome: a Complicated Relationship"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180723034245/https://www.historia.ro/sectiune/general/articol/alaric-barbarians-and-rome-a-complicated-relationship">Archived</a> 23 July 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> Rodney Stark, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wqwMAwAAQBAJ&dq=barbarians+romans+slaughter+western&pg=PT45">"How the West Won: The Neglected Story of the Triumph of Modernity"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221117131747/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wqwMAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT45&lpg=PT45&dq=barbarians+romans+slaughter+western&source=bl&ots=wGVZVw7NgO&sig=iyoMp01vWUMwo3R6EmXjtccwBoA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj2ir7_17PcAhUL16QKHdcYDn0Q6AEIzgEwIQ#v=onepage&q=barbarians%20romans%20slaughter%20western&f=false">Archived</a> 17 November 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.history.com/topics/middle-ages/charlemagne">"Charlemagne: Facts, Empire & Holy Roman Emperor"</a>. HISTORY. 22 July 2022. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220906070237/https://www.history.com/topics/middle-ages/charlemagne">Archived</a> from the original on 6 September 2022. Retrieved 27 January 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=HISTORY&rft.atitle=Charlemagne%3A+Facts%2C+Empire+%26+Holy+Roman+Emperor&rft.date=2022-07-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.com%2Ftopics%2Fmiddle-ages%2Fcharlemagne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AOY-104"><a href="#cite_ref-AOY_104-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSanjay_Kumar2021" class="citation book cs1">Sanjay Kumar (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iGc9EAAAQBAJ">A Handbook of Political Geography</a>. K.K. Publications. pp. 125–127.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Handbook+of+Political+Geography&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E125-%3C%2Fspan%3E127&rft.pub=K.K.+Publications&rft.date=2021&rft.au=Sanjay+Kumar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiGc9EAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-WUP-105"><a href="#cite_ref-WUP_105-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSetton1969" class="citation book cs1">Setton, Kenneth Meyer, ed. (1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RfO1J6hjcdgC&pg=PA210">A History of the Crusades</a>. Wisconsin University Press. pp. 209–210. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780299048341" title="Special:BookSources/9780299048341"><bdi>9780299048341</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Crusades&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E209-%3C%2Fspan%3E210&rft.pub=Wisconsin+University+Press&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=9780299048341&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRfO1J6hjcdgC%26pg%3DPA210&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDulles_S.J.2012" class="citation book cs1">Dulles S.J., Avery (2012). Reno, R.R. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Orthodox-Imperative-Selected-Essays-Cardinal-ebook/dp/B008R551PO">The Orthodox Imperative: Selected Essays of Avery Cardinal Dulles, S.J.</a> (Kindle ed.). First Things Press. p. 224. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210320002330/https://www.amazon.com/Orthodox-Imperative-Selected-Essays-Cardinal-ebook/dp/B008R551PO">Archived</a> from the original on 20 March 2021. Retrieved 6 August 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Orthodox+Imperative%3A+Selected+Essays+of+Avery+Cardinal+Dulles%2C+S.J.&rft.pages=224&rft.edition=Kindle&rft.pub=First+Things+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Dulles+S.J.&rft.aufirst=Avery&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2FOrthodox-Imperative-Selected-Essays-Cardinal-ebook%2Fdp%2FB008R551PO&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-wolff-107"><a href="#cite_ref-wolff_107-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWolff1969" class="citation book cs1">Wolff, R. L. (1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/History/History-idx?type=turn&entity=History.CrusTwo.p0188&id=History.CrusTwo&isize=text&q1=Scandinavia">"V: The Fourth Crusade"</a>. In Hazard, H. W. (ed.). The later Crusades, 1189–1311. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 162. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201112020236/http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/History/History-idx?type=turn">Archived</a> from the original on 12 November 2020. Retrieved 9 November 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=V%3A+The+Fourth+Crusade&rft.btitle=The+later+Crusades%2C+1189%E2%80%931311&rft.pages=162&rft.pub=University+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=1969&rft.aulast=Wolff&rft.aufirst=R.+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigicoll.library.wisc.edu%2Fcgi-bin%2FHistory%2FHistory-idx%3Ftype%3Dturn%26entity%3DHistory.CrusTwo.p0188%26id%3DHistory.CrusTwo%26isize%3Dtext%26q1%3DScandinavia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Phillips-108"><a href="#cite_ref-Phillips_108-0">^</a> Phillips, The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople, Introduction, xiii. </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGoldstein,_I.1999" class="citation book cs1">Goldstein, I. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/croatia00ivog">Croatia: A History</a>. McGill-Queen's University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Croatia%3A+A+History&rft.pub=McGill-Queen%27s+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.au=Goldstein%2C+I.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcroatia00ivog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08026a.htm">"CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Inquisition"</a>. Newadvent.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071026132112/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08026a.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 26 October 2007. Retrieved 13 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Newadvent.org&rft.atitle=CATHOLIC+ENCYCLOPEDIA%3A+Inquisition&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Fcathen%2F08026a.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lea1888-111"><a href="#cite_ref-Lea1888_111-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLea1888" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Charles_Lea" title="Henry Charles Lea">Lea, Henry Charles</a> (1888). "Chapter VII. The Inquisition Founded". A History of the Inquisition In The Middle Ages. Vol. 1. General Books LLC. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-152-29621-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-152-29621-3"><bdi>1-152-29621-3</bdi></a>. <q>The judicial use of torture was as yet happily unknown...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+VII.+The+Inquisition+Founded&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Inquisition+In+The+Middle+Ages&rft.pub=General+Books+LLC&rft.date=1888&rft.isbn=1-152-29621-3&rft.aulast=Lea&rft.aufirst=Henry+Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFoxe" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Foxe" title="John Foxe">Foxe, John</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121126164105/http://www.jesus.org.uk/vault/library/foxes_book_of_martyrs.pdf">"Chapter V"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Foxe%27s_Book_of_Martyrs" title="Foxe's Book of Martyrs">Foxe's Book of Martyrs</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jesus.org.uk/vault/library/foxes_book_of_martyrs.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 26 November 2012. Retrieved 21 July 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+V&rft.btitle=Foxe%27s+Book+of+Martyrs&rft.aulast=Foxe&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jesus.org.uk%2Fvault%2Flibrary%2Ffoxes_book_of_martyrs.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBlötzer1910" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Blötzer, J. (1910). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08026a.htm">"Inquisition"</a>. The Catholic Encyclopedia. Robert Appleton Company. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071026132112/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08026a.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 26 October 2007. Retrieved 26 August 2012. <q>... in this period the more influential ecclesiastical authorities declared that the <a href="/wiki/Death_penalty" class="mw-redirect" title="Death penalty">death penalty</a> was contrary to the spirit of the Gospel, and they themselves opposed its execution. For centuries this was the ecclesiastical attitude both in theory and in practice. Thus, in keeping with the civil law, some Manichæans were executed at Ravenna in 556. On the other hand, Elipandus of Toledo and Felix of Urgel, the chiefs of Adoptionism and Predestinationism, were condemned by councils, but were otherwise left unmolested. We may note, however, that the monk Gothescalch, after the condemnation of his false doctrine that Christ had not died for all mankind, was by the Synods of Mainz in 848 and Quiercy in 849 sentenced to flogging and imprisonment, punishments then common in monasteries for various infractions of the rule.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Inquisition&rft.btitle=The+Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.pub=Robert+Appleton+Company&rft.date=1910&rft.aulast=Bl%C3%B6tzer&rft.aufirst=J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Fcathen%2F08026a.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBlötzer1910" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Blötzer, J. (1910). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08026a.htm">"Inquisition"</a>. The Catholic Encyclopedia. Robert Appleton Company. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071026132112/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08026a.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 26 October 2007. Retrieved 26 August 2012. <q>[...] the occasional executions of heretics during this period must be ascribed partly to the arbitrary action of individual rulers, partly to the fanatic outbreaks of the overzealous populace, and in no wise to ecclesiastical law or the ecclesiastical authorities.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Inquisition&rft.btitle=The+Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.pub=Robert+Appleton+Company&rft.date=1910&rft.aulast=Bl%C3%B6tzer&rft.aufirst=J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Fcathen%2F08026a.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLea2010" class="citation book cs1">Lea, Henry Charles (January 2010). "VII. The Inquisition Founded". A History of the Inquisition In The Middle Ages. Vol. 1. General Books LLC. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-152-29621-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-152-29621-3"><bdi>978-1-152-29621-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=VII.+The+Inquisition+Founded&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Inquisition+In+The+Middle+Ages&rft.pub=General+Books+LLC&rft.date=2010-01&rft.isbn=978-1-152-29621-3&rft.aulast=Lea&rft.aufirst=Henry+Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141219220326/http://courses.wcupa.edu/jones/his101/web/37luther.htm">"Background to Against the Sale of Indulgences by Martin Luther"</a>. Wcupa.edu. West Chester University of Pennsylvania. 2012. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://courses.wcupa.edu/jones/his101/web/37luther.htm">the original</a> on 19 December 2014. Retrieved 6 July 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Wcupa.edu&rft.atitle=Background+to+Against+the+Sale+of+Indulgences+by+Martin+Luther&rft.date=2012&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcourses.wcupa.edu%2Fjones%2Fhis101%2Fweb%2F37luther.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.markedbyteachers.com/as-and-a-level/history/how-important-was-the-role-of-the-princes-in-bringing-about-the-success-of-the-lutheran-reformation-in-germany-in-the-years-1525-to-1555.html">"How important was the role of the princes in bringing about the success of the Lutheran Reformation in Germany in the years 1525 to 1555?"</a>. markedbyteachers.com. Marked by Teachers. 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180829110019/http://www.markedbyteachers.com/as-and-a-level/history/how-important-was-the-role-of-the-princes-in-bringing-about-the-success-of-the-lutheran-reformation-in-germany-in-the-years-1525-to-1555.html">Archived</a> from the original on 29 August 2018. Retrieved 29 August 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=markedbyteachers.com&rft.atitle=How+important+was+the+role+of+the+princes+in+bringing+about+the+success+of+the+Lutheran+Reformation+in+Germany+in+the+years+1525+to+1555%3F&rft.date=2009&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.markedbyteachers.com%2Fas-and-a-level%2Fhistory%2Fhow-important-was-the-role-of-the-princes-in-bringing-about-the-success-of-the-lutheran-reformation-in-germany-in-the-years-1525-to-1555.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.history.com/topics/reformation">"The Reformation"</a>. history.com. A&E Television Networks. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180928051657/https://www.history.com/topics/reformation">Archived</a> from the original on 28 September 2018. Retrieved 29 August 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=history.com&rft.atitle=The+Reformation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.com%2Ftopics%2Freformation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-kissinger-119"><a href="#cite_ref-kissinger_119-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHenry_Kissinger2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Kissinger" title="Henry Kissinger">Henry Kissinger</a> (2014). "Introduction and Chpt 1". World Order: Reflections on the Character of Nations and the Course of History. <a href="/wiki/Allen_Lane" title="Allen Lane">Allen Lane</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0241004265" title="Special:BookSources/978-0241004265"><bdi>978-0241004265</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction+and+Chpt+1&rft.btitle=World+Order%3A+Reflections+on+the+Character+of+Nations+and+the+Course+of+History&rft.pub=Allen+Lane&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0241004265&rft.au=Henry+Kissinger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> M. Wiesner-Hanks, Early Modern Europe 1450–1789 (Cambridge, 2006) </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFerguson2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Niall_Ferguson" title="Niall Ferguson">Ferguson, Niall</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/empire00nial/page/62">Empire: The Rise and Demise of the British World Order and the Lessons for Global Power</a>. New York: Basic Books. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/empire00nial/page/62">62</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-02329-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-02329-5"><bdi>978-0-465-02329-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empire%3A+The+Rise+and+Demise+of+the+British+World+Order+and+the+Lessons+for+Global+Power&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=62&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-465-02329-5&rft.aulast=Ferguson&rft.aufirst=Niall&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fempire00nial%2Fpage%2F62&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Daus33-124"><a href="#cite_ref-Daus33_124-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDaus1983">Daus 1983</a>, p. 33 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFDaus1983 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCarlin2022" class="citation book cs1">Carlin, Na'ama (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.routledge.com/Morality-Violence-and-Ritual-Circumcision-Writing-with-Blood/Carlin/p/book/9780367551957">Morality, Violence, and Ritual Circumcision</a>. Routledge. p. 34. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0367551957" title="Special:BookSources/978-0367551957"><bdi>978-0367551957</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221231130103/https://www.routledge.com/Morality-Violence-and-Ritual-Circumcision-Writing-with-Blood/Carlin/p/book/9780367551957">Archived</a> from the original on 31 December 2022. Retrieved 31 December 2022. <q>Specifically, these are 'Western' or 'White' values that find their foundation in Greco-Roman philosophy and espouse key notions such as individualism and enlightenment.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Morality%2C+Violence%2C+and+Ritual+Circumcision&rft.pages=34&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-0367551957&rft.aulast=Carlin&rft.aufirst=Na%27ama&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.routledge.com%2FMorality-Violence-and-Ritual-Circumcision-Writing-with-Blood%2FCarlin%2Fp%2Fbook%2F9780367551957&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110511153904/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/lect/mod07.html">"Modern West Civ. 7: The Scientific Revolution of the 17 Cent"</a>. Fordham.edu. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/lect/mod07.html">the original</a> on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 6 May 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Modern+West+Civ.+7%3A+The+Scientific+Revolution+of+the+17+Cent&rft.pub=Fordham.edu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fordham.edu%2Fhalsall%2Fmod%2Flect%2Fmod07.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20001214091900/http://mars.wnec.edu/~grempel/courses/wc2/lectures/industrialrev.html">"The Industrial Revolution"</a>. Mars.wnec.edu. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mars.wnec.edu/~grempel/courses/wc2/lectures/industrialrev.html">the original</a> on 14 December 2000. Retrieved 6 May 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Industrial+Revolution&rft.pub=Mars.wnec.edu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmars.wnec.edu%2F~grempel%2Fcourses%2Fwc2%2Flectures%2Findustrialrev.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/IndustrialRevolutionandtheStandardofLiving.html">Industrial Revolution and the Standard of Living: The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130701131352/http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/IndustrialRevolutionandtheStandardofLiving.html">Archived</a> 1 July 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Library of Economics and Liberty </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> Voeglin, E., From Enlightenment to Revolution, p. 3 </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VuEYAAAAIAAJ">Enlightenment Essays: Volumes 1-4</a>. 1970.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Enlightenment+Essays%3A+Volumes+1-4&rft.date=1970&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVuEYAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRosen2008" class="citation magazine cs1">Rosen, Jonathan (26 May 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2008/06/02/return-to-paradise">"Return to Paradise: The Enduring Relevance of John Milton"</a>. The New Yorker. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210118150150/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2008/06/02/return-to-paradise">Archived</a> from the original on 18 January 2021. Retrieved 27 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Yorker&rft.atitle=Return+to+Paradise%3A+The+Enduring+Relevance+of+John+Milton&rft.date=2008-05-26&rft.aulast=Rosen&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newyorker.com%2Fmagazine%2F2008%2F06%2F02%2Freturn-to-paradise&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBurns2003" class="citation book cs1">Burns, William E. (2003). Science in the Enlightenment: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 10–12.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+in+the+Enlightenment%3A+An+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E10-%3C%2Fspan%3E12&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Burns&rft.aufirst=William+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBiale" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Biale" title="David Biale">Biale, David</a>. Not in the Heavens: The Tradition of Jewish Secular Thought. Princeton University Press. p. x.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Not+in+the+Heavens%3A+The+Tradition+of+Jewish+Secular+Thought&rft.pages=x&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.aulast=Biale&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eR0AEAAAQBAJ&dq=Enlightenment+Scientific&pg=PA293">Science and Technology in World History</a>. Johns Hopkins University Press. 2015. p. 293. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781421417752" title="Special:BookSources/9781421417752"><bdi>9781421417752</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Technology+in+World+History&rft.pages=293&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781421417752&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeR0AEAAAQBAJ%26dq%3DEnlightenment%2BScientific%26pg%3DPA293&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBiale2015" class="citation book cs1">Biale, David (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KW2YDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA29">Not in the Heavens: The Tradition of Jewish Secular Thought</a>. Princeton University Press. p. 29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780691168043" title="Special:BookSources/9780691168043"><bdi>9780691168043</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Not+in+the+Heavens%3A+The+Tradition+of+Jewish+Secular+Thought&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780691168043&rft.aulast=Biale&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKW2YDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/sixbillion/sixbillion.htm">"The World at Six Billion"</a>. United Nations. 12 October 1999. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160305042434/http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/sixbillion/sixbillion.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 1 August 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+World+at+Six+Billion&rft.pub=United+Nations&rft.date=1999-10-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.un.org%2Fesa%2Fpopulation%2Fpublications%2Fsixbillion%2Fsixbillion.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWim_Van_Den_Doel2010" class="citation book cs1">Wim Van Den Doel (2010). The Dutch Empire. An Essential Part of World History. BMGN – Low Countries Historical Review. <q>The Western belief in progress, Enlightenment thinking and the scientific revolution were elements that enabled the Western economy to develop in the nineteenth century in a way that was fundamentally different from most of the economies in the rest of the world. Europeans had not been able to sell much to the Asians in the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, but after the Industrial Revolution the situation was completely different, and the European textile industry, for example, was easily able to sell its cheap products throughout Asia. Improved transport methods also meant that European products could reach the Asian market at a relatively low cost. From about 1800, what historians term 'the <a href="/wiki/Great_divergence" class="mw-redirect" title="Great divergence">great divergence</a>' took place, which was the separation of the economic development of the Western World, on the one hand, and of almost all of Asia and Africa on the other.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dutch+Empire.+An+Essential+Part+of+World+History&rft.pub=BMGN+%E2%80%93+Low+Countries+Historical+Review&rft.date=2010&rft.au=Wim+Van+Den+Doel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWebster" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Webster, Richard A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/colonialism/European-expansion-since-1763">"European expansion since 1763"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180723035348/https://www.britannica.com/topic/colonialism/European-expansion-since-1763">Archived</a> from the original on 23 July 2018. Retrieved 23 July 2018. <q>The global expansion of western Europe between the 1760s and the 1870s differed in several important ways from the expansionism and colonialism of previous centuries. Along with the rise of the Industrial Revolution, which economic historians generally trace to the 1760s, and the continuing spread of industrialization in the empire-building countries came a shift in the strategy of trade with the colonial world. Instead of being primarily buyers of colonial products (and frequently under strain to offer sufficient salable goods to balance the exchange), as in the past, the industrializing nations increasingly became sellers in search of markets for the growing volume of their machine-produced goods.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=European+expansion+since+1763&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.aulast=Webster&rft.aufirst=Richard+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fcolonialism%2FEuropean-expansion-since-1763&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/colonialism/European-expansion-since-1763">"European expansion since 1763"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180723035348/https://www.britannica.com/topic/colonialism/European-expansion-since-1763">Archived</a> from the original on 23 July 2018. Retrieved 4 August 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=European+expansion+since+1763&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fcolonialism%2FEuropean-expansion-since-1763&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> Camille Pecastaing, Jihad in the Arabian Sea (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 2011), In the land of the Mad Mullah: Somalia [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-TheColumbia-142"><a href="#cite_ref-TheColumbia_142-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFChernowVallasi1994" class="citation book cs1">Chernow, Barbara A.; Vallasi, George A., eds. (1994). The Columbia Encyclopedia (Fifth ed.). New York: Columbia University Press. p. 1215. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-08098-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-231-08098-0"><bdi>0-231-08098-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Columbia+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=1215&rft.edition=Fifth&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-231-08098-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> Oxford English Dictionary: "A leading or paramount power; a dominant state or person" </li> <li id="cite_note-Shillington-145"><a href="#cite_ref-Shillington_145-0">^</a> Kevin Shillington, History of Africa. Rev. 2nd ed. (New York: Macmillan Publishers Ltd., 2005), 301. </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFColoma2012" class="citation journal cs1">Coloma, Roland Sintos (2012). "White gazes, brown breasts: imperial feminism and disciplining desires and bodies in colonial encounters". Paedagogica Historica. 48 (2): 243. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00309230.2010.547511">10.1080/00309230.2010.547511</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145129186">145129186</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Paedagogica+Historica&rft.atitle=White+gazes%2C+brown+breasts%3A+imperial+feminism+and+disciplining+desires+and+bodies+in+colonial+encounters&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=243&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00309230.2010.547511&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145129186%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Coloma&rft.aufirst=Roland+Sintos&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> <a href="#refMaddison2001">Maddison 2001</a>, pp. 97 "The total population of the Empire was 412 million [in 1913]", 241 "[World population in 1913 (in thousands):] 1 791 020". </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRein_Taagepera1997" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rein_Taagepera" title="Rein Taagepera">Rein Taagepera</a> (September 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/3cn68807">"Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia"</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Studies_Quarterly" title="International Studies Quarterly">International Studies Quarterly</a>. 41 (3): 502. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F0020-8833.00053">10.1111/0020-8833.00053</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2600793">2600793</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181119114740/https://escholarship.org/uc/item/3cn68807">Archived</a> from the original on 19 November 2018. Retrieved 30 June 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Studies+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Expansion+and+Contraction+Patterns+of+Large+Polities%3A+Context+for+Russia&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=502&rft.date=1997-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F0020-8833.00053&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2600793%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Rein+Taagepera&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.escholarship.org%2Fuc%2Fitem%2F3cn68807&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/world/">"The World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency"</a>. www.cia.gov. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210906150456/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/world/">Archived</a> from the original on 6 September 2021. Retrieved 10 September 2016. <q>land: 148.94 million sq km</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.cia.gov&rft.atitle=The+World+Factbook+%E2%80%94+Central+Intelligence+Agency&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fcountries%2Fworld%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> <a href="#refJackson2013">Jackson</a>, pp. 5–6. </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFZamora" class="citation journal cs1">Zamora, Stephen. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarship.law.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2459&context=lawreview">"Review of Global Reach: the Power of the Multinational Corporations, by Richard J. Barnet and Ronald E. Muller"</a>. Catholic University Law Review. 26 (2 Winter 1977): 449–456. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200523122657/https://scholarship.law.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2459&context=lawreview">Archived</a> from the original on 23 May 2020. Retrieved 13 November 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Catholic+University+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Review+of+Global+Reach%3A+the+Power+of+the+Multinational+Corporations%2C+by+Richard+J.+Barnet+and+Ronald+E.+Muller.&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=2+Winter+1977&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E449-%3C%2Fspan%3E456&rft.aulast=Zamora&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarship.law.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D2459%26context%3Dlawreview&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> R. Vernon, Sovereignty at Bay: the Multinational Spread of U.S. Enterprises (1971). </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spectator.org/securing-the-worlds-commercial-sea-lanes/">"Securing the World's Commercial Sea Lanes | Politics Is Too Important To Be Taken Seriously"</a>. The American Spectator. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191113133748/https://spectator.org/securing-the-worlds-commercial-sea-lanes/">Archived</a> from the original on 13 November 2019. Retrieved 13 November 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+American+Spectator&rft.atitle=Securing+the+World%27s+Commercial+Sea+Lanes+%7C+Politics+Is+Too+Important+To+Be+Taken+Seriously&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspectator.org%2Fsecuring-the-worlds-commercial-sea-lanes%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-LabyrinthofKinship-154">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LabyrinthofKinship_154-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LabyrinthofKinship_154-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGoody2005" class="citation journal cs1">Goody, Jack (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://newleftreview.org/issues/ii36/articles/jack-goody-the-labyrinth-of-kinship">"The Labyrinth of Kinship"</a>. New Left Review (36): 127–139. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181106221836/http://newleftreview.org/II/36/jack-goody-the-labyrinth-of-kinship">Archived</a> from the original on 6 November 2018. Retrieved 24 July 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Left+Review&rft.atitle=The+Labyrinth+of+Kinship&rft.issue=36&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E127-%3C%2Fspan%3E139&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Goody&rft.aufirst=Jack&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnewleftreview.org%2Fissues%2Fii36%2Farticles%2Fjack-goody-the-labyrinth-of-kinship&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated1-155"><a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_155-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFThompsonHickey2005" class="citation book cs1">Thompson, William; Hickey, Joseph (2005). Society in Focus. Boston, MA: Pearson. 0-205-41365-X.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Society+in+Focus&rft.place=Boston%2C+MA&rft.pub=Pearson&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=William&rft.au=Hickey%2C+Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ChristImp2011-156"><a href="#cite_ref-ChristImp2011_156-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGregersonJuster2011" class="citation book cs1">Gregerson, Linda; Juster, Susan (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TjIRhe9eWqgC&q=age+of+discovery%2C+christian+imperialism&pg=PA1">Empires of God: Religious Encounters in the Early Modern Atlantic</a>. University of Pennsylvania Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0812222609" title="Special:BookSources/978-0812222609"><bdi>978-0812222609</bdi></a>. Retrieved 28 June 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empires+of+God%3A+Religious+Encounters+in+the+Early+Modern+Atlantic&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0812222609&rft.aulast=Gregerson&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft.au=Juster%2C+Susan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTjIRhe9eWqgC%26q%3Dage%2Bof%2Bdiscovery%252C%2Bchristian%2Bimperialism%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stuenkel-157"><a href="#cite_ref-Stuenkel_157-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStuenkel2016" class="citation book cs1">Stuenkel, Oliver (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvpNDwAAQBAJ">Post-Western World: How Emerging Powers Are Remaking Global Order</a>. Cambridge, UK. Malden, US: Polity Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1509504572" title="Special:BookSources/978-1509504572"><bdi>978-1509504572</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Post-Western+World%3A+How+Emerging+Powers+Are+Remaking+Global+Order&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK.+Malden%2C+US&rft.pub=Polity+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1509504572&rft.aulast=Stuenkel&rft.aufirst=Oliver&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZvpNDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-About_SecE-158"><a href="#cite_ref-About_SecE_158-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFord2005" class="citation news cs1">Ford, Peter (22 February 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2005-02-21-god-europe_x.htm">"What place for God in Europe"</a>. USA Today. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090304133824/http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2005-02-21-god-europe_x.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 4 March 2009. Retrieved 24 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=USA+Today&rft.atitle=What+place+for+God+in+Europe&rft.date=2005-02-22&rft.aulast=Ford&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usatoday.com%2Fnews%2Fworld%2F2005-02-21-god-europe_x.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Eurostat_Religion-159"><a href="#cite_ref-Eurostat_Religion_159-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEurostat2005" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eurostat" title="Eurostat">Eurostat</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060524004644/http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_225_report_en.pdf">"Social values, Science and Technology"</a> (PDF). Special Eurobarometer 225. Europa, web portal: 9. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_225_report_en.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 24 May 2006. Retrieved 11 June 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Special+Eurobarometer+225&rft.atitle=Social+values%2C+Science+and+Technology&rft.pages=9&rft.date=2005&rft.au=Eurostat&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fec.europa.eu%2Fpublic_opinion%2Farchives%2Febs%2Febs_225_report_en.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thearda.com/internationalData/regions/index.asp">ARDA data archives</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170723043144/http://www.thearda.com/internationalData/regions/index.asp">Archived</a> 23 July 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Global_Christianity-161">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Global_Christianity_161-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Global_Christianity_161-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFANALYSIS2011" class="citation web cs1">ANALYSIS (19 December 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181226061838/http://www.pewforum.org/christian/global-christianity-exec.aspx">"Global Christianity"</a>. Pewforum.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pewforum.org/Christian/Global-Christianity-exec.aspx">the original</a> on 26 December 2018. Retrieved 17 August 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Global+Christianity&rft.pub=Pewforum.org&rft.date=2011-12-19&rft.au=ANALYSIS&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pewforum.org%2FChristian%2FGlobal-Christianity-exec.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFANALYSIS2011" class="citation web cs1">ANALYSIS (19 December 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120104153842/http://www.pewforum.org/Christian/Global-Christianity-europe.aspx">"Europe"</a>. Pewforum.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pewforum.org/Christian/Global-Christianity-europe.aspx">the original</a> on 4 January 2012. Retrieved 17 August 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Europe&rft.pub=Pewforum.org&rft.date=2011-12-19&rft.au=ANALYSIS&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pewforum.org%2FChristian%2FGlobal-Christianity-europe.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPeterson2019" class="citation book cs1">Peterson, Paul Silas (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.routledge.com/The-Decline-of-Established-Christianity-in-the-Western-World-Interpretations/Peterson/p/book/9780367891381">The Decline of Established Christianity in the Western World</a>. Routledge. pp. 46, 76, 84. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780367891381" title="Special:BookSources/9780367891381"><bdi>9780367891381</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230129162247/https://www.routledge.com/The-Decline-of-Established-Christianity-in-the-Western-World-Interpretations/Peterson/p/book/9780367891381">Archived</a> from the original on 29 January 2023. Retrieved 29 January 2023. <q>Hugh McLeod, emeritus professor of Church History at the University of Birmingham, provides a helpful summary of the decline of Christendom in Western Europe in four stages: 1 Toleration of alternative forms of Christianity (in the Reformation and post-Reformation era in the 16th century and onward). 2 Publication of literature that was critical of Christianity (in the Enlightenment era of the 18th century). 3 Separation of church and state (from the 18th century onward). 4 The "gradual loosening of the ties between church and society". [...] At least since the mid-20th century, many European countries have experienced a decline in churched religion. In particular, declining church attendance has been an important aspect of this process, and a characteristic of the development that has been described as the secularization process. [...] The secularization processes in the Western world involve a partial replacement of established Christianity by unchurched spirituality, characterized by á la carte religion and a focus on "me and my experiences".</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Decline+of+Established+Christianity+in+the+Western+World&rft.pages=46%2C+76%2C+84&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9780367891381&rft.aulast=Peterson&rft.aufirst=Paul+Silas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.routledge.com%2FThe-Decline-of-Established-Christianity-in-the-Western-World-Interpretations%2FPeterson%2Fp%2Fbook%2F9780367891381&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMaurice_Roche2017" class="citation book cs1">Maurice Roche (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1BonDwAAQBAJ&q=%22western+world%22+tv+age&pg=PA28">Mega-Events and Social Change: Spectacle, Legacy and Public Culture</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 329. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781526117083" title="Special:BookSources/9781526117083"><bdi>9781526117083</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mega-Events+and+Social+Change%3A+Spectacle%2C+Legacy+and+Public+Culture&rft.pages=329&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9781526117083&rft.au=Maurice+Roche&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1BonDwAAQBAJ%26q%3D%2522western%2Bworld%2522%2Btv%2Bage%26pg%3DPA28&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> Paul Starr, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.princeton.edu/~starr/articles/articles80-89/Starr-MeaningPrivatization-88.htm">"The Meaning of Privatization," Yale Law and Policy Review 6: 6–41" 1988</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170928144035/http://www.princeton.edu/~starr/articles/articles80-89/Starr-MeaningPrivatization-88.htm">Archived</a> 28 September 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> James C. W. Ahiakpor, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://acton.org/pub/religion-liberty/volume-2-number-5/multinational-corporations-third-world-predators-o">"Multinational Corporations in the Third World: Predators or Allies in Economic Development?" 20 July 2010</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180723034211/https://acton.org/pub/religion-liberty/volume-2-number-5/multinational-corporations-third-world-predators-o">Archived</a> 23 July 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> Investopedia, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/021715/why-are-most-multinational-corporations-either-us-europe-or-japan.asp">"Why are most multinational corporations either from the US, Europe or Japan"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220325085716/https://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/021715/why-are-most-multinational-corporations-either-us-europe-or-japan.asp">Archived</a> 25 March 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> Jackson J. Spielvogel, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZXYWAAAAQBAJ&dq=corporations+western+world&pg=PA710">"Western Civilization: A Brief History, Vol. II: Since 1500" 2016</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on Foreign Relations. Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UeuQzyI17B4C&dq=corporations+western+world&pg=PA178">"Multinational corporations and United States foreign policy Part 11" 1975</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221117131748/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UeuQzyI17B4C&pg=PA178&lpg=PA178&dq=corporations+western+world&source=bl&ots=Q0FpS9fCcs&sig=LQh86Zv4hLfsLqd4ii8Tg8y_P2o&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiSooXH9bPcAhWOKFAKHSjTDl0Q6AEI6QEwGQ#v=onepage&q=corporations%20western%20world&f=false">Archived</a> 17 November 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> Cf., Teilhard de Chardin, Le Phenomene Humain (1955), translated as The Phenomena of Man (New York 1959). </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHuntMartinRosenweinSmith2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lynn_Hunt" title="Lynn Hunt">Hunt, Lynn</a>; <a href="/wiki/Thomas_R._Martin" title="Thomas R. Martin">Martin, Thomas R.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Barbara_H._Rosenwein" title="Barbara H. Rosenwein">Rosenwein, Barbara H.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Bonnie_G._Smith" title="Bonnie G. Smith">Smith, Bonnie G.</a> (2015). The Making of the West: People and Cultures. Bedford/St. Martin's. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1457681523" title="Special:BookSources/978-1457681523"><bdi>978-1457681523</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+the+West%3A+People+and+Cultures&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=Bedford%2FSt.+Martin%27s&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1457681523&rft.aulast=Hunt&rft.aufirst=Lynn&rft.au=Martin%2C+Thomas+R.&rft.au=Rosenwein%2C+Barbara+H.&rft.au=Smith%2C+Bonnie+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHanson2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Victor_Davis_Hanson" title="Victor Davis Hanson">Hanson, Victor Davis</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XGr16-CxpH8C">Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise to Western Power</a>. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-307-42518-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-307-42518-8"><bdi>978-0-307-42518-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Carnage+and+Culture%3A+Landmark+Battles+in+the+Rise+to+Western+Power&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-307-42518-8&rft.aulast=Hanson&rft.aufirst=Victor+Davis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXGr16-CxpH8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSpielvogel2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jackson_J._Spielvogel" title="Jackson J. Spielvogel">Spielvogel, Jackson J.</a> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ni4PSpOxb6MC">Western Civilization</a>. Wadsworth. pp. xxxiii, 918. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780534646028" title="Special:BookSources/9780534646028"><bdi>9780534646028</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Western+Civilization&rft.pages=xxxiii%2C+918&rft.pub=Wadsworth&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780534646028&rft.aulast=Spielvogel&rft.aufirst=Jackson+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dni4PSpOxb6MC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStearns2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Stearns" title="Peter Stearns">Stearns, Peter N.</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mYS23mrnqksC">Western Civilization in World History</a>. Routledge. pp. 91–95. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781134374755" title="Special:BookSources/9781134374755"><bdi>9781134374755</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Western+Civilization+in+World+History&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E91-%3C%2Fspan%3E95&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9781134374755&rft.aulast=Stearns&rft.aufirst=Peter+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmYS23mrnqksC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSharon2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Moshe_Sharon" title="Moshe Sharon">Sharon, Moshe</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XMX4xSQtkEAC">Studies in Modern Religions, Religious Movements and the Babi-Baha'i Faiths</a>. Brill Academic Publishers. p. 12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004139046" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004139046"><bdi>978-9004139046</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+Modern+Religions%2C+Religious+Movements+and+the+Babi-Baha%27i+Faiths&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=Brill+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-9004139046&rft.aulast=Sharon&rft.aufirst=Moshe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXMX4xSQtkEAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPagden2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Pagden" title="Anthony Pagden">Pagden, Anthony</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m80kwkt8YW4C">Worlds at War The 2,500-Year Struggle Between East and West</a>. Oxford University Press. pp. xi, xv, 39. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199237432" title="Special:BookSources/9780199237432"><bdi>9780199237432</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Worlds+at+War+The+2%2C500-Year+Struggle+Between+East+and+West&rft.pages=xi%2C+xv%2C+39&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780199237432&rft.aulast=Pagden&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dm80kwkt8YW4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCartledge2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Cartledge" title="Paul Cartledge">Cartledge, Paul</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=r-I4gcBlTqcC">The Greeks A Portrait of Self and Others</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0191577833" title="Special:BookSources/978-0191577833"><bdi>978-0191577833</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Greeks+A+Portrait+of+Self+and+Others&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0191577833&rft.aulast=Cartledge&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dr-I4gcBlTqcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFreeman2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Freeman_(historian)" title="Charles Freeman (historian)">Freeman, Charles</a> (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sPcNAQAAMAAJ">The Greek Achievement: The Foundation of the Western World</a>. Penguin Publishing Group. p. 434. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0140293234" title="Special:BookSources/978-0140293234"><bdi>978-0140293234</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Greek+Achievement%3A+The+Foundation+of+the+Western+World&rft.pages=434&rft.pub=Penguin+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0140293234&rft.aulast=Freeman&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsPcNAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRichard2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Carl_J._Richard" title="Carl J. Richard">Richard, Carl J.</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dlMr4UhqQlQC">Why We're All Romans: The Roman Contribution to the Western World</a>. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0742567801" title="Special:BookSources/978-0742567801"><bdi>978-0742567801</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Why+We%27re+All+Romans%3A+The+Roman+Contribution+to+the+Western+World&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield+Publishers&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0742567801&rft.aulast=Richard&rft.aufirst=Carl+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdlMr4UhqQlQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGrant1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Grant_(classicist)" title="Michael Grant (classicist)">Grant, Michael</a> (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/foundersofwester0000gran/page/n8/mode/2up">The Founders of the Western World: A History of Greece and Rome</a>. New York : Scribner : Maxwell Macmillan International. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0684193038" title="Special:BookSources/978-0684193038"><bdi>978-0684193038</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Founders+of+the+Western+World%3A+A+History+of+Greece+and+Rome&rft.pub=New+York+%3A+Scribner+%3A+Maxwell+Macmillan+International&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0684193038&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffoundersofwester0000gran%2Fpage%2Fn8%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNayakSelbin2010" class="citation book cs1">Nayak, Meghana; <a href="/wiki/Eric_Selbin" title="Eric Selbin">Selbin, Eric</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BQE1EAAAQBAJ">Decentering International Relations</a>. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781848132405" title="Special:BookSources/9781848132405"><bdi>9781848132405</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Decentering+International+Relations&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9781848132405&rft.aulast=Nayak&rft.aufirst=Meghana&rft.au=Selbin%2C+Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBQE1EAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLazar2005" class="citation book cs1">Lazar, Michelle M. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cTkWDAAAQBAJ">Feminist Critical Discourse Analysis Studies in Gender, Power and Ideology</a>. Springer. p. 15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780230599901" title="Special:BookSources/9780230599901"><bdi>9780230599901</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Feminist+Critical+Discourse+Analysis+Studies+in+Gender%2C+Power+and+Ideology&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780230599901&rft.aulast=Lazar&rft.aufirst=Michelle+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcTkWDAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWare1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kallistos_Ware" title="Kallistos Ware">Ware, Kallistos</a> (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f7D-5Q-Q19MC">The Orthodox Church</a>. Penguin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780140146561" title="Special:BookSources/9780140146561"><bdi>9780140146561</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Orthodox+Church&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=9780140146561&rft.aulast=Ware&rft.aufirst=Kallistos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Df7D-5Q-Q19MC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDurantDurant2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Will_Durant" title="Will Durant">Durant, Will</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ariel_Durant" title="Ariel Durant">Durant, Ariel</a> (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LWNQ2_4wkocC">The Lessons of History</a>. Simon and Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781439170199" title="Special:BookSources/9781439170199"><bdi>9781439170199</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Lessons+of+History&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781439170199&rft.aulast=Durant&rft.aufirst=Will&rft.au=Durant%2C+Ariel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLWNQ2_4wkocC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPeterson2019" class="citation book cs1">Peterson, Paul Silas (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.routledge.com/The-Decline-of-Established-Christianity-in-the-Western-World-Interpretations/Peterson/p/book/9780367891381">The Decline of Established Christianity in the Western World</a>. Routledge. pp. 26, 46, 76, 84. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780367891381" title="Special:BookSources/9780367891381"><bdi>9780367891381</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230129162247/https://www.routledge.com/The-Decline-of-Established-Christianity-in-the-Western-World-Interpretations/Peterson/p/book/9780367891381">Archived</a> from the original on 29 January 2023. Retrieved 29 January 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Decline+of+Established+Christianity+in+the+Western+World&rft.pages=26%2C+46%2C+76%2C+84&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9780367891381&rft.aulast=Peterson&rft.aufirst=Paul+Silas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.routledge.com%2FThe-Decline-of-Established-Christianity-in-the-Western-World-Interpretations%2FPeterson%2Fp%2Fbook%2F9780367891381&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPierce2016" class="citation book cs1">Pierce, Jason E. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt19jcg63">Making the White Man's West: Whiteness and the Creation of the American West</a>. University Press of Colorado. pp. 123–150. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60732-396-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60732-396-9"><bdi>978-1-60732-396-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt19jcg63">j.ctt19jcg63</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221120085414/https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt19jcg63">Archived</a> from the original on 20 November 2022. Retrieved 19 November 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Making+the+White+Man%27s+West%3A+Whiteness+and+the+Creation+of+the+American+West&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E123-%3C%2Fspan%3E150&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Colorado&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctt19jcg63%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-1-60732-396-9&rft.aulast=Pierce&rft.aufirst=Jason+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctt19jcg63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKaufmann2018" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eric_Kaufmann" title="Eric Kaufmann">Kaufmann, Eric</a> (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=04t1swEACAAJ">Whiteshift: Populism, Immigration and the Future of White Majorities</a>. Penguin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780241317105" title="Special:BookSources/9780241317105"><bdi>9780241317105</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Whiteshift%3A+Populism%2C+Immigration+and+the+Future+of+White+Majorities&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9780241317105&rft.aulast=Kaufmann&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D04t1swEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWard2002" class="citation book cs1">Ward, Peter (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mqup.ca/white-canada-forever--third-edition-products-9780773523227.php">White Canada Forever</a>. McGill-Queen's University Press – MQUP. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780773523227" title="Special:BookSources/9780773523227"><bdi>9780773523227</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230101095204/https://www.mqup.ca/white-canada-forever--third-edition-products-9780773523227.php">Archived</a> from the original on 1 January 2023. Retrieved 1 January 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=White+Canada+Forever&rft.pub=McGill-Queen%27s+University+Press+%E2%80%93+MQUP&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780773523227&rft.aulast=Ward&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mqup.ca%2Fwhite-canada-forever--third-edition-products-9780773523227.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGreenSkidmore2021" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_N._Green" title="James N. Green">Green, James N.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Skidmore" title="Thomas Skidmore">Skidmore, Thomas</a> (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://library.brown.edu/create/fivecenturiesofchange/chapters/chapter-4/immigration/">Brazil: Five Centuries of Change</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0190068981" title="Special:BookSources/978-0190068981"><bdi>978-0190068981</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221203225436/https://library.brown.edu/create/fivecenturiesofchange/chapters/chapter-4/immigration/">Archived</a> from the original on 3 December 2022. Retrieved 19 December 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Brazil%3A+Five+Centuries+of+Change&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0190068981&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=James+N.&rft.au=Skidmore%2C+Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flibrary.brown.edu%2Fcreate%2Ffivecenturiesofchange%2Fchapters%2Fchapter-4%2Fimmigration%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCotter2016" class="citation book cs1">Cotter, Anne-Marie Mooney (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zBUpDAAAQBAJ">Culture Clash: An International Legal Perspective on Ethnic Discrimination</a>. Routledge. p. 12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781317155867" title="Special:BookSources/9781317155867"><bdi>9781317155867</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Culture+Clash%3A+An+International+Legal+Perspective+on+Ethnic+Discrimination&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781317155867&rft.aulast=Cotter&rft.aufirst=Anne-Marie+Mooney&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzBUpDAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJalata2002" class="citation book cs1">Jalata, Asafa (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UMiHDAAAQBAJ">Fighting Against the Injustice of the State and Globalization</a>. Springer. p. 40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780312299071" title="Special:BookSources/9780312299071"><bdi>9780312299071</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fighting+Against+the+Injustice+of+the+State+and+Globalization&rft.pages=40&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780312299071&rft.aulast=Jalata&rft.aufirst=Asafa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUMiHDAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCarlin2022" class="citation book cs1">Carlin, Na'ama (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.routledge.com/Morality-Violence-and-Ritual-Circumcision-Writing-with-Blood/Carlin/p/book/9780367551957">Morality, Violence, and Ritual Circumcision</a>. Routledge. p. 34. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0367551957" title="Special:BookSources/978-0367551957"><bdi>978-0367551957</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221231130103/https://www.routledge.com/Morality-Violence-and-Ritual-Circumcision-Writing-with-Blood/Carlin/p/book/9780367551957">Archived</a> from the original on 31 December 2022. Retrieved 31 December 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Morality%2C+Violence%2C+and+Ritual+Circumcision&rft.pages=34&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-0367551957&rft.aulast=Carlin&rft.aufirst=Na%27ama&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.routledge.com%2FMorality-Violence-and-Ritual-Circumcision-Writing-with-Blood%2FCarlin%2Fp%2Fbook%2F9780367551957&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFVintges2017" class="citation book cs1">Vintges, Karen (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1s475v4.6">A New Dawn for the Second Sex: Women's Freedom Practices in World Perspective</a>. Amsterdam University Press. pp. 59–94. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-8964-602-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-8964-602-6"><bdi>978-90-8964-602-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1s475v4.6">j.ctt1s475v4.6</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221120085409/https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1s475v4.6">Archived</a> from the original on 20 November 2022. Retrieved 19 November 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+New+Dawn+for+the+Second+Sex%3A+Women%27s+Freedom+Practices+in+World+Perspective&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E59-%3C%2Fspan%3E94&rft.pub=Amsterdam+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctt1s475v4.6%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-90-8964-602-6&rft.aulast=Vintges&rft.aufirst=Karen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctt1s475v4.6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAllardyce1982" class="citation journal cs1">Allardyce, Gilbert (June 1982). "The Rise and Fall of the Western Civilization Course". <a href="/wiki/The_American_Historical_Review" title="The American Historical Review">The American Historical Review</a>. 87 (3): 695–725. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1864161">10.2307/1864161</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1864161">1864161</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=The+Rise+and+Fall+of+the+Western+Civilization+Course&rft.volume=87&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E695-%3C%2Fspan%3E725&rft.date=1982-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1864161&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1864161%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Allardyce&rft.aufirst=Gilbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAnkerl2000" class="citation book cs1">Ankerl, Guy (2000). Coexisting contemporary civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and West. INU societal research. Vol. 1. Global communication without universal civilization. Geneva: INU Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-88155-004-5" title="Special:BookSources/2-88155-004-5"><bdi>2-88155-004-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Coexisting+contemporary+civilizations%3A+Arabo-Muslim%2C+Bharati%2C+Chinese%2C+and+West&rft.place=Geneva&rft.series=INU+societal+research&rft.pub=INU+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=2-88155-004-5&rft.aulast=Ankerl&rft.aufirst=Guy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Bavaj, Riccardo: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0159-2011112107">"The West": A Conceptual Exploration </a>, <a href="/wiki/European_History_Online" title="European History Online">European History Online</a>, Mainz: <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_European_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Institute of European History">Institute of European History</a>, 2011, retrieved: 28 November 2011.</li> <li>Conze, Vanessa, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/political-spaces/vanessa-conze-abendland?set_language=en&-C=">Abendland</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ieg-ego.eu/">EGO – European History Online</a>, Mainz: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ieg-mainz.de/likecms/index.php">Institute of European History</a>, 2017, retrieved: 8 March 2021 (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/1149297131/34">pdf</a>).</li> <li>Daly, Jonathan. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/the-rise-of-western-power-9781441161314/">The Rise of Western Power: A Comparative History of Western Civilization</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170630100152/http://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/the-rise-of-western-power-9781441161314/">Archived</a> 30 June 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>" (London and New York: Bloomsbury, 2014). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781441161314" title="Special:BookSources/9781441161314">9781441161314</a>.</li> <li>Daly, Jonathan. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tandfindia.com/books/details/9781138774810/">Historians Debate the Rise of the West</a>" (London and New York: Routledge, 2015). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-13-877481-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-13-877481-0">978-1-13-877481-0</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.learner.org/resources/series58.html">The Western Tradition homepage at Annenberg/CPB</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190420105224/http://www.learner.org/resources/series58.html">Archived</a> 20 April 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – where you can watch each episode on demand for free (Pop-ups required). Videos are also available as a <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLYbocufkwRFAS80nLFShkXSblfcFTXwRH">YouTube playlist</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._F._C._Fuller" title="J. F. C. Fuller">J. F. C. Fuller</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">Military History</a> of the Western World. Three Volumes. New York: <a href="/wiki/Da_capo" title="Da capo">Da Capo</a> Press, Inc., 1987 and 1988. <ul><li>V. 1. From the earliest times to the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto" title="Battle of Lepanto">Battle of Lepanto</a>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-306-80304-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-306-80304-6">0-306-80304-6</a>.</li> <li>V. 2. From <a href="/wiki/The_Defeat_of_the_Spanish_Armada" class="mw-redirect" title="The Defeat of the Spanish Armada">the defeat of the Spanish Armada</a> to <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Waterloo" title="Battle of Waterloo">the Battle of Waterloo</a>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-306-80305-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-306-80305-4">0-306-80305-4</a>.</li> <li>V. 3. From the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a> to the end of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-306-80306-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-306-80306-2">0-306-80306-2</a>.</li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPatterson1997" class="citation book cs1">Patterson, Thomas C. (1997). Inventing Western Civilization. New York: Monthly Review Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58367-409-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58367-409-3"><bdi>978-1-58367-409-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/606950598">606950598</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inventing+Western+Civilization&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Monthly+Review+Press&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F606950598&rft.isbn=978-1-58367-409-3&rft.aulast=Patterson&rft.aufirst=Thomas+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Williams_Jr." title="Robert A. Williams Jr.">Williams, Robert A.</a> (2012). Savage Anxieties: The Invention of Western Civilization. New York. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-33876-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-33876-0"><bdi>978-0-230-33876-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/760975009">760975009</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Savage+Anxieties%3A+The+Invention+of+Western+Civilization&rft.place=New+York&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F760975009&rft.isbn=978-0-230-33876-0&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Robert+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+world" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Western_world_and_culture240" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Western_world" title="Template:Western world"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Western_world" title="Template talk:Western world"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Western_world" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Western world"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Western_world_and_culture240" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Western world</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">culture</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foundations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization" title="Cradle of civilization">Cradle of civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman world</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Roman legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_culture" title="Gallo-Roman culture">Gallo-Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">European Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">high</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">late</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Revolution" title="Age of Revolution">Age of Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">Universal suffrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Post–Cold War era">Post–Cold War era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">Alphabet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Periods_in_Western_art_history" title="Periods in Western art history">Periods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_cuisine" title="European cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_pattern_diet" title="Western pattern diet">Diet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_tradition" title="Classical tradition">Classical tradition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">Studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_dress_codes" title="Western dress codes">Clothing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_fashion" title="History of Western fashion">History</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_dance_(Europe_and_North_America)" class="mw-redirect" title="Western dance (Europe and North America)">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_education" title="Western education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Esotericism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_astrology" title="Western astrology">Astrology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_folklore" title="European folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_Western_world" title="Immigration to the Western world">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_law" title="Western law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eurolinguistics" title="Eurolinguistics">Eurolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Average_European" title="Standard Average European">Standard Average European</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_literature" title="Western literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_canon" title="Western canon">Canon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_media" title="Western media">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chant" title="Chant">Chant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_music" title="Classical music">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_European_folk_music_traditions" title="List of European folk music traditions">Folk</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="European mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_painting" title="Western painting">Painting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/20th-century_Western_painting" title="20th-century Western painting">contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_(Western_philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Values (Western philosophy)">Values</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_physical_culture" title="Western physical culture">Physical culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_sports" title="Western sports">Sport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Christianity_in_the_Western_world" title="Decline of Christianity in the Western world">Decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Ancient Roman philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Christian_ethics" title="Judeo-Christian ethics">Judeo-Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian existentialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular humanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Tolerance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_tolerance" title="Paradox of tolerance">Paradox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peritrope" title="Peritrope">Peritrope</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanticism" title="Atlanticism">Atlanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereigntism" title="Sovereigntism">Sovereigntism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_values" title="Western values">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_values" title="European values">European</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western</a>/<a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodoxy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Church" title="Greek Orthodox Church">Greek Orthodox Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Culture</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">Paganism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_paganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Finnish paganism">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankish mythology">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_paganism" title="Gothic paganism">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Old Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_religion" title="Hellenistic religion">Hellenistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_paganism" title="Modern paganism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_law" title="Western law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">Equality before the law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_life" title="Right to life">Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_thought" title="Freedom of thought">Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">Press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">Property</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">International law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary integration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ABCANZ_Armies" title="ABCANZ Armies">ABCANZ Armies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_of_European_Regions" title="Assembly of European Regions">AER</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Portuguese_Alliance" title="Anglo-Portuguese Alliance">Anglo-Portuguese Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUK" title="ANZUK">ANZUK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUS" title="ANZUS">ANZUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Council" title="Arctic Council">Arctic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AUKUS" title="AUKUS">AUKUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AUSCANNZUKUS" title="AUSCANNZUKUS">AUSCANNZUKUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Assembly" title="Baltic Assembly">Baltic Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benelux" title="Benelux">Benelux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British%E2%80%93Irish_Council" title="British–Irish Council">British–Irish Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_the_Black_Sea_Economic_Cooperation" title="Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation">BSEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bucharest_Nine" title="Bucharest Nine">Bucharest Nine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CANZUK" title="CANZUK">CANZUK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Baltic_Sea_States" title="Council of the Baltic Sea States">CBSS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_European_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="Central European Free Trade Agreement">CEFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Europe" title="Council of Europe">Council of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craiova_Group" title="Craiova Group">Craiova Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_European_Group" title="Eastern European Group">Eastern European Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Partnership" title="Eastern Partnership">Eastern Partnership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Area" title="European Economic Area">EEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Free_Trade_Association" title="European Free Trade Association">EFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Political_Community" title="European Political Community">EPC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">ESA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">EU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union_Customs_Union" title="European Union Customs Union">EU Customs Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurozone" title="Eurozone">Eurozone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EU%E2%80%93UK_Trade_and_Cooperation_Agreement" title="EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement">EU–UK TCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Eyes" title="Five Eyes">Five Eyes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G7" title="G7">G7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lancaster_House_Treaties" title="Lancaster House Treaties">Lancaster House Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lublin_Triangle" title="Lublin Triangle">Lublin Triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Council" title="Nordic Council">Nordic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_American_States" title="Organization of American States">OAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OECD" title="OECD">OECD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Balkan" title="Open Balkan">Open Balkan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_for_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europe" title="Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe">OSCE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Islands_Forum" title="Pacific Islands Forum">Pacific Islands Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_for_the_Progress_and_Integration_of_South_America" title="Forum for the Progress and Integration of South America">PROSUR/PROSUL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-American_Treaty_of_Reciprocal_Assistance" title="Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance">Rio Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schengen_Area" title="Schengen Area">Schengen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Relationship" title="Special Relationship">Special Relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Seas_Initiative" title="Three Seas Initiative">Three Seas Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UKUSA_Agreement" title="UKUSA Agreement">UKUSA Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States%E2%80%93Mexico%E2%80%93Canada_Agreement" title="United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement">USMCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visegr%C3%A1d_Group" title="Visegrád Group">Visegrád Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Nordic_Council" title="West Nordic Council">West Nordic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_European_and_Others_Group" title="Western European and Others Group">Western European and Others Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westernization" title="Westernization">Westernization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q160381#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1404" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q160381#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1404" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q160381#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1302083/">FAST</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4079237-7">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh2003008962">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00570464">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ge773625&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph127736&CON_LNG=ENG">2</a></li></ul></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/rp3541793pxhbgx">Sweden</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007566330105171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://auth.wikimedia.org/loginwiki/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Western_world&oldid=1283104683">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Western_world&oldid=1283104683</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Country_classifications" title="Category:Country classifications">Country classifications</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cultural_concepts" title="Category:Cultural concepts">Cultural concepts</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cultural_regions" title="Category:Cultural regions">Cultural regions</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Historiography_of_Europe" title="Category:Historiography of Europe">Historiography of Europe</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Western_culture" title="Category:Western culture">Western culture</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_June_2020" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from June 2020">Articles with unsourced statements from June 2020</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_no-target_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn no-target errors">Harv and Sfn no-target errors</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_incomplete_citations" title="Category:All articles with incomplete citations">All articles with incomplete citations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_incomplete_citations_from_July_2019" title="Category:Articles with incomplete citations from July 2019">Articles with incomplete citations from July 2019</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_indefinitely_semi-protected_pages" title="Category:Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages">Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_rewrite_from_September_2015" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing rewrite from September 2015">Wikipedia articles needing rewrite from September 2015</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_needing_rewrite" title="Category:All articles needing rewrite">All articles needing rewrite</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_cleanup_from_August_2024" title="Category:Articles needing cleanup from August 2024">Articles needing cleanup from August 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_pages_needing_cleanup" title="Category:All pages needing cleanup">All pages needing cleanup</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_close_paraphrasing_from_August_2024" title="Category:Articles with close paraphrasing from August 2024">Articles with close paraphrasing from August 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_close_paraphrasing" title="Category:All articles with close paraphrasing">All articles with close paraphrasing</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_multiple_maintenance_issues" title="Category:Articles with multiple maintenance issues">Articles with multiple maintenance issues</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_June_2021" title="Category:Use dmy dates from June 2021">Use dmy dates from June 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_American_English_from_July_2020" title="Category:Use American English from July 2020">Use American English from July 2020</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_Wikipedia_articles_written_in_American_English" title="Category:All Wikipedia articles written in American English">All Wikipedia articles written in American English</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_excerpts" title="Category:Articles with excerpts">Articles with excerpts</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_additional_references_from_July_2018" title="Category:Articles needing additional references from July 2018">Articles needing additional references from July 2018</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_needing_additional_references" title="Category:All articles needing additional references">All articles needing additional references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_July_2018" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from July 2018">Articles with unsourced statements from July 2018</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_additional_references_from_April_2018" title="Category:Articles needing additional references from April 2018">Articles needing additional references from April 2018</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_multiple_image_with_auto_scaled_images" title="Category:Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images">Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_November_2021" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from November 2021">Articles with unsourced statements from November 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_additional_references_from_November_2021" title="Category:Articles needing additional references from November 2021">Articles needing additional references from November 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_pages_needing_factual_verification" title="Category:All pages needing factual verification">All pages needing factual verification</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_factual_verification_from_July_2021" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from July 2021">Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from July 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_July_2021" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from July 2021">Articles with unsourced statements from July 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_additional_references_from_April_2021" title="Category:Articles needing additional references from April 2021">Articles needing additional references from April 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_November_2022" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from November 2022">Articles with unsourced statements from November 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_April_2021" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from April 2021">Articles with unsourced statements from April 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_May_2021" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from May 2021">Articles with unsourced statements from May 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">CS1 maint: location missing publisher</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 30 March 2025, at 13:21 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Western_world&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://www.wikimedia.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia.svg" width="25" height="25" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" lang="en" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" width="88" height="31"><img src="/w/resources/assets/mediawiki_compact.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" lang="en" width="25" height="25" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-header-container vector-sticky-header-container"> <div id="vector-sticky-header" class="vector-sticky-header"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-start"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-start vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" aria-hidden="true"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-sticky-header-search-toggle" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.vector-sticky-search-form.icon"> Search </button> </div> <div role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box"> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="vector-sticky-search-form" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia"> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-sticky-header-toc vector-sticky-header-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-sticky-header-toc-label" for="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar-primary" aria-hidden="true" >Western world</div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-end" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icons"> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-talk-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="talk-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-subject-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="subject-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-history-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="history-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only mw-watchlink" id="ca-watchstar-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="watch-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="wikitext-edit-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-ve-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"> 82 languages </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"> Add topic </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="mw-portlet mw-portlet-dock-bottom emptyPortlet" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul> </ul> </div> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-77d76c48d9-k5vpt","wgBackendResponseTime":303,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.982","walltime":"2.284","ppvisitednodes":{"value":17653,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":585246,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":31893,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":16,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":60,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":654870,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1942.945 1 -total"," 44.01% 855.002 2 Template:Reflist"," 20.77% 403.599 104 Template:Cite_book"," 10.15% 197.290 1 Template:Excerpt"," 9.40% 182.734 36 Template:Cite_web"," 8.43% 163.836 22 Template:Citation_needed"," 7.63% 148.162 25 Template:Fix"," 4.94% 95.900 6 Template:Multiref2"," 4.26% 82.830 1 Template:Lang"," 3.97% 77.194 1 Template:Harnvb"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.298","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":23174522,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFANALYSIS2011\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFAllardyce1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAnkerl2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAppiah2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBavaj2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBiale\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBiale2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBideleuxJeffries1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBirken1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlötzer1910\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFBrague2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrowne2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurns2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarlin2022\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFCartledge2002\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFCelermajer2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChernowVallasi1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChiara_BotticiBenoît_Challand2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFColoma2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCotter2016\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFDulles_S.J.2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDurantDurant2012\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFEric_BondSheena_GingerichOliver_Archer-AntonsenLiam_Purcell2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEspinosa\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEspinosa2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEurostat2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFerguson2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFord2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFoxe\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrederick_Copleston2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFreeman2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldstein,_I.1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoody2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoñi2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrant1991\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFGreenSkidmore2021\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFGregersonJuster2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHUXLEY,_George\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHanson2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHavers2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHenry_Kissinger2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHenry_Turner_Inman\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuntMartinRosenweinSmith2015\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFJalata2002\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFJohn_E._FindlingKimberly_D._Pelle2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaufmann2018\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFKelkar2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKim_Covert2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLazar2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLea1888\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLea2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMario_Iozzo2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarvin_PerryMyrna_ChaseJames_JacobMargaret_Jacob2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarxiano_Melotti2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaura_EllynMaura_McGinnis2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaurice_Roche2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichael_Ed._Grant1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMurray_Milner_Jr.2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNayakSelbin2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPagden2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPatterson1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeterson2019\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFPierce2016\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFRein_Taagepera1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRicardo_Duchesne2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichard2010\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFRichard_J._Mayne_Jr.\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoberts1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosen2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosenne1958\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSanjay_Kumar2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSetton1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSharon2004\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFSpielvogel2006\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFStanley_Mayer_Burstein2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStearns2008\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFStuenkel2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThompsonHickey2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVintges2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWard2002\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFWare1993\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFWayne_C._ThompsonMark_H._Mullin1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWebster\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliam_J._Broad2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWim_Van_Den_Doel2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWolff1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZamora\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 2,\n [\"About\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 2,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 22,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 84,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 11,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 4,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 35,\n [\"Cleanup rewrite\"] = 1,\n [\"Close paraphrasing\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 2,\n [\"Efn\"] = 10,\n [\"Ety\"] = 2,\n [\"Excerpt\"] = 1,\n [\"Full citation needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 2,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 1,\n [\"Hatnote group\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 7,\n [\"Image reference needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Legend\"] = 2,\n [\"Main\"] = 5,\n [\"More citations needed section\"] = 4,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 3,\n [\"Multiple issues\"] = 1,\n [\"Multiref2\"] = 4,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Percentage\"] = 2,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-semi-indef\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect-multi\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Unreferenced section\"] = 1,\n [\"Use American English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Verify source\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 17,\n [\"Western culture\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\nno target: CITEREFVerger1999\nno target: CITEREFDaus1983\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","400","28.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","200","14.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","120","8.5"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","120","8.5"],["type","80","5.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","80","5.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","60","4.2"],["gsub","40","2.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","40","2.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::plain","40","2.8"],["[others]","240","16.9"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-559fdfb99c-g4kxs","timestamp":"20250402215232","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Western world","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Western_world","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q160381","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q160381","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2003-11-21T20:01:35Z","dateModified":"2025-03-30T13:21:54Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/b\/bb\/Western_World_Latin_America_torn_countries.png","headline":"countries with an originally European shared culture"}</script> </body> </html>